23.5: Linguistically Responsive Care
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- Identify factors that affect communication with clients from diverse backgrounds.
- Compare and contrast communication patterns in high- and low-context cultures.
- Explain the effects of low health literacy on health outcomes.
- Use effective communication strategies with clients with low literacy and low health literacy.
Cultural and linguistic competence refers to the ability of health care professionals and health care organizations to understand and respond effectively to the cultural and linguistic needs clients bring to the health care encounter. Like cultural competence, linguistic competence exists along a continuum and is not based on comprehensive knowledge. Linguistic competence enables nurses to care for clients with limited English proficiency. It involves providing these clients easily accessible and culturally appropriate language services, both written and oral. It also requires an awareness of how verbal, nonverbal, and written messages may vary across cultures. Nurses who understand the relationship between communication and cultural identity can adapt their communication to meet each client’s needs and preferences. This adaptation includes being mindful of a client’s communication preferences and cues and trying to understand and respect them.
Linguistically competent care begins with assessment . The first step is to identify the client’s primary language, by asking either the client, a family member, or another individual who is familiar with the client’s language. If the client does not speak the same language as the health care provider, the nurse must use a certified medical interpreter to facilitate communication (see Working with Translated Materials and Interpreters). When communicating with clients with limited English proficiency , nurses need to use clear and simple language, avoid medical jargon and technical terms, and give the client ample time to express themselves and to ask questions.
The Office of Minority Health (n.d.) has developed standards that provide information, resources, and continuing education opportunities for health care professionals to learn about culturally and linguistically appropriate services (CLAS). CLAS emphasizes the importance of tailoring health care services to an individual’s culture and language preferences, respecting and responding to the health needs and preferences of all individuals to achieve health equity, and ensuring that everyone has access to high-quality care.
Differences in Communication Styles
Cultural variations in communication can significantly affect how health care professionals and clients interact and how individuals understand and interpret messages. Nurses need to understand how communication styles differ across cultures. By adapting their communication to align with the client’s preferences, nurses can avoid potential misunderstandings and communicate more effectively with clients from different backgrounds.
Tone, volume, and speed of speech vary among cultures. Loud, fast, and expressive speech is customary for some individuals, whereas others may perceive it as rude or aggressive. Clients from some cultures may consider it rude or disrespectful to make eye contact while speaking to a health care provider, whereas others may consider it a sign of attentiveness and respect. In some cultures, low facial expressiveness is considered typical, whereas other cultures may view it as indicating a lack of interest or even resistance. Culture can also influence the level of emotional expressiveness considered appropriate in social interactions. Some clients may be more open about discussing their feelings and expressing emotions, whereas others may consider it inappropriate to show strong emotions in public or to discuss their health with people who are not close friends or family. As always, it is important to follow the client’s cues in order to provide culturally and linguistically responsive care .
Cultural differences in communication can impact the way that people understand and interpret messages. For example, in high-context cultures , such as those found in Latin American and Asian countries, communication tends to be more subtle and rely more on nonverbal cues and context. Words alone may not convey the full meaning of a message, so nurses should consider the context and relationships between people when communicating. In addition, it may be considered rude or disrespectful to be overly direct, particularly when discussing negative or embarrassing topics; instead, these cultures may use more subtle and implicit language, with a focus on harmony and the interpersonal relationship. In contrast, in low-context cultures , such as those found in North America and Northern Europe, people tend to be more direct in their communication, using clear and explicit language.
In some cultures, communication is more oriented toward the self, whereas in others it is more focused on other people. This difference can be seen in the way people use “I” statements versus third-person language and plural pronouns. In the United States, where the dominant cultural norm is individualistic , people tend to speak in terms of their own experiences and preferences. In contrast, many other cultural groups are more collectivistic , meaning they prioritize the needs and perspectives of the group or community over those of the individual. For members of these cultures, it may be more common to speak in the third person and to use plural pronouns, such as “we” or “they,” rather than “I.”
Health Literacy
Health literacy —the ability to access, understand, and use health information and services to make informed decisions about one’s health—ensures that individuals are empowered to take positive actions to improve their health and well-being. Individuals who are health literate can understand and use health-related information and services. Health literacy enables people to read and comprehend medical instructions and labels, follow a treatment plan, and communicate effectively with health care providers, all of which can lead to better health outcomes. Health literacy can also reduce health care costs by preventing unnecessary hospitalizations and other costly interventions. Additionally, health literacy is important for reducing health disparities and promoting health equity .
Research has demonstrated that health literacy can have numerous positive impacts on health care (Shahid et al., 2022). Health literacy increases the use of preventive health care, reduces unnecessary emergency department visits and preventable hospital stays and readmissions, decreases medication errors, and assists clients in better managing chronic conditions such as diabetes , high cholesterol , hypertension , and HIV . Moreover, it can increase client satisfaction, improve overall health outcomes, and enhance client safety, and it results in greater cost savings for the health care system (McDonald & Shenkman, 2018).
One overarching goal of Healthy People 2030 is to remove health disparities and improve health literacy in all people (ODPHP, n.d.-a). Health literacy is the ability to access, understand, and use health information and services to make informed decisions about one’s health. Healthy People 2030 identifies health literacy as being vital to reaching all Healthy People 2030 objectives. However, health information can be difficult to understand, especially in those with limited English proficiency. Healthy People 2030 has expanded its definition of health literacy to emphasize not only things individuals can do to improve health literacy but also the role that organizations play in helping individuals find, comprehend, and use health information and services to participate in decisions about their care. This new definition goes beyond simply ensuring that individuals understand health information: It focuses on the individual’s ability to use this information to make well-informed choices.
Low literacy refers to the inability to read, write, and comprehend basic information. It is a widespread issue; an estimated 21 percent of adults in the United States have low literacy levels (U.S. Department of Education, 2019). Individuals with low literacy have limited ability to access information, learn new skills, and fully participate in society. Low literacy is often linked to other socioeconomic factors, such as poverty , low education level s, and limited access to health care. It can negatively impact health outcomes because those with low literacy may struggle to understand health information, follow treatment plans, and manage their own health.
Effectively communicating with clients with low health literacy involves using plain, nonmedical language; speaking clearly and slowly; and being specific and concrete, avoiding vague or subjective terms such as “not well” and “a few.” Common words one would use to explain medical information to friends or family, such as “stomach” or “belly” instead of “abdomen,” are appropriate. Nurses should pay attention to the words clients use to describe their illness and then use those words in conversation. Showing a client how to do something, such as performing an exercise or taking medicine, may be clearer than verbal explanations.


