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What’s on This Page
- Auto Insurance
- Homeowners and Renters Insurance
- Flood Insurance
- Pet Insurance
Auto Insurance
Auto insurance protects you from paying the full cost for vehicle repairs and medical expenses due to a collision. A number of things affect the premiums you pay for this protection, including your:
- Gender
- Age
- Marital status
- Credit history
- Car’s make and model
- City and neighborhood
Types of Auto Insurance
Every state requires drivers to carry minimum levels of auto insurance coverage, or the equivalent in financial responsibility waivers. These requirements ensure that you can pay for property damages or medical expenses. There are several components that can make up your insurance policy:
- Liability coverage protects you if you are at fault for a collision. It pays for medical expenses and vehicle damage for the other driver and passengers.
- Uninsured motorist coverage pays for damages to your car and medical expenses if an uninsured driver hits your car.
- Collision coverage pays to repair your vehicle, if you were at fault for the collision.
- Underinsured motorist coverage pays damages for your car if someone hits it, but doesn’t have enough insurance to cover your medical expenses and car damages.
- Comprehensive coverage pays for damages to your car due to theft, fire, or falling objects.
Auto insurance requirements vary from state to state, but liability coverage is mandatory in most states. You may choose to opt out of certain types of coverage, depending on your budget and car’s age. Check with your state insurance regulator to learn more about its requirements and to research potential insurers.
Be sure to read the declarations page of your auto insurance policy. This summary includes your policy’s important details: the duration of coverage, annual premium, the maximum amount your insurance company will pay out for each type of claim, and how your premium payment is split between each part of your coverage.
Homeowners and Renters Insurance
Homeowners and renters insurance protect your home and personal property against damage or loss, and insures you in case someone gets hurt while on your property. You may already have insurance on your home if you have a mortgage on the property, because most lenders make insurance a condition of the loan.
Renters insurance, or tenant insurance, offers renters coverage similar to homeowners insurance. If you are a renter, do not assume your landlord carries insurance on your personal belongings; you may wish to purchase a separate policy.
What Can Homeowners or Renters Insurance Cover?
Homeowners or renters insurance may pay claims for:
- damage to your home, garage, and other outbuildings
- loss of furniture and other personal property due to damage or theft, both at home and away
- additional living expenses if you rent temporary quarters while your house is being repaired
Homeowners or renters insurance may also:
- include liability for bodily injury and property damage that you cause to others through negligence
- include liability for accidents happening in and around your home, as well as away from home, for which you are responsible
- pay for injuries occurring in and around your home to anyone other than you or your family
- provide limited coverage for money, gold, jewelry, and stamp and coin collections
- cover personal property in storage
In addition to general shopping for insurance tips, keep these points in mind when shopping for homeowners insurance:
- Insure your house, not the land under it. If you don’t subtract the value of the land when deciding how much homeowner’s insurance to buy, you will pay more than you should.
- Purchase enough coverage to replace what is insured. “Replacement Cost Coverage” gives you the money to rebuild your home and replace its contents. An “Actual Cash Value” policy is cheaper but pays the difference between your property’s worth at the time of loss minus the depreciation for age and wear.
- Ask about special coverage you might need. You may have to pay extra for computers, cameras, jewelry, art, antiques, musical instruments, stamp collections, etc.
- Flood and earthquake damage are not covered by a standard homeowners policy. The cost of a separate earthquake policy will depend on the likelihood of earthquakes in your area. Homeowners who live in areas prone to flooding should take advantage of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).
- If you are a renter, do not assume your landlord carries insurance on your personal belongings. Purchase a separate policy for renters.
For help in deciding how much insurance coverage to buy, contact your state insurance regulator .
Flood Insurance
Since standard homeowners insurance doesn’t cover flooding, it’s important to have protection against flood damage. If you live in an area prone to flooding, you should take advantage of the National Flood Insurance Program.
