15: Business Presentations
Chapter Objectives
- Create oral presentation materials that reflect standards of effective presentations
- Apply the standards of effective presentation to Business Writing
- Demonstrate formatting and designing of presentations
- Evaluate presentations for effectiveness
Introduction
A common assignment in business writing courses—not to mention in the workplace—is to prepare and deliver presentations , a task most of us would be happy to avoid. However, while employers look for coursework and experience in preparing written documents, they also look for experience with presentations as well.
Business presentations will be prepared differently face-to-face than in an online environment. You would see many presenters use flip charts, PowerPoint, and other visuals for face-to-face presentations. If you are presenting online, oral reports can be sent in as "scripts," or audio versions can be transmitted live or recorded. You might also use PowerPoint and Prezi presentations as well.
Most people would rather have root canal surgery without Novocaine than stand up in front of a group and speak. It truly is one of life's great stressors. But with some help from the resources that follow, you can be a champion presenter. Learning how to have effective presentations can help you close a big deal or explain information to your colleagues at work.
Topics and Situations for Presentations
For a presentation in a business writing course, imagine that you are formally handing over your final written report to the people with whom you set up the hypothetical contract or agreement. For example, imagine that you had contracted with a software company to write its user guide. Once you have completed it, you have a meeting with the chief officers to formally deliver the guide. You spend some time orienting them to the guide, showing them how it is organized and written, and discussing some of its highlights. Your goal is to get them acquainted with the guide and to prompt them for any concerns or questions.
The first step is to figure out a topic. It is important to remember what you did in the writing process and apply the same steps here. Start with brainstorming some possibilities on what you want to present:
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Purpose: One way to find a topic is to think about the purpose of your talk. Is it to instruct (for example, to explain how to run a text editing program on a computer), to persuade (to vote for or against a local business-related bond issue), or simply to inform (to report on citizen participation in the new recycling program)?
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Informative purpose: A presentation can be primarily informative. For example, as a member of a committee involved in a project to relocate a distribution center, your job might be to give an oral report on the condition of the building and grounds at one of the sites proposed for purchase.
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Instructional purpose: A presentation can be instructional. Your task might be to train new employees to use certain equipment or to perform certain routine tasks.
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Persuasive purpose: A presentation can be persuasive. You might want to convince members of local civic organizations to support a city-wide recycling program.
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Topics: You can start by thinking of a business-related subject, like how computers aid innovations in customer service or the impact of climate change on tourism. For your presentation, think of a subject you would be interested in talking about, but find a reason why an audience would want to hear your report.
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Place or situation: You can find topics presentations or make more detailed plans for them by thinking about the place or the situation in which your report might naturally be given: at meetings for your employer? at a city council meeting? at a meeting of the board of directors or high-level executives of a company? Thinking about a presentation this way makes you focus on the audience, their reasons for listening to you, and their interests and background. As in all business writing situations, identifying and understanding your audience is of the utmost importance.
Contents and Requirements for Presentations
Once you have picked a topic for your presentation, it is time to organize your thoughts. The focus for your presentation is clear, understandable presentation, and a well-organized, well-planned, and well-timed discussion.
When you give your presentation, use the following as a requirements list as a way of focusing your preparations:
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Situation: Plan to explain the situation of your oral report and who you are. Make sure that there is a clean break between this brief explanation and the beginning of your actual report.
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Timing: Make sure your report lasts no longer than the time allotted.
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Introduction: Pay special attention to the introduction to your talk. Here's where you tell your audience what you are going to present.
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Indicate the purpose of your oral report
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give an overview of its contents
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find some way to interest the audience
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Visuals: Use at least one visual—preferably slides using presentation software (such as Powerpoint, Keynote, or Prezi). Flip charts and objects for display are good, but avoid scribbling stuff on the chalkboard or whiteboard or relying strictly on handouts. Make sure you discuss key elements of your visuals.  Point out things about them; explain their significance to the audience.
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Explanation: Plan to explain any complex aspects of your topic clearly and understandably. Don't race through complicated, technical information—slow down and explain it carefully so that your audience understands it.
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Transitions: Use "verbal headings"—by now, you've gotten used to using headings in your written work. There is a corollary in presentations. With these, you give your audience a very clear signal you are moving from one topic or part of your talk to the next. Your presentation visual can help you signal these headings.
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Planning: Plan your report in advance and practice it so that it is organized. Make sure that your audience knows what you are talking about and why, which part of the talk you are on, and what is coming next. Overviews and verbal headings greatly contribute to this sense of organization.
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Closing: End with a real conclusion. People sometimes forget to plan how to wrap up a presentation and end by just trailing off into a mumble. Remember that in conclusions, you can:
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summarize (go back over high points of what you've discussed)
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conclude (state some logical conclusion based on what you have presented)
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provide some last thought (end with some final interesting point but general enough not to require elaboration)
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or some combination of the three
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Questions: And certainly, you'll want to prompt the audience for questions and concerns.
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Timing (again): As mentioned above, be sure your presentation is carefully timed. Some ideas on how to work within an allotted time frame are presented in the next section.
The sample chart in Figure 1 below can help you with your organization and brainstorming.
Just as different writing assignments have unique expectations from you as a student, presentations will also vary depending on the assignment. Carefully read the assignment and directions before you try to create an outline for your presentation.
Planning and Preparing Visuals for Presentations
Presentations are quite common in both academic and professional settings, and, because they are such an important part of how you’ll likely present your ideas and information to an audience, it’s helpful to have some basic information on how to create effective visuals for your presentation.
The basic purpose of a presentation is to give you a way to present key ideas to an audience with visual support.  It is meant to provide you with speaking points, and detailed notes should be kept from your audience. You want to keep your slides clear, clean, short, focused, and you want to keep your audience from using the expression that we sometimes hear in reference to long, boring presentations: “death by PowerPoint.”
Common Presentation Tools
The right tool for the job depends, of course, on the job. In this case, that means examining your audience and objective. If, for example, your task is simply to present “the facts,” there’s no need to consider interactive tools and techniques. If, however, your objective is to educate and/or inspire, you may want to consider a range of options for involving your audience, engaging them as participants or even co-presenters. For example, some workshops require participants—generally in group—to solve challenges or “stand and deliver.” That is, to review and present a segment of the material to the audience or peers. Or perhaps your goal is to engage a group in a training or strategic planning exercise. In this case, you would want to incorporate tools that support participative learning and collaboration such as Post-It Note Pads, or packages of smaller note pads (don’t forget markers, pens and highlighters) that can be arranged and rearranged as a pattern or plan emerges. Also consider easels, dry erase boards and other surfaces that lend themselves to idea sharing.
Whether you’re presenting to a K-12, higher education, or business audience will also influence your choice of primary and supplemental tools: handouts, product samples, giveaways, worksheets, and snacks (yes, even for the adults). If your assignment is to develop and present a business presentation to be delivered to your Business Communications class peers, the topic, format and any supporting materials may be pre-defined. But don’t stop there. If you’re proposing an edible garden space on campus, you could make or hand out seed packets. Think about how to differentiate yourself and your proposal—whatever you’re proposing—in a way that’s relevant and memorable.
Similarly, if you’re presenting to your management team, there may be a company standard template and tools that you’re expected to use. Again, you can distinguish yourself by your knowledge and application of learning and design principles. Even basic facts and figures can be rendered beautifully. Instead of handing out a hard copy of your presentation or supporting charts, graphs or worksheets, consider creating an infographic that distills those insights into a single visual aid. Also consider the logistical and technical details including the room layout, lighting, temperature controls, WiFi and electrical outlets and bathroom facilities.
There are various formats you can use to create effective presentations. Depending on your operating system, there is Keynote for Mac computers while PowerPoint is a Microsoft product; there are also online options such as Prezi. These applications are easy to use and can provide step by step instructions.
There are various types of presentation formats you can use:
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Presentation software slides: Projecting images ("slides") using software such as PowerPoint, Keynote, Google Slides, and Prezi, to name a few. One common problem with the construction of these slides is cramming too much information on individual slides.
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Poster board-size charts: Another possibility is to get some poster boards and draw and letter what you want your audience to see. Of course, it's not easy making charts look neat and professional.
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Handouts: You can make copies of what you want your audience to see and hand them out before or during your talk. This option is even less effective than the first two because you cannot point to what you want your audience to see and because handouts may distract the audience’s attention away from you. Still, for certain visual needs, handouts are the only choice. Keep in mind that if you are not well prepared, the handouts become a place for your distracted audience to doodle.
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Objects: If you need to demonstrate certain procedures, you may need to bring in actual physical objects. Rehearse what you are going to do with these objects; sometimes they can take up a lot more time than you expect.
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Zoom, Teams, Google Hangouts (conference style software): We are seeing more and more companies using this type of software to conduct business meetings. Since people are conducting virtual meetings with increased frequency, learning how to use this software to present your presentations is very important.
Take some time to make your visuals look sharp and professional—do your best to ensure that they are legible to the entire audience.
As for the content of your visuals, consider these ideas:
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Drawing or diagram of key objects: If you describe or refer to any objects during your talk, try to get visuals of them so that you can point to different components or features.
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Tables, charts, graphs: If you discuss statistical data, present it in some form or table, chart, or graph. Many members of your audience may be less comfortable "hearing" such data as opposed to seeing it.
