25.7: Tubular Reabsorption
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- List specific transport mechanisms occurring in different parts of the nephron, including active transport, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and passive electrochemical gradients
- List the different membrane proteins of the nephron, including channels, transporters, and ATPase pumps
- Compare and contrast passive and active tubular reabsorption
- Explain why the differential permeability or impermeability of specific sections of the nephron tubules is necessary for urine formation
- Describe how and where water, organic compounds, and ions are reabsorbed in the nephron
- Explain the role of the loop of Henle, the vasa recta, and the countercurrent multiplication mechanisms in the concentration of urine
- List the locations in the nephron where tubular secretion occurs
With up to 180 liters per day passing through the nephrons of the kidney, it is quite obvious that most of that fluid and its contents must be reabsorbed. That recovery occurs in the PCT, loop of Henle, DCT, and the collecting ducts (Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) and Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Various portions of the nephron differ in their capacity to reabsorb water and specific solutes. While much of the reabsorption and secretion occur passively based on concentration gradients, the amount of water that is reabsorbed or lost is tightly regulated. This control is exerted directly by ADH and aldosterone, and indirectly by renin. Most water is recovered in the PCT, loop of Henle, and DCT. About 10 percent (about 18 L) reaches the collecting ducts. The collecting ducts, under the influence of ADH, can recover almost all of the water passing through them, in cases of dehydration, or almost none of the water, in cases of over-hydration.
| Substance | PCT | Loop of Henle | DCT | Collecting ducts |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Glucose | Almost 100 percent reabsorbed; secondary active transport with Na + | |||
| Oligopeptides, proteins, amino acids | Almost 100 percent reabsorbed; symport with Na + | |||
| Vitamins | Reabsorbed | |||
| Lactate | Reabsorbed | |||
| Creatinine | Secreted | |||
| Urea | 50 percent reabsorbed by diffusion; also secreted | Secretion, diffusion in descending limb | Reabsorption in medullary collecting ducts; diffusion | |
| Sodium | 65 percent actively reabsorbed | 25 percent reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; active transport | 5 percent reabsorbed; active | 5 percent reabsorbed, stimulated by aldosterone; active |
| Chloride | Reabsorbed, symport with Na + , diffusion | Reabsorbed in thin and thick ascending limb; diffusion in ascending limb | Reabsorbed; diffusion | Reabsorbed; symport |
| Water | 67 percent reabsorbed osmotically with solutes | 15 percent reabsorbed in descending limb; osmosis | 8 percent reabsorbed if ADH; osmosis | Variable amounts reabsorbed, controlled by ADH, osmosis |
| HCO 3 - | 80–90 percent symport reabsorption with Na + | Reabsorbed, symport with Na + and antiport with Cl – ; in ascending limb | Reabsorbed antiport with Cl – | |
| H + | Secreted; diffusion | Secreted; active | Secreted; active | |
| NH 4 + | Secreted; diffusion | Secreted; diffusion | Secreted; diffusion | |
| Some drugs | Secreted | Secreted; active | Secreted; active | |
| Potassium | 65 percent reabsorbed; diffusion | 20 percent reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; symport | Secreted; active | Secretion controlled by aldosterone; active |
| Calcium | Reabsorbed; diffusion | Reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; diffusion | Reabsorbed if parathyroid hormone present; active | |
| Magnesium | Reabsorbed; diffusion | Reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; diffusion | Reabsorbed | |
| Phosphate | 85 percent reabsorbed, inhibited by parathyroid hormone, diffusion | Reabsorbed; diffusion |
Mechanisms of Recovery
Mechanisms by which substances move across membranes for reabsorption or secretion include active transport, diffusion, facilitated diffusion, secondary active transport, and osmosis. These were discussed in an earlier chapter, and you may wish to review them.
Active transport utilizes energy, usually the energy found in a phosphate bond of ATP, to move a substance across a membrane from a low to a high concentration. It is very specific and must have an appropriately shaped receptor for the substance to be transported. An example would be the active transport of Na + out of a cell and K + into a cell by the Na + /K + pump. Both ions are moved in opposite directions from a lower to a higher concentration.
Simple diffusion moves a substance from a higher to a lower concentration down its concentration gradient. It requires no energy and only needs to be soluble.
Facilitated diffusion is similar to diffusion in that it moves a substance down its concentration gradient. The difference is that it requires specific membrane receptors or channel proteins for movement. The movement of glucose and, in certain situations, Na + ions, is an example of facilitated diffusion. In some cases of mediated transport, two different substances share the same channel protein port; these mechanisms are described by the terms symport and antiport.
Symport mechanisms move two or more substances in the same direction at the same time, whereas antiport mechanisms move two or more substances in opposite directions across the cell membrane. Both mechanisms may utilize concentration gradients maintained by ATP pumps. As described previously, when active transport powers the transport of another substance in this way, it is called “secondary active transport.” Glucose reabsorption in the kidneys is by secondary active transport. Na + /K + ATPases on the basal membrane of a tubular cell constantly pump Na + out of the cell, maintaining a strong electrochemical gradient for Na + to move into the cell from the tubular lumen. On the luminal (apical) surface, a Na + /glucose symport protein assists both Na+ and glucose movement into the cell. The cotransporter moves glucose into the cell against its concentration gradient as Na + moves down the electrochemical gradient created by the basal membranes Na + /K + ATPases. The glucose molecule then diffuses across the basal membrane by facilitated diffusion into the interstitial space and from there into peritubular capillaries.
Most of the Ca ++ , Na + , glucose, and amino acids must be reabsorbed by the nephron to maintain homeostatic plasma concentrations. Other substances, such as urea, K + , ammonia (NH 3 ) , creatinine, and some drugs are secreted into the filtrate as waste products. Acid–base balance is maintained through actions of the lungs and kidneys: The lungs rid the body of H + , whereas the kidneys secrete or reabsorb H + and HCO 3 – (Table \(\PageIndex{2}\)). In the case of urea, about 50 percent is passively reabsorbed by the PCT. More is recovered by in the collecting ducts as needed. ADH induces the insertion of urea transporters and aquaporin channel proteins.
| Substance | Amount filtered (grams) | Amount reabsorbed (grams) | Amount in urine (grams) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Water | 180 L | 179 L | 1 L |
| Proteins | 10–20 | 10–20 | 0 |
| Chlorine | 630 | 625 | 5 |
| Sodium | 540 | 537 | 3 |
| Bicarbonate | 300 | 299.7 | 0.3 |
| Glucose | 180 | 180 | 0 |
| Urea | 53 | 28 | 25 |
| Potassium | 28 | 24 | 4 |
| Uric acid | 8.5 | 7.7 | 0.8 |
| Creatinine | 1.4 | 0 | 1.4 |
Reabsorption and Secretion in the PCT
The renal corpuscle filters the blood to create a filtrate that differs from blood mainly in the absence of cells and large proteins. From this point to the ends of the collecting ducts, the filtrate or forming urine is undergoing modification through secretion and reabsorption before true urine is produced. The first point at which the forming urine is modified is in the PCT. Here, some substances are reabsorbed, whereas others are secreted. Note the use of the term “reabsorbed.” All of these substances were “absorbed” in the digestive tract—99 percent of the water and most of the solutes filtered by the nephron must be reabsorbed. Water and substances that are reabsorbed are returned to the circulation by the peritubular and vasa recta capillaries. It is important to understand the difference between the glomerulus and the peritubular and vasa recta capillaries. The glomerulus has a relatively high pressure inside its capillaries and can sustain this by dilating the afferent arteriole while constricting the efferent arteriole. This assures adequate filtration pressure even as the systemic blood pressure varies. Movement of water into the peritubular capillaries and vasa recta will be influenced primarily by osmolarity and concentration gradients. Sodium is actively pumped out of the PCT into the interstitial spaces between cells and diffuses down its concentration gradient into the peritubular capillary. As it does so, water will follow passively to maintain an isotonic fluid environment inside the capillary. This is called obligatory water reabsorption, because water is “obliged” to follow the Na + (Figure \(\PageIndex{}\)).
More substances move across the membranes of the PCT than any other portion of the nephron. Many of these substances (amino acids and glucose) use symport mechanisms for transport along with Na + . Antiport, active transport, diffusion, and facilitated diffusion are additional mechanisms by which substances are moved from one side of a membrane to the other. Recall that cells have two surfaces: apical and basal. The apical surface is the one facing the lumen or open space of a cavity or tube, in this case, the inside of the PCT. The basal surface of the cell faces the connective tissue base to which the cell attaches (basement membrane) or the cell membrane closer to the basement membrane if there is a stratified layer of cells. In the PCT, there is a single layer of simple cuboidal endothelial cells against the basement membrane. The numbers and particular types of pumps and channels vary between the apical and basilar surfaces. A few of the substances that are transported with Na + (symport mechanism) on the apical membrane include Cl – , Ca ++ , amino acids, glucose, and . Sodium is actively exchanged for K + using ATP on the basal membrane. Most of the substances transported by a symport mechanism on the apical membrane are transported by facilitated diffusion on the basal membrane. At least three ions, K + , Ca ++ , and Mg ++ , diffuse laterally between adjacent cell membranes (transcellular).
