9.4: Social Institutions
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- Erika Gutierrez, Janét Hund, Shaheen Johnson, Carlos Ramos, Lisette Rodriguez, & Joy Tsuhako
- Long Beach City College, Cerritos College, & Saddleback College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)
Education
In a lot of ways, Asian Americans have done remarkably well in achieving "the American dream" of getting a good education, working at a good job, and earning a good living. So much so that the image many have of Asian Americans is that we are the "model minority" -- a bright, shining example of hard work and patience whose example other people of colors should follow (Wu, 2018). However, the practical reality is slightly more complicated than that.
Statistics Don't Lie . . . Do They?
Once in a great while, statistics don't lie. It is true that in many ways, Asian Americans have done very well socially and economically. The data in Table 9.4.1 was calculated using the 2000 Census Public Use Microdata Samples, then comparing the major racial/ethnic groups among different measures of what sociologists call "socioeconomic achievement."
These numbers tell you that among the five major racial/ethnic groups in the U.S., Asian Americans have the highest college degree attainment rate, rates of having an advanced degree (professional or Ph.D.), median family income, being in the labor force, rate of working in a "high skill" occupation (executive, professional, technical, or upper management), and median Socioeconomic Index (SEI) score that measures occupational prestige. Yes, in these categories, Asians even outperform whites. Asian Americans seem to have done so well that magazines such as Newsweek and respected television shows such as 60 Minutes proclaim us to be the "model minority."
Many people go even further and argue that since Asian Americans are doing so well, we no longer experience any discrimination and that Asian Americans no longer need public services such as bilingual education, government documents in multiple languages, and welfare. Further, using the first stereotype of Asian Americans, many just assume that all Asian Americans are successful and that none of us are struggling.
On the surface, it may sound rather benign and even flattering to be described in those terms. However, we need to take a much closer look at these numbers. As we will see, many other statistics show that Asian Americans are still the targets of racial inequality and institutional discrimination and that the model minority image is a myth.
When Good Numbers Go Bad
Again, we need to remember that not all Asian Americans are the same. For every Chinese American or South Asian who has a college degree, the same number of Southeast Asians are still struggling to adapt to their lives in the U.S. For example, as shown in the tables in the Socioeconomic Statistics & Demographics article, Vietnamese Americans only have a college degree attainment rate of 20%, less than half the rate for other Asian American ethnic groups. The rates for Laotians, Cambodians, and Hmong are even lower at less than 10% (Ty, 2017).
The results show that as a whole Asian American families have higher median incomes than white families. However, this is because in most cases, the typical Asian American family tends to have more members who are working than the typical white family. It's not unusual for an Asian American family to have four, five, or more members working. A more telling statistic is median personal income (also known as per capita income). The results above show that Asian Americans still trail whites on this very important measure.
"Success" May Only Be Skin-Deep
Another telling statistic is how much more money a person earns with each additional year of schooling completed, or what sociologists call "returns on education." One of the first in-depth studies that looked at per capita income between Asian Americans and other racial/ethnic groups came from Robert Jiobu and is cited in Asian Americans: An Interpretive History by Sucheng Chan. Using this measure, research consistently shows that for each additional year of education attained, whites earn another $522.
That is, beyond a high school degree, a white with 4 more years of education (equivalent to a college degree) can expect to earn $2088 per year in salary. In contrast, returns on each additional year of education for a Japanese American is only $438. For a Chinese American, it's $320. For Blacks, it's even worse at only $284.
Recent research from scholars such as Timothy Fong (2020), Roderick Harrison, and Paul Ong, to name just a few, continues to confirm these findings that controlling for other variables, Asian Americans still earn less money than whites with virtually equal qualifications. Once again, for each statistic that suggests everything is picture-perfect for Asian Americans, there is another that proves otherwise.
As another example, in California, almost 40% of all Vietnamese refugees are on public assistance and in Minnesota and Wisconsin, an equal number of Cambodians, Hmong, and Laotians also receive public assistance. Another example is that of many Korean immigrants who come to the U.S. with very high levels of education. But for various reasons (i.e., not being fluent in English), many are not able to get decent jobs that pay well. Therefore, they are forced to to work as janitors, waiters, busboys, or go into business for themselves to survive. The only reason why many Korean small business owners are able to make a small profit is that they have no paid employees and work 20 hours a day.
Always Check Below the Surface
Another point is that even despite the real successes we've achieved, Asian Americans are still significantly underrepresented in positions of political leadership at the local, regional, state, and federal levels (despite the successes of a few individuals such as Norman Mineta and Elaine Chao) -- just like Blacks, Latinos, and American Indians. In the corporate world, Asian Americans are underrepresented as CEOs, board members, and high-level supervisors -- just like Blacks, Latinos, and American Indians.
This is not to say that there aren't Asians Americans out there who are quite successful and have essentially achieved the American dream. As their socioeconomic attainment levels clearly illustrate for example, Asian Indians consistently outperform not only other Asian ethnic groups but whites in several achievement measures, sometimes by a large margin. And of course, you'll find plenty of examples of Asian Americans who are quite affluent and successful, and as Asian Americans, we should rightly feel proud of these examples of success.
The point is that just because many Asian Americans have "made it," it does not mean that all Asian Americans have made it. In many ways, Asian Americans are still the targets of much prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination. For instance, the persistent belief that "all Asians are smart" puts a tremendous amount of pressure on many Asian Americans. Many, particularly Southeast Asians, are not able to conform to this unrealistic expectation and in fact, have the highest high school dropout rates in the country (Chou, 2008).
Asian Americans are also increasingly becoming the targets of hate crimes . In fact, research shows that Asian Americans are the fastest growing victims of hate crimes in the U.S. Asian Indians and other successful Asian Americans may have extraordinary levels of socioeconomic achievement but it's very unlikely that many of them will say that they no longer experience discrimination because of their Asian ethnicity.
Ultimately, the process of achieving socioeconomic success among Asian Americans is very complex. There are many examples of affluence and prosperity within the Asian American population but in many ways, we still face the same types of racism, social inequality, and institutional discrimination that other groups of color face. Therefore, the image that the entire Asian American community is the "model minority" is a myth.
The Economy
Work, employment, and occupational mobility have been prominent features of the history of Asian American communities ever since they first arrived in the U.S. In fact, the fundamental reason why the majority of Asians first immigrated to America was to find work and earning a living to support themselves and their families. To this day, work remains an important part of life for Asian Americans and the reason why so many Asians continue to immigrate to the U.S.
Self-Employment Then and Now
In the early era of Asian American history, the Gold Rush was one of the strongest pull factors that led many Chinese to come to the U.S. to find their fortune and return home rich and wealthy. In addition, many Chinese (and later other Asian groups as well) also came to Hawai'i as contract laborers to work in sugarcane plantations. On the mainland, Chinese also worked as small merchants, domestics, farmers, grocers, and starting in 1865, as railroad workers on the famous Transcontinental Railroad project.
However, the anti-immigrant and anti-Chinese nativist movement of the late 1800s, best represented by the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, forced the Chinese to retreat into their own isolated communities as a matter of survival. Inside these early Chinatowns, the tradition of small business ownership developed as many Chinese provided services to other Chinese and increasingly, to non-Chinese, such as restaurants, laundry, and merchandise retailers.
The phenomenon of self-employment has been a prominent mode of work for many Asian Americans, starting with the first Asian immigrants into the U.S. and continuing through today. The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act led to the immigration of millions of Asians into the U.S. and also resulted in the growth of Asian ethnic enclaves in numerous metropolitan areas around the U.S. These two developments have led to a resurgence of self-employment among many Asian Americans.
Scholars have described four general reasons why Asian Americans are likely to become self-employed, all of which can overlap with each other. These theories are described in more detail in the article on Asian Small Businesses . Briefly summarized, they include:
- Labor market discrimination: becoming self-employed in order to avoid having to settle for lower-status or lower-paying jobs in the conventional labor market.
- Ethnic resources: either having "cultural" characteristics that facilitate entrepreneurship or relying on family and relatives for cheap labor and/or co-ethnics for patronage.
- Structural opportunities: openings within certain economic sectors, markets, or industries that offer easy entry but also include high risks of failure.
- Class resources: attaining education, training and experience, and/or financial capital in order to enter self-employment.
These tensions have led to numerous incidents of hostility, most famously represented by the extensive burning of Korean-owned businesses in the Los Angeles riots of 1992. In response, many Asian small business owners have made concerted efforts to address these complaints and reach out more to their communities in order to improve relations.
Adapting to Deindustrialization
While a large proportion of Asian Americans are self-employed, most are conventional employees in the U.S. labor market. The passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act finally made it illegal to discriminate against someone based on race or ethnicity, which removed legal barriers to employment opportunities for Asian Americans. Reflecting the ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity of the Asian American population, contemporary Asian Americans also have different employment and occupational mobility patterns as well.
Social scientists have described how the American economy has undergone deindustrialization in the last few decades, from an economy based on manufacturing to one centered around technological innovation, information management, and services. Within this context, many scholars also note that the U.S. labor is becoming increasingly polarized. That is, there has been an expansion in the number of jobs at the top, within "information-intensive" sectors, and that require high levels of education and job skills and that pay very well -- jobs that many Asian Americans have successfully landed.
 However, the middle layer of skilled manufacturing and blue collar jobs has generally been shrinking, thereby leading to this stratified labor market. At the low end of the labor market, many Asian Americans share much in common with early Chinese laborers in that they possess little formal skills and English fluency. As a result, they have little choice but to work in relatively low-paying unstable service sector jobs, many located inside traditional urban Asian ethnic enclaves.
To illustrate these patterns, using data from the 2000 Census 5% PUMS, Table 9.4.3 presents distributions of occupational categories for different racial/ethnic and Asian groups (employed, ages 25-64).
The results indicate that for most racial/ethnic and Asian groups, the largest proportion within each group are concentrated in either the "Sales, Operations, and Support" or "Skilled Blue Collar" occupational categories. On the other hand, the lowest proportions within most groups are found in the "Legal and Financial Services" occupations.
Other notable findings are that, of all the racial/ethnic groups in the table, Asian Indians have the highest proportion in the "Computer, Scientific, & Engineering" occupations. Also, Chinese and Japanese share the highest proportion among all groups in the "Legal and Financial Services" occupations. Filipinos have the highest proportion of those in the "Medical/Healthcare Professionals" categories while Japanese have the highest proportion in the "Education, Media, & Community Services" occupations.
In general, the results again confirm that, at least in terms of occupational attainment, Asian Indians as a group seem to have attained the most prestigious jobs. In addition, Chinese are well-represented in the computer, scientific, and engineering fields, Filipinos have a significant level of representation among medical professionals, and Japanese enjoy a relatively high level of representation as executives and upper management. Conversely, employed Cambodians/Hmong/Laotians and Vietnamese tend to be more working class, as shown by their higher representations in the skilled blue collar occupations.
Persistent Glass Ceiling Barriers
As the statistics show, many Asian Americans have attained skilled, prestigious, and relatively high-paying professional jobs. At the same time, many still face numerous challenges in their work environments. For example, although Asian Americans have the highest rates of having a college (43% of all adults between 25 and 64) or a law, medicine, or doctorate degree (6.5% of all adults between 25 and 64), they only have the second highest median personal (per capita) income behind that for white workers.
That is, within many occupations, Asian Americans are still paid less than whites, despite having the same educational credentials and years of job experiences. In addition, numerous studies continue to point out that Asian Americans are still underrepresented as senior executives in large publicly-owned corporations.
Many scholars point out that the relative lack of Asian Americans within the most prestigious occupations is due to the continuing presence of glass ceiling barriers within the workplace, meaning that one's success hits an invisible barrier. There are several glass ceiling mechanisms that affect Asian Americans. The first is that many companies consciously or unconsciously bypass Asian Americans when it comes to recruiting for and outreaching to future executives. This may be based on the implicit assumption that Asian Americans do not fit their picture of a future executive or corporate leader.
A second glass ceiling mechanism occurs when Asian Americans have a hard time penetrating the old boys network (social connections experienced by elite men) in many occupational environments. Research consistently shows that it is in these informal social networks that valuable mentoring takes place, along with an exchange of important career information. In this case, Asian Americans are hurt by the persistently stereotype that all Asians are foreigners or outsiders.
Third is the phenomenon of "institutional tracking" in which Asian Americans are confined to only professional and technical jobs. While these jobs may pay well up to a certain point, many are dead end jobs that do not have promotion ladders or career tracks that lead up to supervisory or executive positions. Many Asian Americans are restricted to working in these "white collar sweatshops" because their supervisors may feel that they are not interested in managerial, supervisory, or executive positions.
Similarly, many Asian American professionals are alleged to lack the language, communication, or leadership skills required for promotion. In other words, the belief is that while Asian Americans are skilled at technical aspects of certain occupations, they may not have the "soft skills" related to personality, attitude, and behavior that would give them a competitive edge when it comes to moving up into senior leadership positions. Within this context, Asian American workers may be subject to biased and subjective standards of evaluating their work performance.
Achievement in the New Millennium
Despite the challenges that Asian American workers continue to face, they continue to use hard work and employment to attain socioeconomic mobility through numerous boom and bust cycles of the American economy. In the process, many Asian Americans have achieved impressive occupational successes and are poised to become prominent members of their respective industries.
Initially achieving success only to be driven into relative isolation, Asian Americans have persevered, adapted, and taken innovative strategies on their way toward achieving socioeconomic mobility. Reflecting the ethnic and cultural diversity of the Asian American population, employment patterns among workers range from unskilled service sector employees to highly-educated and highly-skilled professionals. Regardless of type of work, Asian Americans continue to further contribute to the strength and vitality of America's economy and culture.
The Family
One of the most public manifestations of race is the choice of one's partner or spouse. This very individual and personal aspect can sometimes produce a lot of public discussion. Studies consistently show that Asian Americans have some of the highest "intermarriage" (also known as "outmarriage") rates among racial/ethnic minorities -- marrying someone else outside of their own ethnic group. But as always, there's more to the story than just the headline.
The Public and Private Sides of Ethnicity
Whether it's dating or marrying someone of a different race, interracial relationships are not a new phenomenon among Asian Americans. When the first Filipino and Chinese workers came to the U.S. in the 1700s and 1800s, they were almost exclusively men. A few of them eventually married women in the U.S. who were not Asian. However, many people soon saw Asian intermarriage with whites as a threat to American society. Therefore, anti-miscegenation laws (discussed earlier in Chapter 1.4 ) were passed that prohibited Asians from marrying whites.
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Marriage Patterns for Six Largest
Asian American Ethnic Groups (2010) (Updated Nov. 2011) |
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| Men | |||
| Asian Indian | 92.5 | 76.9 | 62.4 |
| Other Asian | 1.5 | 4.2 | 4.5 |
| white | 4.3 | 13.3 | 25.6 |
| Black | 0.3 | 0.9 | 0.7 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 0.8 | 2.5 | 3.5 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 0.6 | 2.1 | 3.4 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 701.6 | 62.1 | 32.1 |
| Women | |||
| Asian Indian | 92.9 | 70.6 | 52.0 |
| Other Asian | 0.9 | 1.9 | 2.9 |
| white | 4.7 | 22.6 | 37.8 |
| Black | 0.5 | 1.8 | 2.8 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 0.4 | 1.4 | 2.1 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 0.7 | 1.7 | 2.4 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 691.6 | 68.3 | 39.2 |
| Men | |||
| Chinese | 88.8 | 63.9 | 53.6 |
| Other Asian | 4.8 | 12.9 | 14.8 |
| white | 5.2 | 19.2 | 26.5 |
| Black | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 0.7 | 2.1 | 2.6 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 0.5 | 1.7 | 2.3 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 707.0 | 140.8 | 96.8 |
| Women | |||
| Chinese | 79.9 | 52.4 | 46.1 |
| Other Asian | 3.5 | 9.9 | 10.4 |
| white | 14.5 | 31.9 | 37.7 |
| Black | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.7 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 0.9 | 2.8 | 2.8 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 0.8 | 2.3 | 2.4 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 777.9 | 138.5 | 112.6 |
| Men | |||
| Filipino | 85.1 | 54.2 | 42.1 |
| Other Asian | 2.6 | 7.1 | 7.9 |
| white | 7.9 | 24.0 | 31.8 |
| Black | 0.2 | 1.0 | 1.4 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 2.8 | 9.0 | 11.0 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 1.4 | 4.7 | 5.8 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 440.8 | 99.2 | 71.3 |
| Women | |||
| Filipino | 61.6 | 36.7 | 29.1 |
| Other Asian | 2.6 | 6.2 | 6.4 |
| white | 27.0 | 37.2 | 42.7 |
| Black | 2.6 | 4.0 | 4.4 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 3.7 | 8.1 | 8.5 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 2.6 | 7.8 | 8.9 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 608.7 | 121.0 | 102.2 |
| Men | |||
| Japanese | 62.8 | 54.5 | 53.8 |
| Other Asian | 11.5 | 14.2 | 12.2 |
| white | 18.8 | 22.8 | 25.1 |
| Blacks | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 3.3 | 3.8 | 3.6 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 3.5 | 4.5 | 4.9 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 151.1 | 104.7 | 91.2 |
| Women | |||
| Japanese | 44.4 | 48.9 | 49.3 |
| Other Asian | 8.0 | 12.2 | 11.0 |
| white | 38.1 | 29.4 | 29.9 |
| Black | 2.1 | 0.7 | 0.8 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 3.2 | 3.7 | 3.9 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 4.1 | 5.1 | 5.2 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 212.6 | 104.3 | 99.7 |
| Men | |||
| Korean | 90.4 | 61.1 | 44.8 |
| Other Asian | 2.9 | 10.4 | 13.0 |