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Outline of your talk, report, or both: If you are at a loss for visuals to use in your presentation, or if your presentation is complex, have an outline of it that you can show at various points during your talk.
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Key terms and definitions: A good idea for visuals (especially when you cannot think of any others) is to set up a two-column list of key terms you use during your presentation with their definitions in the second column.
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Key concepts or points: Similarly, you can list your key points and show them in visuals. (Outlines, key terms, and main points are all good, legitimate ways of incorporating visuals into presentations when you cannot think of any others.)
During your actual report, make sure to discuss your visuals, refer to them, guide your audience through the key points in your visuals. It is a big problem just to throw a visual up on the screen and never even refer to it.
As you prepare your visuals, look at resources that will help you. There are many rules for using PowerPoint, Keynote, Google Slides, and Prezi down to the font size and how many words to put on a single slide, but you will have to choose the style that best suits your subject and your presentation style.
Presentation software also allows you to take a presentation to the next level—engaging your audience verbally and visually as well as aurally. What’s particularly powerful about using presentation software and other visual aids is the ability to use imagery to bridge cultural and language gaps and arrive at a shared understanding of the issue/opportunity at hand. Using multimedia—images, photos and video and animation—that supports your point also provides repetition and can increase retention.
You may also have heard about the presentation skills of Steve Jobs. The video that follows is the introduction of the I-Phone. As you watch, take notes on how Jobs sets up his talk and his visuals. Observe how he connects with the audience, and then see if you can work some of his strategies into your own presentation skills. This is a long video; you don't need to watch it all, but do take enough time to form some good impressions.
Designing the Presentation
When creating a presentation, you want to make sure it is visually appealing and easy to read for your audience. When you start to think about the layout of your presentation, make sure to have an outline of how you want your presentation to flow. This will help you make sure you cover all your points. Make sure that your presentation is spaced out well and your content does not look cluttered on the slide. You want to have less text and use more bullet points. You want to also have visuals to highlight your topic. The examples below will help you create a slide that highlights bullet points, illustrated points, and speaker props.
Speaker Props
This type of presentation is random pictures that will flash across your screen. You have to be careful when using it as it could be distracting for the audience and some people cannot handle flashes like that. The video below is an example of this type of presentation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=RrpajcAgR1E
Fonts and Size for Your Presentation
When you are creating your presentation, make sure to pick a font and size that is easy for your audience to read. Your audience needs to be able to read the information being projected in the room. Remember you could be in a conference room or an auditorium. Make sure you are using the same font throughout your presentation and the font is appropriate for your topic and audience. It can be distracting if you have various fonts throughout the presentation.
Tips
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Use a font that is easy to read
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Make sure the font and the background are compatible
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Make sure your title font is bigger than the content and stands out
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The common size is 24 font
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Bold important information
Presentation Design Aesthetics
For our purposes, aesthetics refers to the beauty or good taste of a presentation aid. Earlier we mentioned the universal principles of good design: unity, emphasis or focal point, scale and proportion, balance, and rhythm. Because of wide differences in taste, not everyone will agree on what is aesthetically pleasing, and you may be someone who does not think of yourself as having much artistic talent. Still, if you keep these principles in mind, they will help you to create attractive, professional-looking visuals.
The other aesthetic principle to keep in mind is that your presentation aids are intended to support your speech, not the other way around. The decisions you make in designing your visuals should be dictated by the content of your speech. If you use color, use it for a clear reason. If you use a border, keep it simple. Whatever you do, make certain that your presentation aids will be perceived as carefully planned and executed elements of your speech.
How to Choose the Right Colors
Color is very important and can definitely make a strong impact on an audience. However, don’t go overboard or decide to use unappealing combinations of color. For example, you should never use a light font color (like yellow) on a solid white background because it’s hard for the eye to read. You should also realize that while colors may be rich and vibrant on your computer screen at home, they may be distorted by a different monitor. Remember that you want the color to be suitable for all audiences; ome people are color blind and cannot see certain colors. While we definitely are in favor of experimenting with various color schemes, always check your presentation out on multiple computers to see if the slide color is being distorted in a way that makes it hard to read.
Visual and Audio Effects
Everyone who has had an opportunity to experiment with PowerPoint, Keynote, and Prezi knows that animation in transitions between slides or even on a single slide can be fun, but often people do not realize that too much movement can actually distract audience members. While all presentation software packages offer you interesting slide movements and other novelty visual effects, they are not always very helpful for your presentation. If you’re going to utilize slide transitions or word animation, stick to only three or four different types of transitions in your whole presentation. Furthermore, do not have more than one type of movement on a given slide. If you’re going to have all your text come from the right side of the screen in a bulleted list, make sure that all the items on the bulleted list come from the right side of the screen.
Good writers make conscious choices. They understand their purpose and audience. Every decision they make on the page, from organizing an essay to choosing a word with just the right connotations, is made with their purpose and audience in mind.
The same principle applies to visual communication. As a presenter, you choose the following:
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When to show images or video for maximum impact;
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Which images will best produce the effect you want;
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When to present information using a table, chart, or other graphic;
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How much text to include in slides or informational graphics; and
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How to organize graphics so they present information clearly.
Your goal is to use visual media to support and enhance your presentation. At the same time, you must make sure these media do not distract your audience or interfere with getting your point across. Your ideas, not your visuals, should be the focus.
Tips
Here are some tips to keep in mind when creating an effective presentation:
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Remember to avoid too much text. You should keep your text brief and include talking points only. Detailed notes can be inserted into the notes section (or you can use some other form of notes as you present), but only you should see those notes, unless a professor asks to see your notes to evaluate your presentation as an assignment.
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Be consistent and clear with your font choices. Helvetica is a nice font for presentations. Make sure your font is large enough that an audience in a room would be able to see your text, even if audience members are sitting in the back of the room.
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Be careful with your color choices for text and background. You want to make sure your audience can read your text easily. Black on white text is easiest to read but can also be boring for a presentation. Still, when you add color, be sure you are adding color that works and doesn’t distract.
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Add images. Text on slides for every slide is rather dull. Add appropriate images to your slides. Relevant charts and graphs are excellent, as are pictures that will connect to your content. Think about moments where an image can more easily convey information or a message. A powerful image on a slide with no accompanying text can be a powerful way to capture your audience’s attention.
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Make sure your main points are clear. Remember to connect your ideas well and provide background information and transitions when necessary.
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Keep your audience in mind. Your audience will affect the overall tone and appearance of your presentation. Sometimes, humor can be appropriate. Other times, a more serious tone may be necessary. Just as you evaluate your situation any time you write a paper, you should evaluate your situation for creating a presentation.
Preparing for the Presentation
Pick the method of preparing for the talk that best suits your comfort level with public speaking and with your topic. However, plan to do ample preparation and rehearsal—some people assume that they can just jump up there and ad lib for so many minutes and be relaxed and informal. It does not often work that way—drawing a mental blank is the more common experience. A well delivered presentation is the result of a lot of work and a lot of practice.
Here are the obvious possibilities for preparation and delivery:
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Write a script, practice it; keep it around for quick-reference during your talk.
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Set up an outline of your talk; practice with it, bring it for reference.
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Set up cue cards, practice with them, and use them during your talk.
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Write a script and read from it.
A good presentation is one that is clear, understandable, well-planned, organized, and on target with your purpose and audience.
It does not matter which method you use to prepare for the talk, but you want to make sure that you know your material. The head-down style of reading your report directly from a script will not work. There is little or no eye contact or interaction with the audience. The delivery tends to lean toward a dull, boring monotone that either puts listeners off or is hard to understand. Also, most of us cannot stand to have reports read to us!
For a variety of reasons, many people get nervous when they have to give presentations. Being well prepared is your best defense against the nerves. The nerves will wear off someday, gradually decreasing with every presentation you give. In the meantime, breathe deeply and enjoy.
Delivering Presentations
When you give a presentation, focus on common problem areas such as these:
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Timing: Make sure you keep within the time limit. Finishing more than a minute under the time limit is also a problem. Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse until you get the timing just right.
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Volume: Obviously, you must be sure to speak loud enough so that all of your audience can hear you. You might find some way to practice speaking a little louder in the days before the presentation.
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Pacing and speed: Sometimes, speakers who are nervous talk too fast. All that adrenaline causes them to speed through their talk, making it hard for the audience to follow. In general, it helps listeners understand you better if you speak a bit more slowly and deliberately than you do in normal conversation. Slow down, take it easy, be clear, and remember to breathe.
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Gestures and posture: Watch out for nervous hands flying all over the place. This can be distracting and a bit comical. At the same time, do not turn yourself into a mannequin. Plan to keep your hands clasped together or holding onto the podium and only occasionally making some gesture. Definitely keep your hands out of your pockets or waistband. As for posture, avoid slouching at the podium or leaning against the wall.
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Verbal crutches: Watch out for overuse of phrases like "uh," "you know," "okay" and other kinds of nervous verbal habits. Instead of saying "uh" or "you know" every three seconds, just do not say anything at all. In the days before your presentation, practice speaking without these verbal crutches. The silence that replaces them is not a bad thing—it gives listeners time to process what you are saying.