About 67 percent of the water, Na + , and K + entering the nephron is reabsorbed in the PCT and returned to the circulation. Almost 100 percent of glucose, amino acids, and other organic substances such as vitamins are normally recovered here. Some glucose may appear in the urine if circulating glucose levels are high enough that all the glucose transporters in the PCT are saturated, so that their capacity to move glucose is exceeded (transport maximum, or T m ). In males, the maximum amount of glucose that can be recovered is about 375 mg/min, whereas in females, it is about 300 mg/min. This recovery rate translates to an arterial concentration of about 200 mg/dL. Though an exceptionally high sugar intake might cause sugar to appear briefly in the urine, the appearance of glycosuria usually points to type I or II diabetes mellitus. The transport of glucose from the lumen of the PCT to the interstitial space is similar to the way it is absorbed by the small intestine. Both glucose and Na + bind simultaneously to the same symport proteins on the apical surface of the cell to be transported in the same direction, toward the interstitial space. Sodium moves down its electrochemical and concentration gradient into the cell and takes glucose with it. Na + is then actively pumped out of the cell at the basal surface of the cell into the interstitial space. Glucose leaves the cell to enter the interstitial space by facilitated diffusion. The energy to move glucose comes from the Na + /K + ATPase that pumps Na + out of the cell on the basal surface. Fifty percent of Cl – and variable quantities of Ca ++ , Mg ++ , and are also recovered in the PCT.
Recovery of bicarbonate (HCO 3 – ) is vital to the maintenance of acid–base balance, since it is a very powerful and fast-acting buffer. An important enzyme is used to catalyze this mechanism: carbonic anhydrase (CA). This same enzyme and reaction is used in red blood cells in the transportation of CO 2 , in the stomach to produce hydrochloric acid, and in the pancreas to produce HCO 3 – to buffer acidic chyme from the stomach. In the kidney, most of the CA is located within the cell, but a small amount is bound to the brush border of the membrane on the apical surface of the cell. In the lumen of the PCT, HCO 3 – combines with hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 ). This is enzymatically catalyzed into CO 2 and water, which diffuse across the apical membrane into the cell. Water can move osmotically across the lipid bilayer membrane due to the presence of aquaporin water channels. Inside the cell, the reverse reaction occurs to produce bicarbonate ions (HCO 3 – ). These bicarbonate ions are cotransported with Na + across the basal membrane to the interstitial space around the PCT (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). At the same time this is occurring, a Na + /H + antiporter excretes H + into the lumen, while it recovers Na + . Note how the hydrogen ion is recycled so that bicarbonate can be recovered. Also, note that a Na + gradient is created by the Na + /K + pump.
\[ HCO_{3}^{-} + H^{+} \leftrightarrow H_{2}CO_{3} \leftrightarrow H_{2}O + CO_{2} \]
The significant recovery of solutes from the PCT lumen to the interstitial space creates an osmotic gradient that promotes water recovery. As noted before, water moves through channels created by the aquaporin proteins. These proteins are found in all cells in varying amounts and help regulate water movement across membranes and through cells by creating a passageway across the hydrophobic lipid bilayer membrane. Changing the number of aquaporin proteins in membranes of the collecting ducts also helps to regulate the osmolarity of the blood. The movement of many positively charged ions also creates an electrochemical gradient. This charge promotes the movement of negative ions toward the interstitial spaces and the movement of positive ions toward the lumen.
Reabsorption and Secretion in the Loop of Henle
The loop of Henle consists of two sections: thick and thin descending and thin and thick ascending sections. The loops of cortical nephrons do not extend into the renal medulla very far, if at all. Juxtamedullary nephrons have loops that extend variable distances, some very deep into the medulla. The descending and ascending portions of the loop are highly specialized to enable recovery of much of the Na + and water that were filtered by the glomerulus. As the forming urine moves through the loop, the osmolarity will change from isosmotic with blood (about 278–300 mOsmol/kg) to both a very hypertonic solution of about 1200 mOsmol/kg and a very hypotonic solution of about 100 mOsmol/kg. These changes are accomplished by osmosis in the descending limb and active transport in the ascending limb. Solutes and water recovered from these loops are returned to the circulation by way of the vasa recta.
Descending Loop
The majority of the descending loop is comprised of simple squamous epithelial cells; to simplify the function of the loop, this discussion focuses on these cells. These membranes have permanent aquaporin channel proteins that allow unrestricted movement of water from the descending loop into the surrounding interstitium as osmolarity increases from about 300 mOsmol/kg to about 1200 mOsmol/kg in the filtrate. This increase results in reabsorption of up to 15 percent of the water entering the nephron. Modest amounts of urea, Na + , and other ions are also recovered here.
Most of the solutes that were filtered in the glomerulus have now been recovered along with a majority of water, about 82 percent. As the forming urine enters the ascending loop, major adjustments will be made to the concentration of solutes to create what you perceive as urine.
Ascending Loop
The ascending loop is made of very short thin and longer thick portions. Once again, to simplify the function, this section only considers the thick portion. The thick portion is lined with simple cuboidal epithelium without a brush border. It is completely impermeable to water due to the absence of aquaporin proteins, but ions, mainly Na + and CL – , are actively reabsorbed by a cotransport system. This has two significant effects: Removal of NaCl while retaining water leads to a hypoosomotic filtrate by the time it reaches the DCT; pumping NaCl into the interstitial space contributes to the hyperosmotic environment in the kidney medulla.
The Na +/ K + ATPase pumps in the basal membrane create an electrochemical gradient, allowing reabsorption of Cl – by Na + /Cl – symporters in the apical membrane. At the same time that Na + is actively pumped from the basal side of the cell into the interstitial fluid, Cl – follows the Na + from the lumen into the interstitial fluid by a paracellular route between cells through leaky tight junctions . These are found between cells of the ascending loop, where they allow certain solutes to move according to their concentration gradient. Most of the K + that enters the cell via symporters returns to the lumen (down its concentration gradient) through leaky channels in the apical membrane. Note the environment now created in the interstitial space: With the “back door exiting” K + , there is one Na + and two Cl – ions left in the interstitium surrounding the ascending loop. Therefore, in comparison to the lumen of the loop, the interstitial space is now a negatively charged environment. This negative charge attracts cations (Na + , K + , Ca ++ , and Mg ++ ) from the lumen via a paracellular route to the interstitial space and vasa recta.
Countercurrent Multiplier System
The structure of the loop of Henle and associated vasa recta create a countercurrent multiplier system (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). The countercurrent term comes from the fact that the descending and ascending loops are next to each other and their fluid flows in opposite directions (countercurrent). The multiplier term is due to the action of solute pumps that increase (multiply) the concentrations of urea and Na + deep in the medulla.
As discussed above, the ascending loop actively reabsorbs NaCl out of the forming urine into the interstitial spaces. In addition, collecting ducts have urea pumps that actively pump urea into the interstitial spaces. This results in the recovery of NaCl to the circulation via the vasa recta and creates a high osmolar environment in the depths of the medulla.
Ammonia (NH 3 ) is a toxic byproduct of protein metabolism. It is formed as amino acids are deaminated by liver hepatocytes. That means that the amine group, NH 2 , is removed from amino acids as they are broken down. Most of the resulting ammonia is converted into urea by liver hepatocytes. Urea is not only less toxic but is utilized to aid in the recovery of water by the loop of Henle and collecting ducts. At the same time that water is freely diffusing out of the descending loop through aquaporin channels into the interstitial spaces of the medulla, urea freely diffuses into the lumen of the descending loop as it descends deeper into the medulla, much of it to be reabsorbed from the forming urine when it reaches the collecting duct. Thus, the movement of Na + and urea into the interstitial spaces by these mechanisms creates the hyperosmotic environment of the medulla. The net result of this countercurrent multiplier system is to recover both water and Na + in the circulation.
The amino acid glutamine can be deaminated by the kidney. As NH 2 from the amino acid is converted into NH 3 and pumped into the lumen of the PCT, Na + and HCO 3 – are excreted into the interstitial fluid of the renal pyramid via a symport mechanism. When this process occurs in the cells of the PCT, the added benefit is a net loss of a hydrogen ion (complexed to ammonia to form the weak acid NH 4 + ) in the urine and a gain of a bicarbonate ion (HCO 3 – ) in the blood. Ammonia and bicarbonate are exchanged in a one-to-one ratio. This exchange is yet another means by which the body can buffer and excrete acid. The presence of aquaporin channels in the descending loop allows prodigious quantities of water to leave the loop and enter the hyperosmolar interstitium of the pyramid, where it is returned to the circulation by the vasa recta. As the loop turns to become the ascending loop, there is an absence of aquaporin channels, so water cannot leave the loop. However, in the basal membrane of cells of the thick ascending loop, ATPase pumps actively remove Na + from the cell. A Na + /K + /2Cl – symporter in the apical membrane passively allows these ions to enter the cell cytoplasm from the lumen of the loop down a concentration gradient created by the pump. This mechanism works to dilute the fluid of the ascending loop ultimately to approximately 50–100 mOsmol/L.