7.4: The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define the pelvic girdle and describe the bones and ligaments of the pelvis
- Explain the three regions of the hip bone and identify their bony landmarks
- Describe the openings of the pelvis and the boundaries of the greater and lesser pelvis
The pelvic girdle (hip girdle) is formed by a single bone, the hip bone or coxal bone (coxal = “hip”), which serves as the attachment point for each lower limb. Each hip bone, in turn, is firmly joined to the axial skeleton via its attachment to the sacrum of the vertebral column. The right and left hip bones also converge anteriorly to attach to each other. The bony pelvis is the entire structure formed by the two hip bones, the sacrum, and, attached inferiorly to the sacrum, the coccyx (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
Unlike the bones of the pectoral girdle, which are highly mobile to enhance the range of upper limb movements, the bones of the pelvis are strongly united to each other to form a largely immobile, weight-bearing structure. This is important for stability because it enables the weight of the body to be easily transferred laterally from the vertebral column, through the pelvic girdle and hip joints, and into either lower limb whenever the other limb is not bearing weight. Thus, the immobility of the pelvis provides a strong foundation for the upper body as it rests on top of the mobile lower limbs.
Hip Bone
The hip bone , or coxal bone , forms the pelvic girdle portion of the pelvis. The paired hip bones are the large, curved bones that form the lateral and anterior aspects of the pelvis. Each adult hip bone is formed by three separate bones that fuse together during the late teenage years. These bony components are the ilium, ischium, and pubis (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). These names are retained and used to define the three regions of the adult hip bone.
The three regions of the adult hip can be seen in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). The ilium is the fan-like, superior region that forms the largest part of the hip bone. It is firmly united to the sacrum at the largely immobile sacroiliac joint (see Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). The ischium forms the posteroinferior region of each hip bone. It supports the body when sitting. The pubis forms the anterior portion of the hip bone. The pubis curves medially, where it joins to the pubis of the opposite hip bone at a specialized joint called the pubic symphysis (see Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
Ilium
When you place your hands on your waist, you can feel the arching, superior margin of the ilium along your waistline (see Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). This curved, superior margin of the ilium is the iliac crest . The rounded, anterior termination of the iliac crest is the anterior superior iliac spine . This important bony landmark can be felt at your anterolateral hip. Inferior to the anterior superior iliac spine is a rounded protuberance called the anterior inferior iliac spine . Both of these iliac spines serve as attachment points for muscles of the thigh. Posteriorly, the iliac crest curves downward to terminate as the posterior superior iliac spine . Muscles and ligaments surround but do not cover this bony landmark, thus sometimes producing a depression seen as a “dimple” located on the lower back. More inferiorly is the posterior inferior iliac spine . This is located at the inferior end of a large, roughened area called the auricular surface of the ilium . The auricular surface articulates with the auricular surface of the sacrum to form the sacroiliac joint. Both the posterior superior and posterior inferior iliac spines serve as attachment points for the muscles and very strong ligaments that support the sacroiliac joint.
The shallow depression located on the anteromedial (internal) surface of the upper ilium is called the iliac fossa . The inferior margin of this space is formed by the arcuate line of the ilium , the ridge formed by the pronounced change in curvature between the upper and lower portions of the ilium. The large, inverted U-shaped indentation located on the posterior margin of the lower ilium is called the greater sciatic notch .
Ischium
The ischium forms the posterolateral portion of the hip bone (see Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). The large, smooth area of the superior ischium is the ischial body .The large, roughened area of the inferior ischium is the ischial tuberosity . This serves as the attachment for the posterior thigh muscles and also carries the weight of the body when sitting. You can feel the ischial tuberosity if you wiggle your pelvis against the seat of a chair. Projecting superiorly and anteriorly from the ischial tuberosity is a narrow segment of bone called the ischial ramus . The slightly curved posterior margin of the ischium above the ischial tuberosity is the lesser sciatic notch . The bony projection separating the lesser sciatic notch and greater sciatic notch is the ischial spine .
Pubis
The pubis forms the anterior portion of the hip bone (see Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). The enlarged medial portion of the pubis is the pubic body . Located superiorly on the pubic body is a small bump called the pubic tubercle . The superior pubic ramus is the segment of bone that passes laterally from the pubic body to join the ilium. The narrow ridge running along the superior margin of the superior pubic ramus is the pectineal line of the pubis .
The pubic body is joined to the pubic body of the opposite hip bone by the pubic symphysis (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Extending downward and laterally from the body is the inferior pubic ramus . The pubic arch is the bony structure formed by the pubic symphysis, and the bodies and inferior pubic rami of the adjacent pubic bones. The inferior pubic ramus extends downward to join the ischial ramus. Together, these form the single ischiopubic ramus , which extends from the pubic body to the ischial tuberosity. The inverted V-shape formed as the ischiopubic rami from both sides come together at the pubic symphysis is called the subpubic angle ( Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) & \(\PageIndex{4}\)).
Pelvis
The pelvis consists of four bones: the right and left hip bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx (see Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). The pelvis has several important functions. Its primary role is to support the weight of the upper body when sitting and to transfer this weight to the lower limbs when standing. It serves as an attachment point for trunk and lower limb muscles, and also protects the internal pelvic organs. When standing in the anatomical position, the pelvis is tilted anteriorly. In this position, the anterior superior iliac spines and the pubic tubercles lie in the same vertical plane, and the anterior (internal) surface of the sacrum faces forward and downward.
The three areas of each hip bone, the ilium, pubis, and ischium, converge centrally to form a deep, cup-shaped cavity called the acetabulum ( Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). This is located on the lateral side of the hip bone and is part of the hip joint. The large opening in the anteroinferior hip bone between the ischium and pubis is the obturator foramen . This space is largely filled in by a layer of connective tissue and serves for the attachment of muscles on both its internal and external surfaces.
Several ligaments unite the bones of the pelvis (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). The largely immobile sacroiliac joint is supported by a pair of strong ligaments that are attached between the sacrum and ilium portions of the hip bone. These are the anterior sacroiliac ligament on the anterior side of the joint and the posterior sacroiliac ligament on the posterior side. Also spanning the sacrum and hip bone are two additional ligaments. The sacrospinous ligament runs from the sacrum to the ischial spine, and the sacrotuberous ligament runs from the sacrum to the ischial tuberosity. These ligaments help to support and immobilize the sacrum as it carries the weight of the body.
The sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments also help to define two openings on the posterolateral sides of the pelvis through which muscles, nerves, and blood vessels for the lower limb exit. The superior opening is the greater sciatic foramen . This large opening is formed by the greater sciatic notch of the hip bone, the sacrum, and the sacrospinous ligament. The smaller, more inferior lesser sciatic foramen is formed by the lesser sciatic notch of the hip bone, together with the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments.
The space enclosed by the bony pelvis is divided into two regions (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). The broad, superior region, defined laterally by the large, fan-like portion of the upper hip bone, is called the greater pelvis (greater pelvic cavity; false pelvis). This broad area is occupied by portions of the small and large intestines, and because it is more closely associated with the abdominal cavity, it is sometimes referred to as the false pelvis. More inferiorly, the narrow, rounded space of the lesser pelvis (lesser pelvic cavity; true pelvis) contains the bladder and other pelvic organs, and thus is also known as the true pelvis. The pelvic brim (also known as the pelvic inlet ) forms the superior margin of the lesser pelvis, separating it from the greater pelvis. The pelvic brim is defined by a line formed by the upper margin of the pubic symphysis anteriorly, and the pectineal line of the pubis, the arcuate line of the ilium, and the sacral promontory (the anterior margin of the superior sacrum) posteriorly. The inferior limit of the lesser pelvic cavity is called the pelvic outlet . This large opening is defined by the inferior margin of the pubic symphysis anteriorly, and the ischiopubic ramus, the ischial tuberosity, the sacrotuberous ligament, and the inferior tip of the coccyx posteriorly. Because of the anterior tilt of the pelvis, the lesser pelvis is also angled, giving it an anterosuperior (pelvic inlet) to posteroinferior (pelvic outlet) orientation.
