20.4: Communication Strategies
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- Compare information and communication technologies used in the community setting.
- Describe various communication tools and culturally and linguistically responsive communication strategies.
- Explain the use of multimedia applications to communicate outcomes.
The nurse uses effective and appropriate verbal and written communication strategies to promote health programs and healthy behaviors, increase awareness of health issues and health programs, recruit and retain program participants, share information with community partners, and disseminate program evaluation findings. The program team strategically develops and employs messages using a variety of tools and technologies. They also determine communication strategies prior to sending any health-related or program message, considering the intended target population’s communication needs.
Communication Tools and Technologies Used in the Community Setting
A variety of community tools and technologies are used in the community setting. The program team must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each when developing a communication plan. They should use multiple communication tools and methods to reach a larger number of the intended target population (Center for Rural Health, 2023; RHIhub, 2018a; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [HHS], 2014). Table 20.8 lists the types of communication tools and technologies and their advantages and disadvantages.
| Communication Tool | Examples | Advantages of Use | Disadvantages of Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Broadcast media |
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| Print media |
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| Social and digital media |
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| Outdoor media and public display |
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| Word of mouth |
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Communication Strategies
The program team develops and follows a systematic process to plan and implement communication strategies. Systematic processes ensure that communication is grounded in evidence, effective, efficient, and able to reach the intended target audience. HHS (2014) and the Center for Rural Health (2023) provide toolkits for health communication planning and implementation.
Four Stages of the Health Communication Cycle
HHS (2014) provides a workbook to assist the program team throughout four stages of health communication planning and implementation (see Figure 20.4).
First, the program team decides how to use communication, defines the intended target population, determines communication objectives, plans for evaluation of communication, and drafts communication activities.
Second, they develop messages and materials and collaborate with members of the intended target audience to get feedback and revise messages and materials as needed. The team answers the following questions during the planning stages (HHS, 2014):
- Will this type of communication reach and influence the intended target population?
- Are the chosen types of communication acceptable and trusted by the intended target population?
- Is the type of communication appropriate for the message?
- What is the reach of the type of communication? How many of the target population might be exposed?
- What is the cost of this type of communication?
- Are the resources available to create, maintain, and fund this type of communication?
Third, they implement the message, track exposure of the intended target audience, and continue to solicit feedback to revise the message as needed. Finally, they assess the effectiveness of the message and communication plan and revise them if needed. Strategies for effective health communication include the following:
- Use a variety of communication tools to increase reach (HHS, 2014; RHIhub, 2018a)
- Select evidence-based methods to develop materials and messages (RHIhub, 2018a)
- Incorporate health literacy and cultural needs of the intended target population (HHS, 2014; RHIhub, 2018a)
- Define the goal of the program (HHS, 2014)
- Pretest and revise materials and messages (HHS, 2014)
- Evaluate communication at delivery and throughout implementation (HHS, 2014)
Creating a Communication Plan
The Center for Rural Health provides a communication toolkit to guide the program team to focus “the right message on the right audience at the right time” (Center for Rural Health, 2023, para 1). A systematic communication planning and implementation method leads to efficient and effective communication delivered using the resources of the program budget. The steps of communication plan development include the following:
- Analysis: Summarize the overarching and communication goals of the program, resources available for communication, and the effectiveness of current communication strategies.
- Goals & Objectives: Create SMART objectives for communication. Planning Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Interventions describes SMART objectives .
- Key Messages: Create three to five central messages for the program.
- Target Audience: Identify the intended target population and assess communication needs and barriers.
- Tactics: Choose communication tools and technologies to deliver the message.
- Implementation Timeline: Set target dates for communication implementation, establish accountability for communication activities, and allocate finances and resources for implementation.
- Evaluate & Revise: Set dates for evaluation throughout implementation to assess the effectiveness of the communication plan and revise if needed.
Communication Considerations
The program team considers the needs of and barriers to communication with the intended target population . They integrate the target population’s health priorities, culture, language, and health literacy into messages and materials used in community health programs.
Cultural and Linguistic Communication Needs
The program team incorporates cultural and linguistic needs of the intended target population into communication to enhance communication effectiveness. Assessment of the target population will provide some information, but inviting key members of the target population to assist with program planning and communication planning will increase the likelihood that the team will identify barriers and meet cultural and linguistic needs. The program team should consider the target population’s access to the internet and potential for media exposure as well as what communication technologies members use most often. Various communication tools that are used by the intended target population should be incorporated into the communication plan in order to increase reach (RHIhub, 2018a). Additionally, messages and materials should be available in English and languages most commonly used by the target population and should include concepts, priorities, images, and language that represent the target population. Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Nursing Care discusses how the nurse incorporates communication and language assistance services and translates written material for community health programs. Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Program Design discusses national standards for culturally and linguistically appropriate services and tools to incorporate those standards into community health programs.
The nurse and program team incorporate culturally and linguistically appropriate messaging and materials into health promotion programs. In this blog, the local public health department incorporated Anishinaabeg culture into messages encouraging COVID-19 prevention and vaccination.
Read the blog, and then respond to the following questions.
- How did the White Earth Public Health team incorporate cultural and linguistic needs into COVID-19 health communication?
- How did tailoring communication to the intended target population influence the health behaviors of the Anishinaabeg?
Health Literacy and Plain Language
The nurse and program team must also consider the health literacy of the target population. Assessment, Analysis, and Diagnosis discusses tools to assess health literacy. One method to account for community health literacy is using plain language in messages and materials. Plain language is communication that is visually appealing, logically organized, appropriate for the intended audience, and understandable at the first reading (Smith & Wallace, n.d., para 1). The team should follow these principles when using plain language (National Archives, 2023):
- Write for the intended target audience.
- Begin with the key message.
- Keep it short.
- Write in the active voice.
- Use common language, not medical terminology.
- Omit words that are not needed to convey the message.
- Use headings, lists, and tables.
- Proofread and have a member of the intended target audience review.
In this 19-minute TEDx Talk, Deborah Bosley discusses the importance of using plain language when communicating health information and suggests strategies to improve clarity of health communication.
Watch the video, and then respond to the following questions. If time does not allow full viewing, watch at 8:50 for the definition of plain language and then from 14:37 to the end for strategies.
- Why is it important to use plain language when developing messages and materials for community health programs?
- What strategies are recommended to ensure health communication is delivered using plain language?


1.6: Module 6 Competency Test No. 1 Open Book
6
Module 6 Competency Test No. 1 Open Book
Wally Baumback
Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
- Within a one hour time limit, complete a written exam and a lab exercise.
The Inventor book was written with competency based modules. What that means is that you have not completed each module until you have mastered it. The Competency Test module contains multiple choice questions and a comprehensive lab exercise to test your mastery of the set of modules that you completed. There are no answers or keys supplied in a Competency Test module since it is meant to be checked by your instructor. If there are any parts of this module that you have trouble completing, you should go back and reread the module or modules containing the information that you are having trouble with. If necessary, redo as many lab exercises required until you fully understand the material.
If you are Completing this book:
- Without the aid of an instructor, complete the written test and the lab exercise.
- In a classroom with an instructor, the instructor will give instructions on what to do after you have completed this module.
Multiple Choice Questions
Select the BEST answer.
-
What keyboard key is used to end the current command?
- CTRL
- TAB
- ESC
- SHIFT
- ENTER
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An Inventor _______________is designed to logically organize, store and manage the valid links to the files that are created for each undertaking.
- 3D Model
- Project
- Design
- 2D Sketch
- Menu
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What command is used to zoom the model or the 2D sketch to display the complete model or sketch in the graphic window?
- ZOOM
- PAN
- ISOMETRIC
- ZOOM ALL
- LOOK AT
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What are all files created in Inventor called?
- Designs
- Drawings
- Files
- 3D Models
- 2D Sketches
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What command is used to change the viewing position of the model or sketch to a known home view or isometric view?
- ZOOM
- PAN
- HOME VIEW
- ZOOM ALL
- LOOK AT
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What is the name of the Inventor file that must be used by the operator when creating any new file?
- Design file
- Drawing file
- Model file
- Template file
- Sketch file
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What term describes the process of applying geometrical relationships of objects to one another in a 2D sketch?
- Object snapping
- Dimensional constraints
- Parametric solid modeling
- Driven dimensions
- Geometrical constraints
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What file extension is assigned to a part file?
- .IPT
- .IJP
- .IAM
- .IDW
- .IPN
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When drawing a base sketch that must be extruded to create the solid model there is a list of rules that should be used. Which one of the following rules is false?
- Select the view with the most complex contour shape.
- Draw the lines using dimensions close to finished dimensions.