| white | 5.3 | 23.1 | 34.6 |
| Black | 0.2 | 0.8 | 1.2 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 0.9 | 3.7 | 5.3 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 0.4 | 0.7 | 1.1 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 265.4 | 47.8 | 30.2 |
| Women | |||
| Korean | 68.1 | 35.4 | 24.1 |
| Other Asian | 3.6 | 9.2 | 9.8 |
| white | 24.4 | 48.4 | 57.7 |
| Black | 1.4 | 1.6 | 1.9 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 1.3 | 2.7 | 3.3 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 1.2 | 2.7 | 3.3 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 351.5 | 72.6 | 58.4 |
| Men | |||
| Vietnamese | 92.6 | 71.0 | 59.0 |
| Other Asian | 3.4 | 11.9 | 13.7 |
| white | 2.8 | 13.1 | 21.9 |
| Black | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.4 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 0.5 | 2.6 | 3.3 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 0.6 | 1.3 | 1.6 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 299.7 | 44.9 | 26.8 |
| Women | |||
| Vietnamese | 84.6 | 56.3 | 40.6 |
| Other Asian | 4.2 | 11.1 | 12.2 |
| white | 9.4 | 28.7 | 41.3 |
| Black | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
| Hispanic/Latino | 0.9 | 2.9 | 4.5 |
| Multiracial & All Others | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.8 |
| Population Size (x1000) | 323.6 | 54.4 | 35.0 |
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USR = U.S.-Raised (1.5 generation or higher)
FR = Foreign-Raised (1st generation) "USR + USR or FR" = Spouse 1 is U.S.-Raised while Spouse 2 can be U.S.-Raised or Foreign-Raised "USR + USR Only" = Both spouses are U.S.-Raised Methodology used to tabulate these statistics |
History shows that these anti-miscegenation laws were very common in the U.S. They were first passed in the 1600s to prevent freed Black slaves from marrying whites and the biracial children of white slave owners and African slaves from inheriting property. It was not until 1967, during the height of the Civil Rights Movement, that the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the Loving v. Virginia case that such laws were unconstitutional . At that time, 38 states in the U.S. had formal laws on their books that prohibited non-whites from marrying whites. As such, one could argue that it's only been in recent years that interracial marriages have become common in American society (Wong, 2015).
Of course, anti-miscegenation laws were part of a larger anti-Asian movement that eventually led to the Page Law of 1875 that effectively almost eliminated Chinese women from immigrating ot the U.S., the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, and other restrictive regulations. These laws actually made the situation worse because Asian men were no longer able to bring their wives over to the U.S. So in a way, those who wanted to become married had no other choice but to socialize with non-Asians (Pascoe, 2010).
After World War II however, the gender dynamics of this interracial process flip-flopped. U.S. servicemen who fought and were stationed overseas in Asian countries began coming home with Asian "war brides." Data show that from 1945 into the 1970s, thousands of young women from China, Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, and later Viet Nam came to the U.S. as war brides each year. Further, after the passage of the 1965 Immigration Act , many of these Asian war brides eventually helped to expand the Asian American community by sponsoring their family and other relatives to immigrate to the U.S. (Koshy, 2005).
These days, Asian Americans in interracial relationships are very common. One of the best research articles on this topic is a study conducted by Shinagawa and Pang entitled "Asian American Panethnicity and Intermarriage," reprinted in the highly recommended Asian Americans: Experiences and Perspectives. Similar in structure to their study, J.J. Huang and C.N. Le have analyzed data from the U.S. Census Bureau to construct the following table on marriage patterns among Asian Americans.
How to Read and Understand the Table
Using data from the 2010 Census (updated Nov. 2011), the table shows the percentage of the six largest Asian ethnic groups who are married either endogamously (within their ethnic group), to another Asian (outside their ethnic group), or to someone who is white, Black, Hispanic/Latino, or someone who is Mixed-Race/Multiracial, by husbands and wives. The other major component of the table is that it presents different numbers depending on which statistical model is used.
That is, the specific numbers for each ethnic group vary depending on how you measure "intermarriage." The different models are:
- All Spouses: This model include all marriages that involve at least one Asian American. The benefit of this approach is that you get a complete picture of all marriages involving Asian Americans. The drawback is that since most married Asian Americans are immigrants, many of them got married in their home countries before immigrating to the U.S. -- i.e., they came to the U.S. already married.
- USR + USR or FR: USR stands for "U.S.-Raised," or those who are either born in the U.S. (the 2nd generation or higher) or came to the U.S. at age 13 or younger (the '1.5 generation'), while FR stands for "Foreign-Raised," the 1st generation (those who came to the U.S. at age 14 or older). In this model, the 'subject' spouse (either the man or the woman) is USR, but his/her spouse can be either USR or FR. This model narrows down the sample somewhat by trying to exclude those who were already married when they arrived in the U.S.
- USR + USR Only: This model includes only marriages in which both spouses are U.S.-raised. This has the advantage of including only those who were raised and socialized within American society and its racial dynamics. It is this U.S.-raised population that best represents young Asian Americans, since they are the ones who have the most exposure to prevailing American cultural images and media. The drawback of this model is that by focusing exclusively on the U.S.-raised (who only represent about one quarter of all marriages involving Asian Americans), it may overemphasize and "over-highlight" instances of outmarriage among Asian Americans.
These three models are presented to you the reader to give you the opportunity to decide for yourself which model best represents the "true" picture of marriage among Asian Americans. You should understand that each model has its strengths and weaknesses and as you can see, each produces some very different numbers. If you would like to read about the exact procedure J.J. Huang and C.N. Le used to calculate these numbers, visit the Statistical Methodology page.
These are certainly a lot of numbers to consider and as mentioned above, each model presents a different proportion. Nonetheless, what these stats tell us is that generally speaking, across all three models (calculated by using the admittedly unscientific method of averaging the proportions across all three models to emphasize the last two models), these are the Asian ethnic groups are most or least likely to have each kind of spouse:
Men/Husbands -- Most / Least Likely to Have a(n) __ Wife:
- Endogamous -- Most: Asian Indian / Least: Japanese
- Other Asian (Pan-Asian) -- Most: Japanese / Least: Asian Indian
- White -- Most: Japanese / Least: Vietnamese
- Black -- Most: Filipinos / Least: Chinese
- Hispanic/Latino -- Most: Filipinos / Least: Chinese
- Multiracial or Other -- Most: Japanese / Least: Koreans
Women/Wives -- Most / Least Likely to Have a(n) __ Husband:
- Endogamous -- Most: Asian Indian / Least: Filipinos/Koreans (tied)
- Other Asian (Pan-Asian) -- Most: Japanese / Least: Asian Indians
- White -- Most: Korean / Least: Asian Indian
- Black -- Most: Filipinos / Least: Vietnamese
- Hispanic/Latino -- Most: Filipinos / Least: Asian Indian
- Multiracial or Other -- Most: Filipinos / Least: Vietnamese
Recent Trends and Developments
The numbers presented above only represent a 'cross sectional' look at racial/ethnic marriage patterns involving Asian Americans. In other words, they only represent a 'snapshot' look using the latest data from 2010. Nonetheless, it is important to recognize that such marriage patterns have evolved and changed over time. In order to get a closer look at recent trends, we can compare these numbers to data from the 2006 Census .
In comparing the 2010 data to the 2006 numbers, there are a few notable trends we can observe:
- Consistently, rates of marriages involving Asian Americans and whites have declined. Specifically, among those marriages in which both spouses are U.S.-raised, for five of the six Asian American ethnic groups, the rates of interracial marriage to a white spouse for both men and women have declined from 2006 to 2010. Among men/husbands, the largest decline involved Asian Indians and Koreans. For women/wives, the largest decline was for Filipinos and Koreans.
- The only exceptions to this trend of declining rates of white-Asian marriages were for Asian Indian women/wives (whose rate slightly increased from 2006 to 2010) and for both Vietnamese men/husbands and women/wives. For Vietnamese men, their rates of marriage to a white wife increased from 15.0% to 21.9% while for Vietnamese women, their rate for having a white husband jumped from 28.3% to 41.3%.
- Strangely, the sample population sizes for U.S.-raised married Vietnamese American men and women have declined from 2006 to 2010. For example, in 2006, there were about 40,500 and 45,200 U.S.-raised Vietnamese men and women respectively who were married. In 2010, those numbers declined to 26,795 and 34,998. Some possible explanations are that many who were married in 2006 got divorced, U.S.-raised Vietnamese men and women are delaying getting married, and/or many U.S.-raised Vietnamese have changed their ethnic identity to some other ethnic group, such as Chinese or Hmong.
- In contrast to the declining rates of Asian-white marriages, the rates for Pan-Asian/Other Asian marriages have increased notably from 2006 to 2010 (having a spouse of a different Asian ethnicity). This increase was almost universal across all six ethnic groups and for both genders (the only exception was for Filipino women). Among U.S.-raised men/husbands, Vietnamese Americans experienced the biggest increases in having a pan-Asian spouse -- from 5.8% in 2006 to 13.7% in 2010 for men and from 7.8% to12.2% for women/wives.
Now that we have a general picture of what the marriage rates are for all members of each of these six Asian American ethnic groups, on the next page we will take a more specific look at only those Asian Americans who grew up in the U.S. and are therefore most likely to have been socialized within the context of U.S. racial landscape and intergroup relations -- the U.S.-born and those who immigrated to the U.S. as children.
The Government
Getting Into the Arena Early
Even back in the late 1800s, Asians mobilized their resources to lobby for equal rights and access to economic, land, and occupational opportunities that they were being denied. Up through the 1920s, over 1,000 lawsuits were filed in state and federal courts by Asian Americans seeking to receive their proper legal rights. During this time, Asian Americans also organized boycotts, circulated petitions, conducted letter-writing campaigns, published newspapers and magazines promoting their cause, and formed coalitions with several non-Asian organizations.
These activities demonstrate that Asian Americans are not always quiet, modest, and reluctant to "cause trouble." The Asian American community has a clear sense of justice, as illustrated by their collective mobilization to fight for justice regarding Vincent Chin's murder. To that end, many Asian Americans have tried to participate in the political arena, in one form or another.
One of the easiest way to participate is to donate money to candidates or political parties. Such was the case back in 1996 when the Democratic Party was raising funds for President Clinton's reelection. As the nation soon learned, the Democrats were accused of illegally accepting money from foreigners. The media and soon Congressional Republicans identified these foreigners as Asian and accused them of trying to influence U.S. policy to the benefit of their Asian countries and businesses. They were accused of trying to "buy" influence with the President.
Thereafter, the Democrats were forced to return a substantial portion of those campaign contributions. Any donor who had an Asian name or who was suspected of having connections to Asian businesses overseas most likely had their contributions returned. Soon after that, Congressional committees began a series of high-profile and public investigations, centering on the now-famous "fundraising" event at a southern California Buddhist temple attended by Al Gore. Ultimately, several Asian Americans entered plea bargains or were convicted of channeling foreign contributions to the Democratic Party.
Stereotypes and Hypocrisy Go Hand in Hand
First we should realize that it is legal for permanent residents who are not yet U.S. citizens to donate money. Second, it is legal for U.S. subsidiaries of foreign corporations to donate money if they only donate funds that were earned in the U.S. Further, anyone can donate if the money goes to a political party rather than an individual politician. Finally, it's interesting why nobody ever accuses Canadian and European corporations of trying to buy influence with the U.S. government, even though their contributions are several times that from Asian companies.
But the most disturbing part of this episode was once again, the entire Asian American community was singled out and publicly vilified for the wrongdoings of just a handful of people. Many politicians and other social commentators were screaming that Asian foreigners were trying to "buy the white House." Asian Americans were again accused of being deceitful, un-American, and secretly loyal to only Asian countries and businesses.
It is one thing to punish individuals who have actually broken laws. But it is another to then generalize suspicions and stereotypes to an entire group of people. All Asian Americans are affected by this prejudice and racial profiling -- Republican or Democratic, liberal or conservative. Unfortunately, that was exactly what happened to Asian American in this episode. Sad to say, it will probably not be the last.
The Leaders and Trailblazers
Nonetheless, several Asian Americans past and present have defied these cultural and institutional barriers (including perceptions that Asians aren't capable of being leaders) and have successfully represented not just the Asian American community but their entire multi-racial constituency. The first national Asian American political leaders came from Hawai'i and were able to parlay their broad base of supporters to win seats in the U.S. House of Representative and Senate in the 1950s.
The first mainland Asian American to become a member of the U.S. House of Representatives was Dalip Singh Saund, a South Asian farmer (with a Ph.D. degree) from central California. The fist mainland Senator was the ultra-conservative S.I. Hayakawa from California, former President of San Francisco State University. More recently, the most prominent Asian American politicians include:
- Senator Daniel Inouye of Hawai'i
- Former U.S. Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights Bill Lann Lee
- Governor of the state of Washington Gary Locke, the first Asian American governor outside of Hawai'i
- Secretary of Labor Elaine Chao
- Secretary of Transportation Norman Mineta
Secretary Mineta is the only Democrat serving in President Bush's cabinet and was the first Asian American cabinet Secretary, appointed by former President Clinton to lead the Department of Commerce in 2000. In fact, President Bush has named the more Asian Americans to top federal positions than any other President.
However, Elaine Chao symbolizes a constant dilemma for the Asian American community. On the one hand, most of us are very proud that she is the first Asian American woman to be a cabinet Secretary. She hopefully represents the growing political power of the Asian American community and a sign that perhaps both political parties will not take us for granted any longer. On the other hand, she's a Republican whereas about two-thirds of all Asian Americans who are registered to vote are Democrats.
Therefore, many of us have to weigh the costs and benefits of supporting her as an Asian American versus our dislike for Republican policies and ideology. In the end, as Martin Luther King so eloquently stated, individuals must be judged on the content of their character and what they do -- not on the color of their skin or their ethnicity.
Having said that however, we must recognize and appreciate the diversity within the Asian American community. This includes differences in terms of ethnicity, age, educational attainment, income, languages and English proficiency, and in this case, political views. In this sense, Secretary Chao, along with Secretary Mineta and all other Asian American politicians serving our country at all levels, deserve our thanks and support.
The Future is Now
These days, as the size of the Asian American population continues to grow, so do the number of Asian Americans entering the political arena and public service. The latest people such as California Democrat Mike Honda and Louisiana Republican Bobby Jindal, who recently lost a close race to be Governor of Louisiana.  These include many suburban areas in southern and northern California .
On the national level, several Asian American organizations have recently formed a coalition to develop a comprehensive policy platform. Their goal is to encourage political leaders in general and presidential candidates in particular to treat Asian Americans with the same level of attention and respect that they do other racial/ethnic constituents, such as Blacks, Latinos, and Jews. As part of this effort, political action committees such as the 80-20 Initiative are trying to mobilize a powerful Asian American bloc vote by casting 80% of Asian American ballots for the candidate that they will endorse later in the year.
Interestingly, as Asian Americans become more common among civic and political leaders (similar to what's happening with many predominantly Latino/Hispanic areas around the country), they still face subtle charges that they are somehow "taking over," implying that they have some sinister or evil master plan for world domination. Ironically, many long-time white residents in these localities where Asian Americans are increasingly prominent now feel that they're being excluded from full civic participation and are made to feel like outsiders.
Many observers point out that these complaints are only inevitable and temporary frictions that occur when the balance of power begins to shift from one group to another. It will nonetheless be interesting to see how the landscape of political power at different levels in the U.S. evolves as our society continues to become increasing multicultural and racially/ethnically diverse .
Contributors and Attributions
- Tsuhako, Joy. (Cerritos College)
- Gutierrez, Erika. (Santiago Canyon College).
- Asian Nation (Le) ( CC BY-NC-ND ) adapted with permission
Works Cited & Recommended for Further Reading
- Aoki, A., Lien, P. (Eds.). (2020). Asian Pacific American Politics: Celebrating the Scholarly Legacy of Don T. Nakanishi . New York, NY: Routledge.
- Chin, M.M. (2020). Stuck: Why Asian Americans Don’t Reach the Top of the Corporate Ladder . New York, NY: NYU Press.
- Chou, R.S. & Feagin, J.R. (2008.) The Myth of the Model Minority: Asian Americans Facing Racism . Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.
- Constable, N. (2003). Romance on a Global Stage: Pen Pals, Virtual Ethnography, and "Mail Order" Marriages . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- Fong, T.P. (2020). The Contemporary Asian American Experience: Beyond the Model Minority (3rd Ed.) . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Hartlep, N.D. & Porfilio, B.J. (Eds.). (2015). Killing the Model Minority Stereotype: Asian American Counterstories and Complicity . Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
- Hsu, M.Y. (2017). The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Koshy, S. (2005). Sexual Naturalization: Asian Americans and Miscegenation . Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press
- Liu, B. (Ed.). (2017). Solving the Mystery of the Model Minority: The Journey of Asian Americans in America . New York, NY: Cognella Academic Publishing.
- Liu, M. & Lai, T. (2008). The Snake Dance of Asian American Activism: Community, Vision, and Power . Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
- Koshy, S. (2005). Sexual Naturalization: Asian Americans and Miscegenation . Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press
- Maeda, D.J. (2011). Rethinking the Asian American Movement . New York, NY: Routledge.
- Nemoto, K. (2009). Racing Romance: Love, Power, and Desire Among Asian American/White Couples . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
- Okamoto, D.G. (2014). Redefining Race: Asian American Panethnicity and Shifting Ethnic Boundaries . New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
- Osuji, C.K. (2019). Boundaries of Love: Interracial Marriage and the Meaning of Race . New York, NY: NYU Press.
- Pascoe, P. (2010). What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
- Prasso, S. (2010). The Asian Mystique: Dragon Ladies, Geisha Girls, and Our Fantasies of the Exotic Orient . New York, NY: Public Affairs Publishing.
- Shimizu, C. (2007). The Hypersexuality of Race: Performing Asian/American Women on Screen and Scene . Duke University Press.
- Thai, H.C. (2008). For Better or For Worse: Vietnamese International Marriages in the New Global Economy . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
- Ty, E. (2017). Asianfail: Narratives of Disenchantment and the Model Minority . Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
- Wong, E.L. (2015). Racial Reconstruction: Black Inclusion, Chinese Exclusion, and the Fictions of Citizenship . New York, NY: NYU Press.
- Wong, J., Ramakrishnan, S.K., Lee, T., & Junn, J. (2011). Asian American Political Participation: Emerging Constituents and Their Political Identities . New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
- Wu, C. (2018). Sticky Rice: A Politics of Intraracial Desire . Philadelphia: Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
- Wu, E. (2013). The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.