Comparison of the Female and Male Pelvis
The differences between the adult female and male pelvis relate to function and body size. In general, the bones of the male pelvis are thicker and heavier, adapted for support of the male’s heavier physical build and stronger muscles. The greater sciatic notch of the male hip bone is narrower and deeper than the broader notch of females. Because the female pelvis is adapted for childbirth, it is wider than the male pelvis, as evidenced by the distance between the anterior superior iliac spines (see Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). The ischial tuberosities of females are also farther apart, which increases the size of the pelvic outlet. Because of this increased pelvic width, the subpubic angle is larger in females (greater than 80 degrees) than it is in males (less than 70 degrees). The female sacrum is wider, shorter, and less curved, and the sacral promontory projects less into the pelvic cavity, thus giving the female pelvic inlet (pelvic brim) a more rounded or oval shape compared to males. The lesser pelvic cavity of females is also wider and more shallow than the narrower, deeper, and tapering lesser pelvis of males. Because of the obvious differences between female and male hip bones, this is the one bone of the body that allows for the most accurate sex determination. Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) provides an overview of the general differences between the female and male pelvis.
| Characteristic | Female pelvis | Male pelvis |
|---|---|---|
| Pelvic weight | Bones of the pelvis are lighter and thinner | Bones of the pelvis are thicker and heavier |
| Pelvic inlet shape | Pelvic inlet has a round or oval shape | Pelvic inlet is heart-shaped |
| Lesser pelvic cavity shape | Lesser pelvic cavity is shorter and wider | Lesser pelvic cavity is longer and narrower |
| Subpubic angle | Subpubic angle is greater than 80 degrees | Subpubic angle is less than 70 degrees |
| Pelvic outlet shape | Pelvic outlet is rounded and larger | Pelvic outlet is smaller |
Career Connection
Forensic Pathology and Forensic Anthropology
A forensic pathologist (also known as a medical examiner) is a medically trained physician who has been specifically trained in pathology to examine the bodies of the deceased to determine the cause of death. A forensic pathologist applies his or her understanding of disease as well as toxins, blood and DNA analysis, firearms and ballistics, and other factors to assess the cause and manner of death. At times, a forensic pathologist will be called to testify under oath in situations that involve a possible crime. Forensic pathology is a field that has received much media attention on television shows or following a high-profile death.
While forensic pathologists are responsible for determining whether the cause of someone’s death was natural, a suicide, accidental, or a homicide, there are times when uncovering the cause of death is more complex, and other skills are needed. Forensic anthropology brings the tools and knowledge of physical anthropology and human osteology (the study of the skeleton) to the task of investigating a death. A forensic anthropologist assists medical and legal professionals in identifying human remains. The science behind forensic anthropology involves the study of archaeological excavation; the examination of hair; an understanding of plants, insects, and footprints; the ability to determine how much time has elapsed since the person died; the analysis of past medical history and toxicology; the ability to determine whether there are any postmortem injuries or alterations of the skeleton; and the identification of the decedent (deceased person) using skeletal and dental evidence.
Due to the extensive knowledge and understanding of excavation techniques, a forensic anthropologist is an integral and invaluable team member to have on-site when investigating a crime scene, especially when the recovery of human skeletal remains is involved. When remains are bought to a forensic anthropologist for examination, he or she must first determine whether the remains are in fact human. Once the remains have been identified as belonging to a person and not to an animal, the next step is to approximate the individual’s age, sex, race, and height. The forensic anthropologist does not determine the cause of death, but rather provides information to the forensic pathologist, who will use all of the data collected to make a final determination regarding the cause of death.
Concept Review
The pelvic girdle, consisting of a hip bone, serves to attach a lower limb to the axial skeleton. The hip bone articulates posteriorly at the sacroiliac joint with the sacrum, which is part of the axial skeleton. The right and left hip bones converge anteriorly and articulate with each other at the pubic symphysis. The combination of the hip bone, the sacrum, and the coccyx forms the pelvis. The pelvis has a pronounced anterior tilt. The primary function of the pelvis is to support the upper body and transfer body weight to the lower limbs. It also serves as the site of attachment for multiple muscles.
The hip bone consists of three regions: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The ilium forms the large, fan-like region of the hip bone. The superior margin of this area is the iliac crest. Located at either end of the iliac crest are the anterior superior and posterior superior iliac spines. Inferior to these are the anterior inferior and posterior inferior iliac spines. The auricular surface of the ilium articulates with the sacrum to form the sacroiliac joint. The medial surface of the upper ilium forms the iliac fossa, with the arcuate line marking the inferior limit of this area. The posterior margin of the ilium has the large greater sciatic notch.
The posterolateral portion of the hip bone is the ischium. It has the expanded ischial tuberosity, which supports body weight when sitting. The ischial ramus projects anteriorly and superiorly. The posterior margin of the ischium has the shallow lesser sciatic notch and the ischial spine, which separates the greater and lesser sciatic notches.
The pubis forms the anterior portion of the hip bone. The body of the pubis articulates with the pubis of the opposite hip bone at the pubic symphysis. The superior margin of the pubic body has the pubic tubercle. The pubis is joined to the ilium by the superior pubic ramus, the superior surface of which forms the pectineal line. The inferior pubic ramus projects inferiorly and laterally. The pubic arch is formed by the pubic symphysis, the bodies of the adjacent pubic bones, and the two inferior pubic rami. The inferior pubic ramus joins the ischial ramus to form the ischiopubic ramus. The subpubic angle is formed by the medial convergence of the right and left ischiopubic rami.
The lateral side of the hip bone has the cup-like acetabulum, which is part of the hip joint. The large anterior opening is the obturator foramen. The sacroiliac joint is supported by the anterior and posterior sacroiliac ligaments. The sacrum is also joined to the hip bone by the sacrospinous ligament, which attaches to the ischial spine, and the sacrotuberous ligament, which attaches to the ischial tuberosity. The sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments contribute to the formation of the greater and lesser sciatic foramina.
The broad space of the upper pelvis is the greater pelvis, and the narrow, inferior space is the lesser pelvis. These areas are separated by the pelvic brim (pelvic inlet). The inferior opening of the pelvis is the pelvic outlet. Compared to the male, the female pelvis is wider to accommodate childbirth, has a larger subpubic angle, and a broader greater sciatic notch.