Face Your Audience
“Maintain eye contact” is a common piece of public-speaking advice—so common it may sound elementary and clichéd. Why is that simple piece of advice so hard to follow?
Maintaining eye contact may not be as simple as it sounds. In everyday conversation, people establish eye contact but then look away from time to time, because staring into someone’s eyes continuously feels uncomfortably intense. Two or three people conversing can establish a comfortable pattern of eye contact. But how do you manage that when you are addressing a group?
The trick is to focus on one person at a time. Zero in on one person, make eye contact, and maintain it just long enough to establish a connection. (A few seconds will suffice.) Then move on. This way, you connect with your audience, one person at a time. As you proceed, you may find that some people hold your gaze and others look away quickly. That is fine, as long as you connect with people in different parts of the room.
Pay attention to your facial expressions as well. If you have thought about how you want to convey emotion during different parts of your presentation, you are probably already monitoring your facial expressions as you rehearse. Be aware that the pressure of presenting can make your expression serious or tense without your realizing it.
Practice, Practice, Practice
It is vital to practice using the technology. Nothing is worse than watching a speaker stand up and not know how to turn on the computer, access the software, or launch his or her presentation. When you use technology, audiences can quickly see if you know what you are doing, so don’t give them the opportunity to devalue your credibility because you can’t even get the show going.
Always Have a Backup Plan
Lastly, always have a backup plan. Unfortunately, things often go wrong. One of the parts of being a professional is keeping the speech moving in spite of unexpected problems. Decide in advance what you will do if things break down or disappear right when you need them. Don’t count on your instructor to solve such predicaments; it is your responsibility. If you take this responsibility seriously and check the room where you will be presenting early, you will have time to adapt. If the computer or audiovisual setup does not work on the first try, you will need time to troubleshoot and solve the problem. If an easel is missing, you will need time to experiment with using a lectern or a chair to support your flip chart. If you forgot to bring your violin for a speech about music, you will need time to think through how to adapt your speech so that it will still be effective.
Tips
If you are speaking to a very large group, it may be difficult to make eye contact with each individual. Instead, focus on a smaller group of persons or one row of people at time. Look in their direction for a few seconds and then shift your gaze to another small group in the room.
Conclusion
This chapter highlighted how to plan, create, and share presentations. There are so many presentation solutions available, so be sure to find one that works with your computer and you feel comfortable using. When you create a PowerPoint, Prezi, Google Slide, or Keynote presentation, be sure to consider the principles discussed.
Chapter Summary
When creating a presentation, remember to:
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Brainstorm your topic
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Content and requirements for effective presentation
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Planning and Preparing your presentation
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Choose a presentation that fits your audience
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Use a font and size that is appropriate for presentation
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Make sure object and content are position appropriate for your presentation
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Make sure the colors and text are not distracting and in contrast with each other
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Make sure your backgrounds are easy to read and see - remember some people are color blind
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Make sure to pick affects and visuals that are stimulating and pleasing to the eye
All links live as of July 2021.
This work "Oral Presentations" is a derivative of " Oral Presentations " by David McMurrey and Casandra Race, and Excelsior Online Reading Lab , Presentations and Other Visual Aids by Nina Burokas. "Oral Presentations" is licensed under CC BY 4.0 by Lise-Pauline Barnett.


24.1: Overview of Metabolic Reactions
Learning Objectives
- Describe the process by which polymers are broken down into monomers
- Describe the process by which monomers are combined into polymers
- Discuss the role of ATP in metabolism
- Explain oxidation-reduction reactions
- Describe the hormones that regulate anabolic and catabolic reactions
Metabolic processes are constantly taking place in the body. Metabolism is the sum of all of the chemical reactions that are involved in catabolism and anabolism. The reactions governing the breakdown of food to obtain energy are called catabolic reactions. Conversely, anabolic reactions use the energy produced by catabolic reactions to synthesize larger molecules from smaller ones, such as when the body forms proteins by stringing together amino acids. Both sets of reactions are critical to maintaining life.
Because catabolic reactions produce energy and anabolic reactions use energy, ideally, energy usage would balance the energy produced. If the net energy change is positive (catabolic reactions release more energy than the anabolic reactions use), then the body stores the excess energy by building fat molecules for long-term storage. On the other hand, if the net energy change is negative (catabolic reactions release less energy than anabolic reactions use), the body uses stored energy to compensate for the deficiency of energy released by catabolism.
Catabolic Reactions
Catabolic reactions break down large organic molecules into smaller molecules, releasing the energy contained in the chemical bonds. These energy releases (conversions) are not 100 percent efficient. The amount of energy released is less than the total amount contained in the molecule. Approximately 40 percent of energy yielded from catabolic reactions is directly transferred to the high-energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP, the energy currency of cells, can be used immediately to power molecular machines that support cell, tissue, and organ function. This includes building new tissue and repairing damaged tissue. ATP can also be stored to fulfill future energy demands. The remaining 60 percent of the energy released from catabolic reactions is given off as heat, which tissues and body fluids absorb.
Structurally, ATP molecules consist of an adenine, a ribose, and three phosphate groups (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). The chemical bond between the second and third phosphate groups, termed a high-energy bond, represents the greatest source of energy in a cell. It is the first bond that catabolic enzymes break when cells require energy to do work. The products of this reaction are a molecule of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a lone phosphate group (P i ). ATP, ADP, and P i are constantly being cycled through reactions that build ATP and store energy, and reactions that break down ATP and release energy.
The energy from ATP drives all bodily functions, such as contracting muscles, maintaining the electrical potential of nerve cells, and absorbing food in the gastrointestinal tract. The metabolic reactions that produce ATP come from various sources (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
Of the four major macromolecular groups (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids) that are processed by digestion, carbohydrates are considered the most common source of energy to fuel the body. They take the form of either complex carbohydrates, polysaccharides like starch and glycogen, or simple sugars (monosaccharides) like glucose and fructose. Sugar catabolism breaks polysaccharides down into their individual monosaccharides. Among the monosaccharides, glucose is the most common fuel for ATP production in cells, and as such, there are a number of endocrine control mechanisms to regulate glucose concentration in the bloodstream. Excess glucose is either stored as an energy reserve in the liver and skeletal muscles as the complex polymer glycogen, or it is converted into fat (triglyceride) in adipose cells (adipocytes).
Among the lipids (fats), triglycerides are most often used for energy via a metabolic process called β-oxidation. About one-half of excess fat is stored in adipocytes that accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue under the skin, whereas the rest is stored in adipocytes in other tissues and organs.
Proteins, which are polymers, can be broken down into their monomers, individual amino acids. Amino acids can be used as building blocks of new proteins or broken down further for the production of ATP. When one is chronically starving, this use of amino acids for energy production can lead to a wasting away of the body, as more and more proteins are broken down.
Nucleic acids are present in most of the foods you eat. During digestion, nucleic acids including DNA and various RNAs are broken down into their constituent nucleotides. These nucleotides are readily absorbed and transported throughout the body to be used by individual cells during nucleic acid metabolism.
Anabolic Reactions
In contrast to catabolic reactions, anabolic reactions involve the joining of smaller molecules into larger ones. Anabolic reactions combine monosaccharides to form polysaccharides, fatty acids to form triglycerides, amino acids to form proteins, and nucleotides to form nucleic acids. These processes require energy in the form of ATP molecules generated by catabolic reactions. Anabolic reactions, also called biosynthesis reactions , create new molecules that form new cells and tissues, and revitalize organs.
Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism
Catabolic and anabolic hormones in the body help regulate metabolic processes. Catabolic hormones stimulate the breakdown of molecules and the production of energy. These include cortisol, glucagon, adrenaline/epinephrine, and cytokines. All of these hormones are mobilized at specific times to meet the needs of the body. Anabolic hormones are required for the synthesis of molecules and include growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor, insulin, testosterone, and estrogen. Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) summarizes the function of each of the catabolic hormones and Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) summarizes the functions of the anabolic hormones.
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\)
| Catabolic Hormones | |
|---|---|
| Hormone | Function |
| Cortisol | Released from the adrenal gland in response to stress; its main role is to increase blood glucose levels by gluconeogenesis (breaking down fats and proteins) |
| Glucagon | Released from alpha cells in the pancreas either when starving or when the body needs to generate additional energy; it stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the liver to increase blood glucose levels; its effect is the opposite of insulin; glucagon and insulin are a part of a negative-feedback system that stabilizes blood glucose levels |
| Adrenaline/epinephrine | Released in response to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system; increases heart rate and heart contractility, constricts blood vessels, is a bronchodilator that opens (dilates) the bronchi of the lungs to increase air volume in the lungs, and stimulates gluconeogenesis |
Table \(\PageIndex{2}\)
| Anabolic Hormones | |
|---|---|
| Hormone | Function |
| Growth hormone (GH) | Synthesized and released from the pituitary gland; stimulates the growth of cells, tissues, and bones |
| Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) | Stimulates the growth of muscle and bone while also inhibiting cell death (apoptosis) |
| Insulin | Produced by the beta cells of the pancreas; plays an essential role in carbohydrate and fat metabolism, controls blood glucose levels, and promotes the uptake of glucose into body cells; causes cells in muscle, adipose tissue, and liver to take up glucose from the blood and store it in the liver and muscle as glucagon; its effect is the opposite of glucagon; glucagon and insulin are a part of a negative-feedback system that stabilizes blood glucose levels |
| Testosterone | Produced by the testes in males and the ovaries in females; stimulates an increase in muscle mass and strength as well as the growth and strengthening of bone |
| Estrogen | Produced primarily by the ovaries, it is also produced by the liver and adrenal glands; its anabolic functions include increasing metabolism and fat deposition |
DISORDERS OF THE...