2.2: The Infinitude of Primes
We now show that there are infinitely many primes. There are several ways to prove this result. An alternative proof to the one presented here is given as an exercise. The proof we will provide was presented by Euclid in his book the Elements.
There are infinitely many primes.
We present the proof by contradiction. Suppose there are finitely many primes \(p_1, p_2, ...,p_n\), where \(n\) is a positive integer. Consider the integer \(Q\) such that
\[Q=p_1p_2...p_n+1.\]
By Lemma 3, \(Q\) has at least a prime divisor, say \(q\). If we prove that \(q\) is not one of the primes listed then we obtain a contradiction. Suppose now that \(q=p_i\) for \(1\leq i\leq n\). Thus \(q\) divides \(p_1p_2...p_n\) and as a result \(q\) divides \(Q-p_1p_2...p_n\). Therefore \(q\) divides 1. But this is impossible since there is no prime that divides 1 and as a result \(q\) is not one of the primes listed.
The following theorem discusses the large gaps between primes. It simply states that there are arbitrary large gaps in the series of primes and that the primes are spaced irregularly.
Given any positive integer \(n\), there exists \(n\) consecutive composite integers.
Consider the sequence of integers
\[(n+1)!+2, (n+1)!+3,...,(n+1)!+n, (n+1)!+n+1\]
Notice that every integer in the above sequence is composite because \(k\) divides \((n+1)!+k\) if \(2\leq k\leq n+1\) by [thm4] .
Exercises
- Show that the integer \(Q_n=n!+1\) , where \(n\) is a positive integer, has a prime divisor greater than \(n\). Conclude that there are infinitely many primes. Notice that this exercise is another proof of the infinitude of primes.
- Find the smallest five consecutive composite integers.
- Find one million consecutive composite integers.
- Show that there are no prime triplets other than 3,5,7.
Contributors and Attributions
-
Dr. Wissam Raji, Ph.D., of the American University in Beirut. His work was selected by the Saylor Foundation’s Open Textbook Challenge for public release under a Creative Commons Attribution ( CC BY ) license.