- The objects in the sketch must meet at their endpoints and cannot overlap.
- The objects in the sketch must have geometrical constraints applied to control the shape.
- The objects in the sketch cannot be a closed polygon.
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What term describes the process of controlling and reporting the size of the geometry in a 2D sketch?
- Object snapping
- Dimensional constraints
- Parametric solid modeling
- Driven dimensions
- Geometrical constraints
Lab Exercise 6-1
Time allowed: 60 minutes.
| Part Name | Project | Units | Template | Color | Material |
| Inventor Lab Lab 06-1 | Inventor Course | Inches | English-Modules Part (in).ipt | Aluminum – Flat | N/A |
Step 1
Start a new part file with the template: English- Modules Part(in).ipt , and save the file with the name: Inventor Lab 06-1 , as shown above.
Step 2
Project the Center Point onto the Base sketch.
Step 3
Draw the Base sketch for the object shown in the figure and apply all of the necessary geometrical constraints to maintain the shape of the sketch. Note the location of X0Y0Z0. (Figures Step 3A and 3B)
Step 4
Insert the necessary driving dimensions to fully constrain the sketch. Add at least 1 driven dimension.
Step 5
Ensure that the sketch is fully constrained and all lines display purple. (Figure Step 5)
Step 6
Extrude the sketch to complete the Base model and apply the color: Aluminum – Flat (Figure Step 6)


4.E: Exercises
THE VSEPR MODEL
Conceptual Problems
- What is the main difference between the VSEPR model and Lewis electron structures?
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What are the differences between molecular geometry and Lewis electron structures? Can two molecules with the same Lewis electron structures have different molecular geometries? Can two molecules with the same molecular geometry have different Lewis electron structures? In each case, support your answer with an example.
-
How does the VSEPR model deal with the presence of multiple bonds?
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Three molecules have the following generic formulas: AX 2 , AX 2 E, and AX 2 E 2 . Predict the molecular geometry of each, and arrange them in order of increasing X–A–X angle.
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Which has the smaller angles around the central atom—H 2 S or SiH 4 ? Why? Do the Lewis electron structures of these molecules predict which has the smaller angle?
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Discuss in your own words why lone pairs of electrons occupy more space than bonding pairs. How does the presence of lone pairs affect molecular geometry?
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When using VSEPR to predict molecular geometry, the importance of repulsions between electron pairs decreases in the following order: LP–LP, LP–BP, BP–BP. Explain this order. Draw structures of real molecules that separately show each of these interactions.
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How do multiple bonds affect molecular geometry? Does a multiple bond take up more or less space around an atom than a single bond? a lone pair?
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Straight-chain alkanes do not have linear structures but are “kinked.” Using n -hexane as an example, explain why this is so. Compare the geometry of 1-hexene to that of n -hexane.
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How is molecular geometry related to the presence or absence of a molecular dipole moment?
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How are molecular geometry and dipole moments related to physical properties such as melting point and boiling point?
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What two features of a molecule’s structure and bonding are required for a molecule to be considered polar? Is COF 2 likely to have a significant dipole moment? Explain your answer.
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When a chemist says that a molecule is polar , what does this mean? What are the general physical properties of polar molecules?
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Use the VSPER model and your knowledge of bonding and dipole moments to predict which molecules will be liquids or solids at room temperature and which will be gases. Explain your rationale for each choice. Justify your answers.
- CH 3 Cl
- PCl 3
- CO
- SF 6
- IF 5
- CH 3 OCH 3
- CCl 3 H
- H 3 COH
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The idealized molecular geometry of BrF 5 is square pyramidal, with one lone pair. What effect does the lone pair have on the actual molecular geometry of BrF 5 ? If LP–BP repulsions were weaker than BP–BP repulsions, what would be the effect on the molecular geometry of BrF 5 ?
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Which has the smallest bond angle around the central atom—H 2 S, H 2 Se, or H 2 Te? the largest? Justify your answers.
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Which of these molecular geometries always results in a molecule with a net dipole moment: linear, bent, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, seesaw, trigonal pyramidal, square pyramidal, and octahedral? For the geometries that do not always produce a net dipole moment, what factor(s) will result in a net dipole moment?
Conceptual Answers
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To a first approximation, the VSEPR model assumes that multiple bonds and single bonds have the same effect on electron pair geometry and molecular geometry; in other words, VSEPR treats multiple bonds like single bonds. Only when considering fine points of molecular structure does VSEPR recognize that multiple bonds occupy more space around the central atom than single bonds.
 In general, molecules that have substantial dipole moments are likely to exhibit greater intermolecular interactions, resulting in higher melting points and boiling points.
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The term “polar” is generally used to mean that a molecule has an asymmetrical structure and contains polar bonds. The resulting dipole moment causes the substance to have a higher boiling or melting point than a nonpolar substance.
Numerical Problems
-
Give the number of electron groups around the central atom and the molecular geometry for each molecule. Classify the electron groups in each species as bonding pairs or lone pairs.
- BF 3
- PCl 3
- XeF 2
- AlCl 4 −
- CH 2 Cl 2
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Give the number of electron groups around the central atom and the molecular geometry for each species. Classify the electron groups in each species as bonding pairs or lone pairs.
- ICl 3
- CCl 3 +
- H 2 Te
- XeF 4
- NH 4 +
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Give the number of electron groups around the central atom and the molecular geometry for each molecule. For structures that are not linear, draw three-dimensional representations, clearly showing the positions of the lone pairs of electrons.
- HCl
- NF 3
- ICl 2 +
- N 3 −
- H 3 O +
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Give the number of electron groups around the central atom and the molecular geometry for each molecule. For structures that are not linear, draw three-dimensional representations, clearly showing the positions of the lone pairs of electrons.
- SO 3
- NH 2 −
- NO 3 −
- I 3 −
- OF 2
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What is the molecular geometry of ClF 3 ? Draw a three-dimensional representation of its structure and explain the effect of any lone pairs on the idealized geometry.
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Predict the molecular geometry of each of the following.
- ICl 3
- AsF 5
- NO 2 −
- TeCl 4
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Predict whether each molecule has a net dipole moment. Justify your answers and indicate the direction of any bond dipoles.
- NO
- HF
- PCl 3
- CO 2
- SO 2
- SF 4
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Predict whether each molecule has a net dipole moment. Justify your answers and indicate the direction of any bond dipoles.
- OF 2
- BCl 3
- CH 2 Cl 2
- TeF 4
- CH 3 OH
- XeO 4
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Of the molecules Cl 2 C=Cl 2 , IF 3 , and SF 6 , which has a net dipole moment? Explain your reasoning.
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Of the molecules SO 3 , XeF 4 , and H 2 C=Cl 2 , which has a net dipole moment? Explain your reasoning.
Numerical Answers
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- trigonal planar (all electron groups are bonding pairs)
- tetrahedral (one lone pair on P)
- trigonal bipyramidal (three lone pairs on Xe)
- tetrahedral (all electron groups on Al are bonding pairs)
- tetrahedral (all electron groups on C are bonding pairs)
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- four electron groups, linear molecular geometry
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four electron groups, pyramidal molecular geometry
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four electron groups, bent molecular geometry
- two electron groups, linear molecular geometry
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four electron groups, pyramidal molecular geometry
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The idealized geometry is T shaped, but the two lone pairs of electrons on Cl will distort the structure, making the F–Cl–F angle less than 180°.
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Cl 2 C=CCl 2 : Although the C–Cl bonds are rather polar, the individual bond dipoles cancel one another in this symmetrical structure, and Cl 2 C=CCl 2 does not have a net dipole moment.
IF 3 : In this structure, the individual I–F bond dipoles cannot cancel one another, giving IF 3 a net dipole moment.
SF 6 : The S–F bonds are quite polar, but the individual bond dipoles cancel one another in an octahedral structure. Thus, SF 6 has no net dipole moment.
MOLECULAR SHAPE AND MOLECULAR POLARITY
Conceptual Problems
- Why do ionic compounds such as KI exhibit substantially less than 100% ionic character in the gas phase?
- Of the compounds LiI and LiF, which would you expect to behave more like a classical ionic compound? Which would have the greater dipole moment in the gas phase? Explain your answers.

- RbCl
- S 8
- TiCl 2
- SbCl 3
- LiI
- Br 2
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Based on relative electronegativities, classify the bonding in each compound as ionic, covalent, or polar covalent. Indicate the direction of the bond dipole for each polar covalent bond.
- NO
- HF
- MgO
- AlCl 3
- SiO 2
- the C=O bond in acetone
- O 3
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Based on relative electronegativities, classify the bonding in each compound as ionic, covalent, or polar covalent. Indicate the direction of the bond dipole for each polar covalent bond.
