9.5.1: Mediterranean or Dry Summer Subtropical Climate
The Dry Summer Subtropical climate, is also known as the "Mediterranean" climate because the land that borders the Mediterranean Sea is a type locality for this climate. The wet winter/dry summer seasonality of precipitation is the defining characteristic of this climate. Summer drought places a great deal of stress on the local vegetation, but plant structures have evolved to adapt to it. The small, thick evergreen leaves of the schlerophyll forest combat water loss during the drought conditions of the dry summer.
Geographic Distribution
The dry summer subtropical climate is found on the west side of subtropical continents and on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The largest area of dry summer subtropical climate is on the border lands of the Mediterranean. For Americans especially, the lure of "sunny" coastal central and southern California's dry summer subtropical climate is a draw for tourism and habitation. Mediterranean climate is also found in the Cape Town area of South Africa, central Chile, and southwestern Australia.
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Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Climograph for San Francisco, CA
Latitude/Longitude = 37.45 N; 122.26 W
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Controlling Factors
The main controlling factor over the characteristics of the dry summer subtropical climate is the alternating influence of the subtropical high in summer and Westerlies during the winter. During the summer, the subtropical high has expanded to its largest extent and most poleward position, exerting its influence on subtropical west coasts between 30 o and 40 o N and S latitude. Subsiding air from the high creates stable atmospheric conditions when coupled with cold ocean currents along these coasts. During the summer, stable maritime tropical air masses and cT air masses dominate.
During the winter the subtropical high shifts to the south and its influence is replaced by the Westerlies associated with the subpolar low. During this period, mT, mP, and cP air masses invade the climate. Midlatitude cyclones formed in the Westerlies bring much needed precipitation during the winter.
Distinguishing Characteristics
Temperature
It's no wonder the cradle of civilization is found in the dry summer subtropical climate. The temperature is moderated by nearby large bodies of water making for comfortable conditions throughout most of the year. Temperatures around the Mediterranean coast are higher than the dry summer subtropical climates bordered by colder ocean water. No monthly temperature falls below 0 o C (32 o F) and has at least 3 months that average above 10 o C (50 o F). Warmest monthly means are in the upper 20 o s C (70 o F to 80 o F). The stable atmosphere creates cloudless conditions giving the dry summer subtropical climate many days of sunshine. The cloudless conditions commonly experienced during both the daytime and night cause significant heat gain and loss over the course of the day. As a result, this climate experiences a large daily temperature range during the summer. Though the climate is typified by its mild temperatures, frost danger does occur during the winter when cP air masses penetrate the region.
Precipitation
The most distinguishing characteristic of the dry summer subtropical climate is its seasonal precipitation regime. As discussed above, the dry summer is due to the presence of the subtropical high. The subsidence of the subtropical high suppresses cloud development and precipitation. Additionally, the presence of a cold ocean current along the western coast of the United States helps to stabilize the air, further reducing the chances for rain. The cloudless skies during summer, however, increase the absorption of insolation by the polluted atmosphere of many large urban centers in places like southern California causing problems of photochemical smog.
During the winter, the subtropical high shrinks and moves away from the climate and the subpolar low with its associated cyclone belts moves in. Uplift provided by cyclonic circulation brings much needed rain to this region. However, intense down pours can cause rapid runoff and initiate landslides on unstable slopes.
Many coastal dry summer subtropical climate regions experience frequent fogs. In North America, the dry summer subtropical is strongly influenced by a cold ocean current. As warm, moist Pacific air travels over the colder ocean water of the California Current it is chilled. Cooling the air by contact brings the air to its saturation point causing condensation and the development of an advection fog.


7.2: An application to logic
Theorem \(\PageIndex{1}\): Validity of the Extended Law of Syllogism
The Extended Law of Syllogism is a valid argument.
- Proof
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By mathematical induction.
Base case \(n=3\).
This is just the ordinary Law of Syllogism.
Induction step.
Let \(k \ge 3\text{.}\) Consider the \(n = k\) version (below left) and the \(n = k+1\) version (below right) of the Extended Law of Syllogism.
\begin{array}{cc}
p_{1} \rightarrow p_{2} &\qquad p_{1} \rightarrow p_{2} \\
p_{2} \rightarrow p_{3} &\qquad p_{2} \rightarrow p_{3} \\
\vdots & \vdots \\
&\qquad p_{k-1} \rightarrow p_{k} \\p_{k-1} \rightarrow p_{k}
&\qquad p_{k} \rightarrow p_{k+1}\\ \hline{p_{1} \rightarrow p_{k} } &\hline \qquad p_{1} \rightarrow p_{k+1}
\end{array}Assume the \(n = k\) version of the argument is valid. We want to show that the \(n = k + 1\) version is also valid. So suppose that premises of that latter version are all true. We need to show that the conclusion \(p_1 \rightarrow p_{k+1}\) must then also be true.
But each premise of the \(n = k\) version is also a premise of the \(n = k + 1\) version, so we can say that we have assumed that every premise of the \(n = k\) version is true. But we have also assumed that version to be valid, so we may take its conclusion \(p_1 \rightarrow p_k\) to be true.
Consider the following syllogism.
\(\begin{aligned}
&p_{1} \rightarrow p_{k} \\
&p_{k} \rightarrow p_{k+1} \\
&\hline p_{1} \rightarrow p_{k+1}
\end{aligned}\)Since this is valid (base case \(n=2\)) and its premises are all true, the conclusion is true.


3.1: Introduction to Repeated Games
Now that we are experts at finding equilibrium pairs, what happens when a game doesn't have any equilibrium pairs? What should our players do?
Consider the following zero-sum game
\(\begin{bmatrix}1 & 0 \\-1 & 2 \end{bmatrix}\)
Does this game have an equilibrium pair? Play this game with an opponent \(10\) times. Tally your wins and losses. Describe how you chose which strategy to play. Describe how your opponent chose which strategy to play.
When playing the game several times, does it make sense for either player to play the same strategy all the time? Why or why not?
Although we use the term “strategy” to mean which row (or column) a player chooses to play, we will also refer to how a player plays a repeated game as the player's strategy. In order to avoid confusion, in repeated games we will define some specific strategies.
In a repeated game, if a player always plays the same row (or column), we say that she is playing a pure strategy.
For example, if Player 1 always plays Row A, we say she is playing pure strategy A .
If a player varies which row (or column) he plays, then we say he is playing a mixed strategy.
For example, if a player plays Row A \(40 \%\) of the time and Row B \(60 \%\) of the time, we will say he is playing a \((.4, .6)\) strategy, as we generally use the probability rather than the percent. The probabilities of each strategy will be listed in the same order as the strategies in the matrix.
It is not enough just to determine how often to play a strategy. Suppose Player 1 just alternates rows in Example \(3.1.1\). Can Player 2 “out-guess” Player 1? What might be a better way for Player 1 to play?
We'd really like to find a way to determine the best-mixed strategy for each player in repeated games. Let's start with what we already know: games with equilibrium points. If a game has an equilibrium pair, would a player want to play a mixed strategy? Recall that a strategy pair is an equilibrium pair if neither player gains by switching strategy.
Consider the following zero-sum game
\(\begin{bmatrix} -1 & 1 \\ 0 & 2 \end{bmatrix}\)
This game has an equilibrium pair. Convince yourself that if this game is played repeatedly, each player should choose to play a pure strategy.
Thus, if the game has an equilibrium we know that players will play the pure strategies determined by the equilibrium pairs. So let's get back to thinking about games without equilibrium pairs. If we play such a game once, can we predict the outcome? What about if we repeat the game several times– can we predict the outcome? Think about tossing a coin. If you toss it once, can you predict the outcome? What if you toss it \(100\) times– can you predict the outcome? Not exactly, but we can say what we expect : if we toss a coin \(100\) times we expect to have half of the coins turn up heads and half turn up tails. This may not be the actual outcome, but it is a reasonable prediction. Now is a good time to remind yourself about finding the expected value !!
Recall the familiar game Rock-Paper-Scissors : ROCK beats SCISSORS, SCISSORS beat PAPER, and PAPER beats ROCK. Using the payoff matrix and experimentation, we will try to determine the best strategy for this game.
Construct a game matrix for Rock-Paper-Scissors.
Is Rock-Paper-Scissors a zero-sum game? Does it have an equilibrium point? Explain.
We want to look at what happens if we repeat Rock-Paper-Scissors. Play the game ten times with an opponent. Record the results (list strategy pairs and payoffs for each player).
Describe any strategy you used in Exercise \(3.1.3\).
Reflect on your chosen strategy.  What should it mean to “win” in a repeated game? What are the strengths and weaknesses of your strategy?
Discuss your strategy with someone else in the class (it can be your opponent). After sharing your ideas for a strategy, can you improve your previous strategy?
Although you may have come up with a good strategy, let's see if we can't decide what the “best” strategy should be for Rock-Paper-Scissors. Let's assume we are playing Rock-Paper-Scissors against the smartest player to ever live. We will call such an opponent the “perfect” player.
Explain why it is not a good idea to play a pure strategy; i.e., to play only ROCK, only PAPER, or only SCISSORS.
Does it make sense to play one option more often than another (for example, ROCK more often than PAPER)? Explain.
How often should you play each option?
Do you want to play in a predictable pattern or randomly? What are some advantages and disadvantages of a pattern? What are some advantages and disadvantages of a random strategy?