Metabolic Processes: Cushing Syndrome and Addison’s Disease
As might be expected for a fundamental physiological process like metabolism, errors or malfunctions in metabolic processing lead to a pathophysiology or—if uncorrected—a disease state. Metabolic diseases are most commonly the result of malfunctioning proteins or enzymes that are critical to one or more metabolic pathways. Protein or enzyme malfunction can be the consequence of a genetic alteration or mutation. However, normally functioning proteins and enzymes can also have deleterious effects if their availability is not appropriately matched with metabolic need. For example, excessive production of the hormone cortisol (see Table) gives rise to Cushing syndrome. Clinically, Cushing syndrome is characterized by rapid weight gain, especially in the trunk and face region, depression, and anxiety. It is worth mentioning that tumors of the pituitary that produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which subsequently stimulates the adrenal cortex to release excessive cortisol, produce similar effects. This indirect mechanism of cortisol overproduction is referred to as Cushing disease.
Patients with Cushing syndrome can exhibit high blood glucose levels and are at an increased risk of becoming obese. They also show slow growth, accumulation of fat between the shoulders, weak muscles, bone pain (because cortisol causes proteins to be broken down to make glucose via gluconeogenesis), and fatigue. Other symptoms include excessive sweating (hyperhidrosis), capillary dilation, and thinning of the skin, which can lead to easy bruising. The treatments for Cushing syndrome are all focused on reducing excessive cortisol levels. Depending on the cause of the excess, treatment may be as simple as discontinuing the use of cortisol ointments. In cases of tumors, surgery is often used to remove the offending tumor. Where surgery is inappropriate, radiation therapy can be used to reduce the size of a tumor or ablate portions of the adrenal cortex. Finally, medications are available that can help to regulate the amounts of cortisol.
Insufficient cortisol production is equally problematic. Adrenal insufficiency, or Addison’s disease, is characterized by the reduced production of cortisol from the adrenal gland. It can result from malfunction of the adrenal glands—they do not produce enough cortisol—or it can be a consequence of decreased ACTH availability from the pituitary. Patients with Addison’s disease may have low blood pressure, paleness, extreme weakness, fatigue, slow or sluggish movements, lightheadedness, and salt cravings due to the loss of sodium and high blood potassium levels (hyperkalemia). Victims also may suffer from loss of appetite, chronic diarrhea, vomiting, mouth lesions, and patchy skin color. Diagnosis typically involves blood tests and imaging tests of the adrenal and pituitary glands. Treatment involves cortisol replacement therapy, which usually must be continued for life.
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
The chemical reactions underlying metabolism involve the transfer of electrons from one compound to another by processes catalyzed by enzymes. The electrons in these reactions commonly come from hydrogen atoms, which consist of an electron and a proton. A molecule gives up a hydrogen atom, in the form of a hydrogen ion (H + ) and an electron, breaking the molecule into smaller parts. The loss of an electron, or oxidation , releases a small amount of energy; both the electron and the energy are then passed to another molecule in the process of reduction , or the gaining of an electron. These two reactions always happen together in an oxidation-reduction reaction (also called a redox reaction)—when an electron is passed between molecules, the donor is oxidized and the recipient is reduced. Oxidation-reduction reactions often happen in a series, so that a molecule that is reduced is subsequently oxidized, passing on not only the electron it just received but also the energy it received. As the series of reactions progresses, energy accumulates that is used to combine P i and ADP to form ATP, the high-energy molecule that the body uses for fuel.
Oxidation-reduction reactions are catalyzed by enzymes that trigger the removal of hydrogen atoms. Coenzymes work with enzymes and accept hydrogen atoms. The two most common coenzymes of oxidation-reduction reactions are nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) . Their respective reduced coenzymes are NADH and FADH 2 , which are energy-containing molecules used to transfer energy during the creation of ATP.
Chapter Review
Metabolism is the sum of all catabolic (break down) and anabolic (synthesis) reactions in the body. The metabolic rate measures the amount of energy used to maintain life. An organism must ingest a sufficient amount of food to maintain its metabolic rate if the organism is to stay alive for very long.
Catabolic reactions break down larger molecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins from ingested food, into their constituent smaller parts. They also include the breakdown of ATP, which releases the energy needed for metabolic processes in all cells throughout the body.
Anabolic reactions, or biosynthetic reactions, synthesize larger molecules from smaller constituent parts, using ATP as the energy source for these reactions. Anabolic reactions build bone, muscle mass, and new proteins, fats, and nucleic acids. Oxidation-reduction reactions transfer electrons across molecules by oxidizing one molecule and reducing another, and collecting the released energy to convert P i and ADP into ATP. Errors in metabolism alter the processing of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, and can result in a number of disease states.
Review Questions
Q. A monosaccharide is formed from a polysaccharide in what kind of reaction?
A. oxidation–reduction reaction
B. anabolic reaction
C. catabolic reaction
D. biosynthetic reaction
Answer: C
Q. If anabolic reactions exceed catabolic reactions, the result will be ________.
A. weight loss
B. weight gain
C. metabolic rate change
D. development of disease
Answer: B
Q. When NAD becomes NADH, the coenzyme has been ________.
A. reduced
B. oxidized
C. metabolized
D. hydrolyzed
Answer: A
Q. Anabolic reactions use energy by ________.
A. turning ADP into ATP
B. removing a phosphate group from ATP
C. producing heat
D. breaking down molecules into smaller parts
Answer: B
Critical Thinking Questions
Q. Describe how metabolism can be altered.
A. An increase or decrease in lean muscle mass will result in an increase or decrease in metabolism.
Q. Describe how Addison’s disease can be treated.
A. Addison’s disease is characterized by low cortisol levels. One way to treat the disease is by giving cortisol to the patient.
Glossary
- anabolic hormones
- hormones that stimulate the synthesis of new, larger molecules
- anabolic reactions
- reactions that build smaller molecules into larger molecules
- biosynthesis reactions
- reactions that create new molecules, also called anabolic reactions
- catabolic hormones
- hormones that stimulate the breakdown of larger molecules
- catabolic reactions
- reactions that break down larger molecules into their constituent parts
- FADH 2
- high-energy molecule needed for glycolysis
- flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
- coenzyme used to produce FADH 2
- metabolism
- sum of all catabolic and anabolic reactions that take place in the body
- NADH
- high-energy molecule needed for glycolysis
- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
- coenzyme used to produce NADH
- oxidation
- loss of an electron
- oxidation-reduction reaction
- (also, redox reaction) pair of reactions in which an electron is passed from one molecule to another, oxidizing one and reducing the other
Contributors and Attributions
- reduction
- gaining of an electron
-
OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology


1.13: Semicolons
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It’s true. The semicolon is used for more things than just winking in text. ;)
One of the main uses of a semicolon is to separate two independent clauses.
The semicolon isn’t like a comma; it’s really more like a period. Using a semicolon like a comma can definitely create some trouble.
First, let’s take a step back and explain the difference between an independent clause and a dependent clause. An independent clause expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is usually called a sentence. Conversely, a dependent clause is a group of words that may contain a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought.
example
Independent clause:
I ran quickly to escape the zombie I encountered on Main Street.
Dependent clause:
Although I ran quickly to escape the zombie I encountered on Main Street,
Can you see the difference?
The first example is a complete sentence, and the second example isn’t. Of course, we also know the first one has a happy ending, and we aren’t so sure about the second one.
So now that you understand what an independent clause is and that a semicolon connects two independent clauses, we can begin to look at how the semicolon can be used.
You should use a semicolon when you’re joining two independent clauses without a connecting word. The semicolon functions, structurally, just like a period. The difference is that the semicolon between the two independent clauses shows they are connected, as illustrated in the following examples:
example
If you want me to vote for you, you are going to need to tell me what I want to hear; if you are lying, I guess I will worry about that later.
I am so tired of spending so much money on canned food for my zombie apocalypse hoard; I am pretty sure the grocery store clerks are laughing at me behind my back.
So right after telling you that semicolons shouldn’t be used like commas, we should discuss one situation where the semicolon does function more like a comma. However, this is a very particular situation, so you’ll want to pay close attention.
You should use semicolons when you are separating items in a list that contain commas. Here is an example:
example
At the Comicon conference, I met Jeanne, from Dallas, Texas; James, from Bend, Oregon; and Stacey, from Bangor, Maine.
Because the items in the series contain commas themselves, it would be confusing to add more commas to the situation. In this particular instance, the semicolon separates the items in a series.
Semicolons can feel a little confusing because sometimes they’re used to separate items in a series, as mentioned on the previous page, but they are really nothing like a comma. In terms of sentence structure, they can separate independent clauses, just like a period.