2.5: Other Non-Invasive Techniques
This page is a draft and under active development. Please forward any questions, comments, and/or feedback to the ASCCC OERI<EMAIL_ADDRESS>).
- Describe how transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is different from other functional imaging techniques.
- Differentiate between depolarization and hyperpolarization with respect to TMS.
Overview
This section is frequently combined with one of the previous sections in many textbooks because many of the researchers who do functional brain imaging work also conduct TMS work (the subject of this section). However, this technique is different from the previous techniques in many important ways. In this section, we will discuss what TMS is, when it is used, and how it is different from the previous imaging techniques.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Another technique that is worth mentioning is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). TMS is a noninvasive method that causes depolarization or hyperpolarization in neurons near the scalp. In TMS, a coil of wire is placed just above the participant’s scalp (as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). When electricity flows through the coil, it produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field travels through the skull and scalp and affects neurons near the surface of the brain. When the magnetic field is rapidly turned on and off, a current is induced in the neurons, leading to depolarization or hyperpolarization, depending on the number of magnetic field pulses. Single- or paired-pulse TMS depolarizes site-specific neurons in the cortex, causing them to fire. If this method is used over primary motor cortex, it can produce or block muscle activity, such as inducing a finger twitch or preventing someone from pressing a button. If used over primary visual cortex, it can produce sensations of flashes of light or impair visual processes. This has proved to be a valuable tool in studying the function and timing of specific processes such as the recognition of visual stimuli. Repetitive TMS produces effects that last longer than the initial stimulation. Depending on the intensity, coil orientation, and frequency, neural activity in the stimulated area may be either attenuated or amplified. Used in this manner, TMS is able to explore neural plasticity , which is the ability of connections between neurons to change. This has implications for treating psychological disorders as well as understanding long-term changes in neuronal excitability.
Note that TMS is different from the previous techniques in that we are not taking images of what the brain is doing.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Woman with TMS wand pressed against the back right side of her head. Credit: "TMS" by Baburov is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
Using Transcranial Magnetic Imaging to Study a Disorder: Autism Spectrum Disorder
TMS studies, as with most research techniques, can come in the form of basic research (research intended to inform our understanding) and applied research (research intended to solve a problem). Basic research in neuroscience is typically driven by research questions aimed at a general understanding of how the brain and nervous system work. Some TMS studies have used TMS to reduce brain activity in the right amygdala during the processing of faces with negative emotions (Baeken et al., 2010). Although this research wasn’t specific to autism, it is not hard to see the connection between understanding how the amygdala works and ASD. Furthermore, studies have tried to use TMS to treat ASD. Studies thus far have focused on using TMS to change activity levels and possibly stimulate neural plasticity. There was even a transcranial magnetic stimulation therapy for autism conference held in 2014 to discuss the use of the tool in the treatment of ASD. Indeed, there are myriad of possibilities for how this tool can be used in the future. (See Oberman et al. (2015) for a review of TMS treatments for ASD.)
Summary
TMS is a technique where researchers and doctors are able examine the changes in function that are produced when a brain area is excited or inhibited. For research purposes, it has been useful to help us map the brain. For clinical purposes, TMS is being studied more and more to understand whether it can cause alterations in the neural networks that can lead to benefits for people with various disorders.
References
Baeken, C., De Raedt, R., Van Schuerbeek, P., Vanderhasselt, M. A., De Mey, J., Bossuyt, A., & Luypaert, R. (2010). Right prefrontal HF-rtms attenuates right amygdala processing of negatively valenced emotional stimuli in healthy females. Behavioural Brain Research , 214 (2), 450–455.
Oberman, L. M., Enticott, P. G., Casanova, M. F., Rotenberg, A., Pascual-Leone, A., & McCracken, J. T. (2015). Transcranial magnetic stimulation in autism spectrum disorder: Challenges, promise, and roadmap for future research. Autism Research , 9 (2), 184–203.