At the transition from the DCT to the collecting duct, about 20 percent of the original water is still present and about 10 percent of the sodium. If no other mechanism for water reabsorption existed, about 20–25 liters of urine would be produced. Now consider what is happening in the adjacent capillaries, the vasa recta. They are recovering both solutes and water at a rate that preserves the countercurrent multiplier system. In general, blood flows slowly in capillaries to allow time for exchange of nutrients and wastes. In the vasa recta particularly, this rate of flow is important for two additional reasons. The flow must be slow to allow blood cells to lose and regain water without either crenating or bursting. Second, a rapid flow would remove too much Na + and urea, destroying the osmolar gradient that is necessary for the recovery of solutes and water. Thus, by flowing slowly to preserve the countercurrent mechanism, as the vasa recta descend, Na + and urea are freely able to enter the capillary, while water freely leaves; as they ascend, Na + and urea are secreted into the surrounding medulla, while water reenters and is removed.
Interactive Link
Watch this video to learn about the countercurrent multiplier system.
Reabsorption and Secretion in the Distal Convoluted Tubule
Approximately 80 percent of filtered water has been recovered by the time the dilute forming urine enters the DCT. The DCT will recover another 10–15 percent before the forming urine enters the collecting ducts. Aldosterone increases the amount of Na + /K + ATPase in the basal membrane of the DCT and collecting duct. The movement of Na + out of the lumen of the collecting duct creates a negative charge that promotes the movement of Cl – out of the lumen into the interstitial space by a paracellular route across tight junctions. Peritubular capillaries receive the solutes and water, returning them to the circulation.
Cells of the DCT also recover Ca ++ from the filtrate. Receptors for parathyroid hormone (PTH) are found in DCT cells and when bound to PTH, induce the insertion of calcium channels on their luminal surface. The channels enhance Ca ++ recovery from the forming urine. In addition, as Na + is pumped out of the cell, the resulting electrochemical gradient attracts Ca ++ into the cell. Finally, calcitriol (1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D, the active form of vitamin D) is very important for calcium recovery. It induces the production of calcium-binding proteins that transport Ca ++ into the cell. These binding proteins are also important for the movement of calcium inside the cell and aid in exocytosis of calcium across the basolateral membrane. Any Ca ++ not reabsorbed at this point is lost in the urine.
Collecting Ducts and Recovery of Water
Solutes move across the membranes of the collecting ducts, which contain two distinct cell types, principal cells and intercalated cells. A principal cell possesses channels for the recovery or loss of sodium and potassium. An intercalated cell secretes or absorbs acid or bicarbonate. As in other portions of the nephron, there is an array of micromachines (pumps and channels) on display in the membranes of these cells.
Regulation of urine volume and osmolarity are major functions of the collecting ducts. By varying the amount of water that is recovered, the collecting ducts play a major role in maintaining the body’s normal osmolarity. If the blood becomes hyperosmotic, the collecting ducts recover more water to dilute the blood; if the blood becomes hyposmotic, the collecting ducts recover less of the water, leading to concentration of the blood. Another way of saying this is: If plasma osmolarity rises, more water is recovered and urine volume decreases; if plasma osmolarity decreases, less water is recovered and urine volume increases. This function is regulated by the posterior pituitary hormone ADH (vasopressin). With mild dehydration, plasma osmolarity rises slightly. This increase is detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus, which stimulates the release of ADH from the posterior pituitary. If plasma osmolarity decreases slightly, the opposite occurs.
When stimulated by ADH, aquaporin channels are inserted into the apical membrane of principal cells, which line the collecting ducts. As the ducts descend through the medulla, the osmolarity surrounding them increases (due to the countercurrent mechanisms described above). If aquaporin water channels are present, water will be osmotically pulled from the collecting duct into the surrounding interstitial space and into the peritubular capillaries. Therefore, the final urine will be more concentrated. If less ADH is secreted, fewer aquaporin channels are inserted and less water is recovered, resulting in dilute urine. By altering the number of aquaporin channels, the volume of water recovered or lost is altered. This, in turn, regulates the blood osmolarity, blood pressure, and osmolarity of the urine.
As Na + is pumped from the forming urine, water is passively recaptured for the circulation; this preservation of vascular volume is critically important for the maintenance of a normal blood pressure. Aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal cortex in response to angiotensin II stimulation. As an extremely potent vasoconstrictor, angiotensin II functions immediately to increase blood pressure. By also stimulating aldosterone production, it provides a longer-lasting mechanism to support blood pressure by maintaining vascular volume (water recovery).
In addition to receptors for ADH, principal cells have receptors for the steroid hormone aldosterone. While ADH is primarily involved in the regulation of water recovery, aldosterone regulates Na + recovery. Aldosterone stimulates principal cells to manufacture luminal Na + and K + channels as well as Na + /K + ATPase pumps on the basal membrane of the cells. When aldosterone output increases, more Na + is recovered from the forming urine and water follows the Na + passively. As the pump recovers Na + for the body, it is also pumping K + into the forming urine, since the pump moves K + in the opposite direction. When aldosterone decreases, more Na + remains in the forming urine and more K + is recovered in the circulation. Symport channels move Na + and Cl – together. Still other channels in the principal cells secrete K + into the collecting duct in direct proportion to the recovery of Na + .
Intercalated cells play significant roles in regulating blood pH. Intercalated cells reabsorb K + and HCO 3 – while secreting H + . This function lowers the acidity of the plasma while increasing the acidity of the urine.


5.1.1: Teamwork in the Workplace
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Learning Objectives
- What is a team, and what makes a team effective?
Teamwork has never been more important in organizations than it is today. Whether you work in a manufacturing environment and utilize self-directed work teams, or if you work in the “knowledge economy” and derive benefits from collaboration within a team structure, you are harnessing the power of a team.
A team, according to Katzenbach and Smith in their Harvard Business Review (HBR) article “The Discipline of Teams,” is defined as “people organized to function cooperatively as a group”. 1 The five elements that make teams function are:
- Common commitment and purpose
- Specific performance goals
- Complementary skills
- Commitment to how the work gets done
- Mutual accountability
A team has a specific purpose that it delivers on, has shared leadership roles, and has both individual and mutual accountabilities. Teams discuss, make decisions, and perform real work together, and they measure their performance by assessing their collective work products. Wisdom of Teams reference. This is very different from the classic working group in an organization (usually organized by functional area) in which there is a focused leader, individual accountabilities and work products, and a group purpose that is the same as the broader organizational mission. Think of the finance organization or a particular business unit in your company—these are, in effect, larger working groups that take on a piece of the broader organizational mission. They are organized under a leader, and their effectiveness is measured by its influence on others within the business (e.g., financial performance of the business.)
So, what makes a team truly effective? According to Katzenbach and Smith’s “Discipline of Teams,” there are several practices that the authors have observed in successful teams. These practices include:
Establish urgency, demanding performance standards, and direction. Teams work best when they have a compelling reason for being, and it is thus more likely that the teams will be successful and live up to performance expectations. We’ve all seen the teams that are brought together to address an “important initiative” for the company, but without clear direction and a truly compelling reason to exist, the team will lose momentum and wither.
Select members for their skill and skill potential, not for their personality. This is not always as easy as it sounds for several reasons. First, most people would prefer to have those with good personalities and positive attitudes on their team in order to promote a pleasant work environment. This is fine, but make sure that those individuals have the skill sets needed (or the potential to acquire/learn) for their piece of the project. The second caveat here is that you don’t always know what skills you need on a project until you really dig in and see what’s going on. Spend some time upfront thinking about the purpose of the project and the anticipated deliverables you will be producing, and think through the specific types of skills you’ll need on the team.
Pay particular attention to first meetings and actions. This is one way of saying that first impressions mean a lot—and it is just as important for teams as for individuals. Teams will interact with everyone from functional subject-matter experts all the way to senior leadership, and the team must look competent and be perceived as competent. Keeping an eye on your team’s level of emotional intelligence is very important and will enhance your team’s reputation and ability to navigate stakeholders within the organization.
Set some clear rules of behavior. I have been through many meetings and team situations in which we have rushed through “ground rules” because it felt like they were obvious—and everyone always came up with the same list. It is so critical that the team takes the time upfront to capture their own rules of the road in order to keep the team in check. Rules that address areas such as attendance, discussion, confidentiality, project approach, and conflict are key to keeping team members aligned and engaged appropriately.
Set and seize upon a few immediate performance-oriented tasks and goals. What does this mean? Have some quick wins that make the team feel that they’re really accomplishing something and working together well. This is very important to the team’s confidence, as well as just getting into the practices of working as a team. Success in the larger tasks will come soon enough, as the larger tasks are really just a group of smaller tasks that fit together to produce a larger deliverable.
Challenge the group regularly with fresh facts and information. That is, continue to research and gather information to confirm or challenge what you know about your project. Don’t assume that all the facts are static and that you received them at the beginning of the project.  I think that the pace of change is so great in the world today that new information is always presenting itself and must be considered in the overall context of the project.
Spend lots of time together. Here’s an obvious one that is often overlooked. People are so busy that they forget that an important part of the team process is to spend time together, think together, and bond. Time in person, time on the phone, time in meetings—all of it counts and helps to build camaraderie and trust.
Exploit the power of positive feedback, recognition, and reward. Positive reinforcement is a motivator that will help the members of the team feel more comfortable contributing. It will also reinforce the behaviors and expectations that you’re driving within the team. Although there are many extrinsic rewards that can serve as motivators, a successful team begins to feel that its own success and performance is the most rewarding.