If you have the habit of using a semicolon like a comma, it’s important to work to break that habit. When you edit your writing, it’s a good idea to circle all of the semicolons you have used. Then, ask yourself why each semicolon is there. If you’re using it like a strong comma, you’ll need to revise.
The following video from the Grammar Professor can help you if you continue to struggle with semicolons.


5: Form (II) - Other Forms and Thematic Structures Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 61957 Robin Wharton and Kris Shaffer eds. Open Music Theory via Hybrid Pedagogy Publishing 5.1: Sonata Form - Introduction to Sonata Theory 5.2: Sonata Form - Exposition Types 5.3: Sonata Form - Structural Points of Arrival 5.4: Sonata Form - Thematic Modules 5.5: Sonata Form - The Recapitulation 5.6: Sonata Form - The Development 5.7: Sonata Form - Framing Modules (Introduction and Coda) 5.8: Rondo Form - Introduction 5.9: Rondo Form - Thematic Function in Rondo Form 5.10: Rondo Form - Five-Part Rondo Form 5.11: Rondo Form - Sonata Rondo 5.12: Other Formal Structures in the Classical Style - Minuet Form 5.13: Galant Schemata - Opens and Closes 5.14: Galant Schemata - Continuation Patterns 5.15: Galant Schemata - Summary 5.16: Galant Schemata - Improvising a Sentence with Galant Schemata


By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain the 5-2-1-0 recommendation.
Discuss physical activity recommendations for young children.
Examine both undernutrition and overnutrition as forms of malnutrition.
Describe ways early care and education programs can educate children about nutrition.
Distinguish food allergies from food intolerances.
Identify strategies early care and education programs can follow to plan for caring for children food allergies, food intolerances, and iron deficiency anemia
WI Department of Children and Families Licensing Rules for Group Child Care Centers
DCF 251 Administrative Code regulations that relate to this chapter include:
251.07(5)a1 MEALS, SNACKS, AND FOOD SERVICE
FOOD SERVICE
Food shall be provided by the center based on the amount of time children are present as specified in Table 251.07.
TABLE 251.07 Meal and Snack Requirements for each Child in a Group Child Care Center
Time a Child is Present
Number of Meals and Snacks
At least 2½ but less than 4 hours
1 snack
At least 4 but less than 8 hours
1 snack and 1 meal
At least 8 but less than 10 hours
2 snacks and 1 meal
At least 10 or more hours
2 meals and 2 or 3 snacks
Food shall be served at flexible intervals, but no child may go without nourishment for longer than 3 hours.
Introduction
Healthy active living includes eating healthy foods, staying physically active, and getting enough rest. Developing healthy habits starts in early childhood. Eating well and being physically active helps a child continue to grow and learn.
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Healthy Active Living
Research tells us that the way young children eat, move, and sleep can impact their weight now and in the future. Early childhood is an ideal time to start healthy habits before unhealthy patterns are set.
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Many children in the United States do not follow the recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. According to the CDC, on average, children consume too much fat, saturated fat, and sodium and not enough fruits, vegetables, or calcium.  Only 16% of children ages 6-11 years meet the recommendation for total fat intake; only 9% of children meet the recommendation for saturated fat intake.
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Young children depend on parents, caregivers, and others to provide environments that foster and shape healthy habits. Early care and education programs have a responsibility to promote growth and development, make healthy foods available, and provide safe spaces for active play. Staff can help children and families by encouraging and modeling healthy eating and physical activity at the center and by providing suggestions for small, healthy steps at home.
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5-2-1-0 Message
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that pediatricians counsel parents and patients at every well-child check on diet and lifestyle goals as a part of obesity prevention initiatives (Hassink, 2010). These recommendations, initially put forth by the Maine Youth Overweight Collaborative obesity prevention program “Let's Go! 5-2-1-0”, have been promoted locally and nationally for broad consumption (Rogers and Motyka, 2009).
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Engaging Families in 5-2-1-0 Recommendations
Share the recommendations with families with these tips.
5
Fruits and Vegetables a Day
Go for the rainbow. Each month, pick a color from the rainbow and try to eat a new fruit or veggie of that color (green, purple, orange, yellow, red). It's a great way for little ones to learn colors while you're all eating healthy.
 Maybe he can wash an apple or mix the salad. Your little chef may be more likely to try foods that he helps to prepare.
Ever feel like fresh fruits and veggies are just too expensive? Try using frozen ones for a few meals every week.
2
Hours or Less of Screen Time a Day
A great way to cut down on screen time is to make a "no television (or computer) while eating" rule.
If your children are watching TV, watch with them. Use commercial breaks for an activity break—hula hoop, dance, or come up with a crazy new way to do jumping jacks.
If you need a break and want to let your child watch TV, set a timer for 30 minutes. You can get a lot done and you'll know how long they watched.
Television in your child's bedroom might seem like a convenience but watching TV close to bedtime can affect your child's ability to sleep.
1
Hour of Active Play or Physical Activity a Day
An hour of active play might seem like a lot but you don't have to do it all at one time. Try being active for 10–15 minutes several times each day.
What were your favorite active games when you were a child? They might seem old school to you but they'll be new to your child. Try one today.
Rain or bad weather has you stuck in the house? Don't let it keep you and your child from being active together. Try one of these fun activities:
Have an indoor parade.
Set up a scavenger hunt inside.
Start your own indoor Olympics—who can jump on one foot the longest or do the most sit ups?
0
Sugary Drinks a Day
Serve milk with meals and offer water at snack time.
Let your child pick their favorite "big kid" cup to use for water.
Think plain water is too boring? Try adding a fruit slice (like orange) for natural flavor.
Avoid buying juice—if it's not in the house, no one can drink it.
If you're still trying to cut sugary drinks down to zero, keep up the great work! Young children should never have soda pop or sports drinks but if you choose to give juice, please remember:
make sure the label says 100 percent fruit juice.
limit the amount to one small cup a day (4-6 ounces if you measure it out).
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Physical Activity
Good activity habits begin early in children’s lives. As early as infancy, adults can help children grow lifelong healthy play habits. Children learn from adults, they should model being active and participate with children when possible.
Infants should spend a lot of time on the floor (and out of equipment that limits mobility). This time allows them to reach, and kick so they can reach important milestones like crawling and sitting up.
Even very active toddlers need environments that support movement and activity and intentional opportunities to be physically active. Things like dancing, jumping, and taking walks are great ways to keep them moving.
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Childhood and adolescence are critical periods for developing movement skills, learning healthy habits, and establishing a firm foundation for lifelong health and well-being. Regular physical activity in children and adolescents promotes health and fitness. Compared to those who are inactive, physically active youth have higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness and stronger muscles. They also typically have lower body fat and stronger bones. Physical activity also has brain health benefits for school-aged children, including improved cognition and reduced symptoms of depression. Evidence indicates that both acute bouts and regular moderate-to-vigorous physical activity improve the cognitive functions of memory, executive function, processing speed, attention, and academic performance for these children.
Youth who are regularly active also have a better chance of a healthy adulthood. Children and adolescents do not usually develop chronic diseases, such as heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, or osteoporosis. However, current evidence shows that obesity and other risk factors for these diseases, such as elevated insulin, blood lipids, and blood pressure, are increasingly appearing in children and adolescents. Exercise training in youth with overweight or obesity can improve body composition by reducing overall levels of body fat as well as abdominal fat. Regular physical activity also makes it less likely that these risk factors will develop and more likely that children remain healthy when they become adults.
Preschool-aged children (ages 3 through 5 years) should be encouraged to move and engage in active play as well as in structured activities, such as throwing games and bicycle or tricycle riding. To strengthen bones, young children should do activities that involve hopping, skipping, jumping, and tumbling. Although the specific amount of activity needed to improve bone health and avoid excess fat in young children is not well defined, a reasonable target may be 3 hours per day of activity of all intensities: light, moderate, or vigorous intensity. This is the average amount of activity observed among children of this age and is consistent with guidelines from Canada, the United Kingdom, and the Commonwealth of Australia.
School-aged youth (ages 6 through 17 years) can achieve substantial health benefits by doing moderate and vigorous-intensity physical activity for periods of time that add up to 60 minutes or more each day. This activity should include aerobic activity as well as age-appropriate muscle- and bone-strengthening activities. It appears that, as in adults, the total amount of physical activity is more important for achieving health benefits than is any one component (frequency, intensity, or duration) or specific mix of activities (aerobic, muscle strengthening, bone strengthening).
Children and adolescents should meet the key guidelines by doing activities that are appropriate for their age. Their natural patterns of movement differ from those of adults. For example, children are naturally active in an intermittent way, particularly when they do unstructured active play. During recess and in their free play and games, children use basic aerobic and bone-strengthening activities, such as running, hopping, skipping, and jumping, to develop movement patterns and skills. They alternate brief periods of moderate- and vigorous intensity activity with periods of light-intensity physical activity or rest. Any episode of moderate- or vigorous intensity physical activity, however brief, counts toward the key guidelines for children and adolescents ages 6 through 17 years. For preschool-aged children, activity of any intensity counts, including light intensity.
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Pause to Reflect
What were some of your favorite physical activities as a child? Why did you enjoy these? Are they included in Table 13.1?