- NaBr
- OF 2
- BCl 3
- the S–S bond in CH 3 CH 2 SSCH 2 CH 3
- the C–Cl bond in CH 2 Cl 2
- the O–H bond in CH 3 OH
- PtCl 4 2 −
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Classify each species as having 0%–40% ionic character, 40%–60% ionic character, or 60%–100% ionic character based on the type of bonding you would expect. Justify your reasoning.
- CaO
- S 8
- AlBr 3
- ICl
- Na 2 S
- SiO 2
- LiBr
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If the bond distance in HCl (dipole moment = 1.109 D) were double the actual value of 127.46 pm, what would be the effect on the charge localized on each atom? What would be the percent negative charge on Cl? At the actual bond distance, how would doubling the charge on each atom affect the dipole moment? Would this represent more ionic or covalent character?
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Calculate the percent ionic character of HF (dipole moment = 1.826 D) if the H–F bond distance is 92 pm.
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Calculate the percent ionic character of CO (dipole moment = 0.110 D) if the C–O distance is 113 pm.
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Calculate the percent ionic character of PbS and PbO in the gas phase, given the following information: for PbS, r = 228.69 pm and µ = 3.59 D; for PbO, r = 192.18 pm and µ = 4.64 D. Would you classify these compounds as having covalent or polar covalent bonds in the solid state?
HYBRID ORBITALS
Conceptual Problems
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Arrange sp , sp 3 , and sp 2 in order of increasing strength of the bond formed to a hydrogen atom. Explain your reasoning.
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What atomic orbitals are combined to form sp 3 , sp , sp 3 d 2 , and sp 3 d ? What is the maximum number of electron-pair bonds that can be formed using each set of hybrid orbitals?
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Why is it incorrect to say that an atom with sp 2 hybridization will form only three bonds? The carbon atom in the carbonate anion is sp 2 hybridized. How many bonds to carbon are present in the carbonate ion? Which orbitals on carbon are used to form each bond?
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If hybridization did not occur, how many bonds would N, O, C, and B form in a neutral molecule, and what would be the approximate molecular geometry?
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How are hybridization and molecular geometry related? Which has a stronger correlation—molecular geometry and hybridization or Lewis structures and hybridization?
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In the valence bond approach to bonding in BeF 2 , which step(s) require(s) an energy input, and which release(s) energy?
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The energies of hybrid orbitals are intermediate between the energies of the atomic orbitals from which they are formed. Why?
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How are lone pairs on the central atom treated using hybrid orbitals?
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Because nitrogen bonds to only three hydrogen atoms in ammonia, why doesn’t the nitrogen atom use sp 2 hybrid orbitals instead of sp 3 hybrids?
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Using arguments based on orbital hybridization, explain why the CCl 6 2 − ion does not exist.
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Species such as NF 5 2 − and OF 4 2 − are unknown. If 3 d atomic orbitals were much lower energy, low enough to be involved in hybrid orbital formation, what effect would this have on the stability of such species? Why? What molecular geometry, electron-pair geometry, and hybridization would be expected for each molecule?
Numerical Problems
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Draw an energy-level diagram showing promotion and hybridization to describe the bonding in CH 3 − . How does your diagram compare with that for methane? What is the molecular geometry?
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Draw an energy-level diagram showing promotion and hybridization to describe the bonding in CH 3 + . How does your diagram compare with that for methane? What is the molecular geometry?
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Draw the molecular structure, including any lone pairs on the central atom, state the hybridization of the central atom, and determine the molecular geometry for each molecule.
- BBr 3
- PCl 3
- NO 3 −
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Draw the molecular structure, including any lone pairs on the central atom, state the hybridization of the central atom, and determine the molecular geometry for each species.
- AsBr 3
- CF 3 +
- H 2 O
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What is the hybridization of the central atom in each of the following?
- CF 4
- CCl 2 2 −
- IO 3 −
- SiH 4
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What is the hybridization of the central atom in each of the following?
- CCl 3 +
- CBr 2 O
- CO 3 2 −
- IBr 2 −
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What is the hybridization of the central atom in PF 6 − ? Is this ion likely to exist? Why or why not? What would be the shape of the molecule?
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What is the hybridization of the central atom in SF 5 − ? Is this ion likely to exist? Why or why not? What would be the shape of the molecule?
Numerical Answers
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The promotion and hybridization process is exactly the same as shown for CH 4 in the chapter. The only difference is that the C atom uses the four singly occupied sp 3 hybrid orbitals to form electron-pair bonds with only three H atoms, and an electron is added to the fourth hybrid orbital to give a charge of 1–. The electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral, but the molecular geometry is pyramidal, as in NH 3 .
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sp 2 , trigonal planar
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sp 3 , pyramidal
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sp 2 , trigonal planar
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The central atoms in CF 4 , CCl 2 2 – , IO 3 − , and SiH 4 are all sp 3 hybridized.
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The phosphorus atom in the PF 6 − ion is sp 3 d 2 hybridized, and the ion is octahedral. The PF 6 − ion is isoelectronic with SF 6 and has essentially the same structure. It should therefore be a stable species.
MULTIPLE BONDS
Conceptual Problems
- What information is obtained by using the molecular orbital approach to bonding in O 3 that is not obtained using the VSEPR model? Can this information be obtained using a Lewis electron-pair approach?
- How is resonance explained using the molecular orbital approach?
- Indicate what information can be obtained by each method:
| Lewis Electron Structures | VSEPR Model | Valence Bond Theory | Molecular Orbital Theory | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Geometry | ||||
| Resonance | ||||
| Orbital Hybridization | ||||
| Reactivity | ||||
| Expanded Valences | ||||
| Bond Order |
Numerical Problems
- Using both a hybrid atomic orbital and molecular orbital approaches, describe the bonding in \(BCl_3\) and \(CS_3^{2−}\).
- Use both a hybrid atomic orbital and molecular orbital approaches to describe the bonding in \(CO_2\) and \(N_3^−\).


10.5: The Asymmetrical Relationship Between Indie Houses and Television Networks
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- Last updated
- Save as PDF
- Huan Piñón
- University of California Press
Even though independents provide creative possibilities free from the constraints of network in-house productions, most still lack the economic, technological, and labor capacity to produce their own content without the financial backing of a television network or a major sponsor. An executive producer from Blind Spot, Mexico, describes this model as one of “interdependency.” 29 Even in cases where a production house has the means to produce its own content, the executive producer argues, “they still depend on having clients who want to buy this specific content.” In some way, the producer from Blind Spot is subtly recognizing its condition of dependency on clients and television networks.
Argos is an interesting example of the challenges faced by indie producers, even though it is one of the most important indie houses in the large television market of Mexico. Its prestige as a leading producer of “quality fiction for TV” was achieved initially when Argos worked for TV Azteca (1995–2000) and produced some of the most innovative telenovelas from that decade. Ultimately a battle over distribution rights led TV Azteca to part ways with the indie in 2000. 30 That year Argos reached an agreement with Telemundo to produce 1,200 hours of fictional programming, but in this case Argos used its leverage to secure a share of distribution rights in international markets. 31 A screenwriter working with the Argos team recalls that Telemundo was willing to make concessions so long as Argos would shape its production to accommodate a specific U.S. Latino demographic as well as Mexican audiences. 32 Argos worked exclusively for Telemundo until 2007, then with TV Azteca again until 2010, when it struck a production agreement with Cadena Tres, a rising new network targeting upscale audiences. 33 Argos was encouraged to innovate as a way to enhance Cadena Tres’s profile. As one Argos writer described it, “I was expressly asked to be polemical and controversial with a new project called Las Aparicio . It was delightful to have almost total freedom.” 34 Seeking to distinguish itself from the dominant networks, Televisa and TV Azteca, Cadena Tres “had nothing to lose and too much to gain.” However, the precarious positon of independents is interestingly exemplified by Argos’s executive producer when he talks about its relation with Cadena Tres. He remembers that the indie, challenged by the economic crisis of the time, proposed a new business model: “First, Cadena Tres provides part of the cost while Argos provides an in-kind contribution [ pago por especie ] and some economic investment, and then both look for a third partner.” 35 Argos invited Colombia’s Caracol TV as a third partner, but the producer recalls that “when two television networks got together [Cadena Tres and Caracol TV], they asked themselves, what do we need Argos for?” So TV Caracol and Cadena Tres moved along on a new production agreement, leaving Argos behind.
