12.1: Globalization and Migration
Globalization
A general definition of globalization is the process of melding smaller collectives into a larger collective. The belief is that the phenomena of globalization started with the first humans. Contemporary globalization is fueled by the increase in technology, especially concerning communications and transportation. Scholars in political science, economics, linguistics, anthropology, geography, law, art, and film studies have all helped to define the term. Many have identified techno-economic globalization as the beginning of other forms of globalization, such as transnational cultural exchange.[1]
The focus is not only toward individual nations, but also the entire globe. Therefore, a better definition would emphasize that contemporary globalization is a complex and synergistic which process includes improvements in technology combined with the deregulation of markets and open borders in order to bring an increased stream of people, money, goods, services, and information. Globalization promotes convergence, harmonization, efficiency, growth, and in some cases, democratization and homogenization.[2] It should be noted, however, that globalization has historically and currently caused extreme negative and destructive outcomes on certain people. This is especially true when contact is between industrialized mass consumption societies, and foraging or horticultural groups.
Various Levels of Globalization
Economic historian Immanuel Wallerstein developed the world systems theory which proposes an economic system in which some countries benefit from the exploitation of others for labor and raw materials. The theory also established three hierarchical levels which are: "core", "periphery", and "semi periphery". Wallerstein identified core countries as having a dominant capital, extensive military, and high skill levels, whereas periphery countries are weak states and rely heavily on the core countries to supplement their economy. Semi-periphery countries are characterized by having their own functioning economy, but still utilizes both core and periphery countries for labor and the production of raw materials.Therefore these three levels emphasize the global inequality of the world market.
An example of the first core region was located in Northwestern Europe, including England, Holland, and France. In contrast the United States is a more contemporary example of a core country, due to its intensive capital, high labor, and innovative technology. Although the technology industry in India continues to flourish, they are considered a semi-peripheral because they still dependent on foreign investors for capital and other raw materials.
World system theories relating to globalization : Large corporations, from "core" countries, will frequently look to place factories and manufacturing plants in countries with the least stringent environmental and labor standards (semi-peripheral/peripheral countries), which they can succeed in because of a lack of transnational labor regulations. Countries in the developing world will then compete for the business of the companies, often by lowering labor standards such as minimum wages. As a result, working conditions for these employees are abusive and unreasonable, yet the government pays no heed to resolve these situation.[1]
Transnational corporations search out labor in impoverished countries like India, Bangladesh, and Vietnam, using mostly young women laborers as a means of production. These workers will work an average of 14 hours a day for "sub-poverty wages under horrific conditions." [2] Due to a lack of proper supervisions, workers are allowed to work in dehumanizing and unsafe environments.
Globalization aiding an indigenous group : The Kayapó: people are the Gê-speaking native peoples of the plain lands of the Mato Grosso and Para in Brazil, South of the Amazon Basin and along Rio Xingu and its tributaries. The Kayapó are nomadic people who still live in the rain forests using a sustainable slash-and-burn horticulture mode of production. Using global media and international attention, they have established political power over their own land. At one time, mining and logging threatened to destroy the rain forest, and their culture. However, the Kayapó people used forceful tactics to banish loggers and miners in some areas, as well as establishing themselves as an economic force. Later, they were again threatened by secretive government plans to build a series of hydro-electric dams on their land. But, a large demonstration was created by the Kayapós which caught the attention of the media world-wide. Including the hit rock band, including Sting, who made an appearance. The demonstration at the site for the first dam in Altamira, Pará, lasted several days and brought much pressure upon both the World Bank and the Brazilian government. Consequently, the World Bank denied the request for a loan which was to be used to build the dam and the Brazilian government backed out of its original plans. Also, the Kayapós had friendly relations with The Body Shoppe, who were able to supply the chain with the Brazil nut oil used in their best-selling line of hair conditioners.[3]
Globalization not aiding an indigenous group : A concise historical example of the negative effects of globalization is the European colonization of the Americas in the 15 th and 16 th centuries. When the Europeans immigrated to the Americas, they brought European diseases to which the native populations had no natural immunity. This paired with technological superiority in military weapons and tactics, caused the extermination of roughly 90% of the natives.[4] Globalization has also harmed many cultures that are exploited by big businesses from other countries - for example, the bad working conditions of sweatshop laborers in China is more common place due to the globalization of Chinese-made western products. Workers are over-worked in dangerous conditions, starting around the tender age of sixteen. Due to the dangerous machinery, around 40,000 workers lose their fingers every year. Furthermore, they are also being exposed to dangerous chemicals, and as a result the United States and other western civilizations won't buy the product due to exposure to these chemicals. Aside from the dangerous working conditions, sweatshops in China are also known to pay their workers less than minimum wage while overworking them on an average of sixteen hours per day.[5]
Globalization's Effects on the Modes of Production
- Agricultural : globalization affects agriculture as through agriculture, food may be grown or raised in a surplus and exported around the world. Drugs which can be both legal and illegal, are also sent around the world. One factor of how agriculture affects globalization is trade liberalization thus, the removal of restrictions on the free exchange of goods between nations. For example, small farmers in the Philippines are unable to compete with the prices of the global market controlled by countries with more advanced agricultural technologies. "Whether you look at corn, vegetables, or poultry-major sectors of the agriculture economy have been devastated by imports." [3]
- Foraging : societies that practice this mode of production have been impacted by globalization through an increased contact with individuals from various cultures around the globe. This process of interconnection often involves a severe reduction in the available territory to support the foraging lifestyle. Foraging can only support smaller, less dense populations of people when compared to other modes of production.
- Horticulture : is affected by globalization much in the same manner as foraging. The horticultural society depends on the practices of migratory slash and burns farming as well as hunting and gathering. As globalization continues, the amount of available land to produce food in this manner becomes more and more barren.
- Industrialism : is affected by globalization because many cultural aspects are spread by industrialism, especially through technological means, which is one of the most efficient modes of communication and exchange. This process has changed the structure of most developed societies and had greatly impacted the success of capitalism.
- Pastoralism : is affected by globalization because the animals herded, raised and butchered in this mode of production can be exported out of their original region. Having important things in common, such as food can further ‘the process of integrating nations and peoples’. Furthermore, the wool sheared from sheep can be used in the international textiles industry. Materials from one can be made into clothing that can be sold in an abundance of locations around the world.
Tourism & Its Impacts
Tourists are defined as people who stay in locations that are outside of their normal environment without intent to settle there. They travel to new places for recreational or leisure purposes. Many nations, such as Greece, Thailand, and The Bahamas heavily depend on the revenue created through global tourism. Employment in these areas is heavily reliant on associated areas of work (i.e. hotels, and transportation services like cruise ships and taxis.)
There are three classifications for locations of tourism:
- Domestic Tourism : residents of a certain country who travel within their country. (i.e. an American living in California visits New York)
- Inbound Tourism : non-residents who travel within the borders of a given country. (i.e. an Australian tourist visit a Chinese resident)
- Outbound Tourism : residents of one country who travel within another country (i.e. a Canadian resident visits Greece)
Additionally, there are five types of tourism:[6]
- Ethnic tourism : visits to see native people from a very foreign/ different environment (i.e. travelling to Nahua Indians and their local and national governments) [7]
Some activities includes performance, presentations and attractions relating to and that are important to that specific culture.
- Cultural tourism : visits to experience other cultures on a general level (i.e. travelling to New Orleans, Louisiana for Mardi Gras)
- Historical tourism : visits historical sites or monuments (i.e. travelling to Paris to see the Eiffel Tower or traveling to Rome to see the Colosseum).