National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP)
Administered by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the NFIP offers flood insurance to homeowners, renters, and business owners if their community participates in the program. The program works closely with more than 80 private insurance companies.
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Homes and businesses with mortgages from federally regulated or insured lenders in high-risk flood areas are required to have flood insurance. While flood insurance is not federally required if you live in a moderate-to-low risk flood area, it is still available and strongly recommended.
- To find out if your home or business is in a community that participates in the NFIP, refer to the Community Status Book section on FEMA.gov.
- Flood insurance protects two types of insurable property: building and contents. The first covers your building; the latter covers your possessions; and neither covers the land they occupy. Flood insurance only covers damage that is a direct result of flooding.
- Rates are set nationally and do not differ from company to company or agent to agent. These rates depend on many factors, such as the 1) date and 2) type of construction of your home, and 3) your building’s level of risk.
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Flood insurance can only be purchased through an insurance agent; you cannot purchase it directly from the federal government. Typically, there’s a 30-day waiting period from the date of purchase before your policy goes into effect.
- If your local insurance agent is unfamiliar with the NFIP, you can find an agent serving your area.
File a Complaint
If you have a problem with an insurance company or agent regarding flood insurance, contact your state insurance regulator .
More Information
Complete the One-Step Flood Risk Profile to rate your risk of flooding, estimate your premiums, and find an agent.
Pet Insurance
Health insurance for pets may help you pay veterinary bills if your pet is injured, gets sick, or needs routine preventive care. Most plans cover dogs and cats, and some plans cover other types of animals.
What to Consider Before Buying Pet Health Insurance
- Shop and compare: Ask your vet to recommend some pet insurers. Be aware that policies and premiums vary widely. Compare monthly or annual costs, and the differences in deductibles, co-pays, and coverage limits. These may limit payouts by incident, annually, or your animal’s lifetime.
- Read policies carefully: Read the clauses on deductibles, co-pays, coverage limits, and exclusions before you buy a pet insurance policy. Insurance policies normally exclude pre-existing problems and hereditary conditions.
- Do the math: Add up the total costs of the policy for the anticipated life expectancy of your pet. Be aware that the age of your pet affects the premium. The older your pet is, the higher the premium you’ll pay.
Questions to Ask Insurers
As you consider possible insurance providers, it’s helpful to have standard questions you ask to each company, that make it easy to compare between policies. Some important questions to ask include:
- Can I choose my vet?
- Is there a waiting period?
- Do you cover routine wellness exams?
- Do you cover neutering or spaying?
- Does the plan include prescription drug coverage?
- Do you cover claims annually or by incident?
- If the coverage is by incident, is there a time limit?
- Is there a dollar limit for vet office fees?
- If my pet has a pre-existing or hereditary condition, will this plan cover it?
- Does this plan cover chronic or recurring conditions?
- How long do you take to pay claims?
- Does the plan cover the costs of vaccinations and required shots?
- Do you give discounts for insuring multiple pets?
- Does this plan cover advertising costs and rewards if my pet is lost or stolen?
- Does this plan make payouts if my pet dies during treatment?
For more information about pet insurance and to research regulations in your state, contact your state insurance regulator .
Contributors and Attributions
- Authored by : USA.gov. Located at : www.usa.gov/property-insurance. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


3.10: Arithmetic Sequences
- Identify arithmetic sequences.
- Find a given term in an arithmetic sequence.
- Find the th term of an arithmetic sequence.
- Find the sum of a finite arithmetic sequence.
- Use arithmetic sequences to solve real- world applications
As we saw in the previous section, we are adding about 2.5 quintillion bytes of data per day to the Internet. If there are 550 quintillion bytes of data today, then there will be 552.5 quintillion bytes tomorrow, and 555 quintillion bytes in 2 days. This is an example of an arithmetic sequence. There are many situations where this concept of fixed increases comes into play, such as raises or table arrangements.