Review Questions
Q. How many bones fuse in adulthood to form the hip bone?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
- Answer
-
Answer: B
Q. Which component forms the superior part of the hip bone?
A. ilium
B. pubis
C. ischium
D. sacrum
- Answer
-
Answer: A
Q. Which of the following supports body weight when sitting?
A. iliac crest
B. ischial tuberosity
C. ischiopubic ramus
D. pubic body
- Answer
-
Answer: B
Q. The ischial spine is found between which of the following structures?
A. inferior pubic ramus and ischial ramus
B. pectineal line and arcuate line
C. lesser sciatic notch and greater sciatic notch
D. anterior superior iliac spine and posterior superior iliac spine
- Answer
-
Answer: C
Q. The pelvis ________.
A. has a subpubic angle that is larger in females
B. consists of the two hip bones, but does not include the sacrum or coccyx
C. has an obturator foramen, an opening that is defined in part by the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments
D. has a space located inferior to the pelvic brim called the greater pelvis
- Answer
-
Answer: A
Critical Thinking Questions
Q. Describe the articulations and ligaments that unite the four bones of the pelvis to each other.
- Answer
-
A. The pelvis is formed by the combination of the right and left hip bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx. The auricular surfaces of each hip bone articulate with the auricular surface of the sacrum to form the sacroiliac joint. This joint is supported on either side by the strong anterior and posterior sacroiliac ligaments. The right and left hip bones converge anteriorly, where the pubic bodies articulate with each other to form the pubic symphysis joint. The sacrum is also attached to the hip bone by the sacrospinous ligament, which spans the sacrum to the ischial spine, and the sacrotuberous ligament, which runs from the sacrum to the ischial tuberosity. The coccyx is attached to the inferior end of the sacrum.
Q. Discuss the ways in which the female pelvis is adapted for childbirth.
- Answer
-
A. Compared to the male, the female pelvis is wider to accommodate childbirth. Thus, the female pelvis has greater distances between the anterior superior iliac spines and between the ischial tuberosities. The greater width of the female pelvis results in a larger subpubic angle. This angle, formed by the anterior convergence of the right and left ischiopubic rami, is larger in females (greater than 80 degrees) than in males (less than 70 degrees). The female sacral promontory does not project anteriorly as far as it does in males, which gives the pelvic brim (pelvic inlet) of the female a rounded or oval shape. The lesser pelvic cavity is wider and more shallow in females, and the pelvic outlet is larger than in males. Thus, the greater width of the female pelvis, with its larger pelvic inlet, lesser pelvis, and pelvic outlet, are important for childbirth because the baby must pass through the pelvis during delivery.
Glossary
- acetabulum
- large, cup-shaped cavity located on the lateral side of the hip bone; formed by the junction of the ilium, pubis, and ischium portions of the hip bone
- anterior inferior iliac spine
- small, bony projection located on the anterior margin of the ilium, below the anterior superior iliac spine
- anterior sacroiliac ligament
- strong ligament between the sacrum and the ilium portions of the hip bone that supports the anterior side of the sacroiliac joint
- anterior superior iliac spine
- rounded, anterior end of the iliac crest
- arcuate line of the ilium
- smooth ridge located at the inferior margin of the iliac fossa; forms the lateral portion of the pelvic brim
- auricular surface of the ilium
- roughened area located on the posterior, medial side of the ilium of the hip bone; articulates with the auricular surface of the sacrum to form the sacroiliac joint
- coxal bone
- hip bone
- greater pelvis
- (also, greater pelvic cavity or false pelvis) broad space above the pelvic brim defined laterally by the fan-like portion of the upper ilium
- greater sciatic foramen
- pelvic opening formed by the greater sciatic notch of the hip bone, the sacrum, and the sacrospinous ligament
- greater sciatic notch
- large, U-shaped indentation located on the posterior margin of the ilium, superior to the ischial spine
- hip bone
- coxal bone; single bone that forms the pelvic girdle; consists of three areas, the ilium, ischium, and pubis
- iliac crest
- curved, superior margin of the ilium
- iliac fossa
- shallow depression found on the anterior and medial surfaces of the upper ilium
- ilium
- superior portion of the hip bone
- inferior pubic ramus
- narrow segment of bone that passes inferiorly and laterally from the pubic body; joins with the ischial ramus to form the ischiopubic ramus
- ischial body
- large, smooth area of the superior ischium
- ischial ramus
- bony extension projecting anteriorly and superiorly from the ischial tuberosity; joins with the inferior pubic ramus to form the ischiopubic ramus
- ischial spine
- pointed, bony projection from the posterior margin of the ischium that separates the greater sciatic notch and lesser sciatic notch
- ischial tuberosity
- large, roughened protuberance that forms the posteroinferior portion of the hip bone; weight-bearing region of the pelvis when sitting
- ischiopubic ramus
- narrow extension of bone that connects the ischial tuberosity to the pubic body; formed by the junction of the ischial ramus and inferior pubic ramus
- ischium
- posteroinferior portion of the hip bone
- lesser pelvis
- (also, lesser pelvic cavity or true pelvis) narrow space located within the pelvis, defined superiorly by the pelvic brim (pelvic inlet) and inferiorly by the pelvic outlet
- lesser sciatic foramen
- pelvic opening formed by the lesser sciatic notch of the hip bone, the sacrospinous ligament, and the sacrotuberous ligament
- lesser sciatic notch
- shallow indentation along the posterior margin of the ischium, inferior to the ischial spine
- obturator foramen
- large opening located in the anterior hip bone, between the pubis and ischium regions
- pectineal line
- narrow ridge located on the superior surface of the superior pubic ramus
- pelvic brim
- pelvic inlet; the dividing line between the greater and lesser pelvic regions; formed by the superior margin of the pubic symphysis, the pectineal lines of each pubis, the arcuate lines of each ilium, and the sacral promontory
- pelvic girdle
- hip girdle; consists of a single hip bone, which attaches a lower limb to the sacrum of the axial skeleton
- pelvic inlet
- pelvic brim
- pelvic outlet
- inferior opening of the lesser pelvis; formed by the inferior margin of the pubic symphysis, right and left ischiopubic rami and sacrotuberous ligaments, and the tip of the coccyx
- pelvis
- ring of bone consisting of the right and left hip bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx
- posterior inferior iliac spine
- small, bony projection located at the inferior margin of the auricular surface on the posterior ilium
- posterior sacroiliac ligament
- strong ligament spanning the sacrum and ilium of the hip bone that supports the posterior side of the sacroiliac joint
- posterior superior iliac spine
- rounded, posterior end of the iliac crest
- pubic arch
- bony structure formed by the pubic symphysis, and the bodies and inferior pubic rami of the right and left pubic bones
- pubic body
- enlarged, medial portion of the pubis region of the hip bone
- pubic symphysis
- joint formed by the articulation between the pubic bodies of the right and left hip bones
- pubic tubercle
- small bump located on the superior aspect of the pubic body
- pubis
- anterior portion of the hip bone
- sacroiliac joint
- joint formed by the articulation between the auricular surfaces of the sacrum and ilium
- sacrospinous ligament
- ligament that spans the sacrum to the ischial spine of the hip bone
- sacrotuberous ligament
- ligament that spans the sacrum to the ischial tuberosity of the hip bone
- subpubic angle
- inverted V-shape formed by the convergence of the right and left ischiopubic rami; this angle is greater than 80 degrees in females and less than 70 degrees in males
- superior pubic ramus
- narrow segment of bone that passes laterally from the pubic body to join the ilium
Contributors and Attributions
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OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology


A. sexual reproduction involves fewer steps
B. less chance of using up the resources in a given environment
C. sexual reproduction results in greater variation in the offspring
D. sexual reproduction is more cost-effective
- Answer
-
C
Which type of life cycle has both a haploid and diploid multicellular stage?