Table 13.1 – Examples of Physical Activities for Children
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Type of Physical Activity
Preschool-Aged Children
School-Aged Children
Moderate-Intensity Aerobic
Games such as tag or follow the leader
Playing on a playground
Tricycle or bicycle riding
Walking, running, skipping, jumping, dancing
Swimming
Playing games that require catching, throwing, and kicking
Gymnastics or tumbling
Brisk walking
Bicycle riding
Active recreation, such as hiking, riding a scooter without a motor, swimming
Playing games that require catching and throwing, such as baseball and softball
Vigorous-Intensity Aerobic
Games such as tag or follow the leader
Playing on a playground
Tricycle or bicycle riding
Walking, running, skipping, jumping, dancing
Swimming
Playing games that require catching, throwing, and kicking
Gymnastics or tumbling
Running
Bicycle riding
Active games involving running and chasing, such as tag or flag football
Jumping rope
Cross-country skiing
Sports such as soccer, basketball, swimming, tennis
Martial arts
Vigorous dancing
Muscle Strengthening
Games such as tug of war
Climbing on playground equipment
Gymnastics
Games such as tug of war
Resistance exercises using body weight or resistance bands
Rope or tree climbing
Climbing on playground equipment
Some forms of yoga
Bone Strengthening
Hopping, skipping, jumping
Jumping rope
Running
Gymnastics
Hopping, skipping, jumping
Jumping rope
Running
Sports that involve jumping or rapid change in direction
One practical strategy to promote activity in children is to replace sedentary behavior with activity whenever possible. For example, where appropriate and safe, families should walk or bicycle to school or the bus stop instead of riding in a car. Rather than only watching sporting events on television, children should participate in age-appropriate sports or games.
Children who do not meet the key guidelines should slowly increase their moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in small steps and in ways that they enjoy. A gradual increase in the number of days and the time spent being active will help reduce the risk of injury.
Children who meet the key guidelines should continue doing moderate-to-vigorous physical activity every day and, if appropriate, become even more active. Evidence suggests that even more than 60 minutes of activity daily may provide additional health benefits for school-aged youth.
Children who exceed the key guidelines should maintain their activity level and vary the kinds of activities they do to reduce the risk of overtraining or injury.
Children with disabilities are more likely to be inactive than those without disabilities. Families of children with disabilities should work with a health care professional or physical activity specialist to understand the types and amounts of physical activity appropriate for them. When possible, children with disabilities should meet the key guidelines. When they are not able to participate in the appropriate types or amounts of physical activities needed to meet the key guidelines, they should be as active as possible and avoid being inactive.
Engaging Families in Their Children’s Physical Activity
Share the recommendations with families with these tips.
Children under 6 need to be active naturally!
Aim to keep them moving 3 hours a day — and more is better
Limit time when they’re just sitting around (like screen time)
Kids and teens ages 6 to 17 need at least 60 minutes every day. Most of it can be moderate-intensity aerobic activity. Anything that gets their heart beating faster counts. At least three days a week, encourage your kids to step it up to vigorous-intensity aerobic activity.
Use the “talk test” to find out if activity is moderate or vigorous. When you’re being active, try talking:
If you’re breathing hard but can still have a conversation easily, it’s moderate-intensity activity.
If you can only say a few words before you have to take a breath, it’s vigorous-intensity activity
As part of their daily 60 minutes, kids and teens also need:
Muscle-strengthening activity At least 3 days a week; anything that makes their muscles work harder counts — like climbing or swinging on the monkey bars.
Bone-strengthening activity At least 3 days a week; bones need pressure to get stronger. Running, jumping, and other weight-bearing activities all count.
Some ideas:
Encourage active play with friends
Get them involved in active chores
Sign them up for free or low-cost sports or classes
Take walks
Dance while dinner’s cooking
Show them your favorite ways to move.
Most of all, help them find activities they really like to do! Help them get active now, and they’ll build healthy habits for life.
Lifelong eating habits are shaped during a child’s early years. Teachers of young children have a special opportunity to help children establish a healthy relationship with food and lay the foundation for sound eating habits. Nutrition education and activities help set children on the path to a healthful lifestyle. Providing nutritionally balanced meals and snacks and integrating nutrition education and healthy eating habits in the home and early childhood.
Nutrition education for preschoolers fosters children’s awareness of different types of foods and promotes exploration and inquiry of food choices. Lifelong habits with foods are developed during early childhood. Through nutrition education in preschool, teachers encourage children to include a wide variety of foods that provide adequate nutrients in their daily diet.
Through knowledge, children become aware of different foods and tastes, some of which are familiar and others that are new. As they explore various foods and food preparations, they develop likes and dislikes and begin to make choices based on preference. Both nutrition choices and self-regulation of eating—that is, eating when hungry, chewing food thoroughly, eating slowly, and stopping when full— involve decision-making skills.
As children begin to understand the concepts of food identification and categorizing, teachers may describe how specific foods help our bodies. Children may better understand the overall benefit of food in terms of it helping them grow, giving them energy to run and play, and helping them to become strong. As children begin to understand internal body parts, teachers can initiate discussion of more specific food benefits.
Children need to understand that various foods help the body in different ways and that some children have specific food allergies.
For those with allergies, certain foods are potentially harmful to them. Teachers should encourage tasting and eating a variety of foods to obtain adequate nutrients for growth and development. “Variety” may mean foods of different color, shape, texture, and taste.
As children gain an understanding of different foods, they can begin to categorize foods in other ways, such as by food groups (e.g., bread, fruits, meat) or the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) MyPlate food guide for young children. MyPlate reflects the 2010 Dietary Guidelines and replaces the MyPyramid for Preschoolers. Every food is all right, but some foods help the body more than others; therefore, people may eat some foods more often than others. Food models, combined with visual aids such as the Food Pyramid49 and integration of the topic with daily nutrition activities (e.g., mealtime, snack time, cooking activities), can help children begin to understand that some foods are eaten more frequently than others.
Here are some things that teachers can do to help educate children about nutrition:
Introduce many different foods.
Recognize and accommodate differences in eating habits and food choices.
Provide opportunities and encouragement in food exploration.
Integrate nutrition with other areas of learning through cooking activities.
Show children where food is produced.
Set up special areas to represent nutrition-related environments, such as grocery stores, restaurants, open-air markets, food co-ops, and picnics.
Integrate nutrition education with basic hygiene education.
Model and coach children’s behavior by eating from the same menu and encouraging conversations during mealtimes.
Encourage children to share information about family meals.
Serve meals and snacks family-style.
Encourage tasting and decision making.
Provide choices for children.
Offer a variety of nutritious, appetizing foods in small portions.
Encourage children to chew their food well and eat slowly.
Teach children to recognize signs of hunger.
Discuss how the body uses food.
Children learn about food and develop food preferences through their direct experiences with food (i.e., handling, preparing, eating) and by observing the eating behaviors of adults and peers. The goal in preschool is that children will learn to eat a variety of nutritious foods and begin to recognize the body’s physical need for food (i.e., hunger and fullness).
Through modeling, repeated and various exposures to food, and social experiences, children begin to develop eating behaviors that can prevail throughout life.
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Pause to Reflect
Reflect on how you will support children’s nutrition education. What will be most natural/easiest for you to do from this section? What might you have to be more intentional about (what might be more challenging or less natural)?
Understanding Malnutrition
When children do not receive proper nutrition it affects their physical health and wellness. For many, the word “malnutrition” produces an image of a child in a third-world country with a bloated belly, and skinny arms and legs. However, this image alone is not an accurate representation of the state of malnutrition. For example, someone who is 150 pounds overweight can also be malnourished.
Malnutrition refers to one not receiving proper nutrition and does not distinguish between the consequences of too many nutrients or the lack of nutrients, both of which impair overall health. Undernutrition is characterized by a lack of nutrients and insufficient energy supply, whereas overnutrition is characterized by excessive nutrient and energy intake. Overnutrition can result in obesity, a growing global health threat.
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And if the cause of overnutrition is a diet that features food that is not nutrient-dense, a child could experience both overnutrition (too many calories) and undernutrition (inadequate micronutrients).
Undernutrition
Although not as prevalent in America as it is in developing countries, undernutrition is not uncommon and affects many subpopulations, including the elderly, those with certain diseases, and those in poverty.
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Undernutrition is most often due to not enough high-quality food being available to eat. This is often related to high food prices and poverty. There are two main types of undernutrition: protein-energy malnutrition and dietary deficiencies. Protein-energy malnutrition has two severe forms: marasmus (a lack of protein and calories) and kwashiorkor (a lack of just protein). Common micronutrient deficiencies include a lack of iron, iodine, and vitamin A.
Undernutrition encompasses stunted growth (stunting), wasting, and deficiencies of essential vitamins and minerals (collectively referred to as micronutrients).
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Even moderate undernutrition can have lasting effects on children's cognitive development.  They are irritable and have difficulty concentrating, which can interfere with learning; and they have low energy, which can limit their physical activity. Some reports have estimated that millions of children in the United States experience hunger over the course of a year but no scientific consensus currently exists on how to define or measure hunger.
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The term hunger, which describes a feeling of discomfort from not eating, has been used to describe undernutrition, especially in reference to food insecurity.