Identifying Arithmetic Sequences
A sequence of numbers is just that, a list of numbers in order. It can be a short list, such as the number of points earned on each assignment in a class, such as {10, 10, 8, 9, 10, 6, 10}. Or it can be a longer list, even infinitely long, such as the list of prime numbers. For example, here’s a sequence of numbers, specifically, the squares of the first 12 natural numbers.
{1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144}
Each value in the sequence is called a term . Terms in the list are often referred to by their location in the sequence, as in the
The notation we use with sequences is a letter, which represents a term in the sequence, and a subscript, which indicates what place the term is in the sequence. For the sequence {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144}, we will use the letter
as a value in the sequence, and so
In this section, we focus on a special kind of sequence, one referred to as an arithmetic sequence . Arithmetic sequences have terms that increase by a fixed number or decrease by a fixed number, called the constant difference (denoted by ), provided that value is not 0. This means the next term is always the previous term plus or minus a specified, constant value. Another way to say this is that the difference between any consecutive terms of the sequence is always the same value.
To see a constant difference, look at the following sequence: {7, 15, 23, 31, 39, 47, 55, 63, 71, 79, 87}. Figure 3.49 illustrates that each term of the sequence is the previous term plus 8. Eight is the constant difference here.
Determine if the following sequences are arithmetic sequences. Explain your reasoning.
- Answer
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- In the sequence , every term is the previous term plus 3. The ellipsis indicates that the pattern continues, which means keep adding 3 to the previous term to get the new term. Therefore, this is an infinite arithmetic sequence.
- In the sequence , terms increase by various amounts, for instance from term 1 to term 2, the sequence increases by 20, but from term 2 to term 3 the sequence increases by 40. So, this is not an arithmetic sequence.
- In the sequence , every term is the previous term minus 6, so this is an arithmetic sequence.
Determine if the following sequences are arithmetic sequences. Explain your reasoning.
\(\left\{ {7.6,5.4,3.2,1.0, - 1.2, - 3.4, - 5.6, - 7.8, - 10.0} \right\}\)
\(\left\{ {14,16,18,22,28,40,32,0} \right\}\)
\(\left\{ {14,20,26,32,38,44,50,56,62,68,74,80,...} \right\}\)
Arithmetic sequences can be expressed with a formula. When we know the first term of an arithmetic sequence, which we label
If we have an arithmetic sequence with first term
Let’s examine the formula with this arithmetic sequence:
. In this sequence
| , Place in Sequence |
|
Value of Term | Term Written as |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |
|
4 | |
| 2 |
|
7 | |
| 3 |
|
10 | |
| 4 |
|
13 | |
| 5 |
|
16 | |
|
|
We can see how the
Identify
- Answer
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Inspecting the sequence shows that
18 a 1 and= 18 13 d . We use those values in the formula, with= 13 60 i .= 60 a 60 = a 1 + d × ( i − 1 ) = 18 + 13 × ( 60 − 1 ) = 18 + 13 × 59 = 18 + 767 = 785 a 60 = a 1 + d × ( i − 1 ) = 18 + 13 × ( 60 − 1 ) = 18 + 13 × 59 = 18 + 767 = 785
Identify \({a_1}\) and \(d\) for the following arithmetic sequence. Use this information to determine the \(86\text{th}\) term.
\(\left\{ {4.5,8.1,11.7,15.3,18.9,22.5,26.1,...} \right\}\)
Arithmetic Sequences
If we know two terms of the sequence, it is possible to determine the general form of an arithmetic sequence, .