A. an asexual life cycle
B. diploid-dominant
C. haploid-dominant
D. alternation of generations
- Answer
-
D
Which event leads to a diploid cell in a life cycle?
A. meiosis
B. fertilization
C. alternation of generations
D. mutation
- Answer
-
B
Free Response
Explain the advantage that populations of sexually reproducing organisms have over asexually reproducing organisms?
- Answer
-
The offspring of sexually reproducing organisms are all genetically unique. Because of this, sexually reproducing organisms may have more successful survival of offspring in environments that change than asexually reproducing organisms, whose offspring are all genetically identical. In addition, the rate of adaptation of sexually reproducing organisms is higher, because of their increased variation. This may allow sexually reproducing organisms to adapt more quickly to competitors and parasites, who are evolving new ways to exploit or outcompete them.
Describe the two events that are common to all sexually reproducing organisms and how they fit into the different life cycles of those organisms.
- Answer
-
The two events common to all sexually reproducing organisms are meiosis and fertilization. Meiosis reduces a diploid cell to a haploid state. The haploid cell may divide mitotically to produce an organism, some of whose cells will combine during fertilization, or the haploid cells produced by meiosis may immediately combine in fertilization to produce a diploid cell that divides to produce an organism.
9.2: Meiosis
Multiple Choice
Meiosis produces ________ daughter cells.
A. two haploid
B. two diploid
C. four haploid
D. four diploid
- Answer
-
C
At which stage of meiosis are sister chromatids separated from each other?
A. prophase I
B. prophase II
C. anaphase I
D. anaphase II
- Answer
-
D
The part of meiosis that is similar to mitosis is ________.
A. meiosis I
B. anaphase I
C. meiosis II
D. interkinesis
- Answer
-
C
If a muscle cell of a typical organism has 32 chromosomes, how many chromosomes will be in a gamete of that same organism?
A. 8
B. 16
C. 32
D. 64
- Answer
-
B
Free Response
Explain how the random alignment of homologous chromosomes during metaphase I contributes to variation in gametes produced by meiosis.
- Answer
-
Random alignment leads to new combinations of traits. The chromosomes that were originally inherited by the gamete-producing individual came equally from the egg and the sperm. In metaphase I, the duplicated copies of these maternal and paternal homologous chromosomes line up across the center of the cell to form a tetrad. The orientation of each tetrad is random. There is an equal chance that the maternally derived chromosomes will be facing either pole. The same is true of the paternally derived chromosomes. The alignment should occur differently in almost every meiosis. As the homologous chromosomes are pulled apart in anaphase I, any combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes will move toward each pole. The gametes formed from these two groups of chromosomes will have a mixture of traits from the individual’s parents. Each gamete is unique.
In what ways is meiosis II similar to and different from mitosis of a diploid cell?
- Answer
-
The two divisions are similar in that the chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate individually, meaning unpaired with other chromosomes (as in meiosis I). In addition, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids that will be pulled apart. The two divisions are different because in meiosis II there are half the number of chromosomes that are present in a diploid cell of the same species undergoing mitosis. This is because meiosis I reduced the number of chromosomes to a haploid state.
9.3: Variations in Meiosis
The number, size, shape, and banding pattern of chromosomes make them easily identifiable in a karyogram and allow for the assessment of many chromosomal abnormalities. Disorders in chromosome number, or aneuploidies, are typically lethal to the embryo, although a few trisomic genotypes are viable. Because of X inactivation, aberrations in sex chromosomes typically have milder effects on an individual. Aneuploidies also include instances in which segments of a chromosome are duplicated or deleted. Chromosome structures also may be rearranged, for example by inversion or translocation. Both of these aberrations can result in negative effects on development, or death. Because they force chromosomes to assume contorted pairings during meiosis I, inversions and translocations are often associated with reduced fertility because of the likelihood of nondisjunction.
Multiple Choice
The genotype XXY corresponds to:
A. Klinefelter syndrome
B. Turner syndrome
C. Triplo-X
D. Jacob syndrome
- Answer
-
A
Abnormalities in the number of X chromosomes tend to be milder than the same abnormalities in autosomes because of ________.
A. deletions
B. nonhomologous recombination
C. synapsis
D. X inactivation
- Answer
-
D
Aneuploidies are deleterious for the individual because of what phenomenon?
A. nondisjunction
B. gene dosage
C. meiotic errors
D. X inactivation
- Answer
-
B
Free Response
Individuals with trisomy 21 are more likely to survive to adulthood than individuals with trisomy 18. Based on what you know about aneuploidies from this module, what can you hypothesize about chromosomes 21 and 18?
- Answer
-
The problems caused by trisomies arise because the genes on the chromosome that is present in three copies produce more product than genes on chromosomes with only two copies. The cell does not have a way to adjust the amount of product, and the lack of balance causes problems in development and the maintenance of the individual. Each chromosome is different, and the differences in survivability could have to do with the numbers of genes on the two chromosomes. Chromosome 21 may be a smaller chromosome, so there are fewer unbalanced gene products. It is also possible that chromosome 21 carries genes whose products are less sensitive to differences in dosage than chromosome 18. The genes may be less involved in critical pathways, or the differences in dosage may make less of a difference to those pathways.
Contributors and Attributions
Remixed and/or curated from the following works:
Fowler, S., Roush, R., & Wise, J. (2013). 7.E The Cellular Basis of Inheritance ( Exercises) . In Concepts of Biology . OpenStax (CC BY 4.0; Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction ).


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10.1: Gender Stratification and Inequality
10: Sex and Gender
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10.1.1: Gender and Biology
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8.2: Asteroids and Planetary Defense
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Recognize the threat that near-Earth objects represent for Earth
- Discuss possible defensive strategies to protect our planet
Not all asteroids are in the main asteroid belt. In this section, we consider some special groups of asteroids with orbits that approach or cross the orbit of Earth. These pose the risk of a catastrophic collision with our planet, such as the collision 65 million years ago that killed the dinosaurs.
Earth-Approaching Asteroids
Asteroids that stray far outside the main belt are of interest mostly to astronomers. But asteroids that come inward , especially those with orbits that come close to or cross the orbit of Earth, are of interest to political leaders, military planners—indeed, everyone alive on Earth. Some of these asteroids briefly become the closest celestial object to us.
In 1994, a 1-kilometer object was picked up passing closer than the Moon, causing a stir of interest in the news media. Today, it is routine to read of small asteroids coming this close to Earth. (They were always there, but only in recent years have astronomers been able to detect such faint objects.)