Increasingly, there is a great deal of transnational deal-making between networks and independent production houses, much of it motivated by the desire to attract audiences in multiple markets. The key role of Argos is best exemplified by the indies’ collaboration in Telemundo’s La reina del sur in 2011, a coproduction that included RTI (Colombia) and Antena 3 (Spain). La reina del sur featured a transnational flow of characters with a drug trafficking narrative that was filmed in Bogota, Mexico City, Miami, and Melilla, Spain, with production teams in each location, a strategy I call “reglocalization,” based on a “network cities system of production.” 36 La reina del sur proved to be one of the most successful telenovelas in recent memory for Telemundo. Later, El señor de los cielos (2013), a new coproduction of Telemundo with Colombia’s Caracol TV and the collaboration of Argos, became the second most popular production in Telemundo’s history, only surpassed by La reina . That telenovela earned an Emmy in 2014 37 and propelled a new collaboration between Telemundo and Argos to produce new successful seasons of El señor de los cielos 2 (2014), 3 (2015), and 4 (forthcoming), but this time without Caracol TV. This series of successes set the stage for a new programming/production strategy that Telemundo has called “super series.”
The new set of corporate relationships that localized transnational ventures producing Spanish-language fictional programming is best exemplified by HBO’s incursion into Mexico in partnership with Argos and by Sony’s into Colombia in partnership with Laberinto Producciones. After prior experiences in Argentina and Brazil, HBO in 2007 announced its strategic partnership with Argos to produce Capadocia (2008) for Mexican and regional markets. 38 By 2014, HBO had experience producing with indies across the region, with eighteen television series produced in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and Uruguay. While working for HBO on Capadocia , one screenwriter remembers that she had a lot of creative freedom, which allowed the inclusion of “a lot of things that were vox populi, but nobody expected to see on television, not even on cable.” 39 At the same time, “the expectation was to have an international product with high production values, with high-quality scripts.” Because of these expectations, “the budget and investment of the company were considerably higher,” and she added, “they paid us very well.” 40 She recognizes that HBO supervised the project but never really interfered in creative decisions or practiced any kind of censorship.
Sony’s presence in the Colombian television market can be exemplified by the production of Los caballeros las prefieren brutas with indie producer Laberinto Producciones. 41 Sony’s partnership with the Colombian indie seems to be similar to HBO’s and Argos’s in Mexico, as described by an executive producer from Laberinto Producciones. Sony read the scripts and supervised the project but did not interfere too much with creative decisions. The producer explains, “For Sony it was an experiment that had its own risks, and they tried to understand how it works from a different creative point of view. They saw that some things function differently in Latin America, and they were open to that.” 42
In contrast, argues the Colombian producer, when a national network deals with an indie, it tries to interfere as much as possible in creative decisions to ensure that the product meets the network’s goals. For instance, some of the most sensitive decisions in which networks intervene are in casting, to promote their own talent, followed by interfering in narrative strategies to please clients and their target audience. For example, an artistic director from Del Barrio Producciones in Peru argues that “sometimes we approach the network to pitch a story, and we want to make it with specific leading talent. Sometimes the channel buys the story but objects to the leading talent, and we need to change it.” 43


13: Completion of the ID Project
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- Valeria Hochman Adler
- Reedley College
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lab period, you will be able to
- Articulate the value of confirmation testing
- Describe the difference between alpha, beta, and gamma hemolysis
- Explain the utility of MSA, bile esculin, EMB, and Hektoen media.
- Finalize the identification of your Gram-positive and your Gram-negative unknowns.
Introduction
At this stage of the ID project, you should have a pretty good idea which unknowns you have, or have narrowed down your Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms to a few final possibilities. In this lab, you will have the opportunity to perform a few more tests that can help you confirm or exclude those possibilities. All of the tests from today’s lab must go into your test table, and be described BUT some of these tests are only completed IF you believe you have certain organisms.
The tests that we will be setting up today are
- Sheep’s Blood Agar - everyone should perform this test on their Gram-positive organism.
- Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA) - this test can help confirm that you have Staphylococcus aureus or epidermidis. It can be useful in differentiating between these two organisms and other Gram-positive cocci.
- Bile esculin - this test can help confirm the presence of Enterococcus or Klebsiella organisms.
- Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) - this media can help confirm the presence of a strong fermenter. In particular, this test can be useful to confirm E. coli .
- Hektoen Enteric Agar - this media is useful for confirming the presence of organisms that produce hydrogen sulfide gas, such as Salmonella, and differentiating it from other non-fermenters that are not H 2 S producers.
- Spore-stain - this technique that we learned about in Lab #7 , is important for confirming a Bacillus species and can be used to differentiate Bacillus from other Gram-positive rods.
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Sheep’s Blood Agar
The ability to break down red blood cells (hemolysis) is a virulence factor characteristic of many organisms including Group A Streptococcus. These bacteria secrete enzymes called “hemolysins”. By breaking down the red blood cells, bacteria are able to release and use the nutrients present in the cells, including heme.
Hemolysis is divided into 3 categories, 𝛂 (alpha), 𝞫 (beta), and 𝛄 (gamma).
- 𝞫-hemolytic organisms break down blood cells completely. They are identified by growing on a blood agar plate, and then noting a complete clearing of blood from around the bacterial growth.
- 𝛂-hemolytic organisms partially break down blood cells. Clearing is not observed, but the agar around the bacteria can appear greenish as a result of this partial breakdown.
- 𝛄-hemolytic organisms are NOT hemolytic. No breakdown of RBCs is observed.
Mannitol Salt Agar
Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA) is a highly selective medium that contains 7.5% sodium chloride. This level of salt inhibits the growth of most bacteria, but organisms found on your (salty) skin, are adapted to higher salt, and are able to grow in this medium. This medium is excellent for confirming Staphylococcus (or ruling it out, if you have any other Gram-positive cocci).
You should know already whether or not your organism ferments mannitol from your phenol red broths. However, MSA is also differential for mannitol fermentation. The medium contains both mannitol as well as the pH indicator phenol red. Recall that phenol red turns yellow below pH 6.8. Organisms that both grow on MSA (salt tolerant) and ferment mannitol will turn the medium a bright yellow color.
Bile Esculin Agar
Bile esculin agar can be used to confirm both Enterococcus and Klebsiella species, but it’s frequently used to differentiate Enterococcus from Streptococcus . Bile esculin agar is selective for Gram-negative bacteria due to the bile, but Gram-positive Enterococcus and Group D Streptococcus species can still grow on this medium. Esculin is a glucoside that is found in some plants, and glucose is a product of its hydrolysis. The other byproduct of hydrolysis is a molecule called esculetin, which reacts with iron (Fe 3 + ) in the medium to form a dark brown precipitate.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): A. Esculin can be used by bacteria that make the enzyme esculinase to generate glucose for energy. A bile esculin plate showing the brown precipitate formed when Enterococcus is grown on the medium. Stefan Walkowski , CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons
Eosin-Methylene Blue Agar
EMB (eosin-methylene blue) agar is frequently used to identify fecal coliform bacteria and is both selective and differential. It can be very useful in distinguishing a vigorous fermenter such as E. coli , from other fermenters. The dyes present in the medium including Eosin Y and methylene blue, inhibit the growth of Gram-positive bacteria. These dyes are also pH indicators that will form a dark purple precipitate at low pH. EMB plates also contain both sucrose and lactose. Organisms that ferment these sugars, and lower the pH, will turn purple on this medium. However, when the pH drops very low, below 4.9, the Eosin Y and methylene blue will form a complex with a green color. Very vigorous fermenters, such as E. col, will form colonies with a green metallic sheen.
We will be using EMB agar again during our Food Microbiology lab .
Hektoen Enteric Agar
Hektoen enteric agar is both selective and differential and was designed primarily to differentiate between Salmonella and Shigella in human specimens. It contains bile salts, bromothymol blue, and acid fuchsin, all of which select against the growth of Gram-positive bacteria. It also contains Ferric ammonium citrate or thiosulfate, which will react with hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) to form a black precipitate - similar in principle to the reaction that occurred in the SIMs tubes in Lab #11 .
Hektoen also contains lactose, sucrose, and salicin. Organisms such as E. coli will ferment these sugars producing acid, which will turn the Bromothymol blue an orange or salmon color. In theory, neither Salmonella nor Shigella will ferment these sugars, and in fact, they don’t in our phenol red broths. However, we often see Shigella turning orange on Hektoen in our lab, so don’t use an orange colony on Hektoen to rule out Shigella .
We will be using Hektoen agar again during our Food Microbiology lab.
Spore Stains
Gram-positive organisms in the Bacillus genera are spore formers. If you believe you have a Bacillus as your Gram-positive, or if you have a Gram-positive rod, you should perform a spore stain to confirm or rule out Bacillus .