12.0: Chapter Scenario
WorldCorp has grown into a large, global corporation, requiring sophisticated and complex accounting. This also means that the company’s overall finances must be handled by comprehensive accounting software. However, within WorldCorp, many departments need to understand and analyze information from the accounting software at the department, unit, or project levels, which they can do using Microsoft Excel spreadsheets. Excel can be useful for calculating potential expenses for a new project or initiative and for projecting revenue for various scenarios.
Having a sound understanding of the basics of accounting is a valuable asset for many workers, even if they are not directly or formally involved in the company’s accounting processes. Being familiar with the basic concepts and terminology of accounting can help you understand financial decisions. This includes knowing common financial accounting formulas, relating expenses and revenue, being familiar with financial statements, and understanding which software applications are used for different levels of accounting. As another benefit, learning accounting principles can provide a valuable framework for understanding and managing personal finances.


<IP_ADDRESS>: Rhetorical Criticism References
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Black, Edwin. Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method. 2 ed. Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1978.
Bormann, Ernest G. “How to Make a Fantasy Theme Analysis.”. 4.
Bowers, John W., Donovan J. Ochs, and Richard J. Jensen. The Rhetoric of Agitation and Control. Prospect Heights: Waveland, 1993.
Brock, Bernard L., Robert L. Scott, and James W. Cheseboro. “Introduction.” Methods in Rhetorical Criticism. Ed. Bernard L. Brock, Robert L. Scott, and James W. Cheseboro. Detroit: Wayne State University, 1989. 9-22.
Bryant, Donald C. “Some Problems Eith Scope and Method in Rhetorical Criticism.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 23 (1937): 182-89.
Burke, Kenneth. Permanence and Change. 1935. 3 ed. Berleley: University of California, 1984.
Campbell, Karlyn Kohrs. The Rhetorical Act. 2 ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 1996.
Carlson, A. Cheree. “Aspasia of Miletus: How One Woman Disappeared from the History of Rhetoric.” Women’s Studies in Communication 17.1 (1994): 26-44.
Cathcart, Robert S. Post-Communication: Rhetorical Analysis and Evaluation. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1991.
Chao, Pan. “Lessons for Women.” Rhetoric: Concepts, Definitions, and Boundaries. Ed. William A. Covino and David A. jolliffe. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 415-18.
Covino, A William and David A. Jolliffe, ed. Rhetoric: Concepts, Definitions, Boundaries. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995.
Ewbank, Henry L. “Four Approaches to the Study of Speech Style.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 18 (1931): 458-65.
Farrell, Thomas B. Norms of Rhetorical Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993.
Foss, Sonja K., Karen A. Foss, and Cindy L. Griffin. Feminist Rhetorical Theories. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1999.
Foss, Sonja K., Foss, Karen A. and Robert Trapp. Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric. 3rd ed. Prspect Heights: Waveland, 2002.
Foss, Sonja K. Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice. 2nd ed. Prospect Heights: Waveland, 1996.
Hart, Roderick P. “Contemporary Scholarship in Public Address: A Research Editorial.” Western Journal of Speech Communication 50 (1986): 282-89.
Henry, David. “Test and Theory in Critical Practice.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 78 (1992): 219-22.
Hunt, Everett Lee. “Rhetoric and Literary Criticism.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 21 (1935): 564-68.
Leff, Michael. “Things Made by Words: Reflections on Textual Criticism.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 78 (1992): 223-31. Mohtmann, and Donovan J. Ochs. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1973. 1-31.
Stewart, Charles J. “Historical Survey: Rhetorical Criticism in Twentieth Century America.” Explorations in Rhetorical Criticism. Ed. Charles J. Stewart G.P.
Wichelns, Herbert. “The Literary Criticism of Oratory.” Rhetoric and Public Speaking in Honor of James A. Winans. Ed. A.M. Drummand. New York: Century, 1935.
Contributions and Affiliations
- Survey of Communication Study. Authored by : Scott T Paynton and Linda K Hahn. Provided by : Humboldt State University. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study/Preface. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


1.1.E: Problems in Set Theory (Exercises)
Prove Theorem 1 (show that \(x\) is in the left-hand set iff it is in the right-hand set). For example, for \((\mathrm{d}),\)
\[
\begin{aligned} x \in(A \cup B) \cap C & \Longleftrightarrow[x \in(A \cup B) \text { and } x \in C] \\ & \Longleftrightarrow[(x \in A \text { or } x \in B), \text { and } x \in C] \\ & \Longleftrightarrow[(x \in A, x \in C) \text { or }(x \in B, x \in C)]. \end{aligned}
\]
Prove that
(i) \(-(-A)=A\);
(ii) \(A \subseteq B\) iff \(-B \subseteq-A\).
Prove that
\[
A-B=A \cap(-B)=(-B)-(-A)=-[(-A) \cup B].
\]
Also, give three expressions for \(A \cap B\) and \(A \cup B,\) in terms of complements.
Prove the second duality law (Theorem 2(ii)).
Describe geometrically the following sets on the real line:
\[
\begin{array}{ll}{\text { (i) }\{x | x<0\} ;} & {\text { (ii) }\{x| | x |<1\}}; \\ {\text { (iii) }\{x| | x-a |<\varepsilon\} ;} & {\text { (iv) }\{x | a<x \leq b\}}; \\ {\text { (v) }\{x| | x |<0\}}. \end{array}
\]
Let \((a, b)\) denote the set
\[
\{\{a\},\{a, b\}\}
\]
(Kuratowski's definition of an ordered pair).
(i) Which of the following statements are true?
\[
\begin{array}{ll}{\text { (a) } a \in(a, b) ;} & {\text { (b) }\{a\} \in(a, b)}; \\ {\text { (c) }(a, a)=\{a\} ;} & {\text { (d) } b \in(a, b)}; \\ {\text { (e) }\{b\} \in(a, b) ;} & {\text { (f) }\{a, b\} \in(a, b)}. \end{array}
\]
(ii) Prove that \((a, b)=(u, v)\) if \(a=u\) and \(b=v\).
[Hint: Consider separately the two cases \(a=b\) and \(a \neq b,\) noting that \(\{a, a\}=\) \(\{a\} .\) Also note that \(\{a\} \neq a . ]\)
Describe geometrically the following sets in the \(x y\)-plane.
(i) \(\{(x, y) | x<y\}\);
(ii) \(\left\{(x, y) | x^{2}+y^{2}<1\right\}\);
(iii) \(\{(x, y)|\max (|x|,|y|)<1\}\);
(iii) \(\left\{(x, y) | y>x^{2}\right\}\);
(iv) \(\left\{(x, y) | y>x^{2}\right\}\);
(vii) \(\{(x, y)| | x|+| y |<4\}\);
(vii) \(\left\{(x, y) |(x-2)^{2}+(y+5)^{2} \leq 9\right\}\);
(viii) \(\left\{(x, y) | x^{2}-2 x y+y^{2}<0\right\}\);
(ix) \(\left\{(x, y) | x^{2}-2 x y+y^{2}=0\right\}\).
Prove that
(i) \((A \cup B) \times C=(A \times C) \cup(B \times C)\);
(ii) \((A \cap B) \times(C \cap D)=(A \times C) \cap(B \times D)\);
(iii) \((X \times Y)-\left(X^{\prime} \times Y^{\prime}\right)=\left[\left(X \cap X^{\prime}\right) \times\left(Y-Y^{\prime}\right)\right] \cup\left[\left(X-X^{\prime}\right) \times Y\right]\);
[Hint: In each case, show that an ordered pair \((x, y)\) is in the left-hand set iff it is in the right-hand set, treating \((x, y)\) as one element of the Cartesian product. \(]\)
Prove the distributive laws
(i) \(A \cap \cup X_{i}=\bigcup\left(A \cap X_{i}\right)\);
(ii) \(A \cup \cap X_{i}=\bigcap\left(A \cup X_{i}\right)\);
(iii) \(\left(\cap X_{i}\right)-A=\cap\left(X_{i}-A\right)\);
(iv) \((\cup X _{i} )-A=\cup\left(X_{i}-A\right)\);
(v) \(\cap X_{i} \cup \cap Y_{j}=\cap_{i, j}\left(X_{i} \cup Y_{j}\right) ;\)
(vi) \(\cup X_{i} \cap \cup Y_{j}=\cup_{i, j}\left(X_{i} \cap Y_{j}\right)\).
Prove that
(i) \(\left(\cup A_{i}\right) \times B=\bigcup\left(A_{i} \times B\right)\);
(ii) \(\left(\cap A_{i}\right) \times B=\cap\left(A_{i} \times B\right)\);
(iii) \(\left(\cap_{i} A_{i}\right) \times\left(\cap_{j} B_{j}\right)=\bigcap_{i, j}\left(A_{i} \times B_{i}\right)\);
(iv) \(\left(\cup_{i} A_{i}\right) \times\left(\bigcup_{j} B_{j}\right)=\bigcup_{i, j}\left(A_{i} \times B_{j}\right)\).