Hopefully, you concluded that the best strategy against our perfect player would be to play ROCK, PAPER, SCISSORS \(\dfrac{1}{3}\) of the time each, and to play randomly. We can say that our strategy is to play each option randomly with a probability of \(\dfrac{1}{3}\), and call this the Random \(\left(\dfrac{1}{3}, \dfrac{1}{3}, \dfrac{1}{3}\right)\) strategy.
Using this “best” strategy, what do you predict the long term payoff will be for Player 1? For Player 2?
Let's check our prediction. Using a die, let \(1\) and \(2\) represent ROCK, \(3\) and \(4\) represent PAPER, and \(5\) and \(6\) represent SCISSORS. Play the game \(20\) times with someone in class where each player rolls to determine the choice of ROCK, PAPER, or SCISSORS. Keep track of the strategy pairs and payoffs. What was the total payoff for each player? (At this point, if you still feel that you have a better strategy, try your strategy against the random one– see what happens!)
How did the actual outcome compare to your predicted outcome? What do you expect would happen if you play the game \(100\) times? (Or more?)
Using ideas about probability and expected value we can more precisely answer Exercise \(3.1.13\).
Assume both players are using the Random\(\left(\dfrac{1}{3}, \dfrac{1}{3}, \dfrac{1}{3}\right)\) strategy. List all the possible outcomes for a single game (recall the outcome is the strategy pair and the payoff, for example \([R, P]\), \((-1, 1)\)). What is the probability that any particular pair of strategies will be played? Are the strategy pairs equally likely?
Using the probabilities and payoffs from Exercise \(3.1.14\) calculate the expected value of the game for each player.
Now consider the matrix from Example \(3.1.1\) above:
\(\begin{bmatrix}1 & 0 \\-1 & 2 \end{bmatrix}\)
See if you can determine how often Player 1 should play each row, and how often Player 2 should play each column. Try testing your proposed strategy (you may be able to use a variation on the dice as we saw in Exercise \(3.1.12\)). Write up any conjectured strategies and the results from playing the game with your strategy. Do you think you have come up with the best strategy? Explain.
You may have had an idea about the best way to play Rock-Paper-Scissors before working through this section, but how can we find solutions to other games, such as the one in Exercise \(3.1.16\)? We don't want to just use a “guess and check” method. Especially since there are infinitely many possible mixed strategies to try! The rest of the chapter will develop mathematical methods for solving repeated games with no equilibrium point.


10.12.2: Binaries? More Like BYE-naries
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Contemporary society defines sex as either male or female, as discussed in earlier chapters. However, we know intersexed people challenge this widely-held and reinforced sex myth. Sexuality, though, is also largely defined in binary terms. The word heterosexuality didn’t appear until 1890s, and it was only in response to the rise of nonprocreative sex.   However these words were created to set the standard for “normal” sexuality (heterosexuality) and “deviant” sexuality (homosexuality). This is an old tune with new lyrics, much like Whiteness, wealth, youth, and masculinity have been set as the standards and much les scrutinized than other variations in those categories, now heterosexuality has been granted the same social beneficiary status pertaining to sexuality. In other words, when sexuality is viewed from a binary perspective, homosexuality is overwhelmingly underappreciated and underrepresented in popular culture and in our collective conscious.
While sociologists have challenged the legitimacy of the binary construction of sexuality, so too have they challenged the idea of heterosexuality being the “normal” of the two. In addition to this social injustice, the binary viewpoint does even more harm. It allows for the dismissal of people who don’t identify as being either hetero- or homosexual. Bisexuals are often described as being a combination of the two mutually exclusive categories for sexuality. Nope. Bisexuality is its own sexual category as recognized by the AMA, APA, and ASA, among others.
In addition, the idea that sexuality is binary assumes that homosexual or heterosexual desires exclude one another. Sexuality is, in fact, more fluid than a binary exploration would allow. Asexuality, not having sexual attracted to either male or female, does not align with either the heterosexual or homosexual definitions, and yet there is nearly 1% of the world’s population identifying as asexual. 119 So the binary exploration of sexuality doesn’t make sense socially, biologically, or politically.
118
Katz, J. (2007). The invention of heterosexuality. CHicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
119
Anthony F. Bogaert. 2004. Asexuality: prevalence and associated factors in a national probability sample, Journal of Sex Research, August, 2004.


17.1D: Large-Scale Fermentations
- Describe fermentation and its applications to produce food, alcoholic beverages, fuel and recombinant products such as insulin
Fermentation includes the processes by which energy is extracted from the oxidation of organic compounds. The oxidation of organic compounds occurs by utilizing an endogenous electron acceptor to transfer electrons released from nutrients to molecules obtained from the breakdown of these same nutrients.
There are various types of fermentation which occur at the industrial level such as ethanol fermentation and fermentation processes used to produce food and wine. The ability to utilize the fermentation process in anaerobic conditions is critical to organisms which demand ATP production by glycolysis. Fermentation can be carried out in aerobic conditions as well, as in the case of yeast cells which prefer fermentation to oxidative phosphorylation. The following is a brief overview of a few types of the large-scale fermentations utilized by industries in production creation.
Ethanol Fermentation
Ethanol fermentation is used to produce ethanol for use in food, alcoholic beverages, and both fuel and industry. The process of ethanol fermentation occurs when sugars are converted into cellular energy. The sugars which are most often used include glucose, fructose, and sucrose. These sugars are converted into cellular energy and produce both ethanol and carbon dioxide as waste products. Yeast is the most commonly used organism to produce ethanol via the fermentation process for beer, wine, and alcoholic drink production. As stated previously, despite abundant amounts of oxygen which may be present, yeast prefer to utilize fermentation. Hence, the use of yeast on a large-scale to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide occurs in an anaerobic environment.
The ethanol which is produced can then be used in bread production. Yeast will convert the sugars present in the dough to cellular energy and produce both ethanol and carbon dioxide in the process. The ethanol will evaporate and the carbon dioxide will expand the dough. In regards to alcohol production, yeast will induce fermentation and produce ethanol. Specifically, in wine-making, the yeast will convert the sugars present in the grapes. In beer and additional alcohol such as vodka or whiskey, the yeast will convert the sugars produced as a result of the conversion of grain starches to sugar by amylase. Additionally, yeast fermentation is utilized to mass produce ethanol which is added to gasoline. The major source of sugar utilized for ethanol production in the US is currently corn; however, crops such as sugarcane or sugar beets can be used as well.
Recombinant Products
Fermentation is also utilized in the mass production of various recombinant products. These recombinant products include numerous pharmaceuticals such as insulin and hepatitis B vaccine. Insulin, produced by the pancreas, serves as a central regulator of carbohydrate and fat metabolism and is responsible for the regulation of glucose levels in the blood. Insulin is used medically to treat individuals diagnosed with diabetes mellitus. Specifically, individuals with type 1 diabetes are unable to produce insulin and those with type 2 diabetes often develop insulin resistance where the hormone is no longer effective.
The increase in individuals diagnosed with diabetes mellitus has resulted in an increase in demand for external insulin. The mass production of insulin is performed by utilizing both recombinant DNA technology and fermentation processes. E. coli, w hich has been genetically altered to produce proinsulin, is grown to a large amount to produce sufficient amounts in a fermentation broth. The proinsulin is then isolated via disruption of the cell and purified. There is further enzymatic reactions that occur to then convert the proinsulin to crude insulin which can be further altered for use as a medicinal compound.
An additional recombinant product that utilizes the fermentation process to be produced is the hepatitis B vaccine. The hepatitis B vaccine is developed to specifically target the hepatitis B virus infection. The creation of this vaccine utilizes both recombinant DNA technology and fermentation. A gene, HBV, which is specific for hepatitis B virus, is inserted into the genome of the organism yeast. The yeast is used to grow the HBV gene in large amounts and then harvested and purified. The process of fermentation is utilized to grow the yeast, thus promoting the production of large amounts of the HBV protein which was genetically added to the genome.
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Key Points
- Large-scale fermentations are utilized to create massive quantities of ethanol which are used for food production, alcohol production, and even gasoline production.
- Fermentation is characterized by the metabolic processes that are used to transfer electrons released from nutrients to molecules obtained from the breakdown of those same nutrients.
- Fermentation utilizes numerous organic compounds, such as sugars, as endogenous electron acceptors to promote the electron transfer that occurs.
Key Terms
- oxidation : A reaction in which the atoms of an element lose electrons and the valence of the element increases.
- amylase : A type of digestive enzyme capable of breaking down complex carbohydrates into simple sugars.


13.7: Tidal Forces
- Explain the origins of Earth’s ocean tides
- Describe how neap and leap tides differ
- Describe how tidal forces affect binary systems
The origin of Earth’s ocean tides has been a subject of continuous investigation for over 2000 years. But the work of Newton is considered to be the beginning of the true understanding of the phenomenon. Ocean tides are the result of gravitational tidal forces. These same tidal forces are present in any astronomical body. They are responsible for the internal heat that creates the volcanic activity on Io, one of Jupiter’s moons, and the breakup of stars that get too close to black holes.
Lunar Tides
If you live on an ocean shore almost anywhere in the world, you can observe the rising and falling of the sea level about twice per day. This is caused by a combination of Earth’s rotation about its axis and the gravitational attraction of both the Moon and the Sun.