To review spore stains and access the staining protocol, please refer to Lab #7 .
Materials
- One sheep’s blood agar plate
- One MSA (mannitol salt agar) plate if confirming or ruling out Staphylococcus
- One bile esculin plate if confirming or ruling out Enterococcus or Klebsiella
- One EMB(eosin methylene blue) plate if confirming E. coli , or other strong fermenter.
- One Hektoen enteric agar plate if confirming an H 2 S producer
- Spore staining materials if confirming or ruling out Bacillus .
Experiment
Day 1
- Perform a streak plate on sheep’s blood agar.
- If you are confirming Enterococcus or Klebsiella , streak out a bile esculin plate as needed.
- If your Gram-negative bacterium is an aggressive fermenter such as E. coli , streak it out on EMB to confirm or rule it out.
- If you suspect your Gram-negative organism to be Salmonella or Shigella , the HE agar plate is a good confirmation test. Additionally, if there is any ambiguity in the lactose-fermentation status of your Gram-negative bacterium (your MacConkey plate and Lactose phenol red test gave contradictory results), use the HE agar to verify whether you have a coliform or not. Note that any H 2 S producer will produce black colonies on Hektoen.
- If you want to confirm or rule out Staphylococcus , streak it out on MSA.
- If you need to confirm or rule out Bacillus , be sure to perform a spore stain (I will be looking for this when I grade your projects if you report Bacillus !).
- If you need to repeat any tests from prior weeks (Lab #10 or Lab #11), you should set those up today.
- Incubate all newly inoculated media at 37 o C for 48 hours or 30 o C for 5 days.
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Day 2
- Observe the hemolysis status of your bacteria from the blood agar plate. Hold the plate up to the light, or observe it over a light box to determine if there are zones of clearing. It is difficult to determine whether or not an organism is alpha or gamma hemolytic. We will record this as a “yes-no” result - your organism is either beta-hemolytic or it’s not.
- Observe any results from EMB, MSA, bile esculin, or Hektoen plates that you may have prepared.
- If you need to confirm or rule out Bacillus , be sure to perform a spore stain if you have not done so already.
- If you need to repeat any tests from prior weeks (Lab #10 or Lab #11), you should set those up today, as this will probably be your last chance.
- Incubate all newly inoculated media at 37 o C for 48 hours or 30 o C for 5 days.
Data
Be sure to photograph and record all of your results from this week’s tests and include all of them in your test table. Even if you didn’t perform the test, all of them are required to be recorded in your table. Any test not performed can be explained - for example, you might say that you didn’t perform a spore stain because your Gram-positive organism was a cocci.


10.2.8: Doing Research for a Cause
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- Anonymous
- LibreTexts
Learning Objectives
- Define and provide at least one example of action research.
- Define stakeholders .
Some sociologists engage in research for reasons in addition to or aside from career motivations. These individuals might conduct some form of action research. While action research may be conducted as part of a person’s paid employment, as described in Section 15.1 , you might also conduct action research as a volunteer working for a cause that you find worthy. If you’ve discovered that you have an interest in sociological research but would rather not pursue a career in research, perhaps some volunteer involvement in action is for you.
Action research , sometimes referred to as participatory action research, is defined as research that is conducted for the purpose of creating some form of social change. When conducting action research, scholars collaborate with community stakeholders at all stages of the research process with the aim of producing results that will be usable in the community and by scientists. On the continuum of basic to applied research, action research is very far on the applied end of the spectrum. Sociologists who engage in this form of research never just go it alone; instead, they collaborate with the people who are affected by the research. Kristin Esterberg puts it quite eloquently when she says, “At heart, all action researchers are concerned that research not simply contribute to knowledge but also lead to positive changes in people’s lives” (2002, p. 137).Esterberg, K. G. (2002). Qualitative methods in social research . Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Action research was first developed in the 1960s and 1970s (Freire, 1970)Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed (M. B. Ramos, Trans.). New York, NY: Herder and Herder. for the purpose of empowering individuals in underdeveloped nations (Reason, 1994).Reason, P. (1994). Participation in human inquiry . London, UK: Sage. Since then, action research has become increasingly popular among scholars who wish for their work to have tangible outcomes that benefit the groups that they study.
There are many excellent examples of action research. Some of these focus solely on arriving at useful outcomes for the communities upon which and with whom research is conducted. Other action research projects result in some new knowledge that has a practical application and purpose in addition to the creation of knowledge for basic scientific purposes. A search using the key term action research in Sociological Abstracts will yield a number of examples of the latter type.
One example of action research can be seen in Fred Piercy and colleagues’ (Piercy, Franz, Donaldson, & Richard, 2011)Piercy, F. P., Franz, N., Donaldson, J. L., & Richard, R. F. (2011). Consistency and change in participatory action research: Reflections on a focus group study about how farmers learn. The Qualitative Report, 16, 820–829. work with farmers in Virginia, Tennessee, and Louisiana. Together with farmers in these states, the researchers conducted focus groups to understand how farmers learn new information about farming. Ultimately, the aim of this study was to “develop more meaningful ways to communicate information to farmers about sustainable agriculture.” This improved communication, the researchers and farmers believed, would benefit not just researchers interested in the topic but also farmers and their communities. Farmers and researchers were both involved in all aspects of the research, from designing the project and determining focus group questions to conducting the focus groups and finally to analyzing data and disseminating findings.
Many additional examples of action research can be found at Loyola University Chicago’s Center for Urban Research and Learning (CURL; http://www.luc.edu/curl/index.shtml ). At the center, researchers seek “to promote equality and to improve people’s lives in communities throughout the Chicago metropolitan region.” For example, in 2006 researchers at CURL embarked on a project to assess the impact on small, local retailers of new Walmart stores entering urban areas (Jones, 2008).Jones, S. M. (2008, May 13). Cities may mute effect of Wal-Mart. Chicago Tribune . The study found that, while the effect of Walmart on local retailers seems to have a larger impact in rural areas, Chicago-area local retailers did not experience as dramatic an impact. Nevertheless a “small but statistically significant relationship” was found between Walmart’s arrival in the city and local retailers’ closing their doors. This and other research conducted by CURL aims to raise awareness about and promote positive social change around issues affecting the lives of people in the Chicago area. CURL meets this aim by collaborating with members of the community to shape a research agenda, collect and analyze data, and disseminate results.
Perhaps one of the most unique and rewarding aspects of engaging in action research is that it is often interdisciplinary. Action research projects might bring together researchers from any number of disciplines, from the social sciences, such as sociology, political science, and psychology; to an assortment of physical and natural sciences, such as biology and chemistry; to engineering, philosophy, and history (to name just a few). One recent example of this kind of interdisciplinary action research can be seen in the University of Maine’s Sustainability Solutions Initiative (SSI) ( http://www.umaine.edu/sustainability...ions/index.htm ). This initiative unites researchers from across campus together with local community members to “connect knowledge with action in ways that promote strong economies, vibrant communities, and healthy ecosystems in and beyond Maine.” The knowledge-action connection is essential to SSI’s mission, and the collaboration between community stakeholders and researchers is crucial to maintaining that connection. SSI is a relatively new effort; stay tuned to the SSI website to follow how this collaborative action research initiative develops.
Anyone interested in social change can benefit from having some understanding of social scientific research methods. The knowledge you’ve gained from your methods course can be put to good use even if you don’t have an interest in pursuing a career in research. As a member of a community, perhaps you will find that the opportunity to engage in action research presents itself to you one day. And your background in research methodology will no doubt assist you and your collaborators in your effort to make life better for yourself and those who share your interests, circumstances, or geographic region.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- Action research is conducted by researchers who wish to create some form of social change.
- Action research is often conducted by teams of interdisciplinary researchers.
Exercise
- If you’re interested in learning more about action research, or perhaps reading some specific examples of action research, check out the journal Gateways . It is a free, electronic, peer-reviewed scholarly journal focused on community-engaged research. Here’s the link: http://www.luc.edu/curl/uts/index.html .


15.1: Sensory System Introduction
Learning Objectives
- Apply the rules of medical language to build, analyze, spell, pronounce, abbreviate, and define terms as they relate to the sensory system
- Identify meanings of key word components of the sensory system
- Categorize diagnostic, therapeutic, procedural, or anatomic terms related to the sensory system
- Use terms related to the sensory system
- Use terms related to the diseases and disorders of the sensory system
Introduction to the Sensory Systems
Most people consider the five major senses to be taste, smell, touch, hearing, and sight. These are referred to as the “special senses” because they have organs devoted to the senses, such as the eye, ear, tongue, and nose.