If we have the
th term of an arithmetic sequence,
A sequence is known to be arithmetic. Two of its terms are
- Answer
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To find the constant difference, use
a i j − i . The location of the terms is given by the subscript of the two terms, andd = a j − a i j − i 19 j . So, the constant difference can be calculated as such:= 19 The constant difference of 4 is then used to find
a 1 .a 1 32 a 1 .= a i − d ( i − 1 ) = a 7 − 4 ( 7 − 1 ) = 56 − 4 × 6 = 32 So and
32 a 1 .= 32 With this information, the
50 th term can be found.50 th a 50 = a 1 + d × ( i − 1 ) = 32 + 4 × ( 50 − 1 ) = 32 + 4 × 49 = 32 + 196 = 228 a 50 .= a 1 + d × ( i − 1 ) = 32 + 4 × ( 50 − 1 ) = 32 + 4 × 49 = 32 + 196 = 228 The
50 th term is50 th a 50 = 228 a 50 .= 228
A sequence is known to be arithmetic. Two of the terms are \({a_{14}} = 41\) and \({a_{38}} = 161\). Use that information to find the constant difference and the first term. Then determine the \({151\text{st}}\) term of the sequence.
Finding the First Term and Constant Difference for an Arithmetic Sequence
Finding the Sum of a Finite Arithmetic Sequence
Sometimes we want to determine the sum of the numbers of a finite arithmetic sequence. The formula for this is fairly straightforward.
The sum of the first
terms of a finite arithmetic sequence, written
What is the sum of the first 60 terms of an arithmetic sequence with and ?
- Answer
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The formula requires the first and last terms of the sequence. The first term is given, . The
60 th term is needed. Using the formula provides the value for the60 th 60 th term.60 th a 60 = 4.5 + 2.5 ( 60 − 1 ) = 4.5 + 2.5 × 59 = 4.5 + 147.5 = 152 a 60 .= 4.5 + 2.5 ( 60 − 1 ) = 4.5 + 2.5 × 59 = 4.5 + 147.5 = 152 Applying the formula
a n 2 ) provides the sum of the first 60 terms.s n = n ( a 1 + a n 2 ) s 60 = 60 ( 4.5 + 152 2 ) = 60 × 156.5 2 = 4, 695 s 60 .= 60 ( 4.5 + 152 2 ) = 60 × 156.5 2 = 4,695 The sum of the first 60 terms is 4,695.
What is the sum of the first 101 terms of an arithmetic sequence with \({a_1} = 13\) and \(d = 2.25\)?
Finding the Sum of a Finite Arithmetic Sequence
Using Arithmetic Sequences to Solve Real-World Applications
Applications of arithmetic sequences occur any time some quantity increases by a fixed amount at each step. For instance, suppose someone practices chess each week and increases the amount of time they study each week. The first week the person practices for 3 hours, and vows to practice 30 more minutes each week. Since the amount of time practicing increases by a fixed number each week, this would qualify as an arithmetic sequence.
Jordan has just watched The Queen’s Gambit and decided to hone their skills in chess. To really improve at the game, Jordan decides to practice for 3 hours the first week, and increase their time spent practicing by 30 minutes each week. How many hours will Jordan practice chess in week 20?
- Answer
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Jordan’s practice scheme is an arithmetic sequence, as it increases by a fixed amount each week. The first week there are 3 hours of practice. This means
3 a 1 . Jordan increases the time spent practicing by 30 minutes, or half an hour, each week. This means . Using those values, and that we want to know the amount of time Jordan will study in week 20, we determine the time in week 20 using .= 3 So, Jordan will practice 12.5 hours in week 20.
Christina decides to save money for after graduation. Christina starts by setting aside $10. Each week, Christina increases the amount she saves by $5. How much money will Christina save in week 52?
Let’s check back in on Jordan. Recall, Jordan had just watched The Queen’s Gambit and decided to hone their skills, practicing for 3 hours the first week, and increasing the time spent practicing by 30 minutes each week. How many hours total will Jordan have practiced chess after 30 weeks of practice?