Let’s consider the effect of the Moon first. In Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), we are looking “down” onto Earth’s North Pole. One side of Earth is closer to the Moon than the other side, by a distance equal to Earth’s diameter. Hence, the gravitational force is greater on the near side than on the far side. The magnitude at the center of Earth is between these values. This is why a tidal bulge appears on both sides of Earth.
The net force on Earth causes it to orbit about the Earth-Moon center of mass, located about 1600 km below Earth’s surface along the line between Earth and the Moon. The tidal force can be viewed as the difference between the force at the center of Earth and that at any other location. In Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\), this difference is shown at sea level, where we observe the ocean tides. (Note that the change in sea level caused by these tidal forces is measured from the baseline sea level. We saw earlier that Earth bulges many kilometers at the equator due to its rotation. This defines the baseline sea level and here we consider only the much smaller tidal bulge measured from that baseline sea level.)
Why does the rise and fall of the tides occur twice per day? Look again at Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). If Earth were not rotating and the Moon was fixed, then the bulges would remain in the same location on Earth. Relative to the Moon, the bulges stay fixed—along the line connecting Earth and the Moon. But Earth rotates (in the direction shown by the blue arrow) approximately every 24 hours. In 6 hours, the near and far locations of Earth move to where the low tides are occurring, and 6 hours later, those locations are back to the high-tide position. Since the Moon also orbits Earth approximately every 28 days, and in the same direction as Earth rotates, the time between high (and low) tides is actually about 12.5 hours. The actual timing of the tides is complicated by numerous factors, the most important of which is another astronomical body—the Sun.
The Effect of the Sun on Tides
In addition to the Moon’s tidal forces on Earth’s oceans, the Sun exerts a tidal force as well. The gravitational attraction of the Sun on any object on Earth is nearly 200 times that of the Moon. However, as we show later in an example, the tidal effect of the Sun is less than that of the Moon, but a significant effect nevertheless. Depending upon the positions of the Moon and Sun relative to Earth, the net tidal effect can be amplified or attenuated.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) illustrates the relative positions of the Sun and the Moon that create the largest tides, called spring tides (or leap tides). During spring tides, Earth, the Moon, and the Sun are aligned and the tidal effects add. (Recall that the tidal forces cause bulges on both sides.) Figure \(\PageIndex{1c}\) shows the relative positions for the smallest tides, called neap tides . The extremes of both high and low tides are affected. Spring tides occur during the new or full moon, and neap tides occur at half-moon.
The Magnitude of the Tides
With accurate data for the positions of the Moon and the Sun, the time of maximum and minimum tides at most locations on our planet can be predicted accurately.
Visit this site to generate tide predictions for up to 2 years in the past or future, at more than 3000 locations around the United States.
The magnitude of the tides, however, is far more complicated. The relative angles of Earth and the Moon determine spring and neap tides, but the magnitudes of these tides are affected by the distances from Earth as well. Tidal forces are greater when the distances are smaller. Both the Moon’s orbit about Earth and Earth’s orbit about the Sun are elliptical, so a spring tide is exceptionally large if it occurs when the Moon is at perigee and Earth is at perihelion. Conversely, it is relatively small if it occurs when the Moon is at apogee and Earth is at aphelion.
The greatest causes of tide variation are the topography of the local shoreline and the bathymetry (the profile of the depth) of the ocean floor. The range of tides due to these effects is astounding. Although ocean tides are much smaller than a meter in many places around the globe, the tides at the Bay of Fundy (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)), on the east coast of Canada, can be as much as 16.3 meters.
Compare the Moon’s gravitational force on a 1.0-kg mass located on the near side and another on the far side of Earth. Repeat for the Sun and then compare the results to confirm that the Moon’s tidal forces are about twice that of the Sun.
Strategy
We use Newton’s law of gravitation given by Equation 13.2.1 . We need the masses of the Moon and the Sun and their distances from Earth, as well as the radius of Earth. We use the astronomical data from Appendix D .
Solution
Substituting the mass of the Moon and mean distance from Earth to the Moon, we have
\[F_{12} = G \frac{m_{1} m_{2}}{r^{2}} = (6.67 \times 10^{-11}\; N\; \cdotp m^{2}/kg^{2}) \Bigg[ \frac{(1.0\; kg)(7.35 \times 10^{22}\; kg)}{(3.84 \times 10^{8} \pm 6.37 \times 10^{6}\; m)^{2}} \Bigg] \ldotp\]
In the denominator, we use the minus sign for the near side and the plus sign for the far side. The results are
\[F_{near} = 3.44 \times 10^{-5}\; N\; and\; F_{far} = 3.22 \times 10^{-5}\; N \ldotp\]
The Moon’s gravitational force is nearly 7% higher at the near side of Earth than at the far side, but both forces are much less than that of Earth itself on the 1.0-kg mass. Nevertheless, this small difference creates the tides. We now repeat the problem, but substitute the mass of the Sun and the mean distance between the Earth and Sun. The results are
\[F_{near} = 5.89975 \times 10^{-3}\; N\; and\; F_{far} = 5.89874 \times 10^{-3}\; N \ldotp\]
We have to keep six significant digits since we wish to compare the difference between them to the difference for the Moon. (Although we can’t justify the absolute value to this accuracy, since all values in the calculation are the same except the distances, the accuracy in the difference is still valid to three digits.) The difference between the near and far forces on a 1.0-kg mass due to the Moon is
\[F_{near} = (3.44 \times 10^{-5}\; N) - (3.22 \times 10^{-5}\; N) = 0.22 \times 10^{-5}\; N,\]
whereas the difference for the Sun is
\[F_{near} - F_{far} = (5.89975 \times 10^{-3}\; N) - (5.89874 \times 10^{-3}\; N) = 0.101 \times 10^{-5}\; N \ldotp\]
Note that a more proper approach is to write the difference in the two forces with the difference between the near and far distances explicitly expressed. With just a bit of algebra we can show that
\[F_{tidal} = \frac{GMm}{r_{1}^{2}} - \frac{GMm}{r_{2}^{2}} = GMm \left(\dfrac{(r_{2} - r_{1})(r_{2} + r_{1})}{r_{1}^{2} r_{2}^{2}} \right) \ldotp\]
where r 1 and r 2 are the same to three significant digits, but their difference (r 2 − r 1 ), equal to the diameter of Earth, is also known to three significant digits. The results of the calculation are the same. This approach would be necessary if the number of significant digits needed exceeds that available on your calculator or computer.
Significance
Note that the forces exerted by the Sun are nearly 200 times greater than the forces exerted by the Moon. But the difference in those forces for the Sun is half that for the Moon. This is the nature of tidal forces. The Moon has a greater tidal effect because the fractional change in distance from the near side to the far side is so much greater for the Moon than it is for the Sun.
Earth exerts a tidal force on the Moon. Is it greater than, the same as, or less than that of the Moon on Earth? Be careful in your response, as tidal forces arise from the difference in gravitational forces between one side and the other. Look at the calculations we performed for the tidal force on Earth and consider the values that would change significantly for the Moon. The diameter of the Moon is one-fourth that of Earth. Tidal forces on the Moon are not easy to detect, since there is no liquid on the surface.
Other Tidal Effects
Tidal forces exist between any two bodies. The effect stretches the bodies along the line between their centers. Although the tidal effect on Earth’s seas is observable on a daily basis, long-term consequences cannot be observed so easily. One consequence is the dissipation of rotational energy due to friction during flexure of the bodies themselves. Earth’s rotation rate is slowing down as the tidal forces transfer rotational energy into heat. The other effect, related to this dissipation and conservation of angular momentum, is called “locking” or tidal synchronization. It has already happened to most moons in our solar system, including Earth’s Moon. The Moon keeps one face toward Earth—its rotation rate has locked into the orbital rate about Earth. The same process is happening to Earth, and eventually it will keep one face toward the Moon. If that does happen, we would no longer see tides, as the tidal bulge would remain in the same place on Earth, and half the planet would never see the Moon. However, this locking will take many billions of years, perhaps not before our Sun expires.
One of the more dramatic example of tidal effects is found on Io, one of Jupiter’s moons. In 1979, the Voyager spacecraft sent back dramatic images of volcanic activity on Io. It is the only other astronomical body in our solar system on which we have found such activity. Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) shows a more recent picture of Io taken by the New Horizons spacecraft on its way to Pluto, while using a gravity assist from Jupiter.
For some stars, the effect of tidal forces can be catastrophic. The tidal forces in very close binary systems can be strong enough to rip matter from one star to the other, once the tidal forces exceed the cohesive self-gravitational forces that hold the stars together. This effect can be seen in normal stars that orbit nearby compact stars, such as neutron stars or black holes. Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\) shows an artist’s rendition of this process. As matter falls into the compact star, it forms an accretion disc that becomes super-heated and radiates in the X-ray spectrum.
The energy output of these binary systems can exceed the typical output of thousands of stars. Another example might be a quasar. Quasars are very distant and immensely bright objects, often exceeding the energy output of entire galaxies. It is the general consensus among astronomers that they are, in fact, massive black holes producing radiant energy as matter that has been tidally ripped from nearby stars falls into them.


7.3.11: Deviance in Edgar Allan Poe and American Literature (Group contribution 2019)
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- Robin DeRosa, Abby Goode et al.