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Food Insecurity
Food insecurity is defined as the disruption of food intake or eating patterns because of a lack of money and other resources. In 2014, 17.4 million U.S. households were food insecure at some time during the year. Food insecurity does not necessarily cause hunger, but hunger is a possible outcome of food insecurity.
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) divides food insecurity into the following 2 categories:
Low food security
: “Reports of reduced quality, variety, or desirability of diet. Little or no indication of reduced food intake.”
Very low food security
: “Reports of multiple indications of disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake.”
Food insecurity may be long term or temporary. It may be influenced by a number of factors including income, employment, race/ethnicity, and disability. The risk for food insecurity increases when money to buy food is limited or not available. In 2016, 31.6% of low-income households were food insecure, compared to the national average of 12.3%. children with unemployed parents have higher rates of food insecurity than children with employed parents. Racial and ethnic disparities exist related to food insecurity. In 2016, black non-Hispanic households were nearly 2 times more likely to be food insecure than the national average (22.5% versus 12.3%, respectively). Among Hispanic households, the prevalence of food insecurity was 18.5% compared to the national average (12.3%).
Neighborhood conditions may affect physical access to food. For example, people living in some urban areas, rural areas, and low-income neighborhoods may have limited access to full-service supermarkets or grocery stores.
Predominantly black and Hispanic neighborhoods have fewer full-service supermarkets than predominantly white and non-Hispanic neighborhoods. Communities that lack affordable and nutritious food are commonly known as “food deserts.” Convenience stores and small independent stores are more common in food deserts than full-service supermarkets or grocery stores. These stores may have higher food prices, lower quality foods, and less variety of foods than supermarkets or grocery stores. Access to healthy foods is also affected by a lack of transportation and long distances between residences and supermarkets or grocery stores.
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Overnutrition
Overnutrition is a form of malnutrition (imbalanced nutrition) arising from excessive intake of nutrients, leading to an accumulation of body fat that impairs health (
i.e
., overweight/obesity).
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Overnutrition is an epidemic in the United States and is known to be a risk factor for many diseases, including Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, inflammatory disorders (such as rheumatoid arthritis), and cancer.
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Overweight and Obesity in Childhood
Obesity means having too much body fat. It is different from being overweight, which means weighing too much. Both terms mean that a person's weight is greater than what's considered healthy for his or her height. Children grow at different rates, so it isn't always easy to know when a child has obesity or is overweight.
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Obesity is defined as a body mass index (BMI) at or above the 95th percentile of the CDC sex-specific BMI-for-age growth charts (See Appendix O).
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In the United States, the percentage of children and adolescents affected by obesity has more than tripled since the 1970s.
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Obesity prevalence was 13.9% among 2- to 5-year-olds, 18.4% among 6- to 11-year-olds. Childhood obesity is also more common among certain populations.
Hispanics (25.8%) and non-Hispanic blacks (22.0%) had higher obesity prevalence than non-Hispanic whites (14.1%).
Non-Hispanic Asians (11.0%) had lower obesity prevalence than non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics.
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Many factors contribute to childhood obesity, including:
Genetics.
Metabolism—how your body changes food and oxygen into energy it can use.
Eating and physical activity behaviors.
Community and neighborhood design and safety.
Short sleep duration.
Negative childhood events.
Genetic factors cannot be changed. However, people and places can play a role in helping children achieve and maintain a healthy weight. Changes in the environments where children spend their time—like homes, early care and education programs, schools, and community settings—can make it easier for children to access nutritious foods and be physically active. Early care and education programs and schools can adopt policies and practices that help young people eat more fruits and vegetables, eat fewer foods and beverages that are high in added sugars or solid fats, and increase daily minutes of physical activity.
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Nutrition Concerns During Childhood
To keep children well, it’s also important to be aware of common nutritional concerns during childhood. Two of those concerns are food allergies and intolerances and iron deficiency anemia.
Food allergies impact four to six percent of young children in America. Common food allergens include peanuts, eggs, shellfish, wheat, and cow’s milk.
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Recent studies show that three million children under age eighteen are allergic to at least one type of food.
An allergy occurs when a protein in food triggers an immune response, which results in the release of antibodies, histamine, and other defenders that attack foreign bodies. Possible symptoms include itchy skin, hives, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and nausea. Symptoms usually develop within minutes to hours after consuming a food allergen. Children can outgrow a food allergy, especially allergies to wheat, milk, eggs, or soy.
Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening reaction that results in difficulty breathing, swelling in the mouth and throat, decreased blood pressure, shock, or even death. Milk, eggs, wheat, soybeans, fish, shellfish, peanuts, and tree nuts are the most likely to trigger this type of response. A dose of the drug epinephrine is often administered via a “pen” to treat a person who goes into anaphylactic shock.
Some children experience a food intolerance, which does not involve an immune response. Food intolerance is marked by unpleasant symptoms that occur after consuming certain foods. Lactose intolerance, though rare in very young children, is one example. Children who suffer from this condition experience an adverse reaction to the lactose in milk products. It is a result of the small intestine’s inability to produce enough of the enzyme lactase, which is produced by the small intestine. Symptoms of lactose intolerance usually affect the GI tract and can include bloating, abdominal pain, gas, nausea, and diarrhea. An intolerance is best managed by making dietary changes and avoiding any foods that trigger the reaction.
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Caring for Children with Food Allergies
Staff who work in schools and early care and education (ECE) programs should develop plans for how they will respond effectively to children with food allergies. Although the number of children with food allergies in any one school or ECE program may seem small, allergic reactions can be life-threatening and have far-reaching effects on children and their families, as well as on the schools or ECE programs they attend. Any child with a food allergy deserves attention and the school or ECE program should create a plan for preventing an allergic reaction and responding to a food allergy emergency.
Studies show that 16%–18% of children with food allergies have reacted to accidentally eating food allergens while at school. In addition, 25% of the severe and potentially life-threatening reactions (anaphylaxis) reported at schools happened in children with no previous diagnosis of food allergy. School and ECE program staff should be ready to address the needs of children with known food allergies. They also should be prepared to respond effectively to the emergency needs of children who are not known to have food allergies but who exhibit allergic signs and symptoms.
The symptoms of allergic reactions to food vary both in type and severity among individuals and even in one individual over time. Symptoms associated with an allergic reaction to food include the following:
Mucous Membrane Symptoms: red watery eyes or swollen lips, tongue, or eyes.
Skin Symptoms: itchiness, flushing, rash, or hives.
Gastrointestinal Symptoms: nausea, pain, cramping, vomiting, diarrhea, or acid reflux.
Upper Respiratory Symptoms: nasal congestion, sneezing, hoarse voice, trouble swallowing, dry staccato cough, or numbness around mouth.
Lower Respiratory Symptoms: deep cough, wheezing, shortness of breath or difficulty breathing, or chest tightness.
Cardiovascular Symptoms: pale or blue skin color, weak pulse, dizziness or fainting, confusion or shock, hypotension (decrease in blood pressure), or loss of consciousness.
Mental or Emotional Symptoms: a sense of “impending doom,” irritability, change in alertness, mood change, or confusion.
Children sometimes do not exhibit overt and visible symptoms after ingesting an allergen, making early diagnosis difficult. Signs and symptoms can become evident within a few minutes or up to 1–2 hours after ingestion of the allergen, and rarely, several hours after ingestion.
Children might communicate their symptoms in the following ways:
It feels like something is poking my tongue.
My tongue (or mouth) is tingling (or burning).
My tongue (or mouth) itches.
My tongue feels like there is hair on it.
My mouth feels funny.
There’s a frog in my throat; there’s something stuck in my throat.
My tongue feels full (or heavy).
My lips feel tight.
It feels like there are bugs in there (to describe itchy ears).
It (my throat) feels thick.
It feels like a bump is on the back of my tongue (throat).
Some children may not be able to communicate their symptoms clearly because of their age or developmental challenges.
Emotional Impact on Children with Food Allergies and Their Families
The health of a child with a food allergy can be compromised at any time by an allergic reaction to food that is severe or life-threatening. Many studies have shown that food allergies have a significant effect on the psychosocial well-being of children with food allergies and their families.
Families of a child with a food allergy may have constant fear about the possibility of a life-threatening reaction and stress from constant vigilance needed to prevent a reaction. They also have to trust their child to the care of others, make sure their child is safe outside the home, and help their child have a normal sense of identity.
Children with food allergies may also have constant fear and stress about the possibility of a life-threatening reaction. The fear of ingesting a food allergen without knowing it can lead to coping strategies that limit social and other daily activities. Children can carry emotional burdens because they are not accepted by other people, they are socially isolated, or they believe they are a burden to others. They also may have anxiety and distress that is caused by teasing, taunting, harassment, or bullying by peers, teachers, or other adults. School and ECE program staff must consider these factors as they develop plans for managing the risk of food allergy for children with food allergies.
Food Allergy Management in Early Care and Education Programs
School and ECE program staff should develop a comprehensive strategy to manage the risk of food allergy reactions in children. This strategy should include (1) a coordinated approach, (2) strong leadership, and (3) a specific and comprehensive plan for managing food allergies.
Use a coordinated approach that is based on effective partnerships. The management of any chronic health condition should be based on a partnership among school or ECE program staff, children and their families, and the family’s allergist or other doctor.