Collaboration is another key concept and method by which teams can work together very successfully. Bringing together a team of experts from across the business would seem to be a best practice in any situation. However, Gratton and Erickson, in their article Eight Ways to Build Collaborative Teams, found that collaboration seems to decrease sharply when a team is working on complex project initiatives. In their study, they examined 55 larger teams and identified those with strong collaboration skills, despite the level of complexity. There were eight success factors for having strong collaboration skills:
- “Signature” relationship practices
- Role models of collaboration among executives
- Establishment of “gift” culture, in which managers mentor employees
- Training in relationship skills
- A sense of community
- Ambidextrous leaders—good at task and people leadership
- Good use of heritage relationships
- Role clarity and talk ambiguity 2
As teams grow in size and complexity, the standard practices that worked well with small teams don’t work anymore. Organizations need to think about how to make collaboration work, and they should leverage the above best practices to build relationships and trust.
concept check
- What is the definition of a team?
- Name some practices that can make a team more successful.


10: Nuclear Chemistry
The chemical reactions that we have considered in previous chapters involve changes in the electronic structure of the species involved, that is, the arrangement of the electrons around atoms, ions, or molecules. Nuclear structure, the numbers of protons and neutrons within the nuclei of the atoms involved, remains unchanged during chemical reactions. This chapter will introduce the topic of nuclear chemistry, which began with the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 by French physicist Antoine Becquerel and has become increasingly important during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, providing the basis for various technologies related to energy, medicine, geology, and many other areas.
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- 10.1: Nuclear Equations
- Nuclei can undergo reactions that change their number of protons, number of neutrons, or energy state. Many different particles can be involved in nuclear reactions. The most common are protons, neutrons, positrons (which are positively charged electrons), alpha (α) particles (which are high-energy helium nuclei), beta (β) particles (which are high-energy electrons), and gamma (γ) rays (which compose high-energy electromagnetic radiation).
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- 10.2: Radioactive Decay
- Unstable nuclei undergo spontaneous radioactive decay. The most common types of radioactivity are α decay, β decay, γ emission, positron emission, and electron capture. Nuclear reactions also often involve γ rays, and some nuclei decay by electron capture. Each of these modes of decay leads to the formation of a new stable nuclei sometimes via multiple decays before ending in a stable isotope. All nuclear decay processes follow first-order kinetics and each radioisotope has its own half-life.
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- 10.3: Nuclear Structure and Stability
- An atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons. Although protons repel each other, the nucleus is held tightly together by a short-range, but very strong, force called the strong nuclear force. A nucleus has less mass than the total mass of its constituent nucleons. This “missing” mass is the mass defect, which has been converted into the binding energy that holds the nucleus together according to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence equation, E = mc2.
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- 10.4: Transmutation and Nuclear Energy
- It is possible to produce new atoms by bombarding other atoms with nuclei or high-speed particles. The products of these transmutation reactions can be stable or radioactive. A number of artificial elements, including technetium, astatine, and the transuranium elements, have been produced in this way. Nuclear power as well as nuclear weapon detonations can be generated through fission (reactions in which a heavy nucleus is split into two or more lighter nuclei and several neutrons).
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- 10.5: Uses of Radioisotopes
- Compounds known as radioactive tracers can be used to follow reactions, track the distribution of a substance, diagnose and treat medical conditions, and much more. Other radioactive substances are helpful for controlling pests, visualizing structures, providing fire warnings, and for many other applications. Hundreds of millions of nuclear medicine tests and procedures, using a wide variety of radioisotopes with relatively short half-lives, are performed every year in the US.
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- 10.6: Biological Effects of Radiation
- We are constantly exposed to radiation from naturally occurring and human-produced sources. This radiation can affect living organisms. Ionizing radiation is particularly harmful because it can ionize molecules or break chemical bonds, which damages the molecules & causes malfunctions in cell processes. Types of radiation differ in their ability to penetrate material and damage tissue, with alpha particles the least penetrating, but potentially most damaging, and gamma rays the most penetrating.
Contributors and Attributions
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Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley (Stephen F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>).


8.4: Solve Equations with Variables and Constants on Both Sides (Part 1)
- Solve an equation with constants on both sides
- Solve an equation with variables on both sides
- Solve an equation with variables and constants on both sides
- Solve equations using a general strategy
Before you get started, take this readiness quiz.
- Simplify: 4y − 9 + 9. If you missed this problem, review Example 2.3.10 .
- Solve: y + 12 = 16. If you missed this problem, review Example 2.5.4 .
- Solve: −3y = 63. If you missed this problem, review Example 3.9.6 .
Solve an Equation with Constants on Both Sides
You may have noticed that in all the equations we have solved so far, all the variable terms were on only one side of the equation with the constants on the other side. This does not happen all the time—so now we’ll see how to solve equations where the variable terms and/or constant terms are on both sides of the equation.
Our strategy will involve choosing one side of the equation to be the variable side, and the other side of the equation to be the constant side. Then, we will use the Subtraction and Addition Properties of Equality, step by step, to get all the variable terms together on one side of the equation and the constant terms together on the other side.
By doing this, we will transform the equation that started with variables and constants on both sides into the form ax = b. We already know how to solve equations of this form by using the Division or Multiplication Properties of Equality.
Solve: 4x + 6 = −14.
Solution
In this equation, the variable is only on the left side. It makes sense to call the left side the variable side. Therefore, the right side will be the constant side. We’ll write the labels above the equation to help us remember what goes where.
| Since the left side is the variable side, the 6 is out of place. We must "undo" adding 6 by subtracting 6, and to keep the equality we must subtract 6 from both sides. Use the Subtraction Property of Equality. | $$4x + 6 \textcolor{red}{-6} = -14 \textcolor{red}{-6}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$4x = -20$$ |
| Now all the x's are on the left and the constant on the right. | |
| Use the Division Property of Equality. | $$\dfrac{4x}{\textcolor{red}{4}} = \dfrac{-20}{\textcolor{red}{4}}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$x = -5$$ |
| Check: Let x = −5. | $$\begin{split} 4x + 6 &= -14 \\ 4(\textcolor{red}{-5}) + 6 &= -14 \\ -20 + 6 &= -14 \\ -14 &= -14\; \checkmark \end{split}$$ |
Solve: 3x + 4 = −8.
- Answer
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x = -4
Solve: 5a + 3 = −37.
- Answer
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a = -8
Solve: 2y − 7 = 15.
Solution
Notice that the variable is only on the left side of the equation, so this will be the variable side and the right side will be the constant side. Since the left side is the variable side, the 7 is out of place. It is subtracted from the 2y, so to ‘undo’ subtraction, add 7 to both sides.
| Add 7 to both sides. | $$2y - 7 \textcolor{red}{+7} = 15 \textcolor{red}{+7}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$2y = 22$$ |
| The variables are now on one side and the constants on the other. | |
| Divide both sides by 2. | $$\dfrac{2y}{\textcolor{red}{2}} = \dfrac{22}{\textcolor{red}{2}}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$y = 11$$ |
| Check: Substitute: y = 11. | $$\begin{split} 2y - 7 &= 15 \\ 2 \cdot \textcolor{red}{11} - 7 &\stackrel{?}{=} 15 \\ 22 - 7 &\stackrel{?}{=} 15 \\ 15 &= 15\; \checkmark \end{split}$$ |
Solve: 5y − 9 = 16.
- Answer
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y = 5
Solve: 3m − 8 = 19.
- Answer
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m = 9
Solve an Equation with Variables on Both Sides
What if there are variables on both sides of the equation? We will start like we did above—choosing a variable side and a constant side, and then use the Subtraction and Addition Properties of Equality to collect all variables on one side and all constants on the other side. Remember, what you do to the left side of the equation, you must do to the right side too.
Solve: 5x = 4x + 7.
Solution
Here the variable, x, is on both sides, but the constants appear only on the right side, so let’s make the right side the “constant” side. Then the left side will be the “variable” side.
| We don't want any variables on the right, so subtract the 4x. | $$5x \textcolor{red}{-4x} = 4x \textcolor{red}{-4x} + 7$$ |
| Simplify. | $$x = 7$$ |
| We have all the variables on one side and the constants on the other. We have solved the equation. | |
| Check: Substitute 7 for x. | $$\begin{split} 5x &= 4x + 7 \\ 5(\textcolor{red}{7}) &\stackrel{?}{=} 4(\textcolor{red}{7}) + 7 \\ 35 &\stackrel{?}{=} 28 + 7 \\ 35 &= 35\; \checkmark \end{split}$$ |
Solve: 6n = 5n + 10.
- Answer
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n = 10
Solve: −6c = −7c + 1.
- Answer
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c = 1
Solve: 5y − 8 = 7y.
Solution
The only constant, −8, is on the left side of the equation and variable, y, is on both sides. Let’s leave the constant on the left and collect the variables to the right.
| Subtract 5y from both sides. | $$5y \textcolor{red}{-5y} -8 = 7y \textcolor{red}{-5y}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$-8 = 2y$$ |
| We have the variables on the right and the constants on the left. Divide both sides by 2. | $$\dfrac{-8}{\textcolor{red}{2}} = \dfrac{2y}{\textcolor{red}{2}}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$-4 = y$$ |
| Rewrite with the variable on the left. | $$y = -4$$ |
| Check: Let y = −4. | $$\begin{split} 5y - 8 &= 7y \\ 5(\textcolor{red}{-4}) -8 &\stackrel{?}{=} 7(\textcolor{red}{-4}) \\ -20 - 8 &\stackrel{?}{=} -28 \\ -28 &= -28\; \checkmark \end{split}$$ |
Solve: 3p − 14 = 5p.