- Plymouth State University/
As Rethinking Early American Literature comes to a close, it becomes more pertinent to bridge connections between all the works that the class has studied. What is American Literature? What are its defining characteristics? Edgar Allan Poe, revered as one of America’s greatest authors, has only completed one novel in the span of his lifelong writing career. This book, entitled The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket , contains many similarities to other classic nineteenth-century American texts. In particular, Poe tells a story that heavily defines deviant character archetypes.
The eponymous main character, Arthur Gordon Pym, is a youth who inadvertently enters dire circumstances at sea. Motivated by the thrill of exploration and sea-faring, Pym begins his adventure upon the Grampus, a whaling ship headed by the father of Pym’s school friend, Augustus. Pym’s hopes are shot down by his parents early on; his parents and grandfather disapprove of his desires to sail. This, however, motivates Pym to circumvent the odds and go out to sea anyway. “These difficulties, however, so far from abating my desire, only added fuel to the flame. I determined to go at all hazards; and, having made known my intention to Augustus, we set about arranging a plan by which it might be accomplished” (Poe 12). This characteristic defines this text as uniquely American; such as the pilgrims who crossed the ocean to found the New World, Pym enters his “new world” through the revelation of accidental seafaring. Pym’s opposition motivates his resolve and heightens his courage to act.
Many of the characters of previous readings encounter some external conflict that incites their frustration. In particular, hierarchical institutions challenge a character’s morals. Although not exactly the same as Poe’s novel, Harriet Jacobs’s Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl , displays the main character, Linda, as a mother who suffers a life of mental and physical abuse by her slave owner. As she ages, she acquires strong maternal and religious morals that guide her future actions. Linda is thrust into a world that gives her little choices to fight back, but she ultimately makes sacrifices and decisions that are consistent with her views of the world.
Similarly to Poe’s novel, The Female American involves a mutiny in its story. This is in line with the nature of American texts: it represents the transnational conflict from which America emerged. In the story, Eliza Winkfield is stranded on an island after her defiance to marry her ship’s captain. Funnily enough, Nantucket is an island as well, which is an important to know when comparing these texts and how they portray their worlds. This theme of maternity is prevalent in Stowe’s story, too. On the island, Winkfield explores the geography and uncovers old Native American artifacts. Interestingly, both Poe and The Female American incorporate the Earth as characters; the sea in Pym , and the land and sky in The Female American . The storm and its impact on Arthur Gordon Pym are what disturb him enough to seek adventure. In contrast, Eliza Winkfield’s captivity underground and interaction with thunderstorms are what test her faith and spiritual fortitude. Again, both of these themes correlate to the advent of America: Europeans embarked on dangerous journeys across to the sea to reach their new land, whilst under the pressures of abandoning their theological governments. Ultimately, all of this circles back to defiance and maternity; these characters embark on quests plunged in isolation to form something new.
American literature incorporates the struggles, pain, and deviance that the young founders of our nation once felt. These characteristics are prevalent in The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket , and the story portrays Pym’s departure from the status quo and, subsequently, civilization itself.
Bibliography
Poe, Edgar. The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket . “Dover Publications Inc.” “Harper & Brothers.” 1838.
Winkfield, Unca Eliza., et al. The Female American; or, The Adventures of Unca Eliza Winkfield . Broadview Press, 2014.
Jacobs, Harriet A. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl . Bedford / St. Martin’s, 2010.
Image Source: Williams, Richard. “Edgar Allen Poe’s Snifter of Terror Season 2 #1.” Edgar Allen Poe’s Snifter of Terror , Ahoy Comics. Oct. 2019.


15.4: Textbook Completing Checklist
Content
1: Accessibility Checker
Run the Accessibility Checker over each page to check for major accessibility issues. This is accessed via the black Vitruvian Man icon on the editor toolbar (far right):
Select "All accessibility Issues" and address concerns as needed.
2: Summary II
Write a short (or longish) summary paragraph that is pasted to the top page. This text doesn't show up in the printed version, but provides a valuable overview to faculty and students when loading your text. This is best forumulated to address: (1) the target course(s) of the text, (2) the target audience, e.g., lower divisional, introductory etc., (3) specific flavors/emphasis of the text e.g., if the text has a cultural responsive or localized focus. It isn't needed to add authors to this summary since that is covered by the branding bar and attribution footer.
3: Bots
While this part of the publishing and compiling process, authors can request bots to run over existing page on a book at any time. The standard bot is the "Bradbot" named after Brad Pitt, which is so named since the bot "prettifies" the page by standardizing underlying code that may be difficult to establish manually.
Meta Data
1: Summary II
Rewrite the summary from above into the "summary" block under the "page settings" (you may need to expand it). This has a limited amount of text (about three lines) that is about the size of a tweet (280 characters). This summary will show up in searches for books, also is used for the Commons catalog entry for the text after being compiled and it also shows up on the back of physical copies of the text.
Licensing Issues
1: Check Licensing
When the PDF is generated (Via the PDF button), a licensing map will be general that shows authors a detailed list of applicable licensing at each page.
Find the pages that are labeled as "undeclared" and change those pages to the appropriate license (in the page settings).


7.8.E: Problems on Lebesgue Measure
Fill in all details in the proof of Theorems 3 and 4.
Prove Note 2.
From Theorem 3 deduce that
\[\left(\forall A \subseteq E^{n}\right)\left(\exists B \in \mathcal{G}_{\delta}\right) \quad A \subseteq B \text { and } m^{*} A=m B.\]
[Hint: See the hint to Problem 7 in §5.]
Review Problem 3 in §5.
Consider all translates
\[R+p \quad\left(p \in E^{1}\right)\]
of
\[R=\left\{\text {rationals in } E^{1}\right\}.\]
Prove the following.
(i) Any two such translates are either disjoint or identical.
(ii) Each \(R+p\) contains at least one element of \([0,1]\).
[Hint for (ii): Fix a rational \(y \in(-p, 1-p),\) so \(0<y+p<1.\) Then \(y+p \in R+p\), and \(y+p \in[0,1]\).]
Continuing Problem 4, choose one element \(q \in[0,1]\) from each \(R+p.\) Let \(Q\) be the set of all \(q\) so chosen.
Call a translate of \(Q, Q+r,\) "good" iff \(r \in R\) and \(|r|<1.\) Let \(U\) be the union of all "good" translates of \(Q.\)
Prove the following.
(a) There are only countably many "good" \(Q+r\).
(b) All of them lie in \([-1,2]\).
(c) Any two of them are either disjoint or identical.

[Hint for (c): Suppose
\[y \in(Q+r) \cap\left(Q+r^{\prime}\right).\]
Then
\[y=q+r=q^{\prime}+r^{\prime} \quad\left(q, q^{\prime} \in Q, r, r^{\prime} \in R\right);\]
so \(q=q^{\prime}+\left(r^{\prime}-r\right),\) with \(\left(r^{\prime}-r\right) \in R\).
Thus \(q \in R+q^{\prime}\) and \(q^{\prime}=0+q^{\prime} \in R+q^{\prime}.\) Deduce that \(q=q^{\prime}\) and \(r=r^{\prime} =;\) hence \(Q+r=Q+r^{\prime}\).]
Show that \(Q\) in Problem 5 is not L-measurable.
[Hint: Otherwise, by Theorem 4, each \(Q+r\) is L-measurable, with \(m(Q+r)=m Q.\) By 5(a)(c), \(U\) is a countable disjoint union of "good" translates.
Deduce that \(m U=0\) if \(m Q=0,\) or \(m U=\infty,\) contrary to 5(d).]
Show that if \(f : S \rightarrow T\) is continuous, then \(f^{-1}[X]\) is a Borel set in \(S\) whenever \(X \in \mathcal{B}\) in \(T\).
[Hint: Using Note 1 in §7, show that
\[\mathcal{R}=\left\{X \subseteq T | f^{-1}[X] \in \mathcal{B} \text { in } S\right\}\]
is a \(\sigma\)-ring in \(T.\) As \(\mathcal{B}\) is the least \(\sigma\)-ring \(\supseteq \mathcal{G}, \mathcal{R} \supseteq \mathcal{B}\) (the Borel field in \(T\).]
Prove that every degenerate interval in \(E^{n}\) has Lebesgue measure \(0,\) even if it is uncountable. Give an example in \(E^{2}.\) Prove uncountability.
[Hint: Take \(\overline{a}=(0,0), \overline{b}=(0,1).\) Define \(f : E^{1} \rightarrow E^{2}\) by \(f(x)=(0, x).\) Show that \(f\) is one-to-one and that \([\overline{a}, \overline{b}]\) is the \(f\)-image of \([0,1].\) Use Problem 2 of Chapter 1, §9.]
Show that not all L-measurable sets are Borel sets in \(E^{n}\).
[Hint for \(E^{2}:\) With \([\overline{a}, \overline{b}]\) and \(f\) as in Problem 8, show that \(f\) is continuous (use the sequential criterion). As \(m[\overline{a}, \overline{b}]=0,\) all subsets of \([\overline{a}, \overline{b}]\) are in \(\mathcal{M}^{*}\) (Theorem 2(i)), hence in \(\mathcal{B}\) if we assume \(\mathcal{M}^{*}=\mathcal{B}\). But then by Problem 7 , the same would apply to subsets of \([0,1],\) contrary to Problem 6.