This chapter will review common word components related to the systems of special senses to assist learners in analyzing, building, and defining medical terms. Other terms, whose definitions cannot be easily built from word components, will be described in context based on the anatomy and physiology of sensory systems and common diseases and disorders. Medical specialists, diagnostic tests, and procedures related to sensory systems will also be discussed.


2.4: Strategies and Keeping Track of OERs
Backward Design for Course Organization
Before delving into curating an OER it is good to consider the broader task of course curation. In other words, in the transition of a course to a zero-cost textbook there may not be OER resources that meet all of the specific needs or outcomes for the text. It may be necessary to find a variety of OER resources to use throughout your text or course. Professors can use individual OER resources throughout their course or or combine them into a single resource.
A course organization spreadsheet can help organize and keep track of the resources. The spreadsheet has room for all the information needed to organize the course. The more complete it is, the easier it will be when it is time to make a single resource and/or integrate them into an online course.
Using the principles of backward design, consider filling out a resource organizer such like the spreadsheets below. Use the course outline, outcomes, syllabus, or other documents that break down the course into sections.
- Template: Course Organization Spreadsheet (Google Sheets). For use in a Google Drive account, copy the template by selecting File, then "make a copy." Then, it can be edited in a personal copy. Google Sheets is free to anyone with a Google account.
- Template: Course Organization Spreadsheet (Microsoft Excel) is also available for download.
Organizing Resources on a Spreadsheet
Below are the directions for using the spreadsheet templates above to organize resources for the course.
- Download the template in the version of your choice, either a Microsoft Excel Worksheet or a Google Sheet.
- Using the course outcomes, outline, syllabus, or other information; start by filling in the units of the course under the tab “Topic/Outcome/Lesson.” This will help determine what sort of content is still needed for the course.
- Next think about how students are going to be assessed on the content. What sort of evaluation method will be used?
- This next part is optional. Work systematically through the spreadsheet lesson by lesson, or you can fill out the spreadsheet as useful content is found.
- To get a sense of what the spreadsheet will look like filled out, view this short example of the spreadsheet : Example of Template: Course Organization Spreadsheet (in Google Sheets).
Attribution
Adapted from ASCCC OERI — OER Basics by Rachel Arteaga and Suzanne Wakim is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License


7.3: Density
Learning Objectives
- Define density.
- Calculate the mass of an object from its density and volume.
- Compare and contrast the densities of various substances.
Which weighs more, a ton of feathers or a ton of bricks? This old riddle plays with the distinction between mass and density. A ton is a ton, of course; but bricks have much greater density than feathers, and so we are tempted to think of them as heavier. (See Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\).)
Density , as you will see, is an important characteristic of substances. It is crucial, for example, in determining whether an object sinks or floats in a fluid. Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance or object. In equation form, density is defined as
\[\rho=\frac{m}{V}, \nonumber \]
where the Greek letter \(\rho\) (rho) is the symbol for density, \(m\) is the mass, and \(V\) is the volume occupied by the substance.
Definition: DENSITY
Density is mass per unit volume.
\[\rho=\frac{m}{V}, \nonumber\]
where \(\rho\) is the symbol for density, \(m\) is the mass, and \(V\) is the volume occupied by the substance.
In the riddle regarding the feathers and bricks, the masses are the same, but the volume occupied by the feathers is much greater, since their density is much lower. The SI unit of density is \(\mathrm{kg} / \mathrm{m}^{3}\), representative values are given in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\). The metric system was originally devised so that water would have a density of \(1 \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{cm}^{3}\), equivalent to \(10^{3} \mathrm{~kg} / \mathrm{m}^{3}\). Thus the basic mass unit, the kilogram, was first devised to be the mass of 1000 mL of water, which has a volume of 1000 cm 3 .
As you can see by examining Table \(\PageIndex{1}\), the density of an object may help identify its composition. The density of gold, for example, is about 2.5 times the density of iron, which is about 2.5 times the density of aluminum. Density also reveals something about the phase of the matter and its substructure. Notice that the densities of liquids and solids are roughly comparable, consistent with the fact that their atoms are in close contact. The densities of gases are much less than those of liquids and solids, because the atoms in gases are separated by large amounts of empty space.
TAKE-HOME EXPERIMENT SUGAR AND SALT
A pile of sugar and a pile of salt look pretty similar, but which weighs more? If the volumes of both piles are the same, any difference in mass is due to their different densities (including the air space between crystals). Which do you think has the greater density? What values did you find? What method did you use to determine these values?
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Calculating the Mass of a Reservoir From Its Volume
A reservoir has a surface area of \(50.0 \mathrm{~km}^{2}\) and an average depth of 40.0 m. What mass of water is held behind the dam? (See Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) for a view of a large reservoir—the Three Gorges Dam site on the Yangtze River in central China.)
Strategy
We can calculate the volume \(V\) of the reservoir from its dimensions, and find the density of water \(\rho\) in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\). Then the mass \(m\) can be found from the definition of density
\[\rho=\frac{m}{V}. \nonumber\]
Solution
Solving equation \(\rho=m / V\) for \(m\) gives \(m=\rho V\).
The volume \(V\) of the reservoir is its surface area \(A\) times its average depth \(h\):
\[\begin{aligned}
V &=A h=\left(50.0 \mathrm{~km}^{2}\right)(40.0 \mathrm{~m}) \\
&=\left[\left(50.0 \mathrm{~km}^{2}\right)\left(\frac{10^{3} \mathrm{~m}}{1 \mathrm{~km}}\right)^{2}\right](40.0 \mathrm{~m})=2.00 \times 10^{9} \mathrm{~m}^{3}
\end{aligned} \nonumber\]
The density of water \(\rho\) from Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) is \(1.000 \times 10^{3} \mathrm{~kg} / \mathrm{m}^{3}\). Substituting \(V\) and \(\rho\) into the expression for mass gives
\[\begin{aligned}
m &=\left(1.00 \times 10^{3} \mathrm{~kg} / \mathrm{m}^{3}\right)\left(2.00 \times 10^{9} \mathrm{~m}^{3}\right) \\
&=2.00 \times 10^{12} \mathrm{~kg}.
\end{aligned} \nonumber\]
Discussion
A large reservoir contains a very large mass of water. In this example, the weight of the water in the reservoir is \(m g=1.96 \times 10^{13} \mathrm{~N}\), where \(g\) is the acceleration due to the Earth’s gravity (about \(9.80 \mathrm{~m} / \mathrm{s}^{2}\)). It is reasonable to ask whether the dam must supply a force equal to this tremendous weight. The answer is no. As we shall see in the following sections, the force the dam must supply can be much smaller than the weight of the water it holds back.
Section Summary
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Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance or object. In equation form, density is defined as
\[\rho=\frac{m}{V}. \nonumber\]
- The SI unit of density is \(\mathrm{kg} / \mathrm{m}^{3}\).
Glossary
- density
- the mass per unit volume of a substance or object


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10: Social and Emotional Development in Adolescence (Ages 12 to 18)
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10.0: What Does Psychology Say?
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The text depicts a scene where twelve-year-old Madeleine interacts with her mother, showcasing typical adolescent behavior such as seeking independence and fitting in with peers. As Madeleine joins her friends, her mother, Cara, reflects on her daughter's growing independence and questions about adolescence, such as fitting in, social media influence, and adequate nutrition. The text introduces a chapter on lifespan development, focusing on adolescent concerns and behaviors.
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10.1: Theories of Adolescent Socioemotional Development
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The passage explores the complexities of adolescence, focusing on identity development and the transition to adulthood. It highlights the rapid changes during adolescence, including cognitive, emotional, and social development. The text discusses cultural variations in adolescent experiences and how identity exploration is central to this life stage.
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10.2: Emotional and Self-Development in Adolescence
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The page outlines key aspects of emotional development in adolescence, covering topics like emotional intelligence (EI), self-regulation, self-concept, self-esteem, and body image. Adolescents develop EI by recognizing and managing their emotions, aided by authoritative parenting. Self-regulation enhances behavior management. The self-concept evolves from concrete to abstract traits, impacting self-esteem and peer relationships.
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10.3: Identity and Culture- Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Sexuality in Adolescence
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This section outlines the development of ethnic, multicultural, gender, and sexual identities during adolescence. It explores how adolescents establish their identity through interactions with various social groups and discusses the value of developing a positive ethnic or racial identity. It highlights how different ethnic groups, including Black, Latino, Asian American, and Native American, navigate identity formation.
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10.4: Social Contexts in Adolescence
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This page covers the role of peers, romantic relationships, and media in adolescent development. It highlights the cognitive, social, and emotional growth during adolescence, influenced by peer interactions, romantic relationships, and educational contexts. Specific topics include the dynamics of friendships, the significance of romantic relationships, media usage, screen time, and the impact of social media on adolescents.