- Answer
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p = -7
Solve: 8m + 9 = 5m.
- Answer
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m = -3
Solve: 7x = − x + 24.
Solution
The only constant, 24, is on the right, so let the left side be the variable side.
| Remove the −x from the right side by adding x to both sides. | $$7x \textcolor{red}{+x} = -x \textcolor{red}{+x} + 24$$ |
| Simplify. | $$8x = 24$$ |
| All the variables are on the left and the constants are on the right. Divide both sides by 8. | $$\dfrac{8x}{\textcolor{red}{8}} = \dfrac{24}{\textcolor{red}{8}}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$x = 3$$ |
| Check: Substitute x = 3. | $$\begin{split} 7x &= -x + 24 \\ 7(\textcolor{red}{3}) &\stackrel{?}{=} -(\textcolor{red}{3}) + 24 \\ 21 &= 21\; \checkmark \end{split}$$ |
Solve: 12j = −4j + 32.
- Answer
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j = 2
Solve: 8h = −4h + 12.
- Answer
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h = 1
Solve Equations with Variables and Constants on Both Sides
The next example will be the first to have variables and constants on both sides of the equation. As we did before, we’ll collect the variable terms to one side and the constants to the other side.
Solve: 7x + 5 = 6x + 2.
Solution
Start by choosing which side will be the variable side and which side will be the constant side. The variable terms are 7x and 6x. Since 7 is greater than 6, make the left side the variable side and so the right side will be the constant side.
| Collect the variable terms to the left side by subtracting 6x from both sides. | $$7x \textcolor{red}{-6x} + 5 = 6x \textcolor{red}{-6x} +2$$ |
| Simplify. | $$x + 5 = 2$$ |
| Now, collect the constants to the right side by subtracting 5 from both sides. | $$x + 5 \textcolor{red}{-5} = 2 \textcolor{red}{-5}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$x = -3$$ |
| The solution is x = −3. | |
| Check: Let x = −3. | $$\begin{split} 7x + 5 &= 6x + 2 \\ 7(\textcolor{red}{-3}) + 5 &\stackrel{?}{=} 6(\textcolor{red}{-3}) + 2 \\ -21 + 5 &\stackrel{?}{=} -18 + 2 \\ -16 &= -16\; \checkmark \end{split}$$ |
Solve: 12x + 8 = 6x + 2.
- Answer
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x = -1
Solve: 9y + 4 = 7y + 12.
- Answer
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y = 4
We’ll summarize the steps we took so you can easily refer to them.
Step 1. Choose one side to be the variable side and then the other will be the constant side.
Step 2. Collect the variable terms to the variable side, using the Addition or Subtraction Property of Equality.
Step 3. Collect the constants to the other side, using the Addition or Subtraction Property of Equality.
Step 4. Make the coefficient of the variable 1, using the Multiplication or Division Property of Equality.
Step 5. Check the solution by substituting it into the original equation.
It is a good idea to make the variable side the one in which the variable has the larger coefficient. This usually makes the arithmetic easier.
Solve: 6n − 2 = −3n + 7.
Solution
We have 6n on the left and −3n on the right. Since 6 > − 3, make the left side the “variable” side.
| We don't want variables on the right side—add 3n to both sides to leave only constants on the right. | $$6n \textcolor{red}{+3n} - 2 = -3n \textcolor{red}{+3n} +7$$ |
| Combine like terms. | $$9n - 2 = 7$$ |
| We don't want any constants on the left side, so add 2 to both sides. | $$9n - 2 \textcolor{red}{+2} = 7 \textcolor{red}{+2}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$9n = 9$$ |
| The variable term is on the left and the constant term is on the right. To get the coefficient of n to be one, divide both sides by 9. | $$\dfrac{9n}{\textcolor{red}{9}} = \dfrac{9}{\textcolor{red}{9}}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$n = 1$$ |
| Check: Substitute 1 for n. | $$\begin{split} 6n - 2 &= -3n + 7 \\ 6(\textcolor{red}{1}) - 2 &\stackrel{?}{=} + 7 \\ 4 &= 4\; \checkmark \end{split}$$ |
Solve: 8q − 5 = −4q + 7.
- Answer
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q = 1
Solve: 7n − 3 = n + 3.
- Answer
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n = 1
Solve: 2a − 7 = 5a + 8.
Solution
This equation has 2a on the left and 5a on the right. Since 5 > 2, make the right side the variable side and the left side the constant side.
| Subtract 2a from both sides to remove the variable term from the left. | $$2a \textcolor{red}{-2a} - 7 = 5a \textcolor{red}{-2a} + 8$$ |
| Combine like terms. | $$-7 = 3a + 8$$ |
| Subtract 8 from both sides to remove the constant from the right. | $$-7 \textcolor{red}{-8} = 3a + 8 \textcolor{red}{-8}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$-15 = 3a$$ |
| Divide both sides by 3 to make 1 the coefficient of a. | $$\dfrac{-15}{\textcolor{red}{3}} = \dfrac{3a}{\textcolor{red}{3}}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$-5 = a$$ |
| Check: Let a = −5. | $$\begin{split} 2a - 7 &= 5a + 8 \\ 2(\textcolor{red}{-5}) - 7 &\stackrel{?}{=} 5(\textcolor{red}{-5}) + 8 \\ -10 - 7 &\stackrel{?}{=} -25 + 8 \\ -17 &= -17\; \checkmark \end{split}$$ |
Note that we could have made the left side the variable side instead of the right side, but it would have led to a negative coefficient on the variable term. While we could work with the negative, there is less chance of error when working with positives. The strategy outlined above helps avoid the negatives!
Solve: 2a − 2 = 6a + 18.
- Answer
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a = -5
Solve: 4k − 1 = 7k + 17.
- Answer
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k = -6
To solve an equation with fractions, we still follow the same steps to get the solution.
Solve: \(\dfrac{3}{2}\)x + 5 = \(\dfrac{1}{2}\)x − 3.
Solution
Since \(\dfrac{3}{2} > \dfrac{1}{2}\), make the left side the variable side and the right side the constant side.
| Subtract \(\dfrac{1}{2}\)x from both sides. | $$\dfrac{3}{2} x \textcolor{red}{- \dfrac{1}{2} x} + 5 = \dfrac{1}{2} x \textcolor{red}{\dfrac{1}{2} x} - 3$$ |
| Combine like terms. | $$x + 5 = -3$$ |
| Subtract 5 from both sides. | $$x + 5 \textcolor{red}{-5} = -3 \textcolor{red}{-5}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$x = -8$$ |
| Check: Let x = −8. | $$\begin{split} \dfrac{3}{2} x + 5 &= \dfrac{1}{2} x - 3 \\ \dfrac{3}{2} (\textcolor{red}{-8}) + 5 &\stackrel{?}{=} \dfrac{1}{2} (\textcolor{red}{-8}) - 3 \\ -12 + 5 &\stackrel{?}{=} -4 - 3 \\ -7 &= -7\; \checkmark \end{split}$$ |
Solve: \(\dfrac{7}{8}\)x - 12 = \(- \dfrac{1}{8}\)x − 2.
- Answer
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x = 10
Solve: \(\dfrac{7}{6}\)y + 11 = \(\dfrac{1}{6}\)y + 8.
- Answer
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y = -3
We follow the same steps when the equation has decimals, too.
Solve: 3.4x + 4 = 1.6x − 5.
Solution
Since 3.4 > 1.6, make the left side the variable side and the right side the constant side.
| Subtract 1.6x from both sides. | $$3.4x \textcolor{red}{-1.6x} + 4 = 1.6x \textcolor{red}{-1.6x} - 5$$ |
| Combine like terms. | $$1.8x + 4 = -5$$ |
| Subtract 4 from both sides. | $$1.8x + 4 \textcolor{red}{-4} = -5 \textcolor{red}{-4}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$1.8x = -9$$ |
| Use the Division Property of Equality. | $$\dfrac{1.8x}{\textcolor{red}{1.8}} = \dfrac{-9}{\textcolor{red}{1.8}}$$ |
| Simplify. | $$x = -5$$ |
| Check: Let x = −5. | $$\begin{split} 3.4x + 4 &= 1.6x - 5 \\ 3.4(\textcolor{red}{-5}) + 4 &\stackrel{?}{=} 1.6(\textcolor{red}{-5}) - 5 \\ -17 + 4 &\stackrel{?}{=} -8 - 5 \\ -13 &= -13\; \checkmark \end{split}$$ |
Solve: 2.8x + 12 = −1.4x − 9.
- Answer
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x = -5
Solve: 3.6y + 8 = 1.2y − 4.
- Answer
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y = -5
Contributors and Attributions
-
Lynn Marecek (Santa Ana College) and MaryAnne Anthony-Smith (Formerly of Santa Ana College). This content is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0 "Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>."