Give a similar proof for \(E^{n}(n>1)\).
Note: In \(E^{1},\) too, \(\mathcal{B} \neq \mathcal{M}^{*},\) but a different proof is necessary. We omit it.]
Show that Cantor's set \(P\) (Problem 17 in Chapter 3, 14 ) has Lebesgue measure zero, even though it is uncountable.
[Outline: Let
\[U=[0,1]-P;\]
so \(U\) is the union of open intervals removed from \([0,1].\) Show that
\[m U=\frac{1}{2} \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}\left(\frac{2}{3}\right)^{n}=1\]
and use Lemma 1 in §4.]
Let \(\mu : \mathcal{B} \rightarrow E^{*}\) be the Borel restriction of Lebesgue measure \(m\) in \(E^{n}\) (§7). Prove that
(i) \(\mu\) in incomplete;
(ii) \(m\) is the Lebesgue extension (* and completion, as in Problem 15 of §6) of \(\mu.\)
[Hints: (i) By Problem 9, some \(\mu\)-null sets are not in \(\mathcal{B}.\) (ii) See the proof (end) of Theorem 2 in §9 (the next section).]
Prove the following.
(i) All intervals in \(E^{n}\) are Borel sets.
(ii) The \(\sigma\)-ring generated by any one of the families \(\mathcal{C}\) or \(\mathcal{C}^{\prime}\) in Problem 3 of §5 coincides with the Borel field in \(E^{n}.\)
[Hints: (i) Any interval arises from a closed one by dropping some "faces" (degenerate closed intervals). (ii) Use Lemma 2 from §2 and Problem 7 of §3.]
Show that if a measure \(m^{\prime}: \mathcal{M}^{\prime} \rightarrow E^{*}\) in \(E^{n}\) agrees on intervals with Lebesgue measure \(m: \mathcal{M}^{*} \rightarrow E^{*},\) then the following are true.
(i) \(m^{\prime}=m\) on \(\mathcal{B},\) the Borel field in \(E^{n}\).
(ii) If \(m^{\prime}\) is also complete, then \(m^{\prime}=m\) on \(\mathcal{M}^{*}\).
[Hint: (i) Use Problem 13 of §5 and Problem 12 above.]
Show that globes of equal radius have the same Lebesgue measure.
[Hint: Use Theorem 4.]
Let \(f : E^{n} \rightarrow E^{n},\) with
\[f(\overline{x})=c \overline{x} \quad(0<c<\infty).\]
Prove the following.
(i) \((\forall A \subseteq E^{n}) m^{*} f[A]=c^{n} m^{*} A\) (\(m^{*}=\)Lebesgue outer measure).
(ii) \(A \in \mathcal{M}^{*}\) iff \(f[A] \in \mathcal{M}^{*}\).
[Hint: If, say, \(A=(\overline{a}, \overline{b}],\) then \(f[A]=(c \overline{a}, c \overline{b}].\) (Why?) Proceed as in Theorem 4, using \(f^{-1}\) also.]
From Problems 14 and 15 show that
(i) \(m G_{\overline{p}}(c r)=c^{n} \cdot m G_{\overline{p}}(r)\);
(ii) \(m G_{\overline{p}}(r)=m \overline{G}_{\overline{p}}(r)\);
(iii) \(m G_{\overline{p}}(r)=a \cdot m I,\) where \(I\) is the cube inscribed in \(G_{\overline{p}}(r)\) and
\[a=\left(\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{n}\right)^{n} \cdot m G_{\overline{0}}(1).\]
[Hints: (i) \(f\left[G_{\overline{0}}(r)\right]=G_{\overline{0}}(c r).\) (ii) Prove that
\[m G_{\overline{p}} \leq m \overline{G}_{\overline{p}} \leq c^{n} m G_{\overline{p}}\]
if \(c>1.\) Let \(c \rightarrow 1\).]
Given \(a<b\) in \(E^{1},\) let \(\left\{r_{n}\right\}\) be the sequence of all rationals in \(A=[a, b].\)
Set \((\forall n)\)
\[\delta_{n}=\frac{b-a}{2^{n+1}}\]
and
\[G_{n}=\left(a_{n}, b_{n}\right)=(a, b) \cap\left(r_{n}-\frac{1}{2} \delta_{n}, r_{n}+\frac{1}{2} \delta_{n}\right).\]
Let
\[P=A-\bigcup_{n=1}^{\infty} G_{n}.\]
Prove the following.
(i) \(\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \delta_{n}=\frac{1}{2}(b-a)=\frac{1}{2} m A\).
(ii) \(P\) is closed; \(P^{o}=\emptyset,\) yet \(m P>0\).
(iii) The \(G_{n}\) can be made disjoint (see Problem 3 in §2), with \(m P\) still \(>0.\)
(iv) Construct such a \(P \subseteq A\left(P=\overline{P}, P^{o}=\emptyset\right)\) of prescribed measure \(m P=\varepsilon>0\).
Find an open set \(G \subset E^{1},\) with \(m G<m \overline{G}<\infty.\)
[Hint: \(G=\cup_{n=1}^{\infty} G_{n}\) with \(G_{n}\) as in Problem 17.]
If \(A \subseteq E^{n}\) is open and convex, then \(m A=m \overline{A}\).
[Hint: Let first \(\overline{0} \in A.\) Argue as in Problem 16.]


5.4: Washington State Caregiver Resources
Washington State Family Caregiver Support Program
Aging and Long-Term Support Administration, Department of Social and Health Services.
The Family Caregiver Support Program is a service available to unpaid caregivers of adults needing care and living in Washington State. There are local Family Caregiver Support Program offices throughout the state staffed with caring and knowledgeable people who can help with the following:
- Find local resources/services .
- Find caregiver support groups and counseling .
- Get respite care .
- Talk through specific issues you are having and offer practical information and caregiving suggestions .
Generally, these services are offered free or at low cost and are a service of your local Area Agency on Aging. Certain eligibility requirements may apply and availability varies from community to community. Find the telephone number for your local Family Caregiver Support Program.
Washington State Long-Term Care Services and Support (ALTSA)
Information about community long-term care options in Washington State with links to local services .
Washington Community Living Connection
Community Living Connections is a website where Washington residents can learn about and access the full range of private and public long-term service and support options. Whether you are looking for help for yourself or help for a loved one, it will be easy to locate services that best fit your needs.
Many information resources about access for services for older adults and people with disabilities, including legal and financial information. See the section on “ Seniors ” for information about public long-term care programs and legal tools and forms.


3.6: Customer Emails
- Describe appropriate and professional responses to customers
- Write a response to a critical message from a customer
- Write a response to a customer’s request
Email communication to customers requires the utmost courtesy and skill, no matter whether the message contains good news, bad news, or is just informational. After all, no business can be successful without customers. Your email message to a customer may be the only direct interaction they have with your company, so ensure that you are thoughtful in crafting it properly.
One way of ensuring a positive customer experience with your email is to personalize it. People like to know they are communicating with another person, not just some large department in a larger company. Wouldn’t you rather receive an email from “Susan” instead of “ABC Software Support”?
Second, always be appreciative of ANY communication sent to your company by a customer, as it is an opportunity to improve or deepen your relationship with that customer. Whether the customer is contacting you to provide a suggestion, complain about another department, or register a product defect, we always thank them for the opportunity to do better.
Finally, give some thought to the content of your email and how that could relate to the structure of your message. For example, when your message contains good news or is informational, it is always best to get to the point right away. We do not want to waste our customer’s time reading through unnecessary background or other details before we deliver the crux of the message.
Here is an example of a good news message:
April 2, 2018
Re: A suggestion for your next release
To: John Goodenow
Dear John,
Thank you for taking the time to let us know of your idea. I brought it up at yesterday’s project status meeting with the developers, and everyone reacted positively to your suggestion. In fact, we wanted to get more details from you about how you would like to see the feature to work. Would you be available later this week to spend a few minutes on the phone with Josh and Alicia, who own that area of the product architecture, to discuss?
Please let us know when a convenient time for the call would be. Once again, thanks for being a great customer and providing such useful feedback.
Best regards,
Bob
Senior Product Manager
ABC Software
Delivering bad news to a customer is never easy, because we naturally do not want to ever disappoint them. However, there will be times when a business email will need to address information that is going to be taken as bad news. There is some controversy about the best way to do so.
One school of thought believes that bad news should not be delivered right away in an email communication to a customer. It is thought that that type of message should begin with a “buffer”— perhaps the facts that led to the situation, an immediate expression of apology and empathy, or an appreciation of our relationship with the customer. This so-called “indirect” approach to communicating would then call for revealing the bad news in the middle of the message. The closing of this style of email would then end with a positive sentiment about future business, perhaps some sort of discount on the next purchase, etc.
The major problem with this indirect email structure is that it can be perceived by the customer to be insincere, unethical, and a “run around.” Many people prefer to get the bad news directly and not feel as if they are being misled or manipulated. Suffice it to say that great care should be exercised before adopting the indirect method of delivering bad news to customers.
Here is an example of responding to a message in an indirect way:
April 2, 2018
*Bob Josephson
Re: A suggestion for your next release
To: John Goodenow
Dear John,
ABC Software is considered to be one of the most customer-driven software companies in the industry. Tantamount to that reputation is our responsiveness to customer suggestions for product features.