In 2013, a small asteroid hit our planet, streaking across the sky over the Russian city of Chelyabinsk and exploding with the energy of a nuclear bomb (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). The impactor was a stony object about 20 meters in diameter, exploding about 30 kilometers high with an energy of 500 kilotons (about 30 times larger than the nuclear bombs dropped on Japan in World War II). No one was hurt by the blast itself, although it briefly became as bright as the Sun, drawing many spectators to the windows in their offices and homes. When the blast wave from the explosion then reached the town, it blew out the windows. About 1500 people had to seek medical attention from injuries from the shattered glass.
A much larger atmospheric explosion took place in Russia in 1908, caused by an asteroid about 40 meters in diameter, releasing an energy of 5 megatons, as large the most powerful nuclear weapons of today. Fortunately, the area directly affected, on the Tunguska River in Siberia, was unpopulated, and no one was killed. However, the area of forest destroyed by the blast was large equal to the size of a major city (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
Together with any comets that come close to our planet, such asteroids are known collectively as near - Earth objects ( NEOs ). As we will see (and as the dinosaurs found out 65 million years ago,) the collision of a significant-sized NEO could be a catastrophe for life on our planet.
Visit the video compilation of the Chelyabinsk meteor streaking through the sky over the city on February 15, 2013, as taken by people who were in the area when it occurred.
View this video of a non-technical talk by David Morrison to watch “The Chelyabinsk Meteor: Can We Survive a Bigger Impact?” Dr. Morrison (SETI Institute and NASA Ames Research Center) discusses the Chelyabinsk impact and how we learn about NEOs and protect ourselves; the talk is from the Silicon Valley Astronomy Lectures series.
Astronomers have urged that the first step in protecting Earth from future impacts by NEOs must be to learn what potential impactors are out there. In 1998, NASA began the Spaceguard Survey, with the goal to discover and track 90% of Earth-approaching asteroids greater than 1 kilometer in diameter. The size of 1 kilometer was selected to include all asteroids capable of causing global damage, not merely local or regional effects. At 1 kilometer or larger, the impact could blast so much dust into the atmosphere that the sunlight would be dimmed for months, causing global crop failures—an event that could threaten the survival of our civilization. The Spaceguard goal of 90% was reached in 2012 when nearly a thousand of these 1-kilometer near - Earth asteroids ( NEAs ) had been found, along with more than 10,000 smaller asteroids. Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows how the pace of NEA discoveries has been increasing over recent years.
How did astronomers know when they had discovered 90% of these asteroids? There are several ways to estimate the total number, even before they were individually located. One way is to look at the numbers of large craters on the dark lunar maria. Remember that these craters were made by impacts just like the ones we are considering. They are preserved on the Moon’s airless surface, whereas Earth soon erases the imprints of past impacts. Thus, the number of large craters on the Moon allows us to estimate how often impacts have occurred on both the Moon and Earth over the past several billion years. The number of impacts is directly related to the number of asteroids and comets on Earth-crossing orbits.
Another approach is to see how often the surveys (which are automated searches for faint points of light that move among the stars) rediscover a previously known asteroid. At the beginning of a survey, all the NEAs it finds will be new. But as the survey becomes more complete, more and more of the moving points the survey cameras record will be rediscoveries. The more rediscoveries each survey experiences, the more complete our inventory of these asteroids must be.
We have been relieved to find that none of the NEAs discovered so far is on a trajectory that will impact Earth within the foreseeable future. However, we can’t speak for the handful of asteroids larger than 1 kilometer that have not yet been found, or for the much more numerous smaller ones. It is estimated that there are a million NEAs capable of hitting Earth that are smaller than 1 kilometer but still large enough to destroy a city, and our surveys have found fewer than 10% of them. Researchers who work with asteroid orbits estimate that for smaller (and therefore fainter) asteroids we are not yet tracking, we will have about a 5-second warning that one is going to hit Earth—in other words, we won’t see it until it enters the atmosphere. Clearly, this estimate gives us a lot of motivation to continue these surveys to track as many asteroids as possible.
Though entirely predictable over times of a few centuries, the orbits of Earth-approaching asteroids are unstable over long time spans as they are tugged by the gravitational attractions of the planets. These objects will eventually meet one of two fates: either they will impact one of the terrestrial planets or the Sun, or they will be ejected gravitationally from the inner solar system due to a near-encounter with a planet. The probabilities of these two outcomes are about the same. The timescale for impact or ejection is only about a hundred million years, very short compared with the 4-billion-year age of the solar system. Calculations show that only approximately one quarter of the current Earth-approaching asteroids will eventually end up colliding with Earth itself.
If most of the current population of Earth-approaching asteroids will be removed by impact or ejection in a hundred million years, there must be a continuing source of new objects to replenish our supply of NEAs. Most of them come from the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, where collisions between asteroids can eject fragments into Earth-crossing orbits (see Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). Others may be “dead” comets that have exhausted their volatile materials (which we’ll discuss in the next section).
One reason scientists are interested in the composition and interior structure of NEAs is that humans will probably need to defend themselves against an asteroid impact someday. If we ever found one of these asteroids on a collision course with us, we would need to deflect it so it would miss Earth. The most straightforward way to deflect it would be to crash a spacecraft into it, either slowing it or speeding it up, slightly changing its orbital period. If this were done several years before the predicted collision, the asteroid would miss the planet entirely—making an asteroid impact the only natural hazard that we could eliminate completely by the application of technology. Alternatively, such deflection could be done by exploding a nuclear bomb near the asteroid to nudge it off course.
To achieve a successful deflection by either technique, we need to know more about the density and interior structure of the asteroid. A spacecraft impact or a nearby explosion would have a greater effect on a solid rocky asteroid such as Eros than on a loose rubble pile. Think of climbing a sand dune compared to climbing a rocky hill with the same slope. On the dune, much of our energy is absorbed in the slipping sand, so the climb is much more difficult and takes more energy.
There is increasing international interest in the problem of asteroid impacts. The United Nations has formed two technical committees on planetary defense, recognizing that the entire planet is at risk from asteroid impacts. However, the fundamental problem remains one of finding NEAs in time for defensive measures to be taken. We must be able to find the next impactor before it finds us. And that’s a job for the astronomers.
Key Concepts and Summary
Near-Earth asteroids (NEAs), and near-Earth objects (NEOs) in general, are of interest in part because of their potential to hit Earth. They are on unstable orbits, and on timescales of 100 million years, they will either impact one of the terrestrial planets or the Sun, or be ejected. Most of them probably come from the asteroid belt, but some may be dead comets. NASA’s Spaceguard Survey has found 90% of the NEAs larger than 1 kilometer, and none of the ones found so far are on a collision course with Earth. Scientists are actively working on possible technologies for planetary defense in case any NEOs are found on a collision course with Earth years in advance. For now, the most important task is to continue our surveys, so we can find the next Earth impactor before it finds us.
Glossary
- near-Earth object (NEO)
- a comet or asteroid whose path intersects the orbit of Earth
- near-Earth asteroid (NEA)
- an Earth-approaching asteroid, one whose orbit could bring it on a collision course with our planet
Contributors and Attributions
Andrew Fraknoi (Foothill College), David Morrison (NASA Ames Research Center), Sidney C. Wolff (National Optical Astronomy Observatory) with many contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/astronomy ).