- Answer
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To calculate the total amount of time that Jordan practiced, we need to use
a n 2 ) . The formula requires the first and last terms of the sequence. Since Jordan practiced 3 hours in the first week, the first term iss n = n ( a 1 + a n 2 ) 3 a 1 . Because we want the total practice time after 30 weeks, we need the= 3 30 th term. Because the constant difference is , the30 th 30 th term is30 th a 30 = 3 + 0.5 ( 30 − 1 ) = 3 + 0.5 × 29 = 3 + 14.5 = 17.5 .a 30 = 3 + 0.5 ( 30 − 1 ) = 3 + 0.5 × 29 = 3 + 14.5 = 17.5 Applying the formula
a n 2 ) provides the sum of the first 30 terms.s n = n ( a 1 + a n 2 ) s 30 = 30 ( 3 + 17.5 2 ) = 60 × 20.5 2 = 615 s 30 .= 30 ( 3 + 17.5 2 ) = 60 × 20.5 2 = 615 This means that Jordan practiced a total of 615 hours after 30 weeks.
In a theater, the first row has 24 seats. Each row after that has 2 more seats. How many total seats are there if there are 40 rows of seat in the theater?
Not all sequences are arithmetic. One special sequence is the Fibonacci sequence , which is the sequence that has as its first two terms 1 and 1. Every term thereafter is the sum of the previous two terms. The first nine terms of the Fibonacci sequence are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and 34.
This sequence is found in nature, architecture, and even music! In nature, the Fibonacci sequence describes the spirals of sunflower seeds, certain galaxy spirals, and flower petals. In music, the band Tool used the Fibonacci sequence in the song “Lateralus.” The Fibonacci sequence even relates to architecture, as it is closely related to the golden ratio.
Fibonacci Sequence and “Lateralus”
Check Your Understanding
1. Is the following an arithmetic sequence? Explain.
{3, 6, 9, 15, 25, 39, 90}
2. What is the 7th term of the following sequence?
{1, 5, 7, 100, 4, -17, 8, 100, 19, 7.6, 345}
3. In an arithmetic sequence, the first term is 10 and the constant difference is 4.5. What is the 135th term?
4. If the eighth term of an arithmetic sequence is 35 and the 40th term is 131, what is the constant difference and the first term of the sequence?
5. What is the sum of the first 100 terms of the arithmetic sequence with first term 4 and constant difference 7?
6. A new marketing firm began with 30 people in its survey group. The firm adds 4 people per day. How many people will be in their survey group after 100 days?


20.1E: Antimicrobial Proteins
Antimicrobial peptides are an evolutionarily-conserved component of the innate immune response found among all classes of life.
- Describe the role of antimicrobial peptides in the innate immune system
Key Points
- Antimicrobial peptides include a net positive charge and hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends, which allow them to adhere to the lipid membranes of bacterial cell membranes.
- The positive charge makes antimicrobial peptides selective, so they only adhere to negatively-charged bacterial cell membranes instead of host cell membranes.
- The modes of action by which antimicrobial peptides kill bacteria are varied and include disrupting membranes, interfering with metabolism, and targeting cytoplasmic components.
- Many bacteria have developed antimicrobial resistance, in which a component of their cell membranes or enzyme secretions is altered to prevent the peptides from binding to the bacteria, or by inhibiting the peptides directly.
Key Terms
- antimicrobial resistance : Any mechanism that enables bacteria to evade or inhibit antimicrobial action.
- peptide : A class of organic compounds consisting of various numbers of amino acids in which the amine of one is reacted with the carboxylic acid of the next to form anamide bond.
- amphipathic : A molecule with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups that allow it to adhere to lipid structures more easily.
Antimicrobial peptides (also called host defense peptides) are an evolutionarily-conserved component of the innate immune response found among all known species. These peptides are found in many of the mucus membranes across the human body and are therefore considered to be part of the barrier immune system. The function of these peptides is to kill microbial pathogens and prevent them from entering the body.