The collective knowledge and experience of a licensed doctor, children with food allergies, and their families can guide the most effective management of food allergies in schools or ECE programs for each child. Close working relationships can help ease anxiety among parents, build trust, and improve the knowledge and skill of school or ECE program staff members.
Provide clear leadership to guide planning and ensure implementation of food allergy management plans and practices. This may be the administrator or the person that coordinates health services for children (health consultant, school nurse, etc.)
Develop and implement a comprehensive plan for managing food allergies. To effectively manage food allergies and the risks associated with these conditions, many people inside and outside the school or ECE program must come together to develop a comprehensive plan, called the Food Allergy Management and Prevention Plan (FAMPP). See Appendix P for a checklist that programs can use to evaluate their response to food allergy emergencies.
The FAMPP should address the following five priorities:
1)
Ensure the daily management of food allergies for individual children.
a)
Identify children with food allergies.
b)
Develop a plan to manage and reduce the risk of food allergy reactions in individual children, usually called a food allergy Emergency Care Plan (ECP). The ECP should be written by the child’s physician and confirmed with the parents. It should include:
i)
A recent photo of the child.
ii)
Information about the food allergen, including a confirmed written diagnosis from the child’s doctor or allergist.
iii)
Information about signs and symptoms of the child’s possible reactions to known allergens.
iv)
Information about the possible severity of reactions, including any history of prior anaphylaxis (even though anaphylaxis can occur even in children without a history of prior anaphylaxis).
v)
A treatment plan for responding to a food allergy reaction or emergency, including whether an epinephrine auto-injector should be used.
vi)
Information about other conditions, such as asthma or exercise-induced anaphylaxis that might affect food allergy management.
vii)
Contact information for parents and doctors, including alternate phone numbers for notification in case of emergency
2)
Prepare for food allergy emergencies.
a)
Set up communication systems that are easy to use (intercoms, walkie-talkies, cell phones, etc.)
b)
Make sure staff can get to epinephrine auto-injectors quickly and easily
c)
Make sure that epinephrine is used when needed and someone immediately contacts emergency medical services
d)
Identify the role of each staff member in an emergency
e)
Prepare for food allergy reactions in children without a prior history of food allergies.
f)
Document the response to a food allergy emergency
3)
Provide professional development on food allergies for staff members.
a)
Provide general training on food allergies for all staff.
b)
Provide in-depth training for staff who have frequent contact with children with food allergies.
c)
Provide specialized training for staff who are responsible for managing the health of children with food allergies on a daily basis.
4)
Educate children and family members about food allergies.
a)
Teach all children about food allergies
b)
Teach all parents and families about food allergies.
5)
Create and maintain a healthy and safe educational environment.
a)
Create an environment that is as safe as possible from exposure to food allergens.
b)
Develop food-handling policies and procedures to prevent food allergens from unintentionally contacting another food.
c)
Make outside groups aware of food allergy policies and rules when they use school or ECE program facilities before or after hours.

Early care and education programs are responsible for the health and safety of children with food allergies. Through the collective efforts of school and ECE program staff members, parents, and health care providers, children with food allergies can be assured a safe place to thrive, learn, and succeed.
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Note
Gluten Intolerance and Celiac Disease
One particular intolerance to be aware of that may affect children in early care and education programs is gluten intolerance. Gluten is a protein found in wheat, rye, and barley. It is found mainly in foods but may also be in other products like medicines, vitamins, and supplements. People with gluten sensitivity have problems with gluten. It is different from celiac disease (see below), an immune disease in which people can't eat gluten because it will damage their small intestine.
Some of the symptoms of gluten sensitivity are similar to celiac disease. They include tiredness and stomachaches. It can cause other symptoms too, including muscle cramps and leg numbness. But it does not damage the small intestine like celiac disease.
Researchers are still learning more about gluten sensitivity.
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A more serious concern surrounding gluten that has more acknowledgment in the medical field is celiac disease.
 If they have celiac disease and eat foods with gluten, the immune system responds by damaging the small intestine. Gluten is a protein found in wheat, rye, and barley. It may also be in other products like vitamins and supplements, hair and skin products, toothpaste, and lip balm.
Celiac disease affects each person differently. Symptoms may occur in the digestive system, or other parts of the body. One person might have diarrhea and abdominal pain, while another person may be irritable or depressed. Irritability is one of the most common symptoms in children. Some people have no symptoms.
Celiac disease is genetic. Blood tests and tissue biopsies may be used to diagnose celiac disease.
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“Many kids are diagnosed with it when they're between 6 months and 2 years old, which is when most kids get their first taste of gluten in foods.”
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Treatment is a diet free of gluten, which is essential to prevent damage to the small intestine.
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So it is critical that their food does not contain and is not contaminated with gluten. Because gluten is found in many foods, reading nutrition labels will be vital. Preparing food away from gluten containing food is also required to prevent cross-contamination. Gluten free versions of foods and gluten-free recipes will help early care and education staff (and families) to protect the nutritional well-being and health of children with celiac disease.
Pause to Reflect
What are five things you think every adult that cares for children should know about food allergies and intolerances?
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Iron deficiency anemia is the most common cause of anemia in the United States.
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This condition occurs when an iron-deprived body cannot produce enough hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen throughout the body. The inadequate supply of hemoglobin for new blood cells results in anemia. Iron-deficiency anemia causes a number of problems including weakness, pale skin, shortness of breath, and irritability. It can also result in intellectual, behavioral, or motor problems.
In infants and toddlers, iron-deficiency anemia can occur as young children are weaned from iron-rich foods, such as breast milk and iron-fortified formula. They begin to eat solid foods that may not provide enough of this nutrient. As a result, their iron stores become diminished at a time when this nutrient is critical for brain growth and development.
There are steps that parents and caregivers can take to prevent iron-deficiency anemia, such as adding more iron-rich foods to a child’s diet, including lean meats, fish, poultry, eggs, legumes, and iron-enriched whole-grain breads and cereals
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and foods high in vitamin C, which helps the body absorb iron efficiently.
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Although milk is critical for the bone-building calcium that it provides, intake should not exceed the recommended daily allowance (RDA) to avoid displacing foods rich with iron.
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Summary
Early care and education programs can create environments that protect children’s nutrition and physical wellness by following dietary guidelines and providing nutritious foods that appeal to children and keeping them active. It is important to understand forms of malnutrition that can affect families and children and to understand and plan for nutritional concerns that may affect children, such as food allergies and intolerances and iron deficiency anemia.


1: Successful Time Management
“All we have to decide is what to do with the time that is given us.” - J. R. R. Tolkien
This chapter reviews key skills to manage your time while in school. This chapter is best viewed electronically because there are interactive elements contained within the chapter. If you use a print copy, there will be placeholders with a website address that you can type into a browser like Google Chrome or Firefox to view and complete the interactive portions of this chapter.
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- 1.1: Start Now!
- This page outlines objectives for effective time management, especially for nursing students. By reflecting on weekly activities and prioritizing tasks, individuals can align their time with long-term goals. The chapter emphasizes the importance of time management and encourages students to conduct a one-week time audit using a workbook to analyze and adjust their time usage, ensuring important tasks are prioritized.
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- 1.2: Escape the Procrastination Trap
- This page explores procrastination, defining it as delaying actions despite potential negative outcomes. It highlights reasons for procrastination, including uncertainty, disinterest, and fear of failure or success. To address these issues, the text recommends identifying underlying causes and suggests strategies like the Pomodoro Technique for effective time management. Readers are encouraged to assess their procrastination triggers and implement these solutions to overcome procrastination.
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- 1.3: Goal Setting
- This page discusses goal setting, emphasizing the breakdown of larger goals into manageable sub-goals to enhance motivation, reduce anxiety, and maintain focus, exemplified by pursuing a BSN degree. It introduces the S.M.A.R.T. framework for creating effective goals that are Specific, Measurable, Action-oriented, Realistic, and Timely. Additionally, the text includes activities that prompt learners to articulate personal and academic goals along with the necessary objectives to achieve them.
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- 1.4: Planning a College Course Load
- This page details the process of planning a college course load, highlighting the calculation of time needed for work, class, and study. It suggests allocating three study hours for every credit hour and includes a table for recommended time commitments. Key advice includes conducting a time audit, enrolling early, and verifying course prerequisites and important dates prior to enrollment.
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- 1.5: Building a Semester Schedule
- This page provides guidance for students preparing for their semester, highlighting the importance of gathering course materials, adjusting schedules, and using Microsoft 365 tools like Outlook for calendar organization. It encourages the inclusion of personal dates and self-care in planning.
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- 1.6: Email Management
- This page offers comprehensive guidance on managing email effectively, particularly in Outlook. It covers organization techniques, such as creating folders and rules, and emphasizes email etiquette across academic and professional settings. Key tips include crafting clear subject lines, maintaining professionalism with proper grammar, and ensuring respectful communication.
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- 1.7: Putting It All Together
- This page details effective organization and time management techniques for learners, highlighting the need for regular task reviews to address scheduling conflicts. It focuses on prioritizing tasks according to their goal impact, adjusting plans as needed, seeking instructor support, and engaging in reflective practices. Additionally, it encourages documentation of achievements and the setting of future goals to maintain motivation.