- Environmental tourism : visits to experience a completely different environment than the traveler is accustomed to in their home country (i.e. traveling to Antarctica). This also includes going to a national park that is preserved for environmental sight seeing by the National Park Service (i.e. traveling to Yellowstone or Yosemite)[8]
- Recreational tourism : visits to partake in activities unique to the destination (i.e. traveling to Pamplona, Spain to see the Running of the Bulls).
tourists are a country by an attraction within that nation. Some of the most popular international tourist attractions include the Eiffel Tower in Paris, Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy and the Great Wall in China. The Great Wall of China draws about 10 million visitors per year. Other cultural aspects, such as tasting the cuisine, experiencing traditional events, or learning the language, may also attract tourists. Throughout history, people with an elevated level of affluence have had great travelling. Wealthier people have both the money and the time needed to visit other areas, whereas people in lower classes do not have this opportunity. This influx of wealth to one area from another can be very beneficial to the region that attracts tourists.
Tourism is largely beneficial to the worldwide economy, but there are also risks associated with it for both the tourists and country being toured. For tourists, issues such as security and health are present whenever they are in a country different than their own. In some cases, cruise ships have dealt with outbreaks of contagious diseases. There are a variety of things that can happen to countries who rely on tourism as their main source of economic income, there are many negative impacts of tourism. These includes but not limited to:
Natural disasters such as , Hurricane Katrina which kept many people from visiting New Orleans, due to the natural occurrence.
Terrorism , after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, many people were reluctant to visit New York.
If economies could help themselves without relying solely on tourism, then a constant state of flux within their countries could be avoided.[9] However, tourism can also bring about the abuse of human rights in industries such as Sex Tourism, which is when tourists chose their vacation location(s) based on the lack of restrictions on sexual activities, as well as lasting Environmental Degradation. Such problems have become increasingly frequent with the rise of tourism as a global phenomenon. All around the world, popular tourist destinations face problems due to pollution caused by mass tourist migrations, showing tourism has being responsible for roughly five percent of the world’s pollution. The Caribbeans alone, a popular destination for cruises, contains half of the waste dumped in the world’s oceans; this is due in large part to massive cruise ships and extensive beach side resorts dominating many of the island's coastlines.
Consumer Culture
Marxian and neo-Marxian theory lead to the view that "one of the major driving forces behind globalization is the corporate need in capitalism to show increasing profitability through more, and more far-reaching, economic imperialism… enhancing profitability by increasing cultural hegemony nationally and ultimately throughout the world.” 1 Economic imperialism describes when a country has more monetary control over another nation than it should, affecting more than economic aspects of the nation. Once organizations have economically dominated their own nation, a culturally driven need to expand outward to other nations occurs. Mostly driven by American corporations, industries continue to expand by the exportation and exploitation of other countries.  Thus a global market and consumer culture has emerged and flourished. Companies like Wal-Mart, Disney, McDonald's and Visa MasterCard all spend enormous amounts of time and resources to entice customers with a desire for freedom, lower prices or a quality experience. In turn, this caused all people to consume in similar ways. The market culture is bought by consumers as a way of life, and poses underlying assumptions that money and products buy us a better life, and corporations are designed to make consumers always feel dissatisfied with what they have and ready to buy more, and is therefore able to reproduce and sustain itself.
This widespread sense of a consumer culture has not always existed; it is largely an outcome of America's wealth and status as a results of World War II. Corporations were at the height of their manufacturing capacity after the war and made a fortune funding the military/industrial complex. They stood to make an even more considerable amount of money if this monumental demand for products could be sustained. This demand was created by impressing Americans, and soon after, people around the world, the association between acquiring material goods with increased social standing. Since corporations also control the means through which we view the world, i.e. the media, they could easily make this consumerist mindset a habit in society.
As a result, the world of consumption affects an increasing number of people who relocate to work for their business, concentrate in cities and consume which creates waste while using energy and resources. Consequences of “Americanization” as concluded by critics are the irreversible impacts on the strength of cultural diversity, as well as the environmental sustainability of our planet.
1
Ritzer, George. "The Globalization of Nothing 2" (2007)
2
http
://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/05/02/eveningnews/main692495.shtml
Cultural Imperialism vs. Cultural Hybridization
To understand the spread of culture, ideologies, and lifestyles around the world, anthropologists have developed the theories of cultural imperialism and cultural hybridization. Cultural imperialism states that some cultures dominate, and eventually replace, other cultures through formal policies or general cultural change. This became a popular way to understand the spread of Western culture to the rest of the world. However, understanding the spread of culture is not easy to fully identify and analyze. Below are some of the most important arguments anthropologists keep in mind when considering the impact of Western cultures on other societies.
- First, cultural imperialism assumes that non-Western peoples are powerless against the spread of Western culture. In fact, every individual has agency or the power to fight against their situation.
- Second, it implies that Western culture never changes. Culture evolves with the times, but it is the reason that cultures change that created the term of cultural imperialism.
- Third, it ignores cultural trends that occur around the world completely outside of "the West." Not every change is as a result of Western culture, the spread of culture has increased dramatically due to recent globalization.
Because of these flaws, anthropologists developed a different explanation called, cultural hybridity. This new understanding states that cultures don't just blindly adopt dominant cultural traits, but rather borrow some parts of the different culture that compliment or contribute to their own. Another term used to define this method is cultural creolization. This perspective focuses on the creativity and motivation involved in hybridization. Rather than culture-change being explained as the accidental domination of one culture over another, it shows how native people purposefully adopt and domesticate foreign ideas.
Cosmopolitanism
Cosmopolitanism is a concept that was first used by the Stoic philosophers in ancient Rome. Cosmopolitanism can be thought of as being comfortable in more than one cultural setting and being able to handle multiple perspectives or new ways of thinking. In the Stoic sense, cosmopolitanism means that every human being, “dwells […] in two communities – the local community of our birth, and the community of human argument and aspiration”. [10] During the Enlightenment, Eighteenth century philosopher Immanuel Kant revisited the term and defined it as being versed in Western ways, promoting a kind of “First World” culture. Cultural anthropologists use the term today to include alternatives to this elite Western culture.
The word ‘cosmopolitan’ has been used to describe a wide variety of important views in moral and socio-political philosophy. The nebulous core shared by all cosmopolitan views is the idea that all human beings, regardless of their political affiliation, are (or can and should be) citizens in a single community. Different versions of cosmopolitanism envision this community in different ways, some focusing on political institutions, others on moral norms or relationships, and still others focusing on shared markets or forms of cultural expression. One specific form of cosmopolitanism is economic cosmopolitanism, which is centered around a global free trade market with minimal politics. Economic cosmopolitanism itself isn't universally deemed to be a viable option, as there would potentially be numerous wide-scale issues, such as inequality of wealth, poverty, and as a side effect of capitalism, natural/environmental dangers.
Migration
Human migration refers to any movement of humans from one area to another. This can occur over any distance and in various group sizes. It is now more common for families to migrate together in response to economic and social needs.
One prominent example of migration was the Holocaust[4] in World War II. The genocide that was inflicted upon people of Jewish descent and religion in Europe at the time reflected the necessity for Jewish people to migrate. The Holocaust that occurred in Europe is an example of forced migration for people of Jewish descent or religion because of the threat of death of not moving away from Hitler's forces. Jewish people across Europe were forced out of their homes. Some were taken to concentration camps while others fled to other countries because of the fear of death and enslavement. Approximately 6 million Jewish people were accounted for during this period, and millions more fled. As a result of the United Nations Partition Plan [5] for Palestine, many people migrated to the British Mandate of Palestine, which is now modern day Israel.
Another example would be during the Chinese Civil War, the Kuomintang (KMT), led by Chiang Kai-shek, escaped from China and fled with the ROC government from Nanjing to Taihoku (Taipei), Taiwan's largest city, along with some 2 million refugees from China, consisting mainly soldiers, KMT party members and some most important intellectual and business elites.[6] Not forgetting the Trail of Tears, one of the famous migrating in history. When Native Americans were forcedly removed from their ancestral homelands into the Southeastern part of the United State area west of the Mississippi River. Migrants suffered from diseases, starvation and over four thousand people died.
Different Types of Migration
Internal Migration
Internal migration is the movement of people from one part of a country to another. Moving is a long, difficult process. In order for individuals or families to move, there needs to be a proper incentive as well as the promise of economic opportunities in the new place they are moving to. Their quality of life is typically thought to be improved in order to justify the move. Reasons for internal migration are varied but may include economic hardship, force, religious persecution, occupational changes, or any combination therein.