Structure
Antimicrobial peptides are a unique and diverse group of molecules. As peptides, they consist of chains of amino acids that determine their composition and structure. These peptides have a stronger positive than negative charge, which is an important component of their selectivity. They also include hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups that enable them to latch onto other molecules (often lipids) through intermolecular forces, such as the lipid bilayer that forms cell membranes.
The secondary structures of these molecules follow four themes, including i) α-helical, ii) β-stranded due to the presence of two or more disulfide bonds, iii) β-hairpin or loop due to the presence of a single disulfide bond and/or cyclization of the peptide chain, and iv) extended. Many of these peptides are unstructured and inactive in free solution, and fold into their final configuration upon reaching mucus membranes. The amphipathicity (hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends) and positive charge of peptides are their defining structural features.
Antimicrobial Action
The modes of action by which antimicrobial peptides kill bacteria are varied and include disrupting cell membranes, interfering with metabolism, and damaging organelles. The initial contact between the peptide and target organism is electrostatic due to the force of negative and positive ionic charge. The amino acid composition, amphipathicity, cationic charge, and size allow them to attach to and insert into membrane bilayers to form pores by barrel-stave, carpet, or toroidal-pore mechanisms.
The peptides are selective and thus more likely to adhere to bacterial cell membranes than to cell membranes of the host cells. The peptides have a greater positive charge than negative charge, while bacterial cell membranes have a greater negative charge than host cell membranes. This causes the peptide to bind to bacterial membranes instead of host cell membranes.
Mechanism of Selectivity of Antimicrobial Peptides : Cell membranes of bacteria are different from the cell membranes of plants and animals and are preferentially targeted by the antimicrobial proteins.
Modes of Action by Antimicrobial Peptides : Antimicrobial peptides multiple various modes of action.
Other antimicrobial mechanisms include intracellular binding models. These involve inhibition of cell wall synthesis, alteration of the cytoplasmic membrane, activation of autolysin, inhibition of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis, and inhibition of certain bacterial enzymes. However, in many cases, the exact killing mechanism is unknown. In general, the antimicrobial activity of these peptides is determined by measuring the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC), the lowest concentration of drug that inhibits bacterial growth and an indicator of the antimicrobial strength of that peptide.
Antimicrobial Resistance
Despite the efficiency of antimicrobial peptides to inhibit and kill bacteria, they are still able to get inside the body and cause infections. Bacteria can develop resistance to antimicrobial peptides (as well as separate resistances to antibiotics and other antimicriobials). Bacteria like staphylococcus aureas , which forms the highly resistant MRSA strain, can reduce the negativity of the charge of its cell membrane by bringing amino acids from the cytoplasm into its cell membrane so antimicrobial peptides won’t bind to it. Other forms of antimicrobial resistance include producing enzymes that inhibit the antimicrobial peptides, altering the hydrophobic forces on the cell membrane, and capturing antimicrobial peptides in vesicles on the cell membrane to remove them from the bacterium.
Additionally, commensal bacteria have developed antimicrobial resistance to peptides, but they are normal flora of the body. Most never act as pathogens, though some may be opportunistic pathogens or only act as pathogens in people with certain genetic characteristics.


15.4: Barriers and Opportunities for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- Describe barriers that negatively impact health outcomes.
- Examine factors that influence participation in health promotion activities.
- Recognize opportunities for health promotion and disease prevention across health care settings.
- Explain how systems can serve as barriers to effective disease prevention and health promotion.
Many factors influence the health of individuals and communities. A barrier is a circumstance or obstacle that keeps people from progressing toward achieving a positive health outcome. Barriers to health promotion and disease prevention exist at various levels, including the individual level, family level, system level, and community or population level. The health care setting may even present barriers. On the other hand, communities provide many opportunities for health promotion and disease prevention, particularly within health care. Nurses who understand barriers can capitalize on available opportunities.