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10.5: Family and Community Contexts in Adolescence
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This section discusses the impact of parenting styles on adolescent development, highlighting the authoritative style as beneficial for promoting positive outcomes like self-concept and academic competence. It considers the dynamics of parent-adolescent conflict, noting that it often results from teens??? developing autonomy and reasoning skills.


1.2: The Scope and Scale of Physics
- Describe the scope of physics.
- Calculate the order of magnitude of a quantity.
- Compare measurable length, mass, and timescales quantitatively.
- Describe the relationships among models, theories, and laws.
Physics is devoted to the understanding of all natural phenomena. In physics, we try to understand physical phenomena at all scales—from the world of subatomic particles to the entire universe. Despite the breadth of the subject, the various subfields of physics share a common core. The same basic training in physics will prepare you to work in any area of physics and the related areas of science and engineering. In this section, we investigate the scope of physics; the scales of length, mass, and time over which the laws of physics have been shown to be applicable; and the process by which science in general, and physics in particular, operates.
The Scope of Physics
Take another look at the thumbnail image. The Whirlpool Galaxy contains billions of individual stars as well as huge clouds of gas and dust. Its companion galaxy is also visible to the right. This pair of galaxies lies a staggering billion trillion miles (1.4 x 10 21 mi) from our own galaxy (which is called the Milky Way ). The stars and planets that make up the Whirlpool Galaxy might seem to be the furthest thing from most people’s everyday lives, but the Whirlpool is a great starting point to think about the forces that hold the universe together. The forces that cause the Whirlpool Galaxy to act as it does are thought to be the same forces we contend with here on Earth, whether we are planning to send a rocket into space or simply planning to raise the walls for a new home. The gravity that causes the stars of the Whirlpool Galaxy to rotate and revolve is thought to be the same as what causes water to flow over hydroelectric dams here on Earth. When you look up at the stars, realize the forces out there are the same as the ones here on Earth. Through a study of physics, you may gain a greater understanding of the interconnectedness of everything we can see and know in this universe.
Think, now, about all the technological devices you use on a regular basis. Computers, smartphones, global positioning systems (GPSs), MP3 players, and satellite radio might come to mind. Then, think about the most exciting modern technologies you have heard about in the news, such as trains that levitate above tracks, “invisibility cloaks” that bend light around them, and microscopic robots that fight cancer cells in our bodies. All these groundbreaking advances, commonplace or unbelievable, rely on the principles of physics. Aside from playing a significant role in technology, professionals such as engineers, pilots, physicians, physical therapists, electricians, and computer programmers apply physics concepts in their daily work. For example, a pilot must understand how wind forces affect a flight path; a physical therapist must understand how the muscles in the body experience forces as they move and bend. As you will learn in this text, the principles of physics are propelling new, exciting technologies, and these principles are applied in a wide range of careers.
The underlying order of nature makes science in general, and physics in particular, interesting and enjoyable to study. For example, what do a bag of chips and a car battery have in common? Both contain energy that can be converted to other forms. The law of conservation of energy (which says that energy can change form but is never lost) ties together such topics as food calories, batteries, heat, light, and watch springs. Understanding this law makes it easier to learn about the various forms energy takes and how they relate to one another. Apparently unrelated topics are connected through broadly applicable physical laws, permitting an understanding beyond just the memorization of lists of facts.
Science consists of theories and laws that are the general truths of nature, as well as the body of knowledge they encompass. Scientists are continuously trying to expand this body of knowledge and to perfect the expression of the laws that describe it. Physics , which comes from the Greek phúsis , meaning “nature,” is concerned with describing the interactions of energy, matter, space, and time to uncover the fundamental mechanisms that underlie every phenomenon. This concern for describing the basic phenomena in nature essentially defines the scope of physics .
Physics aims to understand the world around us at the most basic level. It emphasizes the use of a small number of quantitative laws to do this, which can be useful to other fields pushing the performance boundaries of existing technologies. Consider a smartphone (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Physics describes how electricity interacts with the various circuits inside the device. This knowledge helps engineers select the appropriate materials and circuit layout when building a smartphone. Knowledge of the physics underlying these devices is required to shrink their size or increase their processing speed. Or, think about a GPS. Physics describes the relationship between the speed of an object, the distance over which it travels, and the time it takes to travel that distance. When you use a GPS in a vehicle, it relies on physics equations to determine the travel time from one location to another.
Knowledge of physics is useful in everyday situations as well as in nonscientific professions. It can help you understand how microwave ovens work, why metals should not be put into them, and why they might affect pacemakers. Physics allows you to understand the hazards of radiation and to evaluate these hazards rationally and more easily. Physics also explains the reason why a black car radiator helps remove heat in a car engine, and it explains why a white roof helps keep the inside of a house cool. Similarly, the operation of a car’s ignition system as well as the transmission of electrical signals throughout our body’s nervous system are much easier to understand when you think about them in terms of basic physics.
Physics is a key element of many important disciplines and contributes directly to others. Chemistry, for example—since it deals with the interactions of atoms and molecules—has close ties to atomic and molecular physics. Most branches of engineering are concerned with designing new technologies, processes, or structures within the constraints set by the laws of physics. In architecture, physics is at the heart of structural stability and is involved in the acoustics, heating, lighting, and cooling of buildings. Parts of geology rely heavily on physics, such as radioactive dating of rocks, earthquake analysis, and heat transfer within Earth. Some disciplines, such as biophysics and geophysics, are hybrids of physics and other disciplines.
Physics has many applications in the biological sciences. On the microscopic level, it helps describe the properties of cells and their environments. On the macroscopic level, it explains the heat, work, and power associated with the human body and its various organ systems. Physics is involved in medical diagnostics, such as radiographs, magnetic resonance imaging, and ultrasonic blood flow measurements. Medical therapy sometimes involves physics directly; for example, cancer radiotherapy uses ionizing radiation. Physics also explains sensory phenomena, such as how musical instruments make sound, how the eye detects color, and how lasers transmit information.
It is not necessary to study all applications of physics formally. What is most useful is knowing the basic laws of physics and developing skills in the analytical methods for applying them. The study of physics also can improve your problem-solving skills. Furthermore, physics retains the most basic aspects of science, so it is used by all the sciences, and the study of physics makes other sciences easier to understand.
The Scale of Physics
From the discussion so far, it should be clear that to accomplish your goals in any of the various fields within the natural sciences and engineering, a thorough grounding in the laws of physics is necessary. The reason for this is simply that the laws of physics govern everything in the observable universe at all measurable scales of length, mass, and time. Now, that is easy enough to say, but to come to grips with what it really means, we need to get a little bit quantitative. So, before surveying the various scales that physics allows us to explore, let’s first look at the concept of “order of magnitude,” which we use to come to terms with the vast ranges of length, mass, and time that we consider in this text (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
Order of Magnitude
The order of magnitude of a number is the power of 10 that most closely approximates it. Thus, the order of magnitude refers to the scale (or size) of a value. Each power of 10 represents a different order of magnitude. For example, 10 1 , 10 2 , 10 3 , and so forth, are all different orders of magnitude, as are 10 0 = 1, 10 −1 , 10 −2 , and 10 −3 . To find the order of magnitude of a number, take the base-10 logarithm of the number and round it to the nearest integer, then the order of magnitude of the number is simply the resulting power of 10. For example, the order of magnitude of 800 is 10 3 because log 10 800 ≈ 2.903, which rounds to 3. Similarly, the order of magnitude of 450 is 10 3 because log 10 450 ≈ 2.653, which rounds to 3 as well. Thus, we say the numbers 800 and 450 are of the same order of magnitude: 10 3 . However, the order of magnitude of 250 is 10 2 because log 10 250 ≈ 2.397, which rounds to 2.
An equivalent but quicker way to find the order of magnitude of a number is first to write it in scientific notation and then check to see whether the first factor is greater than or less than \(\sqrt{10}\) = 10 0.5 ≈ 3. The idea is that \(\sqrt{10}\) = 10 0.5 is halfway between 1 = 10 0 and 10 = 10 1 on a log base-10 scale. Thus, if the first factor is less than \(\sqrt{10}\), then we round it down to 1 and the order of magnitude is simply whatever power of 10 is required to write the number in scientific notation. On the other hand, if the first factor is greater than \(\sqrt{10}\), then we round it up to 10 and the order of magnitude is one power of 10 higher than the power needed to write the number in scientific notation. For example, the number 800 can be written in scientific notation as 8 x 10 2 . Because 8 is bigger than \(\sqrt{10}\) ≈ 3, we say the order of magnitude of 800 is 10 2 + 1 = 10 3 . The number 450 can be written as 4.5 x 10 2 , so its order of magnitude is also 10 3 because 4.5 is greater than 3. However, 250 written in scientific notation is 2.5 x 10 2 and 2.5 is less than 3, so its order of magnitude is 10 2 .