An example from American history is the Westward Movement. Due to the possibility of economic gain and more space to settle, Americans from the East Coast migrated along the Oregon Trail to the unsettled land closer to the west coast of North America. It was believed that western United States had a near infinite amount of space, and so there would be room for anyone who wanted to settle in Washington, Oregon, and California to have a large farm of his own. Some minority groups, such as the Shakers and the Mormons, moved in hopes of settling in communities of their own, free from persecution because of their religious ideals.
Citations:
"westward movement." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09 Mar. 2009 <
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/641224/westward-movement
>.
International Migration
One of the most common types of migration is international migration, where people cross international state boundaries to another continent or country. This type of migration can be both long and short term. In some cases, people stay in the new country for a short period of time. There are also many people who migrate permanently and work in order to bring their families to their new destinations. (Requirement 2a)
An example of long-term International Migration is the immigration of Latin American Hispanic citizens to the United States in order to find work to provide for their family. Anthropologist Eugenia Georges studied this occurrence in immigration of people from Los Pinos to the United States. In most households, the husband would migrate and work until they could bring their family to America; “This sometimes took several years because it involved completing paperwork for the visa and saving money beyond the amount regularly sent to Los Pinos.” Some families, however, preferred to stay in Los Pinos after getting their feet moving, but returned to the States for a month or more annually in order to keep their visa. (Requirement 2b)
Schultz, Emily, and Robert Lavenda. Cultural Anthropology. New York: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, 2009. - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_migration
Different Types of Migrants
Labor Migrants
Labor Migrants are workers who move from region to region in order to find work. Labor migrant workers focus on jobs that are the most plentiful depending on the time of year or season, in other words, migrant workers are primarily seasonal workers (1). The United Nations defines a migrant worker as anyone working outside of their country of origin. The definition of migrant workers is different for all parts of the world but is usually considered someone who moves looking for seasonal work. <(1)ref: http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/migrant_labor.aspx >
An example of labor migrants from Washington is in Pasco. The drop out rates of the school are largely influenced by seasonal migrant workers. When the crops need to be harvested workers move to Pasco and bring their families with them. Then when they leave the students drop out of school instead of transferring. It is believed that some of the workers are illegal immigrants and this puts a lot of strain on the school system to support the students. Although so many Hispanic students may make classes, larger immigration also leads to an exchange of cultural values. It results in an exchange of knowledge and expertise between two nations. Immigration serves as an opportunity to interact with people of other countries. It gives a platform for people from diverse backgrounds to come together and share their views. [11]
Refugees
Refugees are migrants forced to abandon their country due to the threat of violence or disaster.  Though refugees leave their home nations, the majority remain in the region of origin. For example, Syria received approximately 1.4 million refugees from Iraq. Iran and Pakistan have received a great number of Afghan refugees, as well. Of the Western nations, Germany and the United States host the majority of refugees. In the 1951 Refugee Convention [7], states that signed the document became legally committed to protect the rights of refugees who arrive in their country. The convention also enforces the principle of nonrefoulement, which prohibits the deportation of refugees to places where their lives or freedoms could be in danger.
Today millions of Iraqi refugees have fled their homes for safer locations within Iraq or to neighboring countries, and many Iraqi refugees have been displaced, which is the forceful/unwilling removal of people from their place of living, either directly or indirectly. Five years into the United States military intervention in Iraq, the country is facing the largest humanitarian and displacement crises in the world. There are approximately 1.5 million Iraqi refugees living in Syria, Jordan and other neighboring countries. Some Iraqis who have tried to return to their homes have found them either destroyed or occupied. The likelihood of violence in areas of Iraq is still high and these refugees are living in increasingly desperate circumstances.[8]
Internally Displaced Persons
As defined by the United Nations, internally displaced persons are persons or groups of people who have been forced or pressured to leave their places of residence, generally to avoid armed conflict, generalized violence, violations of human rights and natural or human-made disasters. Unlike refugees however, they do not cross any internationally recognized state borders. The aid and assistance of IDP's is extremely difficult. This is because in international law, it is the responsibility of the government of the state that the people are within to provide assistance and protection. However, many are displaced as a result of civil conflict or violence in states where the authority of the central government has been undoubtedly undermined. So it is unlikely that the countries involved are capable or willing to help these IDP's. There is also the issue that, unlike refugees, a binding legal international legal regime on internal displacement is absent. The Guiding Principles of Internal Displacement was drawn up by the United Nations in 1994 but it is not binding, leaving these people unprotected unless individual organizations such as United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [9] or the International Committee of the Red Cross [10] elect to provide assistance.
Although it is nearly impossible to accurately record how many IDP's there are in a given country, it is estimated that Sudan is at the top of the list with around 6 million IDP's. This country has been experiencing a civil war for over 25 years and in 2005 things worsened when neighboring country Chad attacked. The Sudanese government itself is incapable and unwilling to help its citizens and has been charged with crimes against humanity. The government's militia, as well as the rebel groups it is fighting, are both accused of killing innocent civilians and humanitarians. Although programs have been put in effect to relocate the IDP's, they are being reintegrated in small numbers and it is clear that this country has a long way to go. The lack of housing and employment as well as the destruction of schools, health facilities, and water sources due to the civil war are all huge barriers to progress.
"Sudan-Internally Displaced Persons in Khartoum" . Retrieved 2009-03-4.
Institutional Migrants
Institutional migrants are migrants with cultural practices and social lives, keeping some of their former country and traditions with them. These can be internally displaced persons, as well as labor migrants and people from other countries. These peoples would be classified under anthropologists Richard Wilk and Lisa Cligget's economic "camp" of the social model of human nature. This suggests that the person is motivated, at least in part, to improve the condition of the whole society that they belong to, rather than just their own standing. [11] Institutional migrants follow societal rules and regulations of power and tradition in the economic field. When people see themselves as a part of a group, they put effort into improving that group.
Institutional migrants are seen throughout our own United States today. Many of these migrants are from out of the country, though some people who move around within the United States for work could be classified as such. The huge numbers of these migrants have helped give the U.S. its "melting pot" nature. They travel here for work, or a variety of other reasons, and bring with them their cultural ideas, social systems, and often their families. This is usually accepted by people who were already citizens, as long as the new migrants take in some American culture as well. An example of institutional migrants within our country could be truck drivers or families/workers moving around the country according to agricultural seasons. These people are working around the country, but usually have a home (family) that they return to at least once a year. Their ties are kept strong even though they migrate.
Theories of Migration
In Adams Smith's concept of the Invisible hand, he described the reality of economy where people act in their own interest. People who seek wealth mostly follow their own interest and well-being. Based on neoclassical economics theory, capital moves from high wage countries to low wage countries. Conversely, flows of labor move from low-wage countries to high wage countries. People in poor countries are willing to work for low wages, so factories are built in these places to cut costs. Migration is affected primarily by either push factors or pull factors. The push factor is where there is a lack of jobs, political fear, or the threat of natural disaster which forces people to move from their country of origin whereas the pull factor is when people are attracted by the several job opportunities with higher pay and better living conditions.
Companies such as Nike build sweatshops in poor countries such as in Vietnam in order to cut costs of labor, while effectively increasing their net revenue. Nike has about four times as many workers in Vietnam as in the U.S. An article by Johan Norberg, mentions that people in Vietnam like their new jobs because not only do they receive better pay, but also they do not have to work in the sun. 1
1 http ://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3724/is_200306/ai_n9251504
Diaspora
The term diaspora refers to the forced or voluntary movement of any population sharing a common ethnic identity who leave their settled territory and become residents in new areas disconnected from their former home. This is converse to the traditional nomadic culture. Evidence of a diaspora culture is the community's resistance to primary language change and the maintenance of their religious and cultural practices. Some examples of this include Tibetan monks living in Nepal, India since the Chinese invasion of Tibet, ethnic Koreans living in Japan ( Zainichi Kankoku jin ), as well as the large populations of Hong Kong people living in Vancouver, London, Sydney, Singapore, New York and Los Angeles.