7: Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)
Thumbnail: A photographic portrait of Rabindranath Tagore. (Public Domain; Unknown author via Wikipedia )
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Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) Cabuliwallah Indian Modernism Rabindranath Tagore was outspoken on the differences between Modernism in India and in Europe. During lectures that he gave in Japan from 1916-1917, Tagore argued that India's lack of modernization did not mean that they were not participants in Modernism, which he defined as a "freedom of mind" from one's own traditions, rather than participating in the cultural trends of Europe. Tagore was born into an influential family in the Bengal region of India, during the Bengal Renaissance (a particularly creative time period for art and literature, along with social reforms and scientific advances). Tagore's father and several siblings were famous for their contributions in many areas, including literature, music, and philosophy; one of his sisters, Swarnakumari Devi, was a novelist, editor, and social reformer in a time period when women rarely attended school. Tagore surpassed them all. He wrote poetry, short stories, plays, essays, and songs.Both India and Bangladesh chose songs of his for their national anthems. He originally wrote his literary works in Bengali, later translating them into English himself, or personally overseeing their translation. In 1913, he became the first non-Western writer to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature. Tagore's keen awareness of cultural (and linguistic) differences in society informs the short story Cabuliwallah (1892). The narrator, a progressive-minded Hindu in Calcutta, observes the friendship between his (adopted) daughter Mini and a Muslim fruit-seller from Kabul, who misses his own daughter. The story delicately balances a range of issues, including socio-economic status, religion, prejudice, the tension between traditional and modern views of life, and even the five-year-old Mini's lack of experience with language. In the end, however, these elements come together to support the main issue: the definition of what a "real" family is. Consider while reading:
Written by Laura Getty
Thumbnail: A photographic portrait of Rabindranath Tagore. (Public Domain; Unknown author via Wikipedia )


<IP_ADDRESS>: Transport Across Membranes
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Plasma membranes act not only as a barrier, but also as a gatekeeper. It must allow needed substances to enter and cell products to leave the cell, while preventing entrance of harmful material and exit of essential material. In other words, plasma membranes are selectively permeable —they allow some substances through but not others. If the membrane were to lose this selectivity, the cell would no longer be able to maintain homeostasis, or to sustain itself, and it would be destroyed. Some cells require larger amounts of specific substances than other cells; they must have a way of obtaining these materials from the extracellular fluids.
This may happen passively, as certain materials move back and forth, or the cell may have special mechanisms that ensure transport. Most cells expend most of their energy, in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to create and maintain an uneven distribution of ions on the opposite sides of their membranes. The structure of the plasma membrane contributes to these functions.
Selective Permeability
Plasma membranes are asymmetric, meaning that despite the mirror image formed by the phospholipids, the interior of the membrane is not identical to the exterior of the membrane. Integral proteins that act as channels or pumps work in one direction. Carbohydrates, attached to lipids or proteins, are also found on the exterior surface of the plasma membrane.
These carbohydrate complexes help the cell bind substances in the extracellular fluid that the cell needs. This adds considerably to the selective nature of plasma membranes.
Recall that plasma membranes have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. This characteristic helps the movement of certain materials through the membrane and hinders the movement of others. Lipid-soluble material can easily slip through the hydrophobic lipid core of the membrane. Substances such as the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K readily pass through the plasma membranes in the digestive tract and other tissues. Fat-soluble drugs also gain easy entry into cells and are readily transported into the body’s tissues and organs. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide have no charge and pass through by simple diffusion.
Polar substances, with the exception of water, present problems for the membrane. While some polar molecules connect easily with the outside of a cell, they cannot readily pass through the lipid core of the plasma membrane. Additionally, whereas small ions could easily slip through the spaces in the mosaic of the membrane, their charge prevents them from doing so. Ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride must have a special means of penetrating plasma membranes. Simple sugars and amino acids also need help with transport across plasma membranes.
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
References
Unless otherwise noted, images on this page are licensed under CC-BY 4.0 by OpenStax.
Text adapted from: OpenStax, Concepts of Biology. OpenStax CNX. May 18, 2016 http://cnx.org/contents/b3c1e1d2-839...9a8aafbdd@9.10


2.4: Measures and Time Signatures
Measure
Measure is a segment of time within a piece of music defined by a given number of beats. Each measure is separated by a bar. Within each measure, beats are represented by a particular note value and the boundaries of the bar are indicated by vertical bar lines. Dividing music into bars provides regular reference points to pinpoint locations within a piece of music. It also makes written music easier to follow, since each bar of staff symbols can be read and played as a batch.
On the staff, bar lines provide boundaries and structure and can also give a musician directions. A double bar line (or double bar ) can consist of two single bar lines drawn close together, separating two sections within a piece, or a bar line followed by a thicker bar line, indicating the end of a piece or movement.
A repeat sign looks like the music end, but it has two dots, one above the other, indicating that the section of music that is before is to be repeated. The beginning of the repeated passage can be marked by a begin-repeat sign ; if this is absent the repeat is understood to be from the beginning of the piece or movement. This begin-repeat sign, if appearing at the beginning of a staff, does not act as a bar line because no bar is before it; its only function is to indicate the beginning of the passage to be repeated.
Types of Bar Lines
Time Signatures
In written music, time signatures are also called meter signatures. They help us identify which kind of note is used to count beats in a measure and how many beats will be in each measure.
In a musical score, the time signature appears at the beginning of the piece, as a time symbol or stacked numerals. Below are some common time signatures and how they are placed on the staff.
Common Time Signatures
The first example is 4/4 time. In this time signature there are 4 beats possible in each measure, and the quarter note represents one beat. The top number of the time signature tells how many beats are in each measure, and the bottom number tells which note will represent one beat. Sometimes 4/4 time is represented by a large C, because it is also know as common time.
The time signature 2/2 means that in each measure, the half note represents one beat (indicated by the lower number) and there are two beats in each measure (indicated by the top number)
The time signature 3/4 tells a musician that a quarter note represents one beat in a measure (the lower number) and that there will be three beats in each measure (the top number).
- What does the time signature 6/8 mean?
- What do you think the C with a line down the center means?
Classification of Meters
Simple Meters
In a simple meter, each beat in a measure can be broken into two equal parts. For example in 3/4 time the quarter note is used to count the three beats in each measure. The quarter note can be halved into eighth notes, therefore 3/4 is a simple meter.
Listen to the first movement of Haydn’s “Farewell” Symphony. The beat can easily be divided into two eighth notes.
Compound Meters
In a compound meter, each beat can be divided into thirds. For example in 6/8 time, the eighth note represents one beat and there are six beats in each measure.
Please listen to the first movement of Corelli’s “Christmas Concerto,” tapping to its slow, steady beat.
Contributors and Attributions
- Joseph Haydn / Symphony No. 45 in F-sharp minor: Farewell (Mackerras). Authored by : scrymgeour34. Located at : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KXctarOxRz8 . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
- Arcangelo Corelli - Concerto grosso, No. 8, Op. 6 'Christmas Concerto' - Pastorale. Authored by : Anna and Quido Holbling, violins. Ludowit Kanta, cello. Located at : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Zs6_vsU9cg . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License


7.2.2: Introduction (2016)
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- Robin DeRosa, Abby Goode et al.
- Plymouth State University/
Rip Van Winkle
In 1783, Washington Irving was born in New York City. He’s well known for “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” amongst other written works. After his family business failed in England, he wrote “Rip Van Winkle” in 1819, which was popular in both the United States as well as England. This story was published within a collection of writings called, The Sketchbook of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.
Focusing on the passing of time, there are several instances that occur in this short story. For example, when Rip Van Winkle wakes up and he notices how much time has passed: “He looked round for his gun, but in place of the clean well-oiled fowling-piece, he found an old firelock lying by him, the barrel incrusted with rust, the lock falling off, and the stock worm-eaten” (64). For his gun to be start off shiny and new to a rusted-over piece of metal confuses him. He wasn’t sure if someone stole his gun and replaced it with this one. From the reader’s point of view this is one of the first instances that show time has passed for him. The amount of time is significant because it shows the reader that time is precious and can be taken for granted.
Mortality is another strong theme that is shown within this story. After he found out about his friends that died he has to confront the thought of death: “Rip’s heart died away at hearing of these sad changed in his home and friends, and finding himself thus alone in the world” (67). The deaths of his friends forces him to realize mortality. He grieves for the change and that the house and friends have passed. This realization is important because it shows the reader how much he’s missed and that life is valuable.
Lastly, social change was shown throughout the ending of the story. When Rip Van Winkle notices that King George is no longer and that change again has happened: “He recognized on the sign, however, the ruby face of King George, under which he had smoked so many a peaceful pipe; but even this was singularly metamorphosed. The red coat was changed for one of blue and buff, a sword was held in the hand instead of a scepter, the head was decorated with a cocked hat, and underneath was painted in large characters, GENERAL WASHINGTON” (66). This is a blatant symbol that the world has drastically changed around him.
Despite these heavy themes, he reconnects with his kids and can comfortably take it easy because of his age. This text was extremely well received in both The United States and England because it has strong themes that resonate throughout time and are still important today. This story holds a strong place in the history of American Literature because it wasn’t written in America, highlighting that geographical location isn’t necessarily a prerequisite for writing American Literature.
Works Cited
Biography.com Editors. “Washington Irving.” Bio.com. A&E Networks Television, 20 Oct. 2015. Web. 11 Oct. 2016.