3.1: Why It Matters- Global Environment
Why describe the characteristics, opportunities, and challenges of the global business environment?
Grab your book bag, backpack, briefcase or whatever you carry your school supplies in, and open it up. Sort the contents into two piles: items made in the United States and items made anywhere else. Now, how large is the stack of things made in the United States compared to the imported items? Some may be labeled with the store brand and say something like “Manufactured in China for Company X.” Others may simply have a tag that reads “Made in the Philippines.” How many different countries are represented by the contents of your book bag? Do you realize that you just identified a small sample of countries that are United States trading partners?
You should now have two stacks of items (made in the United States and made elsewhere). Now, take everything that is not made in the United States and put it aside. From this point forward all you have access to are the things left in the “100 percent made in the U.S.A.” stack. What do you have left? You will be lucky if you have a pencil and an eraser. It is global business and global trade that gives you access to everything else in your backpack.
Understanding the global business environment is critical to everyone who consumes any good, service or resource. Until we understand how the global business environment operates, why businesses and nations trade, and the forces at work in the global marketplace, we are naive consumers. You need to be informed so that you can make decisions about where you will work, who you will work for, who you will vote for, and what foreign policies you will either support or oppose. Without understanding the global business environment, you might find yourself facing daily life with nothing more than a pencil and an eraser.


7.2: Employee Development and Performance Evaluations
- Describe employee development approaches.
- Describe performance evaluation approaches.
The best, most loyal employees are often people who started near the bottom of the organizational chart and worked their way up the ladder with the help, support, and encouragement of their manager and their employer. That help, support, and encouragement are all part of employee development. In a well-managed company, there are systems in place to provide appropriate development opportunities and resources. In addition, managers are trained to support their team members with coaching, meaningful feedback, and—in some cases—mentorship.
Managers have an important role to play in ensuring that their employees develop their potential. Some of the most important things a manager can do for their team members are:
- Delegating responsibility rather than fixing problems before they arise.
- Being aware of development opportunities as they become available and sharing information with team members.
- Offering or suggesting specific appropriate development opportunities to employees and/or human resources when and as they are appropriate.
- Providing meaningful, actionable feedback to team members regularly.
- Including “up and coming” employees in meetings, conferences, and other events where they can contribute ideas, learn about opportunities, and ask questions.
Formal Employee Development Strategies
In any company, there are employees who are satisfied with entry-level work and those who are eager to learn, grow, and build their careers. Although training programs are appropriate for both groups, certain types of training are particularly important for individuals willing to work hard to improve their career opportunities. These include training opportunities in areas such as leadership, management, negotiation, and other areas likely to be useful to a new manager.
Formal employee development strategies are often planned and implemented by HR and/or consultants, online training companies, and universities. Topics taught range from “soft” skills (interpersonal communication, public speaking, negotiation, leadership skills, etc.) to “hard” technical skills (coding, accounting, systems administration, etc.). Options include:
- On-site or off-site workshops to train employees in areas such as business ethics, communication, management skills, business writing, public speaking, and management techniques.
- Online training programs to build skills in areas such as international business law, marketing or sales techniques.
- Certification programs in areas ranging from software proficiency to legal knowledge to management in specific areas such as human resources and manufacturing.
- Funding for formal coursework in pursuit of postsecondary degrees or certifications in areas such as business administration, finance, or related fields.
- Opportunities to attend conventions and conferences at which employees may attend workshops and build their professional networks (or in some industries, present their research, products, or ideas).
Informal Employee Development Strategies
In addition to formal employee development, many corporations offer informal development options. These often take the form of on-the-job training, shadowing, mentorship, or similar experiences that allow newer employees to learn from senior staff. In addition, managers may choose to coach promising employees to prepare them for more challenging opportunities.
- On the job training may involve a newer employee watching and then imitating a more experienced colleague. On-the-job training is fairly standard in hands-on work such as manufacturing, trades, and restaurant work—but it is also effective in many business situations. In sales, for example, a more experienced representative might make a sale using specific techniques and then allow the newer representative to try using that same technique with another potential client. After the interaction is complete, the more experienced individual might provide constructive feedback.
- Shadowing is a technique in which a newer employee literally “shadows” or follows a more experienced colleague to watch and learn from his or her techniques. As with on-the-job training, a day of shadowing is usually followed by a conversation during which the learner asks questions to better understand the techniques demonstrated. Shadowing works well when a specific skill is being demonstrated; mediation and negotiation, for example, are best understood in a real-world setting.
- Mentorship and coaching are generally offered not by peers but by managers who have the experience and knowledge to advise promising employees. Some corporations offer formal mentorship programs that match individual employees with mentors who have greater experience and higher-level positions in a similar field. Other corporations encourage informal mentoring. Coaching is usually provided by a direct manager who may, for example, wish to support an employee so that he or she can successfully navigate a tricky or challenging project.
Performance Evaluations
Most companies perform annual performance evaluations. These high-stakes reviews can have a profound influence on an employee’s career, as they are often the basis on which decisions are made regarding raises, promotions, and even retention. As a result, they create a great deal of anxiety, both for employees and for their managers.
Fortunately, it is possible to craft the performance evaluation so that it is relatively painless. At the same time, a well-crafted evaluation process can also help both managers and employees to review job descriptions with an eye to making appropriate changes, set goals, and address unnecessary roadblocks and challenges that sabotage high performance.
The following list covers some of the most popular approaches to performance evaluations. Each of these has its pros and cons, depending on the type of job and the purpose of the evaluation. Often, managers use multiple techniques to gain a fuller picture of each employee.
- Checklists are helpful in that they allow managers to quickly check off skills, achievements, and behaviors as they are accomplished. The downside is that checklists provide little meaningful information about the quality of the accomplishments or any challenges an employee might have encountered when attempting to complete a task. For example, an employee might have legitimate difficulty arriving on time if a public transit strike occurred—but a checklist would simply note that the employee was tardy. Because they’re so quick and easy, though, it’s possible to use a checklist regularly and compare outcomes over time.
- Rating Scales allow managers to rate the quality of an employee’s performance or skills; generally, the rating scales are 1 to 5 or 1 to 10. This allows a little more flexibility than a checklist, and it can suggest opportunities for improvement over time. For example, an employee who earns 6 out of 10 for punctuality in January can earn 8 out of 10 in February—thus showing both motivation and improvement.
- Comparative Techniques allow managers to compare individual employees head to head for specific goals and outcomes. For example, managers might compare the number of sales made, customers served, income generated, etc. Comparative techniques make it possible to see whether an individual employee is falling far behind or leaping out in front of his or her peers. Of course, comparative techniques only apply to groups of employees who have identical goals, resources, opportunities, and training.
- Narrative Techniques are essays describing employee performance. These are generally written by the employees’ direct managers, though they are sometimes written by the employee himself or herself. On the one hand, narrative essays take time and energy away from the manager’s (or employee’s) daily tasks. On the other hand, they can provide the most detailed and meaningful evaluations, as they are flexible enough to describe individuals’ strengths, challenges, obstacles, and opportunities.
- 360 Feedback asks employees’ managers, subordinates, and peers to provide feedback about performance from every angle. This can be a very useful form of evaluation, as some individuals can be wonderful managers but have a difficult time interacting with peers or vice versa. By gathering a wide range of perspectives, managers can pinpoint areas of strength and opportunities for growth. On the other hand, this approach can be problematic if the employee in question is less popular for any reason or if a supervisee is unhappy about being disciplined.
- Cost Accounting is an approach that is most appropriate for individuals who make direct sales, produce a manufactured product, or provide direct service. The question asked is: how does the cost of the employee’s salary and benefits compare to the income this individual generates? By making a direct cost/benefit analysis, the manager can determine whether the employee is worth the amount being spent on him or her by the corporation. This type of accounting, however, rarely provides a complete story about the employee’s abilities or assets. For example, a sales person who takes his or her time getting to know the client may make fewer sales per week but may generate more goodwill and recommendations over the long term.
- Management by Objectives is a personalized evaluation technique that measures the individual employee’s achievement by comparing the employee to objectives agreed upon the prior year. For example, the employee and manager may have agreed on a particular sales objective; at the end of the year, the employee’s actual sales can be compared positively or negatively to the individualized objective.
Contributors and Attributions
- Employee Development and Performance Evaluations. Authored by : Lisa Jo Rudy and Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Blur Cellphone Close Up Conversation. Authored by : rawpixel.com. Located at : https://www.pexels.com/photo/blur-cellphone-close-up-conversation-401684/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved


14.3: Matter As a Wave
[In] a few minutes I shall be all melted...  Look out --- here I go! -- The Wicked Witch of the West
As the Wicked Witch learned the hard way, losing molecular cohesion can be unpleasant. That's why we should be very grateful that the concepts of quantum physics apply to matter as well as light. If matter obeyed the laws of classical physics, molecules wouldn't exist.
Consider, for example, the simplest atom, hydrogen. Why does one hydrogen atom form a chemical bond with another hydrogen atom? Roughly speaking, we'd expect a neighboring pair of hydrogen atoms, A and B, to exert no force on each other at all, attractive or repulsive: there are two repulsive interactions (proton A with proton B and electron A with electron B) and two attractive interactions (proton A with electron B and electron A with proton B). Thinking a little more precisely, we should even expect that once the two atoms got close enough, the interaction would be repulsive. For instance, if you squeezed them so close together that the two protons were almost on top of each other, there would be a tremendously strong repulsion between them due to the \(1/r^2\) nature of the electrical force. The repulsion between the electrons would not be as strong, because each electron ranges over a large area, and is not likely to be found right on top of the other electron. Thus hydrogen molecules should not exist according to classical physics.
Quantum physics to the rescue! As we'll see shortly, the whole problem is solved by applying the same quantum concepts to electrons that we have already used for photons.
Contributors and Attributions
Benjamin Crowell (Fullerton College). Conceptual Physics is copyrighted with a CC-BY-SA license.