Jewish Diaspora
Jewish Diaspora began when the Assyrian conquered Israel in 722 BC and the Hebrew people were scattered all over the Middle East. These victims seemed to always be ignored in history books. When Nebuchadnezzar [12] deported Judeans in 597 BC, he allowed Jews to remain in Babylon, while others fled to the Nile. This was considered the beginning date of Jewish Diaspora. There were now three groups of Hebrews. Some were in Babylon, Judea, Egypt, and other spread around the Middle East. All of these Jews retained their religion under the Persian and Greek law. Some converted to different religions but were faithful to the new-found Torah. The Romans discriminated against the Jews. Governors wanted to get as much money revenue as possible and took any money they could get. The Judeans revolted and in 73 AD the last of revolutionaries were holed up in the mountain fort of Masada. 1,000 men, women, and children starved in the besiegement for two years. Rather than surrender to the Romans, the remaining people in the mountain killed themselves. The Romans destroyed Jerusalem, annexed Judea, and drove Jews from Palestine. The Diaspora would continue as Jewish people spread over Africa, Asia, and Europe.
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Diaspora.html
Armenian Diaspora
The Armenian diaspora is a term used to describe the groups or communities of Armenians living outside of Armenia and the Nagorno-Karabakh region of northern Azerbaijan. It mostly refers to the migration of Armenians during and after the Armenian Genocide, where 1.5 million Armenians were exterminated.
The Armenian diaspora has existed since the loss of Armenian statehood in 1375, it grew considerably in size after the Armenian Genocide. Most Armenians stayed on the Armenian plain remaining in historical Armenia under control of the Ottoman Empire. Armenians survived as peasant farmers in rural Anatolia, but others mostly merchants resettled in the major Ottoman cities such as Constantinople, Smyrna, and Tarsus. Through upward social mobility, they were able to gain wealth and status even as a non-Islamic minority. This changed when in the mid to late nineteenth century, the change political climate in the Ottoman Empire prompted political paranoia. Fears of uprising revolts and coup left the Ottoman's looking for a scape goat. They found this in the Ottoman-Armenian population. The Young Turk government in an attempt to solidify their power massacred or forcibly removed the vast majority of Armenians from the eastern Anatolian provinces to the South West during the Armenian Genocide.
Today estimates range from half to two-thirds of the world's Armenians live outside of historical Armenia.[13] Armenian communities have emerged all over the world with the largest communities existing in Jordan, Egypt, Syria, Russia, Poland, Western Europe, India, and North America. Of the total Armenian population living worldwide estimated to be 9,000,000, only about 3,000,000 live in Armenia and about 130,000 in Nagorno-Karabakh. [14] The rest of the populations appear to be equally dispersed around the world with approximately two million living in former Soviet states.[15] The post-communist Republic of Armenia has officially defined the Armenian nation to include the far-flung diaspora, a policy in accord with the feelings of many diaspora Armenians. Armenia officially considers all of the displaced Armenians to be part of Armenia. In 2008 Armenia created a Diaspora Ministry to strengthen ties with the Armenian Diaspora.
Long-Distance Nationalism
Long-Distance Nationalism came about when members of a diaspora would decide to support their homelands’ struggles. The immigrants being citizens of a state different than their homeland have been known to show little citizenship participation towards their homelands. However, they normally feel more of an attachment to their homelands than to where they currently live, which then leads them to support the struggles in their homeland. They tend to participate in the current conflicts of their homelands by propaganda, money, and weapons, anyway besides voting. An example of this is "the Haitian Diaspora", which was when thousands of Haitians migrated outside of their territory. Later these citizens began to act more like trans-border citizens.[12]
Trans-border states
Immigrants who are members of Long-Distance Nationalism are also known as Trans-border states. They are people who are citizens of another state but claim that even though they have left the country, their descendants remain part of their ancestral state. Therefore, they still have the right to participate in homeland struggles for they are expected to return home bringing with them new skills to help build their nation. In many nations trans-border states are permitted the right to vote in their country of origin. In the Dominican Republic emigrants that have become citizens of other countries are expected to vote in the Dominican elections. People of Trans–border States have the right to participate in decisions that will ultimately affect them, no matter where their decisions are made.
Long Distance Nationalism has outgrown its definition and is now known as Trans-border states with the only difference between the two being that the citizens show more loyalty towards their homeland. Citizens of another state who claim that even though they have left their homeland country, their descendants remain part of their ancestral state are citizens involved in Trans-border states. They want the right to participate in their homeland struggles for they are expected to return home bringing with them skills to help build their nation. In many nations people involved in Trans-border states are permitted the right to vote in their country of origin. In the Dominican Republic emigrants that have become citizens of other countries are expected to vote in the Dominican elections. People of Trans-border states have the right to participate in decisions that will ultimately affect them, no matter where their decisions are made. The reason the Trans-border States has become more easily carried out on a global scale is because advances in communication and transportation have increase in size allowing the ability for more of an impact in their homeland. The Trans-border States are able to remain in the national struggles of their homeland more than ever before. In Mexico and the Philippines, it can be vital for emigrants to attribute to Long-Distance Nationalism by remitting money to sustain their families and communities. People seemed to feel attached to their homes, especially if they haven't adapted to their new ones. It is encouraged in Mexico for emigrants to participate in homeland politics. Although it is encouraged in Mexico it is also discouraged in many other countries, such as the United States soon after the terrorist attacks of 9/11. After September 11, dual loyalties began to be re-examined and the USA took precautions with countries that had Long-Distance Nationalism inside the US.


3.3: Heat Transfer
This section describes irreversible and reversible heat transfer. Keep in mind that when this e-book refers to heat transfer or heat flow , energy is being transferred across the boundary on account of a temperature gradient at the boundary. The transfer is always in the direction of decreasing temperature.
We may sometimes wish to treat the temperature as if it is discontinuous at the boundary, with different values on either side. The transfer of energy is then from the warmer side to the cooler side. The temperature is not actually discontinuous; instead there is a thin zone with a temperature gradient.
3.3.1 Heating and cooling
As an illustration of irreversible heat transfer, consider a system that is a solid metal sphere. This spherical body is immersed in a well-stirred water bath whose temperature we can control. The bath and the metal sphere are initially equilibrated at temperature \(T_1=300.0\K\), and we wish to raise the temperature of the sphere by one kelvin to a final uniform temperature \(T_2=301.0\K\).
One way to do this is to rapidly increase the external bath temperature to \(301.0\K\) and keep it at that temperature. The temperature difference across the surface of the immersed sphere then causes a spontaneous flow of heat through the system boundary into the sphere. It takes time for all parts of the sphere to reach the higher temperature, so a temporary internal temperature gradient is established. Thermal energy flows spontaneously from the higher temperature at the boundary to the lower temperature in the interior. Eventually the temperature in the sphere becomes uniform and equal to the bath temperature of \(301.0\K\).
Figure 3.3(a) graphically depicts temperatures within the sphere at different times during the heating process. Note the temperature gradient in the intermediate states. Because of the gradient, these states cannot be characterized by a single value of the temperature. If we were to suddenly isolate the system (the sphere) with a thermally-insulated jacket while it is in one of these states, the state would change as the temperature gradient rapidly disappears. Thus, the intermediate states of the spontaneous heating process are not equilibrium states, and the rapid heating process is not reversible.
To make the intermediate states more nearly uniform in temperature, with smaller temperature gradients, we can raise the temperature of the bath at a slower rate. The sequence of states approached in the limit of infinite slowness is indicated in Fig. 3.3(b). In each intermediate state of this limiting sequence, the temperature is perfectly uniform throughout the sphere and is equal to the external bath temperature. That is, each state has thermal equilibrium both internally and with respect to the surroundings. A single temperature now suffices to define the state at each instant. Each state is an equilibrium state because it would have no tendency to change if we isolated the system with thermal insulation. This limiting sequence of states is a reversible heating process.