The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Washington Irving.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 11 Oct. 2016.
Study.com. “Washington Irving’s Rip Van Winkle: Summary and Analysis.” YouTube. YouTube, 31 Dec. 2013. Web. 11 Oct. 2016. < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6v5...l=Study.com> ;.


13: Southern California
- Identify the major physical features of Southern California, including its mountains, valleys, deserts, and coastline.
- Explain the geological forces that have shaped Southern California's landscape, including plate tectonics, earthquakes, faults, and volcanism.
- Identify and describe the major cultural influences on Southern California, including its Spanish, Mexican, and Native American heritage.
- Examine the interrelationships between the physical geography, ethnic diversity, cultural influences, and weather and climate of Southern California.
Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. It includes the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the second most populous urban agglomeration in the United States. The region generally contains ten of California's 58 counties: Imperial, Kern, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, and Ventura counties.
Beyond the physical realm SoCal is at the hearth of innovation, and with this come global influence, such as Disneyland, Hollywood, Fast-food, Surf Music, architecture, and even Knotts Berry Farm. Much of this will be covered, but a more in-depth study will be presented in another unit that showcases the iconic California landscapes. Nonetheless, it is also important to note that SoCal is also the third most populated megalopolis in the United States, after the Great Lakes Megalopolis and the Northeast Megalopolis. Much of Southern California is famous for its large, spread-out, suburban communities and use of automobiles and highways.


1.4: Assignment- Compare/Contrast Essay—Prewriting and Draft
For this assignment, you will work through the prewriting and drafting stages of your writing process in a compare/contrast essay.
Compare/Contrast Essay Prompt
Choose one of the following topics for an essay developed by comparison and contrast. The topic you decide on should be something you care about so that the examples are a means of communicating an idea; not an end in themselves. Possible examples include:
Experience
- Two jobs you have held
- A good and a bad job interview
People
- Your relationship with two friends
- Two relatives
Places and Things
- A place as it is now and as it was years ago
- Two towns or cities.
- Nature in the city and in the country
Education
- A passive student and an active student
Writing Your Compare/Contrast Essay
Prewriting
STEP 1 : To get started writing, first pick at least one prewriting strategy (brainstorming, rewriting, journaling, mapping, questioning, sketching) to develop ideas for your essay. Write down what you do, as you’ll need to submit evidence of your prewrite.
Drafting
STEP 2: Next, write a draft of your essay.
- Develop an enticing title.
- Think of specific, interesting details or events to incorporate into the essay to grab the reader.
- Let the essay reflect your own voice (is your voice serious, humorous, matter-of-fact?)
- Organize the essay in a way that may capture the reader, but don’t string the reader along too much with “next, next, next.”
- To avoid just telling what happens, SHOW us what happened with vivid examples and/or testimony. Make sure you take time to reflect on why this experience is significant.
Assignment Instructions
- Review the grading rubric as listed on this page.
- Choose a writing prompt as listed above on this page.
- Create a prewrite in the style of your choice for the prompt.
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Develop a draft essay according to the following formatting guidelines. Papers submitted that do not meet these formatting requirements will be returned to you ungraded.
- Minimum of 3 typed, double-spaced pages (about 600–750 words), Times New Roman, 12 pt font size
- MLA formatting
- Submit your prewriting and draft as a single file upload.
Requirements
Be sure to:
- Develop your essay by comparison and contrast.
- Decide on something you care about so that the narration is a means of communicating an idea.
- Include characters, conflict, sensory details as appropriate to help your essay come alive, if possible.
- Create a logical sequence for your points of comparison.
- Develop an enticing title.
- Use the introduction to establish the situation the essay will address.
- Avoid addressing the assignment directly (don’t write “I am going to write about…” – this takes the fun out of reading the work!).
 Humorous? Matter-of-fact?).
- Avoid “telling” your reader about what happened. Instead, “show” what happens using active verbs and/or concrete and descriptive nouns and details.
- Make sure you take time to reflect on why your points are significant.
If you developed your prewriting by hand on paper, scan or take a picture of your prewriting, load the image onto your computer, and then insert the image on a separate page after your draft.
Rubric
Grading Rubric: Compare/Contrast Essay Prewriting and Draft |
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| Criteria | Rating: Meets Expectation | Approaching Expectation | Point Total: 50 |
| Ideas | The paper demonstrates outstanding or above average idea development demonstrating comparison and contrast between ideas. | The writer sufficiently defines the topic, even though development is still basic or general. | __/10 pts |
| Content | The paper demonstrates outstanding or above average evidence of supporting the main point. Paragraphs are well-developed and clear, showing how things are similar or different, and why. | The writer demonstrates sufficient support of the main point, but could use more supporting details. | __/15 pts |
| Organization | The organization is clear and showcases the central theme. The presentation of information is compelling. | The organizational structure is strong enough to move the reader through the text without too much confusion. | __/15 pts |
| Word Choice, Sentence Fluency, Conventions | The writer demonstrates an outstanding word choice selection, flow and cadence, with well-built sentences and strong grasp of standard writing conventions. | The writer demonstrates sufficient selection of words. The text tends to be more mechanical and contains some errors of standard writing conventions. | __/5 pts |
| Prewrite | Attaches a prewrite example showing forethought in developing ideas for the essay. | Only partially demonstrate effective prewriting strategy | __/5 pts |
Contributors and Attributions
- Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : http://lumenlearning.com/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Authored by : Daryl Smith O' Hare and Susan C. Hines. Provided by : Chadron State College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Authored by : Paul Powell. Provided by : Central Community College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution


4.1: Probation
Probation is very similar to parole, and many of the legal issues are identical. Many jurisdictions combine the job of probation and parole officer, and these officers are often employed in departments of community corrections. The most basic difference between probation and parole is that probationers are sentenced to community sanctions rather than a prison sentence. Parolees have already served at least some prison time. Some jurisdictions can sentence an offender to a split sentence. A split sentence requires the offender to stay in prison for a short time before being released on probation.
Most criminal justice historians trace the roots of modern probation to John Augustus , who began his professional life as a businessperson and boot maker. Augustus became known as the father of probation largely due to his strong belief in abstinence from alcohol. He was an active member in the Washington Total Abstinence Society, an organization that believed criminals motivated by alcohol could be rehabilitated by human kindness and moral teachings rather than incarceration. His work began in earnest when, in 1841, he showed up in a Boston police court to bail out a "common drunkard." Augustus accompanied the man on his court date three weeks later, and those present were stunned at the change in the man. He was sober and well kempt. For 18 years, he served in the capacity of a probation officer on a purely voluntary basis. Shortly after his death in 1859, a probation statute was passed so that his work could continue under the auspices of the state. With the rise of psychology's influence in the 1920s, probation officers moved from practical help in the field to a more therapeutic model. The pendulum swung back to a more practical bent in the 1960s when probation officers began to act more as service brokers. They assisted probationers with such things as obtaining employment, obtaining housing, managing finances, and getting an education.
Many jurisdictions have several levels of supervision. The most common distinction between levels of probationers is active supervision and inactive supervision . Probationers on active supervision are required to report in with a probation officer at regular intervals. Probationers can be placed on inactive supervision because they committed only minor offenses. Serious offenders can sometimes be placed on inactive supervision when they have completed much of a long probation sentence without problems.
The preferred method of checking in depends on the jurisdiction. Many require in person visits, but some jurisdictions allow phone calls and checking in via mail. Inactive probationers are not required to check in at all or very infrequently. Checking in with an officer is a condition of probation. Other conditions often include participation in treatment programs, paying fines, and not using drugs or alcohol. If these conditions are not followed, the the probationer is said to be a violator . Violators are subject to probation revocation . Revocations often result in a prison sentence, but some violators are given second chances, and some are sentenced to special programs for technical violations . Many jurisdictions classify absconders differently than other violators. An absconder is a probationer (or parolee) that stops reporting and "disappears."
Following the trend of mass incarceration in the United States over the past several decades has been a similar trend in what has been called "mass community supervision." In 1980, about 1.34 million offenders were on probation or parole in the United States. That figure exploded to nearly 5 million by 2012. The Bureau of Justice Statistics (Maruschak & Parks, 2014) provides a look at these numbers from a different vantage point: about 1 in 50 adults in the United States were under community supervision at yearend 2012. The community supervision population includes adults on probation, parole, or any other post-prison supervision.


6.5: Bearing Friction
A bearing is the machine element used to support a rotating shaft. Bearing friction is the friction that exists between the rotating shaft and bearing that is supporting that shaft. Though many types of bearings exist (plain, ball, roller, hydrodynamic), in this course we will only be looking at plain bearings, also sometimes called journal bearings.
A plain bearing consists of a circular shaft fitted into a slightly larger circular hole as shown below. The shaft will usually be rotating and will be exerting some sort of load \((F_{load})\) onto the bearing. The bearing will then be supporting the shaft with some normal force, and a friction force will exist between the bearing surface and the surface of the shaft. Sometimes the rotation of the bearing will cause the shaft to climb up the side of the side of the bearing, causing the angle of the normal and friction forces to change, but this climbing is usually small enough that it is neglected.