3.7: How?
As stated above, there are many careers related to working with children and families. Since many of you will look into teaching at some point in your early childhood career, let us take a closer look at how that might happen.
As you hone many of the interpersonal traits and dispositions needed, you will also be taking classes to complete the formal education necessary to meet program requirements. This link will take you to our department website where you are able to find more information specific to your early childhood studies here at College of the Canyons, including your needed coursework and valuable academic information.
Professional Pathways
The field of Early Childhood Education has multiple pathways for those who are interested in directly or indirectly working with children and families. This section will explore the education needed to become an early childhood professional, career options, and continuation of education and professional development.
Education
There are many entrance points along the career path in Early Childhood Education. The following pathways are to be used for those who are seeking employment in the State of California. Each state has different requirements and since this text originated in California for the students at College of the Canyons, we will speak specifically for our students and our state.
Child Development Associate Credential (CDA)
While the CDA has been around for 45 years, this is most recognized in states that do not have comprehensive higher education systems in Child Development or Early Childhood Education. Here is some key information taken directly from the CDA website:
- The CDA is based on a core set of competency standards, which guide early care professionals as they work toward becoming qualified teachers of young children.
- The Council works to ensure that the nationally transferable CDA is a credible and valid credential, recognized by the profession as a vital part of professional development.
- CDAs have knowledge of how to put the CDA Competency Standards into practice and understanding of why those standards help children move with success from one developmental stage to another. CDAs know how to nurture the emotional, physical, intellectual, and social development of children. [34]
For those who hold a CDA Credential, in California, it can be used in the following ways in California:
- Earn your California Child Development Associate Teacher Permit (see permit matrix option 2 under Associate Teacher)
- You can use them as transferable units to a higher education program of study to continue with the additional units you would need to work in a state-funded early education center
Associates Degree for Transfer (ADT) in Early Childhood Education and/or Certificates of Achievement
The California Community College System, to which College of the Canyons belongs, offers several options in the Early Childhood course of study. You can earn an associate’s degree, which requires that you complete 24 specific units of ECE along with the general education requirements of an associate’s degree. The Associate’s Degree you earn at College of the Canyons is a transfer degree, which means that with your degree, you will be accepted at a California State University and you would enter as a junior (provided that you are continuing your education in either Child Development or a related field).
You also can earn one or more of the certificates of specialization that we currently offer for our students. Currently, those certificates include specializations in:
- Preschool – this is one that you can earn along with your ADT, as it requires all of the courses that you took for your ADT.
- Infant-Toddler
- School – Age
- Special Education
- Supervision and Administration of Children’s Programs
It is helpful to make an appointment with a counselor to ensure that you are taking the right courses for general education as well as map out your course of study. It is also important that you speak with the Early Childhood Education department to gain a better understanding of the specific eight courses you need to take to earn your degree or certificate and to follow the suggestions of taking them in order.
Our course of study at College of the Canyons:
- ECE 100 Principles and Practices of Early Childhood Education (this is the class you are currently enrolled in)
- ECE 101 Child Growth and Development
- ECE 102 Child, Family, and Community
- ECE 103 Observation and Assessment
- ECE 104 Introduction to Curriculum for Early Childhood Education
- ECE 105 Health, Safety, and Nutrition in Early Childhood Education
- ECE 106 The Role of Equity and Diversity in Early Childhood Education
- ECE 200 Practicum – Field Experience
The following three courses require prior coursework that must be completed with a passing grade before enrollment (called pre-requisites):
- ECE 103 Observation and Assessment requires ECE 100
- ECE 104 Curriculum for Young Children also requires ECE 100
- ECE 200 Practicum/Field Experience requires ECE 100, 101, 102, 103, and 104
We provide this information so you can plan your schedule accordingly should you want to complete your degree in 2 years. Taking them in chronological order is the best strategy when possible, as the information and experiences build upon each other.
Bachelor’s Degree
Several institutions of Higher Education offer Bachelor’s degrees for those pursuing a career in working with children. In-state, those institutions can be California State Universities (CSU’s), University of California (UC’s), or private institutions. One of the best ways to choose an institution is to find one that meets your financial needs and the needs you have as a student to be successful.
Master’s Degree
As indicated above, the same is true for Master’s Degrees. Again, it is best to find an institution that will work best for you and your career goals.
Doctoral Degree
Fewer higher education institutions offer doctoral degrees in Child Development/Early Childhood Education. However, in the state of California, a group of higher education faculty is currently working with institutions to offer this degree. We know from this study - Transforming the Workforce 0 – 8 , that the more knowledge a practitioner has about how children grow and develop, the more prepared that practitioner is to provide high quality environments that are supportive and responsive to the needs of children and their families.
Child Development Permit
In response to the implementation of state-subsidized preschool, California developed a permit structure that details what the personnel at each level are authorized to do and the education and experience requirements for those levels. The current six‐level permit structure is based upon a career ladder approach with each level increasing in coursework preparation and commensurate authorization or responsibility. Please see the Appendix for the Permit Matrix. Most coursework is completed by candidates at community colleges. [35]
When I started my first ECE class I thought I would get my degree, get a job, and be done. Now I know that was just the start. To be a good teacher is to be a lifelong learner.
Don’t be afraid to join organizations and go to workshops and conferences. I was petrified to go to my first one, but it was so much fun. I learned a lot that I could instantly take back to my classroom and met so many new and helpful people.
Find a more seasoned teacher or someone you feel comfortable with. You will have many questions and need a sounding board. Later, when you know more, you can ‘pay it forward’ with another new teacher.
What will help you as you begin your journey into the world of Early Childhood Education? What advice might you have for others as they begin their own journey?


7: The Wonderful World of Cosets
We have already seen one way we can examine a complicated group \(G\): namely, study its subgroups, whose group structures are in some cases much more directly understandable than the structure of \(G\) itself. But if \(H\) is a subgroup of a group \(G\), if we only study \(H\) we lose all the information about \(G\)'s structure “outside” of \(H\). We might hope that \(G−H\) (that is, the set of elements of \(G\) that are not in \(H\)) is also a subgroup of \(G\), but we immediately see that cannot be the case since the identity element of \(G\) must be in \(H\), and \(H∩(G−H)=∅\). Instead, let's ask how we can get at some understanding of \(G\)'s entire structure using a subgroup \(H\)? It turns out we use what are called cosets of \(H\); but before we get to those, we need to cover some preliminary material.
-
- 7.1: Partitions of and Equivalence Relations on Sets
- The number of partitions of a finite set of n elements gets large very quickly as n goes to infinity. Indeed, there are 52 partitions of a set containing just 5 elements! (The total number of partitions of an n-element set is the Bell number. There is no trivial way of computing Bell number, in general, though the Bell number do satisfy the relatively simple recurrence relation.