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4.1: Function Definition
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A function is a rule that assigns to each element in the set of input values (the domain), one and only one element in the set of output values (the range).
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4.2: Function Notation
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Functions are written as ”f(x)= an algebraic expression”. Since y=f(x), f(x) is the same thing as y. This notation expresses x as the input into the function, and f(x) as the output from the function.
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4.3: Evaluating a Function
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When a function is evaluated, replace x with a given numeric value or an algebraic expression, and then simplify the result.
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4.4: Linear Functions
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A Linear Function is a function that has the form f(x)=mx+b . Any line that can be expressed in the form y=mx+b is also a function.
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4.5: Absolute-Value Functions
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To graph absolute-value functions, choose small values of x , and compute the value of f(x) from the given function to create ordered pairs. Three ordered pairs is the minimum amount needed to graph an absolute value function.
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4.6: Polynomial Functions
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A Polynomial Function is a function that can be written in the general form.
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4.7: Domain and Range of a Function
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The domain of a function is all possible values of x that can be used as input to the function, which will result in a real number as the output. The range of a function is the set of all possible output values of a function.
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4.8: Graphing Functions (without using Calculus)
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There are some basic functions, called toolkit functions, that students should recognize by their function definition and their graph. For each of these functions, x is the input variable, and f(x) is the output variable.
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4.9: Function Composition
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The notation f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) may be easier to understand than using the composition operator. For f(g(x)), think of wrapping a package. The gift is put into the box (the gift is g(x), the box is f(x)) and the wrapped present, f(x), contains the gift g(x).
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4.10: Finding all Real Roots of a Function
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To find the real roots of a function, find where the function intersects the x-axis. To find where the function intersects the x-axis, set f(x)=0 and solve the equation for x.
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4.11: Piecewise-Definition Functions
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Piecewise-Defined Functions are functions that are defined using different equations for different parts of the domain.
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4.12: Applied Examples of Functions
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Applied examples of function (AKA word problems!) can take many forms.


6.6: Project- Measuring Streamflow
Purpose of the project: Apply numeric integration techniques to a real-world problem.
How do you measure streamflow? The basic idea is simple: it is area times velocity. For example, suppose you had a river that was \(20\) feet wide, \(3\) feet deep, and had water moving at \(2\) feet per second. Then we multiply the \(20\) and the \(3\) to get an area of \(60\) ft\(^2\), and the multiply by the \(2\) ft per second to get \(120\) ft\(^3\) per second. This works great if you have a rectangular river where the water moves at a constant velocity. But what if the river is not a rectangle? What if the velocity changes depending on where in the river you are? How can you find the streamflow? And what does this have to do with numeric integration techniques?
- Come up with two different ways to find streamflow in a river. Why do they work? And how do they relate to the numeric integration techniques we studied?
- Try both methods on the virtual river (see river.html). I recommend using a spreadsheet to record your data and to automatically do the calculations for you.
- If you have access to a flow meter or some method of calculating water velocity, try out both methods in a real river. Which method do you feel worked better? Why?


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3.1: Introduction to Probability
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This section introduces foundational terminology and concepts about probability, examination of situations with possible events/outcomes, and beginning methods for measuring probability, including an introduction to complementary events.
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3.2: Counting Strategies
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This section covers basic formulas for determining the number of various possible types of outcomes. The topics covered are: counting the number of possible orders, counting using the multiplication rule, counting the number of permutations, and counting the number of combinations.
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3.3: Counting and Compound Events
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This section continues the journey into methods of counting by considering cases and various ways events can be formed from other events.
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3.4: Probability and Compound Events
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Probability is an important and complex field of study. Fortunately, only a few basic issues in probability theory are essential for understanding statistics at the level covered in this book. These basic issues are covered in this chapter.


14.9: Bibliography
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- Jennifer Hasty, David G. Lewis, & Marjorie M. Snipes
- OpenStax
Ahmad, Shafqat, M. Vinayaga Moorthy, Olga V. Demler, Frank B. Hu, Paul M. Ridker, Daniel I. Chasman, and Samia Mora. 2018. “Assessment of Risk Factors and Biomarkers Associated with Risk of Cardiovascular Disease among Women Consuming a Mediterranean Diet.” JAMA Network Open 1 (8). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.5708 .
Arens, William. 1979. The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy . New York: Oxford University Press.
Avieli, Nir. 2011. “Dog Meat Politics in a Vietnamese Town.” Ethnology 50 (1): 59–78. http://ethnology.pitt.edu/ojs/index....ewArticle/6092 .
Blackley, Seamus, Serena Love, and Richard Bowman. 2019. “A Conversation with the Team That Made Bread with Ancient Egyptian Yeast.” Interview by Jenny G. Zhang. Eater. August 8, 2019. https://www.eater.com/2019/8/8/20792...egyptian-yeast .
Borowski, Oded. 2004. “Eat, Drink, and Be Merry: The Mediterranean Diet.” Near Eastern Archaeology 67 (2): 96–107.
Braun, Adee. 2014. “Looking to Quell Sexual Urges? Consider the Graham Cracker.” Atlantic , January 15, 2014. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/a...racker/282769/ .
Carnegie Museum of Natural History. 2018. “The Three Sisters: Sustainers of Life.” North South East West: American Indians and the Natural World. https://nsew.carnegiemnh.org/iroquoi...three_sisters/ .
Chang, Melanie L., and April Nowell. 2016. “How to Make Stone Soup: Is the ‘Paleo Diet’ a Missed Opportunity for Anthropologists?” Evolutionary Anthropology 25 (5): 228–231.
Chávez, Karen. 2019. “Great Smokies Approves Historic Sochan Collecting Agreement with Eastern Band of Cherokee.” Citizen-Times , updated March 27, 2019. https://www.citizen-times.com/story/...an/3267860002/ .
Coleman, Rei Kataoka. 2017. “Where Did Japan’s Imported Rice Go?” Tokyo Review. July 7, 2017. https://www.tokyoreview.net/2017/07/...orted-rice-go/ .
Conklin, Beth A. 1995. “‘Thus Are Our Bodies, Thus Was Our Custom’: Mortuary Cannibalism in an Amazonian Society.” American Ethnologist 22 (1): 75–101.
Cornaro, Lewis [Alvise]. 1779. Discourses on a Sober and Temperate Life . London: Benjamin White. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/30660 .
Duffy, Lisa. 2020. “Ancient Maya Cuisine and Residue Analysis.” Florida Museum of Natural History. Updated June 29, 2020. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/en...idue-analysis/ .
Ebeling, Jennie R., and Yorke M. Rowan. 2004. “The Archaeology of the Daily Grind: Ground Stone Tools and Food Production in the Southern Levant.” Near Eastern Archaeology 67 (2): 108–117.
Farb, Peter, and George Armelagos. 1980. Consuming Passions: The Anthropology of Eating . Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Freedman, Paul. 2015. “Women and Restaurants in the 19th-Century United States.” OUPblog , Oxford University Press. March 30, 2015. https://blog.oup.com/2015/03/women-r...tates-history/ .
Freedman, Paul. 2019a. American Cuisine: And How It Got This Way . New York: Liveright.
Freedman, Paul. 2019b. “How Steak Became Manly and Salads Became Feminine.” The Conversation. October 24, 2019. https://theconversation.com/how-stea...eminine-124147 .
Gish Hill, Christina. 2020. “Returning Corn, Beans, and Squash to Native American Farms.” JSTOR Daily , JSTOR. November 24, 2020. https://daily.jstor.org/partner-post...s-agriculture/ .
Graff, Sarah R. 2020. “Archaeology of Cuisine and Cooking.” Annual Review of Anthropology 49:337–354.
GrubHub. 2018. Men vs. Women Eating Preferences: Online Ordering Data Reveals Gender Differences in Takeout Dining . https://media.grubhub.com/files/doc_...001_b3cw14.pdf .
Isaac, Barry L. 2002. “Cannibalism among Aztecs and Their Neighbors: Analysis of the 1577–1586 ‘Relaciones Geográficas’ for Nueva España and Nueva Galicia Provinces.” Journal of Anthropological Research 58 (2): 203–224.
Lewis, Courtney. 2012. “The Case of the Wild Onions: The Impact of Ramps on Cherokee Rights.” Southern Cultures 18 (2): 104–117.
Lindenbaum, Shirley. 1979. Kuru Sorcery: Disease and Danger in the New Guinea Highlands . Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
Linnekin, Baylen. 2019. “Complicated Rules for Foraging Aren’t Helping Our National Parks.” Reason , April 6, 2019. https://reason.com/2019/04/06/compli...ing-arent-hel/ .
Lobel, Cindy. 2012. “Sylvester Graham and Antebellum Diet Reform.” The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History AP US History Study Guide. July 31, 2012. http://ap.gilderlehrman.org/history-...um-diet-reform .
Mayo Clinic Staff. “Paleo Diet: What Is It and Why Is It So Popular?” Mayo Clinic. August 25, 2020. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-l...t/art-20111182 .
Mitchell, Dawn. 2019. “The Cure for What Ails You: Elixirs, Tonics and Snake Oil.” Indy Star , updated January 4, 2019. https://www.indystar.com/story/news/...il/2288353002/ .
Mt. Pleasant, Jane. 2016. “Food Yields and Nutrient Analyses of the Three Sisters: A Haudenosaunee Cropping System.” Ethnobiology Letters 7 (1): 87–98. https://doi.org/10.14237/ebl.7.1.2016.721 .
Murphy, Andi. 2018. “Meet the Three Sisters Who Sustain Native America.” Native Voices , PBS. November 16, 2018. https://www.pbs.org/native-america/b...ative-america/ .
The Nutrition Source. 2018. “Diet Review: Mediterranean Diet.” Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health. Updated December 2018. https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutriti...erranean-diet/ .
Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko. 1993. Rice as Self: Japanese Identities through Time . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko. 1995. “Structure, Event and Historical Metaphor: Rice and Identities in Japanese History.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 1 (2): 227–253.
Phillips, Lynne. 2006. “Food and Globalization.” Annual Review of Anthropology 35:37–57.
Pobiner, Briana. 2013. “Evidence for Meat-Eating by Early Humans.” Nature Education Knowledge 4 (6): 1. https://www.nature.com/scitable/know...ans-103874273/ .
Pollan, Michael. 2006. The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals . New York: Penguin Press.
Pollan, Michael. 2008. In Defense of Food: An Eater’s Manifesto . New York: Penguin Press.
Quinton, Amy. 2019. “Cows and Climate Change: Making Cattle More Sustainable.” Feeding a Growing Population, UC Davis. June 27, 2019. https://www.ucdavis.edu/food/news/ma...re-sustainable .
Richter, Tobias, and Amaia Arranz-Otaegui. 2018. “Following a New Trail of Crumbs to Agriculture’s Origins.” Sapiens , July 16, 2018. https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/...bs-discovered/ .
Rivers, Bridgette, Robert Oliver, and Lynn Resler. 2014. “Pungent Provisions: The Ramp and Appalachian Identity.” Material Culture 46 (1): 1–24.
Robb, Alice. 2014. “Will Overpopulation and Resource Scarcity Drive Cannibalism?” New Republic , June 19, 2014. https://newrepublic.com/article/1182...ate-their-dead .
Tsékénis, Emile. 2017. “Personhood, Collectives, and the Human-Animal Distinction: The Cases of the Cameroon Grassfields and Madagascar.” Anthropologica 59 (1): 130–144.
United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. n.d. “Fast and Abstinence.” Accessed September 30, 2021. https://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-wor...and-abstinence .
Vilaça, Aparecida. 2002. “Making Kin out of Others in Amazonia.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 8 (2): 347–365.
Waldstein, Anna. 2017. “Food, Anthropology Of.” In The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology , edited by Hilary Callan. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118924396.wbiea1605 .
White, Max E. 1975. “Contemporary Usage of Native Plant Foods by the Eastern Cherokees.” Appalachian Journal 2 (4): 323–326.
Wild, Sarah. 2019. “Scientists Find First Evidence of Humans Cooking Starches.” Sapiens , June 21, 2019. https://www.sapiens.org/news/starche...umans-cooking/ .