If we assume that the climbing in the bearing is negligible, the normal of the bearing on the shaft will be equal and opposite to loading force of the shaft on the bearing. Furthermore, if the shaft is rotating relative to the bearing, then the friction force will be equal to kinetic coefficient of friction times the normal force of the bearing on the shaft.
If the climb angle is assumed to be small, then...
\[ F_{load} = F_N \] \[ F_f = \mu_k * F_N \]
The friction force will then be exerting a moment about the center of the shaft that opposes the rotation of the shaft. Unless some other moment is keeping the shaft spinning, this moment will eventually slow down and stop the rotation in the shaft. The magnitude of this moment will be equal to the magnitude of the friction force times the radius of the shaft.
\[ M_f = r_{shaft} * (\mu_k * F_N) \]
Another important factor to keep in mind is that most bearings are lubricated. This can significantly lower the coefficients of friction (this is actually the main reason for using lubrication in machinery). When performing calculations, it is important to know if the bearing is lubricated and, if so, to use the appropriate friction coefficients.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
A cart and its load weigh a total of 200 lbs. There are two wheels on the cart, each with a diameter of 2 feet and each supporting half of the 200-lb load. The bearing attaching each wheel to the cart is a lubricated steel-on-steel (kinetic coefficient of friction = 0.05) journal bearing, with a shaft one inch in diameter. What is the moment due to friction from each bearing? Assuming there are no other sources of friction, what magnitude must the pulling force have in order to keep the cart moving at a constant speed?
- Solution


7.1: Prelude to Metals and Alloys
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In the chemistry of molecular compounds, we are accustomed to the idea that properties depend strongly on structure. For example we can rationalize the polarity of the water molecule based on its shape. We also know that two molecules with the same composition (e.g., ethanol and dimethyl ether) have very different properties based on the bonding arrangements of atoms. It should come as no surprise that the properties of extended solids are also connected to their structures, and so to understand what they do we should begin with their crystal structures. Most of the metals in the periodic table have relatively simple structures and so this is a good place to begin. We will see in Chapter 8 that the structures of more complex compounds are also in many cases related to the simple structures of metals and alloys.
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Over 2/3 of the elements in the periodic table exist in their pure form as metals. All elemental metals (except the three - Cs, Ga, Hg - that are liquid) are crystalline solids at room temperature, and most have one of three simple crystal structures. |


1.10: I. Glossary
Advanced Practice Nurse (APRN): An RN who has a graduate degree and advanced knowledge. There are four categories of APRNs: certified nurse-midwife (CNM), clinical nurse specialist (CNS), certified nurse practitioner (CNP), or certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA). These nurses can diagnose illnesses and prescribe treatments and medications. [1]
ANA Standards of Professional Nursing Practice: Authoritative statements of the duties that all registered nurses, regardless of role, population, or specialty, are expected to perform competently. The Standards of Professional Nursing Practice describe a competent level of nursing practice as demonstrated by the critical thinking model known as the nursing process. The nursing process includes the components of assessment, diagnosis, outcomes identification, planning, implementation, and evaluation. [2]
ANA Standards of Professional Performance: Standards that describe a competent level of behavior in the professional role of the nurse, including activities related to ethics, advocacy, respectful and equitable practice, communication, collaboration, leadership, education, scholarly inquiry, quality of practice, professional practice evaluation, resource stewardship, and environmental health. [3]
Basic nursing care: Care that can be performed following a defined nursing procedure with minimal modification in which the responses of the patient to the nursing care are predictable. [4]
Board of Nursing: The state-specific licensing and regulatory body that sets the standards for safe nursing care, decides the scope of practice for nurses within its jurisdiction, and issues licenses to qualified candidates.
Chain of command: A hierarchy of reporting relationships in an agency that establishes accountability and lays out lines of authority and decision-making power.
Code of ethics: A code that applies normative, moral guidance for nurses in terms of what they ought to do, be, and seek. A code of ethics makes the primary obligations, values, and ideals of a profession explicit.
Dysphagia: Impaired swallowing.
Ethical principle: An ethical principle is a general guide, basic truth, or assumption that can be used with clinical judgment to determine a course of action. Four common ethical principles are beneficence (do good), nonmaleficence (do no harm), autonomy (control by the individual), and justice (fairness).
Evidence-based practice: A lifelong problem-solving approach that integrates the best evidence from well-designed research studies and evidence-based theories; clinical expertise and evidence from assessment of the health consumer’s history and condition, as well as health care resources; and patient, family, group, community, and population preferences and values. [5]
Expressive aphasia: The impaired ability to form words and speak.
Licensed Practical Nurse/Vocational Nurse (LPN/LVN): An individual who has completed a state-approved practical or vocational nursing program, passed the NCLEX-PN examination, and is licensed by their state Board of Nursing to provide patient care. [6]
Malpractice: A specific term that looks at a standard of care, as well as the professional status of the caregiver. [7]
Morality: Personal values, character, or conduct of individuals within communities and societies. [8]
Negligence: A “general term that denotes conduct lacking in due care, carelessness, and a deviation from the standard of care that a reasonable person would use in a particular set of circumstances.” [9]
Nurse Licensure Compact (NLC): Allows a nurse to have one multistate license with the ability to practice in the home state and other compact states.
Nursing: Nursing integrates the art and science of caring and focused on the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and human functioning; prevention of illness and injury; facilitation of healing; and alleviation of suffering through compassionate presence. Nursing is the diagnosis and treatment of human responses and advocacy in the care of individuals, families, groups, communities, and populations in recognition of the connection of all humanity. [10]
Nurse Practice Act (NPA): Legislation enacted by each state that establishes regulations for nursing practice within that state by defining the requirements for licensure, as well as the scope of nursing practice.
Patient confidentiality: Keeping your patient’s Protected Health Information (PHI) protected and known only by those health care team members directly providing care for the patient.
Primary care: Care that is provided to patients to promote wellness and prevent disease from occurring. This includes health promotion, education, protection (such as immunizations), early disease screening, and environmental considerations.
Protocol: A precise and detailed written plan for a regimen of therapy. [11]
Provider: A physician, podiatrist, dentist, optometrist, or advanced practice nurse provider. [12]
Quality: The degree to which nursing services for health care consumers, families, groups, communities, and populations increase the likelihood of desirable outcomes and are consistent with evolving nursing knowledge.” [13]
Registered Nurse (RN): An individual who has graduated from a state-approved school of nursing, passed the NCLEX-RN examination, and is licensed by a state board of nursing to provide patient care. [14]
Safety culture: A culture established within health care agencies that empowers nurses, nursing students, and other staff members to speak up about risks to patients and to report errors and near misses, all of which drive improvement in patient care and reduce the incident of patient harm.
Scope of practice: Services that a qualified health professional is deemed competent to perform and permitted to undertake – in keeping with the terms of their professional license.
Secondary care: Care that occurs when a person has contracted an illness or injury and is in need of medical care.
Tertiary care: A type of care that deals with the long-term effects from chronic illness or condition, with the purpose to restore physical and mental function that may have been lost. The goal is to achieve the highest level of functioning possible with this chronic illness.
Unlicensed Assistive Personnel: Any unlicensed person, regardless of title, who performs tasks delegated by a nurse. This includes certified nursing aides/assistants (CNAs), patient care assistants (PCAs), patient care technicians (PCTs), state tested nursing assistants (STNAs), nursing assistants-registered (NA/Rs) or certified medication aides/assistants (MA-Cs). Certification of UAPs varies between jurisdictions. [15]
- NCSBN. https://www.ncsbn.org/index.htm ↵
- American Nurses Association. (2021). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (4th ed.). American Nurses Association. ↵
- American Nurses Association. (2021). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (4th ed.). American Nurses Association. ↵
- Wisconsin Administrative Code. (2018). Chapter N 6 standards of practice for registered nurses and licensed practical nurses. https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/code/admin_code/n/6.pdf ↵
- American Nurses Association. (2021). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (4th ed.). American Nurses Association. ↵
- NCSBN. https://www.ncsbn.org/index.htm ↵
- Missouri Department of Health & Senior Services. (n.d.). Negligence and malpractice . https://health.mo.gov/living/lpha/phnursing/negligence.php#:~:text=Negligence%20is%3A,a%20particular%20set%20of%20circumstances. ↵
- American Nurses Association. (2015). Code of ethics for nurses with interpretive statements . American Nurses Association. https://www.nursingworld.org/practice-policy/nursing-excellence/ethics/code-of-ethics-for-nurses/coe-view-only/ ↵
- Missouri Department of Health & Senior Services. (n.d.). Negligence and malpractice. https://health.mo.gov/living/lpha/phnursing/negligence.php#:~:text=Negligence%20is%3A,a%20particular%20set%20of%20circumstances . ↵
- American Nurses Association. (2021). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (4th ed.). American Nurses Association. ↵
- Wisconsin Administrative Code. (2018). Chapter N 6 standards of practice for registered nurses and licensed practical nurses . https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/code/admin_code/n/6.pdf ↵
- Wisconsin Administrative Code. (2018). Chapter N 6 standards of practice for registered nurses and licensed practical nurses . https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/code/admin_code/n/6.pdf ↵
- American Nurses Association. (2021). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (4th ed.). American Nurses Association. ↵
- NCSBN. https://www.ncsbn.org/index.htm ↵
- NCSBN. https://www.ncsbn.org/index.htm ↵