20.2: The Greenhouse Effect
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- University of California, Davis
The process by which the atmosphere absorbs the sun’s energy and prevents it from being radiated back out to space has often been compared to that of a greenhouse, leading to the nickname the greenhouse effect . It is the same process that occurs when you leave your car sitting in the sun with the windows rolled up. The sun’s rays are powerful enough to pass through the glass of the windows (or through the Earth’s atmosphere) and be absorbed by the dashboard and seats (or the Earth’s surface); however, when these surfaces emit energy, it is not powerful enough to pass back out through the window glass (or atmosphere) and in so doing becomes trapped within the car (or atmosphere) causing it to warm. There are certain atmospheric gases, termed greenhouses gases (or GHGs) that behave like the car windows, increasing the amount of energy retained in the atmosphere, and increasing the amount of warming that occurs. In Figure 3.1.1 the greenhouse effect is represented by the curved arrow showing 95% of the energy emitted by the Earth’s surface that is reabsorbed, and the amount of GHGs in the atmosphere drive the size of this arrow.
The primary GHGs considered in this section are carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 3 ), and nitrous oxide (N 2 O). Scientists at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) have been tracking concentrations of these and other GHGs in the atmosphere for decades (Fig 3.2.1) and have found that all three continue to steadily increase.
These increases are particularly pronounced when compared to past GHG concentrations. Scientists can measure past atmospheric composition in ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica. As the ice sheets formed, small bubbles of air were trapped in the ice, and coring deep into the ice sheet (Fig 3.2.2a) allows scientists to reconstruct atmospheric composition from direct measurements as far back as 800,000 years (Fig 3.2.2b). From these measurements, we can see that atmospheric CO 2 levels (and temperature, as estimated from oxygen isotope composition of the ice itself) have fluctuated significantly throughout the past. The ice sheets document a clear pattern of periodic increases and decreases in CO 2 , which are coupled with increases and decreases in temperature. Periods of low CO 2 and low temperatures are glacial periods (also referred to as ‘ice ages’), and periods of high CO 2 and high temperature are inter-glacial periods. For the past 800,000 years, Earth has oscillated between glacial and inter-glacial periods roughly every 100,000 years. The maximum level that CO 2 concentrations reached in the last 800,000 years was approximately 300 parts per million (ppm). Global CO 2 levels are now over 400 ppm, a level that scientists estimate has not occurred on Earth since the Pliocene Epoch, approximately 3 million years ago.
This increase in CO 2 (as well as other GHGs) increases the amount of solar energy that is retained in the atmosphere as opposed to radiated back out to space, which increases the temperature of the Earth’s surface. Figure 3.2.3 shows the temperature anomaly for the decade 2014-2018 as compared to the average from 1951-1980. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) reports that the global average temperature has increased approximately 1.4° Fahrenheit (0.8° C) since 1880, though that warming has not been evenly distributed across the Earth. As can be seen in Figure 3.2.3, the polar regions, particularly the Arctic, have warmed much more than other areas. This pattern is particularly concerning given the feedbacks that warming in polar regions may have on the melting of ice sheets and sea ice.
In 2018, the state of California released its Fourth Climate Change Assessment report, which outlines the impact that global climatic changes are having and will have on the state (Fig 3.2.4). Some regions, most notably southern California, have already experienced nearly 3°F increases in annual average temperatures since the beginning of the 20th century.


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6.7.1: 2023 National Notifiable Conditions (Historical)
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Anthrax
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Arboviral diseases, neuroinvasive and non-neuroinvasive
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Babesiosis
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Botulism
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Brucellosis
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Campylobacteriosis
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Cancer
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Candida auris, clinical
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Candida auris, screening
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Carbapenemase-Producing Organisms (CPO)
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Carbapenemase-Producing Organisms, clinical
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Carbapenemase-Producing Organisms, screening
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Carbon monoxide poisoning
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Chancroid
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Chlamydia trachomatis infection
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Cholera
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Coccidioidomycosis
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Congenital syphilis
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Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
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Cryptosporidiosis
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Cyclosporiasis
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Dengue virus infections
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Diphtheria
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Ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis
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Foodborne Disease Outbreak
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Giardiasis
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Gonorrhea
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Haemophilus influenzae, invasive disease
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Hansen's disease
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<IP_ADDRESS>: What is Evolution?
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Learning Objectives
- Describe the historical influences on Darwin’s theory of evolution
Introduction: Evolution
All species of living organisms, including bacteria and chimpanzees, evolved at some point from a different species. Although it may seem that living things today stay the same, this is not the case: evolution is a gradual and ongoing process.
The theory of evolution is the unifying theory of biology, meaning it is the framework within which biologists ask questions about the living world. The Ukrainian-born American geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky famously wrote that “nothing makes sense in biology except in the light of evolution.” The tenet that all species have evolved and diversified from a common ancestor is the foundation from which we approach all questions in biology. It provides a direction for predictions about living things, which has been validated through extensive scientific experimentation.
Evolution by natural selection describes a mechanism for the change of species over time. Well before Darwin began to explore the concept of evolution, the idea that species change over time had already been suggested and debated. The view that species are static and unchanging was grounded in the writings of Plato, yet there were also ancient Greeks who expressed ideas about evolution. During the eighteenth century, ideas about the evolution of animals were reintroduced by the naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc Comte de Buffon who observed that various geographic regions have different plant and animal populations, even when the environments are similar. It was also accepted that there are extinct species.
During this time, a Scottish naturalist named James Hutton proposed that geological change occurs gradually by the accumulation of small changes over long periods of time. This theory contrasted with the predominant view of the time: that the geology of the planet is a consequence of catastrophic events that occurred during a relatively brief past. During the nineteenth century, Hutton’s views were popularized by the geologist Charles Lyell, who was a friend of Charles Darwin. Lyell’s ideas, in turn, influenced Darwin’s concept of evolution. The greater age of the earth proposed by Lyell supported the gradual evolution that Darwin proposed, and the slow process of geological change provided an analogy for the gradual change in species.
In the early nineteenth century, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a book that detailed a different mechanism for evolutionary change. This mechanism is now referred to as an inheritance of acquired characteristics. This idea states that modifications in an individual are caused by its environment, or the use or disuse of a structure during its lifetime, and that these changes can be inherited by its offspring, bringing about change in a species. While this mechanism for evolutionary change was discredited, Lamarck’s ideas were an important influence on the concept of evolution.
Key Points
- Ancient Greeks expressed ideas about evolution, which were reintroduced in the eighteenth century by Georges-Louis Leclerc Comte de Buffon who observed different environments had different plant and animal populations.
- James Hutton proposed that geological changes occur gradually over time via the accumulation of small changes rather than through large catastrophic events.
- Charles Lyell popularized James Hutton’s theory; this theory of incremental change influenced Darwin’s theory of evolution.
- Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed the theory of the inheritance of acquired characterstics; this theory has now been discredited, but it served as an important influence on the theory of evolution.
Key Terms
- evolution : the change in the genetic composition of a population over successive generations
- inheritance of acquired characteristics : hypothesis that physiological changes acquired over the life of an organism may be transmitted to its offspring