We thank you for your feature suggestion, and we are sorry that we will not be able to consider your suggestion for the next release as we simply do not have the staff to implement such a feature. As you may know, the growth of the software industry has put increasing pressure on the ability of companies to hire software developers.
We hope that you will continue to remain a loyal user of ABC and will not hesitate to send your suggestions to us in the future.
Best regards,
Bob
Senior Product Manager
ABC Software
While some may find this indirect approach more pleasant than an immediate no, as we mentioned, others may feel like this email is insincere and prefer a more direct message. Here is the same response modified to be more direct:
April 2, 2018
*Bob Josephson
Re: A suggestion for your next release
To: John Goodenow
Dear John,
Thank you so much for your new feature suggestion. We are sorry that we will not be able to consider your suggestion for the next release as we simply do not have the staff to implement such a feature. As you may know, the growth of the software industry has put increasing pressure on the ability of companies to hire software developers.
We hope that you will continue to remain a loyal user of ABC and will not hesitate to send your suggestions to us in the future.
Best regards,
Bob
Senior Product Manager
ABC Software
For additional tips on writing customer service emails check out “10 Tips for Sending Better Customer Service Emails” , an article from Groove about customer support software.
Responding to a Critical Message from a Customer
As stated in the last section, any message from a customer is to be treated as an opportunity to improve the relationship with that customer. When a critical message is received, it is best to follow these guidelines:
- Contact the customer immediately
- Describe immediate remedy to the problem
- Describe why the problem occurred
- Describe action being taken to correct the problem going forward
- Offer positive thoughts for the future
Often items two and three will be intertwined in your email: it can be hard to describe how you’re addressing the issue without describing what went wrong in the first place.
Here is an example of how a critical customer message can be handled:
September 22, 2018
*Sara Hernandez
Re: Why doesn’t your app work on my device?
To: Mark Griffiths
Dear Mark,
Thank you so much for sending in your inquiry. We took a look at the information and screenshots you provided, and it looks like your device may not have its location functionality turned on, which can prevent our app from working correctly. For guidance on turning on your location functionality, please look at the attached guide.
If this doesn’t resolve the issue, please let us know, and we can work with you to solve the issue.
Sincerely,
Sara Hernandez
Customer Support Representative
Not all customer issues can be solved in just one email. Additionally, there may be complex issues that require multiple people to solve the problem. In these situations, it is essential to keep the customer aware that someone is looking into the request; however, sometimes things slip through the cracks.
Take a look at this email sent to a customer whose product wasn’t working, and then failed to receive any response from customer service:
September 22, 2018
*Rick Donaldson
Re: Why don’t I get service from your Customer Service Department?
To: Eddie Bangston
Dear Eddie,
We at Distance Golf are very sorry that our initial efforts to satisfy your request have fallen short. I was forwarded your email today from our Customer Service department, but I am able to inform you today that we have discovered the cause of the problem.
It turns out that the country club you joined is not currently on our list of supported golf courses for our GPS distance device. I apologize that Customer Service did not immediately get back to you with that information; it took longer than anticipated to discover when your country club was scheduled to be added to our support courses.
I am happy to report the good news that your country club is on the list of supported golf courses for the next software update release. You should be able to use our product to lower your scores as soon as the December 1st release. We’ve also attached a list of courses in a ten-mile radius of your country club that are currently supported on the GPS distance device.
Again, our apologies to you for the tardy response to your inquiry. Hopefully, you will get years of happy golfing from Distance Golf!
Sincerely,
Rick Donaldson
General Manager
Distance Golf
Write a Response to a Customer’s Request
Responding to a customer request via email should follow much the same rules we have described in responding to any and all customer communication. We want to be concise and direct in structure, and courteous and appreciative in tone.
When responding to a customer request, use the subject line to reinforce your main point. Provide your answer to the request right away in the opening of your message. Use the body of the message to provide details, explanation and any additional information needed. Close with a summary and expression of appreciation and goodwill.
July 31, 2018
*Dave Waddell
Re: Your July 25 Inquiry Regarding Additional Education Discount
To: Dan O’Connell
Dear Dan,
Thank you for your message regarding Plato Publishing’s discount to academic institutions. Yes, we do offer an additional discount for Higher Education purchases.
Our website has the complete schedule of the sliding scale used to calculate volume discounts off our list price. For academic institutions such as yours, we add an additional 25% discount to the volume discount price. There is also a monthly list of publications that are being offered at special prices that also will receive the additional academic discount.
I have attached a PDF list of our complete offering for your convenience.
We greatly appreciate your ongoing business. Please contact me if you have any further questions or needs.
Sincerely,
Dave Waddell
Customer Service Manager
Plato Publishing


8.1.5: The Conflict Perspective on Education
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Social Control
The conflict theory perspective towards education focuses on the role school systems may play in implementing social control.
Learning Objectives
Discuss the use of school system and media as a means of exercising social control within a given society
Key Points
- Conflict theory assumes that the ideas of a society are the ideas of the ruling class.
- Social control refers generally to societal and political mechanisms or processes that regulate individual and group behavior, leading to conformity and compliance to the rules of a given society, state, or social group.
- Schools can further goals of social control by socializing students into behaving in socially acceptable ways. By means of social control, students are taught the boundaries of acceptable behavior.
- Informal social control is exercised by a society without explicitly stating these rules, and is expressed through customs, norms, and mores.
- Social control may be enforced using informal sanctions, which may include shame, ridicule, sarcasm, criticism and disapproval. Social control may also be enforced using formal sanctions.
- Education may maintain social control through various mechanisms, such as indoctrination, informal sanctions and formal sanctions.
- By means of social control, students are taught the boundaries of acceptable behavior.
- Education may maintain social control through various mechanisms, such as indoctrination, informal sanctions and formal sanctions.
Key Terms
- indoctrination : Instruction in the rudiments and principles of any science or belief system; information.
- Formal social control : Societal and political mechanisms or processes that regulate individual and group behavior, leading to conformity and compliance to the rules of a given society, state, or social group undertaken by the state through legal action.
- Acceptable behavior : Behavior that conforms to social mores and norms.
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory assumes that the ideas held by a society are the ideas of the ruling class. The ruling class uses schools, along with the media and other means of communication, to disseminate ideas that will support its continued rule. Given this assumption, the conflict perspective often focuses on the role school systems may play in influencing public opinion, or implementing social control.
Social control refers generally to societal and political mechanisms or processes that regulate individual and group behavior, leading to conformity and compliance to the rules of a given society, state, or social group. Schools can further goals of social control by socializing students into behaving in socially acceptable ways. Some may consider this type of socialization a form of indoctrination. In any case, the social values that are present in individuals are products of informal social control. It is exercised by a society without explicitly stating these rules and is expressed through customs, norms, and mores. Individuals are socialized consciously or subconsciously.
Enforcement
Social control may be enforced using informal sanctions, which may include shame, ridicule, sarcasm, criticism and disapproval. In extreme cases sanctions may include social discrimination and exclusion. For example, schoolmates may enforce gender norms by ridiculing boys who undertake actions considered feminine, such as writing poetry or dancing. Informal sanctions can have a powerful effect; individuals internalize the norm, which becomes an aspect of personality.
Social control may also be enforced using formal sanctions. Formal sanctions may be used in a large group in which an individual can choose to ignore the sanctions of other individuals. This form of control usually takes the form of government action. Government and organizations use law enforcement mechanisms and other formal sanctions, such as fines and imprisonment. In schools, formal sanctions may include detention, suspension, or other formal punishments.
By means of social control, students are taught the boundaries of acceptable behavior. They carry these lessons with them into everyday life and, later, into careers. Thus, the social control lessons learned in school may prepare students, for example, to be a docile proletariat in a capitalist economy.
Tracking Systems
Tracking sorts students into different groups depending on academic ability; however, other factors often influence placement.
Learning Objectives
Analyze the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of tracking systems for students
Key Points
- According to the conflict perspective, capitalism requires that many students be trained to join the working class while a few must be trained to join the ruling capitalist class. One way schools screen and allocate classes of students is by sorting them into different tracks.
- In a tracking system, students are educated with other students of the same ability level and their education differs depending on the track to which they are assigned.
- Tracking systems vary by extent, specificity, and flexibility. Traditionally, students were divided into academic, general, and vocational tracks.
- Advantages of tracking may include the ability of teachers to focus instruction, the potential for students only to be compared to others of similar ability, and the opportunity for high-achieving students to advance more quickly.
- Disadvantages of tracking may include tracking based on student background instead of ability, poor quality of instruction in lower tracks, and stigmatization of students in lower tracks.
- Detracking has been proposed as a more equitable alternative to tracking.
Key Terms
- Conflict Perspective : perspectives in social science based on Conflict Theory, that emphasize the social, political, or material inequality of a social group.
- tracking : An educational system in which the entire school population is assigned to classes according to whether the students’ overall achievement is above average, normal, or below average and in which students attend academic classes only with students whose overall academic achievement is the same as their own.
- allocating : setting aside for a purpose
From the conflict perspective, schools play a role in screening and allocating people and their abilities. Advanced capitalist economies require that many students be trained to join the working class while a few must be trained to join the ruling capitalist class. One way schools may begin to sort and differently train classes of students is by sorting them into different tracks.