The reverse of the reversible heating process is a reversible cooling process in which the temperature is again uniform in each state. The sequence of states of this reverse process is the limit of the spontaneous cooling process depicted in Fig. 3.3(c) as we decrease the bath temperature more and more slowly.
In any real heating process occurring at a finite rate, the sphere’s temperature could not be perfectly uniform in intermediate states. If we raise the bath temperature very slowly, however, the temperature in all parts of the sphere will be very close to that of the bath. At any point in this very slow heating process, it would then take only a small decrease in the bath temperature to start a cooling process; that is, the practically-reversible heating process would be reversed.
The important thing to note about the temperature gradients shown in Fig. 3.3(c) for the spontaneous cooling process is that none resemble the gradients in Fig. 3.3(a) for the spontaneous heating process—the gradients are in opposite directions. It is physically impossible for the sequence of states of either process to occur in the reverse chronological order, for that would have thermal energy flowing in the wrong direction along the temperature gradient. These considerations show that a spontaneous heat transfer is irreversible. Only in the reversible limits do the heating and cooling processes have the same intermediate states; these states have no temperature gradients.
Although the spontaneous heating and cooling processes are irreversible, the energy transferred into the system during heating can be fully recovered as energy transferred back to the surroundings during cooling, provided there is no irreversible work. This recoverability of irreversible heat is in distinct contrast to the behavior of irreversible work.
3.3.2 Spontaneous phase transitions
Consider a different kind of system, one consisting of the liquid and solid phases of a pure substance. At a given pressure, this kind of system can be in transfer equilibrium at only one temperature: for example, water and ice at \(1.01\br\) and \(273.15\K\). Suppose the system is initially at this pressure and temperature. Heat transfer into the system will then cause a phase transition from solid to liquid (Sec. 2.2.2). We can carry out the heat transfer by placing the system in thermal contact with an external water bath at a higher temperature than the equilibrium temperature, which will cause a temperature gradient in the system and the melting of an amount of solid proportional to the quantity of energy transferred.
The closer the external temperature is to the equilibrium temperature, the smaller are the temperature gradients and the closer are the states of the system to equilibrium states. In the limit as the temperature difference approaches zero, the system passes through a sequence of equilibrium states in which the temperature is uniform and constant, energy is transferred into the system by heat, and the substance is transformed from solid to liquid. This idealized process is an equilibrium phase transition, and it is a reversible process.


4.1: An Overview of R Graphics
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Reduced to its simplest form, you can think of an R graphic as being much like a painting. You start out with an empty canvas. Every time you use a graphics function, it paints some new things onto your canvas.  If you make a mistake, you have to throw away your painting and start over. Fortunately, this is way more easy to do when using R than it is when painting a picture in real life: you delete the plot and then type a new set of commands. 88 This way of thinking about drawing graphs is referred to as the painter’s model . So far, this probably doesn’t sound particularly complicated, and for the vast majority of graphs you’ll want to draw it’s exactly as simple as it sounds. Much like painting in real life, the headaches usually start when we dig into details. To see why, I’ll expand this “painting metaphor” a bit further just to show you the basics of what’s going on under the hood, but before I do I want to stress that you really don’t need to understand all these complexities in order to draw graphs. I’d been using R for years before I even realised that most of these issues existed! However, I don’t want you to go through the same pain I went through every time I inadvertently discovered one of these things, so here’s a quick overview.
Firstly, if you want to paint a picture, you need to paint it
on
something. In real life, you can paint on lots of different things. Painting onto canvas isn’t the same as painting onto paper, and neither one is the same as painting on a wall. In R, the thing that you paint your graphic onto is called a
device
. For most applications that we’ll look at in this book, this “device” will be a window on your computer. If you’re using Windows as your operating system, then the name for this device is
windows
; on a Mac it’s called
quartz
because that’s the name of the software that the Mac OS uses to draw pretty pictures; and on Linux/Unix, you’re probably using
X11
. On the other hand, if you’re using Rstudio (regardless of which operating system you’re on), there’s a separate device called
RStudioGD
that forces R to paint inside the “plots” panel in Rstudio. However, from the computers perspective there’s nothing terribly special about drawing pictures on screen: and so R is quite happy to paint pictures directly into a file. R can paint several different types of image files:
jpeg
,
png
,
pdf
,
postscript
,
tiff
and
bmp
files are all among the options that you have available to you. For the most part, these different devices all behave the same way, so you don’t really need to know much about the differences between them when learning how to draw pictures. But, just like real life painting, sometimes the specifics do matter. Unless stated otherwise, you can assume that I’m drawing a picture on screen, using the appropriate device (i.e.,
windows
,
quartz
,
X11
or
RStudioGD
). One the rare occasions where these behave differently from one another, I’ll try to point it out in the text.
Secondly, when you paint a picture you need to paint it
with
something. Maybe you want to do an oil painting, but maybe you want to use watercolour. And, generally speaking, you pretty much have to pick one or the other. The analog to this in R is a “graphics system”. A graphics system defines a collection of very
low-level graphics
commands about what to draw and where to draw it. Something that surprises most new R users is the discovery that R actually has
two
completely independent graphics systems, known as
traditional graphics
(in the
graphics
package) and
grid graphics
(in the
grid
package).
89
Not surprisingly, the traditional graphics system is the older of the two: in fact, it’s actually older than R since it has it’s origins in S, the system from which R is descended. Grid graphics are newer, and in some respects more powerful, so many of the more recent, fancier graphical tools in R make use of grid graphics. However, grid graphics are somewhat more complicated beasts, so most people start out by learning the traditional graphics system. Nevertheless, as long as you don’t want to use any low-level commands yourself, then you don’t really need to care about whether you’re using traditional graphics or grid graphics. However, the moment you do want to tweak your figure by using some low-level commands you do need to care. Because these two different systems are pretty much incompatible with each other, there’s a pretty big divide in R graphics universe. Unless stated otherwise, you can assume that everything I’m saying pertains to traditional graphics.
Thirdly, a painting is usually done in a particular
style
. Maybe it’s a still life, maybe it’s an impressionist piece, or maybe you’re trying to annoy me by pretending that cubism is a legitimate artistic style. Regardless, each artistic style imposes some overarching aesthetic and perhaps even constraints on what can (or should) be painted using that style. In the same vein, R has quite a number of different packages, each of which provide a collection of
high-level graphics
commands. A single high-level command is capable of drawing an entire graph, complete with a range of customisation options. Most but not all of the high-level commands that I’ll talk about in this book come from the
graphics
package itself, and so belong to the world of traditional graphics. These commands all tend to share a common visual style, although there are a few graphics that I’ll use that come from other packages that differ in style somewhat. On the other side of the great divide, the grid universe relies heavily on two different packages –
lattice
and
ggplots2
– each of which provides a quite different visual style. As you’ve probably guessed, there’s a whole separate bunch of functions that you’d need to learn if you want to use
lattice
graphics or make use of the
ggplots2
. However, for the purposes of this book I’ll restrict myself to talking about the basic
graphics
tools.
At this point, I think we’ve covered more than enough background material. The point that I’m trying to make by providing this discussion isn’t to scare you with all these horrible details, but rather to try to convey to you the fact that R doesn’t really provide a single coherent graphics system. Instead, R itself provides a platform, and different people have built different graphical tools using that platform. As a consequence of this fact, there’s two different universes of graphics, and a great multitude of packages that live in them. At this stage you don’t need to understand these complexities, but it’s useful to know that they’re there. But for now, I think we can be happy with a simpler view of things: we’ll draw pictures on screen using the traditional graphics system, and as much as possible we’ll stick to high level commands only.
So let’s start painting.


8.2.1: The Central Limit Theorem for Sample Means (Exercises)
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Use the following information to answer the next six exercises: Yoonie is a personnel manager in a large corporation. Each month she must review 16 of the employees. From past experience, she has found that the reviews take her approximately four hours each to do with a population standard deviation of 1.2 hours. Let \(X\) be the random variable representing the time it takes her to complete one review. Assume \(X\) is normally distributed. Let \(\bar{X}\) be the random variable representing the mean time to complete the 16 reviews. Assume that the 16 reviews represent a random set of reviews.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
What is the mean, standard deviation, and sample size?