The order of magnitude of a number is designed to be a ballpark estimate for the scale (or size) of its value. It is simply a way of rounding numbers consistently to the nearest power of 10. This makes doing rough mental math with very big and very small numbers easier. For example, the diameter of a hydrogen atom is on the order of 10 −10 m, whereas the diameter of the Sun is on the order of 10 9 m, so it would take roughly 10 9 /10 −10 = 10 19 hydrogen atoms to stretch across the diameter of the Sun. This is much easier to do in your head than using the more precise values of 1.06 x 10 −10 m for a hydrogen atom diameter and 1.39 x 10 9 m for the Sun’s diameter, to find that it would take 1.31 x 10 19 hydrogen atoms to stretch across the Sun’s diameter. In addition to being easier, the rough estimate is also nearly as informative as the precise calculation.
Known Ranges of Length, Mass, and Time
The vastness of the universe and the breadth over which physics applies are illustrated by the wide range of examples of known lengths, masses, and times (given as orders of magnitude) in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). Examining this table will give you a feeling for the range of possible topics in physics and numerical values. A good way to appreciate the vastness of the ranges of values in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) is to try to answer some simple comparative questions, such as the following:
- How many hydrogen atoms does it take to stretch across the diameter of the Sun?
- How many protons are there in a bacterium?
- How many floating-point operations can a supercomputer do in 1 day?
- Answer a
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10 9 m/10 –10 m = 10 19 hydrogen atoms
- Answer b
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10 –15 kg/10 –27 kg = 10 12 protons
- Answer c
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10 5 s/10 –17 s = 10 22 floating-point operations
In studying Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\), take some time to come up with similar questions that interest you and then try answering them. Doing this can breathe some life into almost any table of numbers.
Building Models
How did we come to know the laws governing natural phenomena? What we refer to as the laws of nature are concise descriptions of the universe around us. They are human statements of the underlying laws or rules that all natural processes follow. Such laws are intrinsic to the universe; humans did not create them and cannot change them. We can only discover and understand them. Their discovery is a very human endeavor, with all the elements of mystery, imagination, struggle, triumph, and disappointment inherent in any creative effort (Figure 1.5). The cornerstone of discovering natural laws is observation; scientists must describe the universe as it is, not as we imagine it to be.
A model is a representation of something that is often too difficult (or impossible) to display directly. Although a model is justified by experimental tests, it is only accurate in describing certain aspects of a physical system. An example is the Bohr model of single-electron atoms, in which the electron is pictured as orbiting the nucleus, analogous to the way planets orbit the Sun (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). We cannot observe electron orbits directly, but the mental image helps explain some of the observations we can make, such as the emission of light from hot gases (atomic spectra). However, other observations show that the picture in the Bohr model is not really what atoms look like. The model is “wrong,” but is still useful for some purposes. Physicists use models for a variety of purposes. For example, models can help physicists analyze a scenario and perform a calculation or models can be used to represent a situation in the form of a computer simulation. Ultimately, however, the results of these calculations and simulations need to be double-checked by other means—namely, observation and experimentation.
The word theory means something different to scientists than what is often meant when the word is used in everyday conversation. In particular, to a scientist a theory is not the same as a “guess” or an “idea” or even a “hypothesis.” The phrase “it’s just a theory” seems meaningless and silly to scientists because science is founded on the notion of theories. To a scientist, a theory is a testable explanation for patterns in nature supported by scientific evidence and verified multiple times by various groups of researchers. Some theories include models to help visualize phenomena whereas others do not. Newton’s theory of gravity, for example, does not require a model or mental image, because we can observe the objects directly with our own senses. The kinetic theory of gases, on the other hand, is a model in which a gas is viewed as being composed of atoms and molecules.  Although models are meant only to describe certain aspects of a physical system accurately, a theory should describe all aspects of any system that falls within its domain of applicability. In particular, any experimentally testable implication of a theory should be verified. If an experiment ever shows an implication of a theory to be false, then the theory is either thrown out or modified suitably (for example, by limiting its domain of applicability).
A law uses concise language to describe a generalized pattern in nature supported by scientific evidence and repeated experiments. Often, a law can be expressed in the form of a single mathematical equation. Laws and theories are similar in that they are both scientific statements that result from a tested hypothesis and are supported by scientific evidence. However, the designation law is usually reserved for a concise and very general statement that describes phenomena in nature, such as the law that energy is conserved during any process, or Newton’s second law of motion, which relates force (F), mass (m), and acceleration (a) by the simple equation F = ma . A theory, in contrast, is a less concise statement of observed behavior. For example, the theory of evolution and the theory of relativity cannot be expressed concisely enough to be considered laws. The biggest difference between a law and a theory is that a theory is much more complex and dynamic. A law describes a single action whereas a theory explains an entire group of related phenomena. Less broadly applicable statements are usually called principles (such as Pascal’s principle, which is applicable only in fluids), but the distinction between laws and principles often is not made carefully.
The models, theories, and laws we devise sometimes imply the existence of objects or phenomena that are as yet unobserved. These predictions are remarkable triumphs and tributes to the power of science. It is the underlying order in the universe that enables scientists to make such spectacular predictions. However, if experimentation does not verify our predictions, then the theory or law is wrong, no matter how elegant or convenient it is. Laws can never be known with absolute certainty because it is impossible to perform every imaginable experiment to confirm a law for every possible scenario. Physicists operate under the assumption that all scientific laws and theories are valid until a counterexample is observed. If a good-quality, verifiable experiment contradicts a well-established law or theory, then the law or theory must be modified or overthrown completely. The study of science in general, and physics in particular, is an adventure much like the exploration of an uncharted ocean. Discoveries are made; models, theories, and laws are formulated; and the beauty of the physical universe is made more sublime for the insights gained.


12.2: Soil-Plant Interactions
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Soil plays a key role in plant growth. Beneficial aspects to plants include providing physical support, water, heat, nutrients, and oxygen (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Mineral nutrients from the soil can dissolve in water and then become available to plants. Although many aspects of soil are beneficial to plants, excessively high levels of trace metals (either naturally occurring or anthropogenically added) or applied herbicides can be toxic to some plants.
The ratio of solids/water/air in soil is also critically important to plants for proper oxygenation levels and water availability. Too much porosity with air space, such as in sandy or gravelly soils, can lead to less available water to plants, especially during dry seasons when the water table is low. Too much water, in poorly drained regions, can lead to anoxic conditions in the soil, which may be toxic to some plants.
Nutrient Uptake by Plants
Several elements obtained from soil are considered essential for plant growth. Macronutrients , including C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S, are needed by plants in significant quantities. C, H, and O are mainly obtained from the atmosphere or from rainwater. These three elements are the main components of most organic compounds, such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. The other six elements (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S) are obtained by plant roots from the soil and are variously used for protein synthesis, chlorophyll synthesis, energy transfer, cell division, enzyme reactions, and homeostasis (the process regulating the conditions within an organism).
Micronutrients are essential elements that are needed only in small quantities, but can still be limiting to plant growth since these nutrients are not so abundant in nature. Micronutrients include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu). There are some other elements that tend to aid plant growth but are not absolutely essential.
Micronutrients and macronutrients are desirable in particular concentrations and can be detrimental to plant growth when concentrations in soil solution are either too low (limiting) or too high (toxicity). Mineral nutrients are useful to plants only if they are in an extractable form in soil solutions, such as a dissolved ion rather than in solid mineral. Many nutrients move through the soil and into the root system as a result of concentration gradients, moving by diffusion from high to low concentrations. However, some nutrients are selectively absorbed by the root membranes, enabling concentrations to become higher inside the plant than in the soil.
Contributors and Attributions
- Essentials of Environmental Science by Kamala Doršner is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Modified from the original by Matthew R. Fisher.


9.2: Summary
Think About It… |
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Educators need to be prepared to serve the diverse array of families they will encounter across their careers. Many types of family structures have been introduced in this chapter. Programs should implement policies that acknowledge and respect different structures of families. And teachers can get to know families and ensure that all children’s families are recognized and authentically included in the classroom.
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Think About It…What experiences do you have with diverse family structures? Do you have a reaction to any of these definitions? How might your experiences and feelings about diverse family structures affect how you care for children and interact with their families? |