Tracking sorts and separates students by academic ability. In a tracking system, the entire school population is assigned to classes according to whether the students’ overall achievement is above, at, or below what is average. Students attend academic classes only with students whose overall academic achievement is the same as their own. Tracking is one of the predominant organizing practices of American public schools, and has been an accepted feature in the country’s schools for nearly a century.
Characteristics
Defined tracks often mirror class divisions in society. Thus, traditionally, students were tracked into academic, general, and vocational tracks. Academic tracks prepare students for advanced study and professions such as medicine or law, whereas general and vocational tracks were meant to prepare students for middle or working class life. Students in academically advanced tracks study higher mathematics, more foreign languages, and literature. Students in less academic tracks acquire vocational skills such as welding or cosmetology, or business skills, such as typing or bookkeeping. Students are usually not offered the opportunity to take classes deemed more appropriate for another track, even if the student has a demonstrated interest and ability in the subject. Today, few schools use tracking systems that so overtly differentiate upper, middle, and working class skills. Instead, many secondary schools now base track levels on course difficulty, with tracks such as basic, honors, or college-prep.
Tracking systems vary widely in their characteristics. Some may extend to the entire school system so that students follow a track that begins in elementary school and continues until high school graduation. Other schools may use tracking only for certain classes or subjects. Systems may also vary in their flexibility and the opportunities for mobility given to students. In some cases, placement is based entirely on student preferences. In other cases, test scores may be used to determine a student’s track. Counselors may also work with students to choose a particular class that in turn puts them on a given track. Parents and peers may influence academic choices even more than guidance counselors by encouraging students with similar backgrounds (academic, vocational, ethnic, religious, or racial) to stay together. Other times, students are placed into tracks without any knowledge or input into the process.
Advantages
Proponents of tracking say that tracking allows teachers to better direct lessons toward the specific ability level of the students in each class. Research suggests that tracking produces substantial gains for gifted students in tracks specially designed for the gifted and talented, meeting the need for highly gifted students to be with their intellectual peers in order to be appropriately challenged. However, average and low achieving students may benefit more from being in a mixed ability classroom.
Since tracking separates students by ability, students’ work is only compared to that of similar-ability peers. Thus, tracking may have emotional benefits for students: it may prevent damage to self-esteem that could result from comparisons with the work of higher ability students or inflating the egos of the high-ability students when compared to low-ability students. Tracking can also encourage low-ability students to participate in class. Since high self-esteem is correlated with high academic achievement, tracking should, theoretically, promote academic success. However, the awareness by the student of being placed into a low track might lower self-esteem, counteracting this benefit.
Disadvantages
From the conflict perspective, tracking’s primary function is not necessarily to promote learning; it is the allocation of students into specific areas of the labor market. Although track assignment is theoretically based on academic ability, other factors often influence placement. When tracking is based not on ability but instead on student background, it becomes a form of segregation and discrimination. Students in lower tracks may receive poorer quality instruction, with less-experienced teachers being assigned to low-track classes. Lessons taught in low-track classes often lack the engagement and comprehensiveness of the high-track lessons, putting low-track students at a disadvantage for college because they do not gain the knowledge and skills of the upper-track students.
Tracking can also result in a stigmatization of low-track students. This stigmatization can have a negative impact on students’ academic performance; for example, students placed in low tracks may lose confidence in their abilities, and their low confidence may be reinforced by teachers’ low expectations and their stigmatization by peers. Some research suggests that students in lower tracks are more likely to drop out of school or participate in criminal activities.
The Credentialized Society
Credentialism refers to the common practice of relying on earned credentials when hiring staff or assigning social status.
Learning Objectives
Explain the use of credentialism in today’s society as a means of social mobility and job security
Key Points
- Credentialism is common in employment decisions, especially for white collar jobs.
- Credential inflation occurs when the value of a credential declines because too many potential employees possess the credential.
- In his 1979 book The Credential Society, sociologist Randall Collins examined the connection between credentialism and stratification.
Key Terms
- society : a long-standing group of people sharing cultural aspects such as language, dress, norms of behavior and artistic forms
- credential inflation : The process by which credentials lose value as more and more people earn a particular credential.
- credentialism : The common practice of relying on earned credentials when hiring staff or assigning social status.
- The Credential Society : A 1979 book by Randall Collins which argues that public schools are social institutions that teach and reward middle class values of competition and achievement.
Credentialism refers to the common practice of relying on earned credentials when hiring staff or assigning social status. Instead of directly evaluating an individual’s abilities, evaluators study that person’s credentials as a shortcut to estimate their competencies. Besides attesting to one’s abilities, credentials may also grant the holder access to restricted areas, information, or activities. For example, security clearances and press passes are credentials that grant access to otherwise restricted areas. A medical license is a credential that grants the ability to practice an otherwise restricted activity.
Credentials are attestations of qualification, competence, or authority issued to an individual by a third party with a relevant or de facto authority to do so. Common examples of credentials are academic diplomas, academic degrees, certifications, security clearances, and licenses. Credentials are often represented by documents, such as diplomas, certificates, or membership cards.
The academic world makes very extensive use of credentials, such as diplomas, certificates, and degrees, in order to attest to the completion of specific training or education programs by students, and to attest to their successful completion of tests and exams. Receiving these credentials often leads to increased economic mobility and work opportunity.
Employers also commonly use credentials. For example, an employer may require a diploma, professional license, or academic degree. In a credential society, such certifications may become more important than actual skills or abilities. In some cases, employers may require formal credentials, such as an advanced academic degree, for a job that can be done perfectly well by applying skills acquired through experience or informal study. This type of credentialism is common in white-collar jobs, which require workers to have difficult-to-measure skills such as critical thinking. Rather than measure or evaluate those skills directly, employers assume that anyone able to earn a credential must possess those skills.
Credential Inflation
Over time, credentials may lose value, especially as more and more people earn that credential. This process is referred to as credential inflation. When credentials are inflated, they give individuals less advantage on the job market. A good example of credential inflation is the decline in the value of the U.S. high school diploma since the beginning of the twentieth century, when it was held by less than 10% of the population. At the time, high school diplomas attested to middle- class respectability, and for many years even provided access to managerial level jobs. More recently, however, the high school diploma barely qualifies the graduate for manual or menial service work.
Another indicator of credential inflation is the relative decline in the wage differential between those with college degrees and those with only high school diplomas. Jobs that were open to high school graduates a century ago now routinely require not just a bachelor’s degree, but a master’s degree as well—without an appreciable change in required skills.
The Credential Society
According to sociologist Randall Collins, understanding credentialism can help explain class-based differences in educational attainment. In his 1979 book The Credential Society, Collins argued that public schools are socializing institutions that teach and reward middle class values of competition and achievement. In this system, Anglo-Protestant elites are selectively separated from other students and placed into prestigious schools and colleges, where they are trained to hold positions of power. By teaching middle class culture through the public education system, the elite class ensures a monopoly over positions of power, while others acquire the credentials to compete in a subordinate job market and economy. In this way, schools of medicine, law, and elite institutions have remained closed to members of lower classes.
The Hidden Curriculum
To succeed in college, students must learn a second, hidden curriculum to meet unstated academic and social norms.
Learning Objectives
Examine Synder’s idea of hidden curriculum and the effects it has on students and professors in higher education
Key Points
- In 1970, Benson Snyder, a dean at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published a book called The Hidden Curriculum .
- According to Snyder, the hidden curriculum goes beyond the explicit demands of the formal curriculum.
- Creativity and wonder are stifled as students shift their exclusive focus to earning high grades and giving correct answers.
- As a result of conflict over the hidden curriculum, students experience intense personal anxiety, depression, and alienation.
Key Terms
- curriculum : The set of courses, coursework, and content, offered at a school or university.
- The Hidden Curriculum : A book published in 1970 by Benson Snyder, a dean at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, that argues that the college experience is inherently marked by conflict between students and instructors as students struggle to meet unstated academic goals.
- selective negligence : A strategy adopted by students to succeed in education, in which they selectively neglect portions of their formal schoolwork in order to glance at all of it.
In 1970, Benson Snyder, a dean at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published a book called The Hidden Curriculum . In it, he argued that the college experience is inherently marked by conflict between students and instructors. In this conflict, students struggle to meet unstated academic and social norms, or a hidden curriculum. Those who master the hidden curriculum excel while those who do not often fail, no matter their academic abilities.
According to Snyder, the hidden curriculum goes beyond the explicit demands of the formal curriculum. The goals and requirements of the hidden curriculum are unstated, but inflexible. They concern not what students learn but how and when they learn. The hidden curriculum is rooted in professors’ assumptions and values, students’ expectations, and the social context in which both professors and students find themselves. To succeed, students must adapt and often resort to ploys and stratagems to cope with the requirements they face. For example, students may adopt a strategy of selective negligence. Within the first month of classes, many students discover they cannot conceivably complete all the work assigned them; consequently, they must selectively neglect portions of the formal schoolwork. Education becomes a grueling competition rather than an enjoyable quest for knowledge. Creativity and wonder are stifled as students shift their exclusive focus to earning high grades and giving correct answers. Students, Snyder maintains, increasingly view their education as a type of game they must master.
As a result of conflict over the hidden curriculum, students experience intense personal anxiety, depression, and alienation. Some, even the most gifted, are turned off to education altogether. Students may feel frustration and anger at professors who deny them high grades, who object to creativity, and who demand that students fall in line with the hidden curriculum. But typically students must contain this anger or direct it inward. Students may judge themselves harshly, and those judgments may be reinforced by peers and professors.