Answer
mean = 4 hours; standard deviation = 1.2 hours; sample size = 16
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
Complete the distributions.
- \(X \sim\) _____(_____,_____)
- \(\bar{X} \sim\) _____(_____,_____)
Exercise 7.2.7
Find the probability that one review will take Yoonie from 3.5 to 4.25 hours. Sketch the graph, labeling and scaling the horizontal axis. Shade the region corresponding to the probability.
Figure 7.2.2.
2. \(P\)(________ \(< x <\) ________) = _______
Answer
- Check student's solution.
- 3.5, 4.25, 0.2441
Exercise 7.2.8
Find the probability that the mean of a month’s reviews will take Yoonie from 3.5 to 4.25 hrs. Sketch the graph, labeling and scaling the horizontal axis. Shade the region corresponding to the probability.
Figure 7.2.3.
2. \(P\)(________________) = _______
Exercise 7.2.9
What causes the probabilities in Exercise and Exercise to be different?
Answer
The fact that the two distributions are different accounts for the different probabilities.
Exercise 7.2.10
Find the 95 th percentile for the mean time to complete one month's reviews. Sketch the graph.
-
Figure 7.2.4.
- The 95 th Percentile =____________


19.4: Start-up Culture
- Discuss how to hire for a start-up culture and environment
If you’re an HR professional in a start-up company, you’re already a unicorn: start-up companies like flexible cultures that can change directions quickly, without a whole lot of structure or too many rules. HR is all about structure and rules, so founders of a start-up aren’t likely to stop and say, “Hey, wouldn’t it be fun if we had an HR function to keep us from doing the things we want to do as quickly as we’d like to do them?”
HR often gets sidelined, and the good habits a start-up should be establishing around recruiting and hiring practices quickly go sideways. The same things happen to a start-up that would happen to any business that neglected to establish a sound hiring process—the wrong employees are chosen, a toxic work environment develops, good employees are lost to competing businesses. Maybe it’s better to have some HR structure in a start-up after all, then, wouldn’t you think?
As an HR professional in a start-up, you need to be as flexible and adaptable to change as the rest of the business. And when you’re hiring employees that will thrive in the start-up culture and environment, here are some things to keep in mind over and above the standard to-do list.
Put together job descriptions that reflect the “wish list” of the start-up but be realistic about what you’re looking for—the leaders of the start-up would love someone who has deep marketing experience and can code, too, but that person doesn’t likely exist. Develop your job descriptions based on real-life examples, determine competitive pay, and establish standards across the board that will keep employees happy and feeling like they’ve been treated fairly.
Recruit Before the Money is There to Hire
Start-ups are quick to pull the trigger when they find an investor, and that often means hiring people they need. So, start building a network and candidate pool before you need it. Understanding the needs of the business and reaching out, with the help of start-up leaders, to start relationships with potential employees will help the hiring process move along at a speedy rate.
Know that you’re looking for specific “start-up” qualities—Ben Yoskovitz, a start-up entrepreneur and blogger, cited some of the things he looked for in a prospective employee: [1]
- Previous start-up experience. Candidates who have a resume full of large corporation experience aren’t likely to be as successful in a start-up culture.
- Previous small business experience. Even if the candidate doesn’t have start-up experience, having some small business experience can show that she’s interested in working in small teams and taking on more responsibilities.
- Side projects. Candidates whose resumes features open source projects or side projects that can be a sign that they like to try new things and work hard.
- Experience in foreign markets. A successful start-up employee needs to think outside the box, and spending time working in foreign markets adds a different dimension to a candidate’s world view. This could be a handy thing.
- Social media presence. Particularly if the start-up is technology-based, a good deal can be learned about techie candidates from their Twitter or Instagram accounts. As a rule, they don’t engage as frequently or with the same quality on LinkedIn.
- Creativity. Yoskovitz encourages hiring managers to ask for a demonstration of creativity when candidates apply for a position. “It’s a great filtering tool. If you ask people to do something out of the ordinary and creative with their job application and they don’t, you can scrap them immediately. And if you don’t ask them and they do something interesting and creative, even better!” [2]
Consider Remote Employees
Start-ups often require people with unique skills, and you may not be able to source them locally. Put together a plan that will help you, as the HR professional, easily welcome remote employees into the culture of the company.
Consider an Employee Referral Program
Often, a start-up company’s current employees have encountered others whose skills would be a good professional fit for the company. Encourage them to reach out and help with the recruiting process by offering a bonus for those that do.
Once you’ve established the kind of candidate you’re looking for and generated some resources and a pool of candidates that you can work with, it’s time to bring some of them in for interviews. What do you ask the candidate looking to come to work for your company? The Muse, a website that declares they are a “go-to destination for the next gen workforce to research companies and careers” (and have 75 million readers), interviewed 13 start-up founders who found a candidate was most successful when candidates: [3]
- could demonstrate accomplishments in previous positions
- had solutions to the company’s problems in mind
- knew and researched the company’s competitors, and
- admitted things s/he didn’t know
They also indicated that they felt confident when a candidate was well-networked, asked smart questions, knew about the company upfront and used the product. This line of conversation, along with questions about the candidate’s values and adaptability, should help an HR professional find the right fit.
Hiring for a start-up’s unique needs can be a challenge, but there are plenty of candidates out there that are looking for the fast pace and constant change that a start-up environment offers. It’s just a matter of finding the right fit for your business.
And then it’s a matter of keeping those newly found employees engaged and happy. We’ll talk about that next.
Sources
“9 Ways to Recruit the Best Employees for Your Start Up,” Ayetikin Tank, Entrepreneur Magazine, February 15, 2017
-
“8 Things to Look for When Hiring for a Start Up,” Ben Yokovitz, The Instigator Blog, April 10, 2010. ↵
-
Ibid. ↵
-
“
13 Start-up Founders Share: How to Nail Your Next Interview
,” Young Entrepreneur Council. The Muse ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Start-up Culture. Authored by : Freedom Learning Group. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Authored by : rawpixel. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : pixabay.com/photos/african-descent-american-analyzing-3472462/. License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Pixabay License
- Authored by : blackmachinex. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : pixabay.com/photos/office-people-team-group-woman-4480198/. License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Pixabay License


5.1: Introduction to Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System
Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
- List and describe the functions of bones
- Describe the classes of bones
- Discuss the process of bone formation and development
- Explain how bone repairs itself after a fracture
- Discuss the effects of exercise, nutrition, and hormones on bone tissues
Bones make good fossils. While the soft tissue of a once living organism will decay and fall away over time, bone tissue will, under the right conditions, undergo a process of mineralization, effectively turning the bone to stone. A well-preserved fossil skeleton can give us a good sense of the size and shape of an organism, just as your skeleton helps to define your size and shape. Unlike a fossil skeleton, however, your skeleton is a structure of living tissue that grows, repairs, and renews itself. The bones within it are dynamic and complex organs that serve a number of important functions, including some necessary to maintain homeostasis.
Contributors and Attributions
-
OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology


8.1: Introduction to Chemical Reaction Rates
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define chemical reaction rate
- Derive rate expressions from the balanced equation for a given chemical reaction
- Calculate reaction rates from experimental data
- Describe the effects of chemical nature, physical state, temperature, concentration, and catalysis on reaction rates
Introduction
The lizard in the Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) photograph is not simply enjoying the sunshine or working on its tan. The heat from the sun’s rays is critical to the lizard’s survival. A warm lizard can move faster than a cold one because the chemical reactions that allow its muscles to move occur more rapidly at higher temperatures. A cold lizard is a slower lizard and an easier meal for predators.