6.7: Assisting With Chest Tube Placement
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Last updated
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Nurses may assist a provider with inserting a chest tube. Table 6.7 describes how to apply the nursing process before and after the chest tube is placed.
Table 6.7 Using the Nursing Process When Assisting With Chest Tube Placement
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Nursing Process Phase
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Nursing Actions
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Assessment
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Obtain and analyze the client’s vital signs and pulse oximetry.
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Complete and document a focused respiratory assessment.
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Verify client allergies, particularly allergies to latex or any substance applied to the skin.
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Review client medications, noting the use of NSAIDs or prescribed anticoagulants, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or warfarin, that increase the risk for bleeding.
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Review any client lab results such as hemoglobin, hematocrit, and INR (if the client is taking warfarin).
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Assess the client’s knowledge and understanding of the procedure.
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Assess the client’s need for analgesia and antianxiety medication.
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Diagnosis
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Determine nursing diagnoses based on the client’s condition/needs at this time, such as impaired gas exchange, ineffective breathing pattern, acute pain, or anxiety.
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Outcomes Identification/
Planning
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There are several expected outcomes after the insertion of a chest tube, such as the following:
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Stable vital signs
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Optimal oxygenation status indicated by oxygen saturation level
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No chest pain
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Baseline levels of alertness and orientation
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Reduced level of anxiety, if present
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Breath sounds present in all lung lobes with symmetric lung expansion
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Unlabored respirations
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Chest tube correctly placed
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Chest tube drainage system functioning appropriately
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Interventions Post-Procedure
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The tube will be connected to the chest drainage system and may be connected to suction based on provider orders.
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In the trauma setting, notify the provider if initial output is over 1500 mL or there is 200 mL/hour because this may indicate vascular injury that may require surgical repair.
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Assess the client’s respiratory status post-procedure, including lung sounds, chest expansion, and reported dyspnea.
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Monitor vital signs, including oxygen saturation level.
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Assess the client’s comfort level and compare to baseline. Administer pain medications as indicated.
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Confirm accurate placement of the chest tube has been verified by a chest X-ray.
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Inspect the dressing over the chest tube insertion site to ensure it is intact. (The tube is secured to the chest wall according to institutional preference with sutures, tape, or manufactured appliance.
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Evaluation
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Evaluate client response with anticipated decreased dyspnea and decreased pain.
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Evaluate the client’s ability to cough and deep breathe to promote lung expansion.
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Evaluate for proper functioning and maintenance of the chest tube drainage system.
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Evaluate for evidence of lung re-expansion.
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3.6: A List of Resources For Further Exploration Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 153416 Susan Rahman, Prateek Sunder, and Dahmitra Jackson CC ECHO A List of Resources For Further Exploration A Syllabus on Racism in development of medicine/ science Data on treatment/perception bias of people of color working in STEM Behind the Scenes at MIT. Offers OER videos and features a diverse representation of chemists doing a variety of projects that can be used in various chemistry courses. Racial Bias in Scientific Fields | Anti-Racism Resources College of Marin, Faculty Diversity Internship Program Chronology of Major Landmarks in the Progress of African Americans in Higher Education Inequality in Teaching and Schooling: How Opportunity Is Rationed to Students of Color in America Genetics Lessons Can Spark Racism in Students. This Change Can Prevent It. A scientist like me: demographic analysis of biology textbooks reveals both progress and long-term lags. Diversifying fields must also include representative course materials. 10 ways professors can combat linguistic biases in the classroom Anti-Black Linguistic Racism as a framework that explicitly names and richly captures the linguistic violence, persecution, dehumanization, and marginalization Black Language speakers endure when using their language in schools in everyday life. K-12 Black teachers ground down by racial battle fatigue after a year like no other A report from TEAM-UP points out that the challenges of under participation by African Americans within physics remain, and call for systematic change. How non-Black astronomers can support Black astronomers in the field. Study of ninth graders that took an ethnic studies class and the findings. Discussion of a new field, raciolinguistics, that examines how language shapes race and how race shapes language. APA calls for true systemic change in US culture Equitable Math An Open Letter & Call to Action to the Computing Community from Black computer scientists and our allies) Technology can't fix this | Nature Machine Intelligence Timnit Gebru: Google and big tech are 'institutionally racist' - BBC News Medical student creates diverse medical illustrations that show skin conditions on people of color, combating misrepresentation Music Theory and White Supremacy


11.4: Sporadic and Non-Heritable Diseases
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Not all of the characterized human traits and diseases are attributed to mutant alleles at a single gene locus. Many diseases that have a heritable component, have more complex inheritance patterns due to (1) the involvement of multiple genes, and/or (2) environmental factors. On the other hand, some non-genetic diseases may appear to be heritable because they affect multiple members of the same family, but this is due to the family members being exposed to the same toxins or other environmental factors (e.g. in their homes).
Finally, diseases with similar symptoms may have different causes, some of which may be genetic while others are not. One example of this is ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis); approximately 5-10% of cases are inherited in an AD pattern, while the majority of the remaining cases appear to be sporadic , in other words, not caused by a mutation inherited from a parent. We now know that different genes or proteins are affected in the inherited and sporadic forms of ALS. The physicist Stephen Hawking (Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\)) and baseball player Lou Gehrig both suffered from sporadic ALS.


3.3: Solubility of Gas in Water Experiment
Scientists hypothesize that approximately 250 million years ago, during the Permian period, the world's oceans became depleted of oxygen. A chain of events then led to the Permian mass extinction, a time during which most living species became extinct.
View the NOVA video and answer the questions
- How many years ago did the Permian mass extinction occur?
- What % of species became extinct in the Permian mass extinction?
- Mammal like reptiles and exotic ocean animals were present during the Permian period. What types of life were NOT on Earth 250 million years ago?
- How many major extinctions have occurred on Earth?
- What type of gas did the volcanoes in the Siberian Traps release?
- Water can hold a type of gas critical to living organisms (fish and other aquatic animals require it to survive). What is this gas?
- What type of gas do deadly bacteria in the lower layers of some lakes produce?
- What does this gas smell like?
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Develop a flowchart of the events that led to the Permian extinction
a. Anaerobic bacteria thrive in the oceans and produce hydrogen sulfide
b. Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels increase
c. Atmosphere warms
d. Dissolved oxygen levels in the oceans drop
e. Hydrogen sulfide accumulates in the oceans and atmosphere
f. Most aquatic life that depends on oxygen dies
g. 95 percent of Earth's life is killed by hydrogen sulfide
h. Oceans warm
i. Volcanoes erupt
Explain (briefly) how volcanic eruptions can change the atmospheric and ocean environments.
Experiment
Atmospheric gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, are soluble in water. How much of a particular gas dissolves in water depends on the temperature of the water and on the pressure of that gas above the water.
The gas in carbonated water (seltzer) is carbon dioxide. The high pressure inside the bottle causes more carbon dioxide to dissolve in the water than would dissolve at typical ground-level atmospheric pressures.
Materials
Carbonated water at room temperature
Carbonated water at 4
o
C
3 glass beakers
40
o
C water bath
Ice
Thermometer
Hypothesis
State the hypothesis prior to beginning the experiment. The hypothesis indicates at which temperatures you believe CO2 gas will be more or less soluble in water.
Procedure
Read through the entire procedure before beginning the experiment
- Obtain 3 - 250 ml beakers. Place one beaker on a bed of ice.
- Pour 100 ml of ice-cold carbonated water into the beaker on ice.
- Pour 100 ml room temperature carbonated water into the other 2 beakers.
- Immediately place a beaker in the 40 o C water bath. Bring the beaker on ice and the beaker at room temperature with you so that you can observe them simultaneously.
- Record observations in the data table.
- After 5 minutes, determine the temperature of each water environment by placing the thermometer in the carbonated water.
Data Table
Analysis and Conclusion
Questions
Refer to sections 3.1 and 3.2
- The aspect that varies between groups in the experiment is called the experimental (independent) variable. Identify the experimental variable in the experiment.
- Controlled variables are extraneous factors that are kept constant to minimize their effect on the outcome of the experiment. Identify 3 controlled variables
- The control group provides the baseline to which the experimental groups will be compared. Identify the control treatment in the experiment.
- The dependent variable changes with respect to the experimental (independent) variable. The dependent variable is what is measured in the experiment. Identify the dependent variable.