No part of the university community, writes Snyder, desires the end result created by this process. The professors, too, are distracted and pressured, whether by the need to maintain institutional prestige or by the sheer frenzy of activity interrupting their creative cycles. Yet everyone, professors included, becomes locked into the competition.
Tilting the Tests: Discrimination by IQ
IQ is meant to measure intelligence but its validity as a measure of intelligence has been debated.
Learning Objectives
Discuss the various explanations for the IQ gap, ranging from genetic to environmental factors
Key Points
- The concept of intelligence itself may be culturally variable.
- Although some find evidence of a race -based IQ gap, others argue that race is not a causal variable and that race-based IQ differences are in fact caused by other differences correlated with race, such as health, wealth, and educational disparities.
- Socioeconomic status can affect many aspects of life, and therefore seems like a likely environmental influence on intelligence.
- Systemically disadvantaged minorities, such as the blacks in the United States, generally perform worse in the educational system and in intelligence tests than the majority groups or less disadvantaged minorities.
- Several studies have proposed that a large part of the IQ gap can be attributed to differences in quality of education.
- Peer groups and family can influence behavior and values.
- Peer groups and family can influence behavior and values.
Key Terms
- IQ gap : The gap in average IQ scores between populations, usually measured along racial lines, though with much disagreement.
- Environmental factors : Factors that come from one’s environment, upbringing, or social situation, rather than biology.
- intelligence : Capacity of mind, especially to understand principles, truths, facts or meanings, acquire knowledge, and apply it to practice; the ability to learn and comprehend.
Intelligence is commonly measured using intelligence quotient (IQ) tests, which are meant to be a general measure of intelligence. However, IQ tests only measure a narrow band of the broad spectrum of intelligence, excluding factors such as creativity or emotional intelligence. Some researchers have raised more serious questions about the validity of IQ tests for measuring intelligence, especially across cultures. For example, IQ tests may be inappropriate for measuring intelligence in non-industrialized communities, because they focus on modern, rational-style thinking, a type of reasoning that is common in the modern industrial West but may be alien to other cultures. Although some find evidence of a race-based IQ gap, others argue that race is not a causal variable and that race-based IQ differences are in fact caused by other differences such as health, wealth, and educational disparities.
The IQ Gap
In the United States, IQ tests have consistently demonstrated a significant degree of variation between different racial groups. On average, IQ scores are highest among Asian Americans, lower among whites, and lowest among blacks. Yet these IQ gaps are only observed in average scores and say very little about individuals. Plus, IQ scores show considerable overlap between these group scores, and individuals of each group can be found at all points on the IQ spectrum. Thus, the implications of the IQ gaps are unclear. And while the existence of racial IQ gaps is well-documented, researchers have not reached a consensus as to their cause. In general, explanations fall into one of two camps: genetic explanations and environmental explanations.
Genetic Explanations
Explanations of ethnically innate intelligence were fairly common early in the twentieth century, with the rise of the American eugenics movement. But after World War II, they quickly fell out of favor over fear of being associated with Nazism. Today, even those who believe intelligence may have some genetic component tend to acknowledge the importance of environmental effects as well.
Many researchers are reluctant to adopt genetic explanations of the IQ gap because of their historical and political implications. The connection between race and intelligence has been a subject of debate in both popular science and academic research since the inception of intelligence testing in the early twentieth century. But even before IQ tests were invented, claims of race-based intelligence gaps were used to justify colonialism, slavery, and racial eugenics. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, much of the “scientific” evidence for racial intelligence gaps came from measurements such as brain size or reaction times.
The first IQ test was created between 1905 and 1908 and revised in 1916, during a time when Americans were quite concerned about an influx of new immigrants. Different nationalities were sometimes thought to comprise different races, especially nationalities newer to the United States, such as the Irish, the Slavs, and the Italians. Alfred Binet, the developer of these tests, warned that they should not be used to measure innate intelligence or to label individuals. Despite his warnings, the tests were used to evaluate draftees for World War I, and researchers found that people of southern and eastern European backgrounds scored lower than native-born Americans. At the time, such data was used to construct an ethnically based social hierarchy, one in which immigrants were rejected as unfit for service and mentally defective. It was not until later that researchers realized that lower language skills by new English speakers affected their scores on the tests.
Environmental Explanations
Researchers have suggested a wide array of environmental factors that might influence intelligence. In general, these factors are not mutually exclusive with one another: more than one of them may come into play at the same time. In fact, some may even directly contribute to others. Furthermore, the relationship between genetics and environmental factors is likely complicated. For example, the differences in socioeconomic environment for a child may be due to differences in genetic IQ for the parents, and the differences in average brain size between races could be the result of nutritional factors.
Socioeconomic Environment
Socioeconomic status can affect many aspects of life, and therefore seems like a likely environmental influence on intelligence. People who grow up in a community with lower socioeconomic status may have fewer enrichment opportunities (like going to museums) or a less stimulating home environment, as well as unequal access to health care, nutritious food, and quality education. But research suggests that differences in socioeconomic status cannot entirely explain the IQ gap. In part, this is because the effects of socioeconomic status are hard to isolate and measure, and are probably not independent of intelligence itself.
Staking the Desk: Unequal Funding
Because schools are funded by property taxes, schools in poor areas receive less funding then schools in wealthier areas.
Learning Objectives
Examine the inequality in public school systems and the implications for a student’s future
Key Points
- In the United States, most public schools are funded primarily through local property taxes.
- According to the American dream, children should be able to use their education to achieve upward mobility.
- Educational deficits resulting from inequality also affect future life trajectories.
- Colleges tend to draw students from a relatively advantaged background because of their high costs and stiff academic requirements for enrollment.
- Because colleges want to maintain their rankings in various college ranking systems, colleges favor students with higher standardized test scores and aggressively recruit them using “merit” scholarships.
Key Terms
- property taxes : Taxes levied by the government on landowners’ property.
- Upward mobility : A change in a person’s social status resulting in that person rising to a higher position in the status system.
- public school : A publicly administered school.
In the United States, most public schools are funded primarily through local property taxes. As a result, schools in wealthier neighborhoods have substantially larger budgets, which translates into better facilities, better teachers, and better resources. Whereas some people laud education as the great equalizer, others observe the effects of school funding schemes and conclude that they actually reinforce inequality and stratification. According to the American dream, children should be able to use their education to achieve upward mobility. But unequal school funding may afford students from poorer families fewer opportunities, reinforcing the status quo.
Educational deficits resulting from inequality also affect future life trajectories. Colleges tend to draw students from a relatively advantaged background because of their high costs and stiff academic requirements for enrollment. What’s more, because colleges want to maintain their rankings in various college ranking systems, colleges favor students with higher standardized test scores and aggressively recruit them using “merit” scholarships. In 2000, affluent students, students who could otherwise afford to pay for college, received “merit” scholarships worth 82% of the need-based aid received by students with the lowest family incomes. In other words, affluent students who can pay for college often do not have to because the advantages they received attending better elementary, middle, and high schools translated into higher standardized test scores, which are attractive to universities when it comes to recruiting. As a result, there is less funding available for students who actually need it. This ends up reinforcing the existing status hierarchy by keeping the affluent wealthy, and the poor unable to attend college.
The Bottom Line: Family Background
Student achievement is highly correlated with family characteristics, including household income and parental educational attainment.
Learning Objectives
Examine the various factors within family background that give students an advantage in the educational realm
Key Points
- Wealthy students benefit from family background characteristics.
- The monetary advantages of unequal school funding are frequently coupled with the advantage of having a safe, supportive, and intellectually enriching home environment that comes with wealth.
- Educational deficits resulting from inequality also affect future life trajectories. Colleges tend to draw students from a relatively advantaged background because of their high costs and stiff academic requirements for enrollment.
Key Terms
- parental educational attainment : The level of education achieved by one’s parents.
- household income : The total income of all members of a household.
Not only do wealthier students tend to attend better-funded schools, but they often also benefit from family background characteristics. The monetary advantages of unequal school funding are frequently coupled with the advantage of having a safe, supportive, and intellectually enriching home environment that comes with wealth. So it is not surprising that children who attend better-funded public schools tend to be more successful than those who attend more poorly funded public schools.
In fact, family background may be even more important than school funding. Evidence suggests that the lifetime educational possibilities of most kids are set by the time they are six years old. This is due to the fact that several family background characteristics are very strong predictors of future educational attainment, including parental support, parental expectations for schooling, household income, and parental educational attainment, with the last two being the most important factors. Researchers can actually predict a child’s lifetime educational attainment by using background characteristics observed when the child is in the first grade, and these predictions turn out to be just as good, or even better, at predicting educational attainment as similar predictions based on observations made when the student is in high school.
Educational deficits resulting from inequality also affect future life trajectories. Colleges tend to draw students from a relatively advantaged background because of their high costs and stiff academic requirements for enrollment. What’s more, because colleges want to maintain their rankings in various college ranking systems (e.g., U.S. News & World Report), colleges favor students with higher standardized test scores and aggressively recruit them using “merit” scholarships. In 2000, affluent students, students who could otherwise afford to pay for college, received “merit” scholarships worth 82% of the need-based aid received by students with the lowest family incomes.
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