From baking a cake to determining the useful lifespan of a bridge, rates of chemical reactions play important roles in our understanding of processes that involve chemical changes. Two questions are typically posed when planning to carry out a chemical reaction. The first is: “Will the reaction produce the desired products in useful quantities?” The second question is: “How rapidly will the reaction occur?” A third question is often asked when investigating reactions in greater detail: “What specific molecular-level processes take place as the reaction occurs?” Knowing the answer to this question is of practical importance when the yield or rate of a reaction needs to be controlled.
The study of chemical kinetics concerns the second and third questions—that is, the rate at which a reaction yields products and the molecular-scale means by which a reaction occurs. This chapter examines the factors that influence the rates of chemical reactions, the mechanisms by which reactions proceed, and the quantitative techniques used to describe the rates at which reactions occur.
Reaction Rates
A rate is a measure of how some property varies with time. Speed is a familiar rate that expresses the distance traveled by an object in a given amount of time. Wage is a rate that represents the amount of money earned by a person working for a given amount of time. Likewise, the rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how much reactant is consumed, or how much product is produced, by the reaction in a given amount of time.
The rate of reaction is the change in the amount of a reactant or product per unit time. Reaction rates are therefore determined by measuring the time dependence of some property that can be related to reactant or product amounts. Rates of reactions that consume or produce gaseous substances, for example, are conveniently determined by measuring changes in volume or pressure. For reactions involving one or more colored substances, rates may be monitored via measurements of light absorption. For reactions involving aqueous electrolytes, rates may be measured via changes in a solution’s conductivity.
For reactants and products in solution, their relative amounts (concentrations) are conveniently used for purposes of expressing reaction rates. For example, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 , in an aqueous solution changes slowly over time as it decomposes according to the equation:
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) provides an example of data collected during the decomposition of H 2 O 2 . To obtain the tabulated results for this decomposition, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide was measured every 6 hours over the course of a day at a constant temperature of 40 °C. The reaction rate between any two measurements is determined by finding the change in concentration, Δ[H 2 O 2 ], and the change in time, Δ t . Reaction rates are, by convention, positive quantities, and so this negative change in concentration is multiplied by −1. Reaction rates were computed for each time interval by dividing the change in concentration by the corresponding time increment, as shown here for the first 6-hour period:
Notice that the reaction rates vary with time, decreasing as the reaction proceeds. Results for the last 6-hour period yield a reaction rate of:
This behavior indicates the reaction continually slows with time. Using the concentrations at the beginning and end of a time period over which the reaction rate is changing results in the calculation of an average rate for the reaction over this time interval.
Instantaneous Reaction Rate
The change in concentration with time shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) can also be made into a graph, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). The slope of the curve in this graph is another way to find the rate of a reaction. At any specific time, the slope of this line is the rate of the reaction.
Chemistry in Everyday Life
Reaction Rates in Analysis: Test Strips for Urinalysis
Physicians often use disposable test strips to measure the amounts of various substances in a patient’s urine ( Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\) ). These test strips contain various chemical reagents, embedded in small pads at various locations along the strip, which undergo changes in color upon exposure to sufficient concentrations of specific substances. The usage instructions for test strips often stress that proper read time is critical for optimal results. This emphasis on read time suggests that kinetic aspects of the chemical reactions occurring on the test strip are important considerations.
The test for urinary glucose relies on a two-step process represented by the chemical equations shown here:
\( \mathrm{C}_6 \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_6+\mathrm{O}_2 \stackrel{\text {catalyst}}{\longrightarrow} \mathrm{C}_6 \mathrm{H}_{10} \mathrm{O}_6+\mathrm{H}_2 \mathrm{O}_2 \)
\( \mathrm{2 H}_2 \mathrm{O}_{2} +\mathrm{2I}^- \stackrel{\text {catalyst}}{\longrightarrow} \mathrm{I}_2 + \mathrm{2H}_{2} \mathrm{O}+\mathrm{O}_2 \)
The first equation depicts the oxidation of glucose in the urine to yield glucolactone and hydrogen peroxide. The hydrogen peroxide produced subsequently oxidizes colorless iodide ion to yield brown iodine, which may be visually detected. Some strips include an additional substance that reacts with iodine to produce a more distinct color change.
The two test reactions shown above are inherently very slow, but their rates are increased by special enzymes embedded in the test strip pad. This is an example of catalysis , a topic discussed later in this chapter. A typical glucose test strip for use with urine requires approximately 30 seconds for completion of the color-forming reactions. Reading the result too soon might lead one to conclude that the glucose concentration of the urine sample is lower than it actually is (a false-negative result). Waiting too long to assess the color change can lead to a false positive due to the slower (not catalyzed) oxidation of iodide ion by other substances found in urine.
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
The rates at which reactants are consumed and products are formed during chemical reactions vary greatly. Five factors typically affecting the rates of chemical reactions will be explored in this section: the chemical nature of the reacting substances, the state of subdivision (one large lump versus many small particles) of the reactants, the temperature of the reactants, the concentration of the reactants, and the presence of a catalyst.
The Chemical Nature of the Reacting Substances
The rate of a reaction depends on the nature of the participating substances. Reactions that appear similar may have different rates under the same conditions, depending on the identity of the reactants. For example, when small pieces of the metals iron and sodium are exposed to air, the sodium reacts completely with air overnight, whereas the iron is barely affected. The active metals calcium and sodium both react with water to form hydrogen gas and a base. Yet calcium reacts at a moderate rate, whereas sodium reacts so rapidly that the reaction is almost explosive.
The Physical States of the Reactants
A chemical reaction between two or more substances requires intimate contact between the reactants. When reactants are in different physical states, or phases (solid, liquid, gaseous, dissolved), the reaction takes place only at the interface between the phases. Consider the heterogeneous reaction between a solid phase and either a liquid or gaseous phase. Compared with the reaction rate for large solid particles, the rate for smaller particles will be greater because the surface area in contact with the other reactant phase is greater. For example, large pieces of iron react more slowly with acids than they do with finely divided iron powder (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). Large pieces of wood smolder, smaller pieces burn rapidly, and saw dust burns explosively.
Link to Learning
Watch this video to see the reaction of cesium with water in slow motion and a discussion of how the state of reactants and particle size affect reaction rates.
Temperature of the Reactants
Chemical reactions typically occur faster at higher temperatures. Food can spoil quickly when left on the kitchen counter. However, the lower temperature inside of a refrigerator slows that process so that the same food remains fresh for days. Gas burners, hot plates, and ovens are often used in the laboratory to increase the speed of reactions that proceed slowly at ordinary temperatures. For many chemical processes, reaction rates are approximately doubled when the temperature is raised by 10 °C.
Concentrations of the Reactants
The rates of many reactions depend on the concentrations of the reactants. Rates usually increase when the concentration of one or more of the reactants increases. For example, calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) deteriorates as a result of its reaction with the pollutant sulfur dioxide. The rate of this reaction depends on the amount of sulfur dioxide in the air (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)). An acidic oxide, sulfur dioxide combines with water vapor in the air to produce sulfurous acid in the following reaction:
Calcium carbonate reacts with sulfurous acid as follows:
In a polluted atmosphere where the concentration of sulfur dioxide is high, calcium carbonate deteriorates more rapidly than in less polluted air. Similarly, phosphorus burns much more rapidly in an atmosphere of pure oxygen than in air, which is only about 20% oxygen.
Link to Learning
Phosphorus burns rapidly in air, but it will burn even more rapidly if the concentration of oxygen is higher. Watch this video to see an example.
The Presence of a Catalyst
Relatively dilute aqueous solutions of hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 , are commonly used as topical antiseptics. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to yield water and oxygen gas according to the equation:
Under typical conditions, this decomposition occurs very slowly. When dilute H 2 O 2 (aq) is poured onto an open wound, however, the reaction occurs rapidly and the solution foams because of the vigorous production of oxygen gas. This dramatic difference is caused by the presence of substances within the wound’s exposed tissues that accelerate the decomposition process. Substances that function to increase the rate of a reaction are called catalysts , a topic treated in greater detail later in this chapter.
Link to Learning
Chemical reactions occur when molecules collide with each other and undergo a chemical transformation. Before physically performing a reaction in a laboratory, scientists can use molecular modeling simulations to predict how the parameters discussed earlier will influence the rate of a reaction. Use the PhET Reactions & Rates interactive to explore how temperature, concentration, and the nature of the reactants affect reaction rates.


10: Patterns of Inheritance
-
- 10.1: Introduction
- Genetics is the study of heredity. Johann Gregor Mendel set the framework for genetics long before chromosomes or genes had been identified, at a time when meiosis was not well understood. Mendel selected a simple biological system and conducted methodical, quantitative analyses using large sample sizes. Because of Mendel’s work, the fundamental principles of heredity were revealed.
-
- 10.2: Mendel’s Experiments
- Working with garden pea plants, Mendel found that crosses between parents that differed for one trait produced F1 offspring that all expressed one parent’s traits. The traits that were visible in the F1 generation are referred to as dominant, and traits that disappear in the F1 generation are described as recessive. When the F1 plants in Mendel’s experiment were self-crossed, the F2 offspring exhibited the dominant trait or the recessive trait in a 3:1 ratio, confirming that the recessive trait
-
- 10.3: Laws of Inheritance
- Mendel postulated that genes (characteristics) are inherited as pairs of alleles (traits) that behave in a dominant and recessive pattern. Alleles segregate into gametes such that each gamete is equally likely to receive either one of the two alleles present in a diploid individual. In addition, genes are assorted into gametes independently of one another. That is, in general, alleles are not more likely to segregate into a gamete with a particular allele of another gene.
-
- 10.4: Extensions of the Laws of Inheritance
- According to Mendel’s law of independent assortment, genes sort independently of each other into gametes during meiosis. This occurs because chromosomes, on which the genes reside, assort independently during meiosis and crossovers cause most genes on the same chromosomes to also behave independently. When genes are located in close proximity on the same chromosome, their alleles tend to be inherited together. This results in offspring ratios that violate Mendel's law of independent assortment.
Thumbnail: Man and a woman in a brown grass field holding a little girl in the air lovingly. (CC0 License; Hana El Zohiry , via Unsplash )


11.5B: Development of the Dual Lymphocyte System
- Examine dual lymphocyte development
The cells of the adaptive immune system are a type of leukocyte, called a lymphocyte. The human body has about 2 trillion lymphocytes, constituting 20-40% of white blood cells (WBCs); their total mass is about the same as the brain or liver. The peripheral blood contains 20–50% of circulating lymphocytes; the rest move within the lymphatic system. B cells and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes.
B Cell and T Cell Differentiation
Mammalian stem cells differentiate into several kinds of blood cell within the bone marrow. This process is called haematopoiesis. During this process, all lymphocytes originate from a common lymphoid progenitor before differentiating into their distinct lymphocyte types. The differentiation of lymphocytes into distinguishable types follows various pathways in a hierarchical fashion as well as in a more plastic fashion. The formation of lymphocytes is known as lymphopoiesis. B cells mature into B lymphocytes in the bone marrow, while T cells migrate to, and mature in, a distinct organ called the thymus. Following maturation, the lymphocytes enter the circulation and peripheral lymphoid organs (e.g. the spleen and lymph nodes) where they survey for invading pathogens and/or tumor cells.
Further Differentiation
The lymphocytes involved in adaptive immunity (i.e. B and T cells) differentiate further after exposure to an antigen; they form effector and memory lymphocytes. Effector lymphocytes function to eliminate the antigen, either by releasing antibodies (in the case of B cells), cytotoxic granules (cytotoxic T cells) or by signaling to other cells of the immune system (helper T cells). Memory cells remain in the peripheral tissues and circulation for an extended time ready to respond to the same antigen upon future exposure.
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Key Points
- B cells and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes.
- B cells mature into B lymphocytes in the bone marrow, while T cells migrate to, and mature in, a distinct organ called the thymus.
- Following maturation, the lymphocytes enter the circulation and peripheral lymphoid organs (e.g. the spleen and lymph nodes) where they survey for invading pathogens and/or tumor cells.
- The lymphocytes involved in adaptive immunity (i.e. B and T cells) differentiate further after exposure to an antigen to form effector and memory lymphocytes.
Key Terms
- lymphocyte : A type of white blood cell or leukocyte that is divided into two principal groups and a null group: B-lymphocytes, which produce antibodies in the humoral immune response, T-lymphocytes, which participate in the cell-mediated immune response, and the null group, which contains natural killer cells, cytotoxic cells that participate in the innate immune response.
- leukocyte : A white blood cell.
- haematopoiesis : Hematopoeisis is the formation of blood cellular components from a common progenitor stem cell.


14.1.3: Landforms of Coastal Erosion
Large waves crashing onto a shore bring a tremendous amount of energy that has a significant eroding effect, and several unique erosion features commonly form on rocky shores with strong waves.
When waves approach an irregular shore, they are slowed down to varying degrees, depending on differences in the water depth, and as they slow, they are bent or refracted. In Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), wave energy is represented by the blue arrows. That energy is evenly spaced out in the deep water, but because of refraction, the energy of the waves is being focused on the headlands . On irregular coasts, the headlands receive much more wave energy than the intervening bays, and thus they are more strongly eroded. The result of this is coastal straightening , where an irregular coast will eventually become straightened, although that process may take millions of years.
Wave erosion is greatest in the surf zone, where the wave base is impinging strongly on the seafloor and where the waves are breaking. The result is that the substrate in the surf zone is typically eroded to a flat surface known as a wave-cut platform (or wave-cut terrace ) (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). A wave-cut platform extends across the intertidal zone.
Arches and sea caves form as a result of the erosion of relatively non-resistant rock. Wave action and strong longshore currents can carve a cave into a headland, and if the erosion extends all the way through, it becomes an arch. If a hole develops in the ceiling of a cave, a blowhole can be created, shooting water into the air when waves crash in the cave. An arch in the Barachois River area of western Newfoundland, Canada, is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). This feature started out as a sea cave, and then, after being eroded from both sides, became an arch. During the winter of 2012-2013, the arch collapsed, leaving a small stack at the end of the point.
The tower of rock left behind from a collapsed arch is called a sea stack (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). But sea stacks can also form during the formation of wave-cut platforms or other features, when relatively resistant rock that does not get completely eroded remains behind to form the stack.
Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) summarizes the process of transformation of an irregular coast into a straightened coast with sea cliffs (wave-eroded escarpments) and the remnants of stacks, arches, and wave-cut platforms. The next stages of this process would be the continued landward erosion of the sea cliffs and the complete erosion of the stacks and wave-cut platforms in favor of a continuous and nearly straight sandy beach.
*”Physical Geology” by Steven Earle used under a CC-BY 4.0 international license. Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca


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12.1
Graph Basics
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vertex
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edge
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loop
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graph (simple graph)
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multigraph
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adjacent (neighboring)
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degree
12.2
Graph Structures
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complete
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subgraph
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cycle
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cyclic subgraph
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clique
12.3
Comparing Graphs
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isomorphic
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isomorphism
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planar
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nonplanar
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complement
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complementary
12.4
Navigating Graphs
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walk (directed walk)
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trail (directed trail)
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path (directed path)
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closed
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open
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closed walk
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circuit (closed trail)
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directed cycle (closed path)
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coloring (graph coloring)
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-coloring
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chromatic number
12.5
Euler Circuits
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connected
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component
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disconnected
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Euler circuit
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Eulerian graph
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Chinese postman problem
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Eulerization
12.6
Euler Trails
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algorithm
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Fleury’s algorithm
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Euler trail
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bridge
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local bridge
12.7
Hamilton Cycles
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Hamilton cycle, or Hamilton circuit
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factorial
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weighted graph
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total weight
12.9
Traveling Salesperson Problem
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brute force algorithm
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greedy algorithm
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traveling salesperson problem (TSP)
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brute force method
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nearest neighbor method
12.10
Trees
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acyclic
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tree
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forest
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path graph or linear graph
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star tree
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root
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starlike tree
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caterpillar tree
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lobster tree
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spanning tree
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minimum spanning tree