Barriers to Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
Nurses should be aware of barriers, including barriers to economic stability and those that block access to high-quality education and health care, so they can plan to overcome them for clients or populations. Other barriers relate to neighborhood and built environment and to social and community contexts. These barriers can also contribute to health disparities , as described in Health Disparities. As discussed, the SDOH are barriers that can prevent an individual from obtaining the resources they need to achieve better health outcomes and improved quality of life (Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society, 2020; see Social Determinants Affecting Health Outcomes.) Table 15.9 provides individual and system-level examples of barriers to health promotion and disease prevention that may occur within each area of the SDOH.
| Social Determinants of Health (SDOH) | Example of an Individual-Level Barrier | Example of a System-Level Barrier |
|---|---|---|
| Economic Stability | A client’s primary provider instructs them to follow a low-sodium diet. The client will not receive a paycheck until Friday and only has $30 for the next 2 days. Rather than choose a salad from the grocery, the client chooses a fast-food meal to make the money they have last longer. | A client who has recently experienced respiratory difficulties lives in a rental apartment in a community with little stable housing. A neighbor reported mold in the building due to frequent water leaks. The client’s primary provider is concerned that the apartment may be contributing to the client’s respiratory condition. The client can barely afford the apartment and cannot afford to move. |
| Education Access and Quality | An individual with limited English proficiency has chest pain. Because they are not sure they can describe their symptoms, they choose to rest at home rather than seek health care. | A child is enrolled in a low-quality school with limited health resources, multiple safety concerns, and low teacher support. The child is diagnosed with type 1 diabetes and requires insulin injections twice during the school day. There is no school nurse. |
| Health Care Access and Quality | A client who does not drive lives in a rural area. She has arranged for her grandchild to drive her to an appointment for a mammogram 2 hours away, but the grandchild’s vehicle is unreliable and is not drivable on the day of the appointment. | An urban clinic has experienced a shortage of providers following the COVID-19 pandemic. This has resulted in clients experiencing longer wait times and delayed care. |
| Neighborhood and Built Environment | A client is diagnosed with obesity and instructed by their primary provider to walk 30 minutes daily. The client lives in an urban area with a high crime rate. The only available walking locations are the city streets and a dimly lit park known for drug dealing and use. The client works 12-hour daytime shifts, so the only time they can walk is after dark. | An older adult client relies on a neighbor to perform weekly grocery shopping. The neighbor does not have a car and walks to the closest nearby store, approximately 1 mile away. The store has no fresh produce and is not a chain supermarket. A convenience store within a gas station is the only other store within walking distance. The client would like fresh fruits and vegetables, but these are unavailable. |
| Social and Community Context | A transgender teenager is bullied and experiences depression. They experience social rejection and isolation, decreased social support, and verbal abuse daily. | A family of color lives in a neighborhood that has historically been ignored for social improvements. The family’s children were all considered small-for-gestational-age births. |
The experience of structural racism results in chronic discrimination , stress , and depression , which has a further negative impact on the ability of those within historically marginalized populations and can create a further barrier to health promotion and disease prevention (Churchwell et al., 2020). One particular form of a barrier to health outcomes has already been discussed in Structural Racism and Systemic Inequities. The COVID-19 pandemic illustrated this point:
- Black, Hispanic, and Latino people; American Indians/Alaska Natives; and Pacific Islanders had a higher COVID-19 morbidity and mortality rate than White people.
- Counties that had over 45 percent of residents belonging to a historically oppressed group recorded higher rates of COVID-19 infection and mortality compared to counties with mostly White residents regardless of the county’s poverty level.
- During the pandemic, there was a rise in anxiety and depression. Studies show that Hispanic and Latino adults (22 percent) and Black adults (18 percent) experienced a higher rate of substance use initiation or increase than White adults (11 percent) during this time (Churchwell et al., 2020).
As individuals and populations encounter these many barriers to health promotion and disease prevention, health outcomes begin to decline. Overcoming these barriers is the only way to successfully achieve positive health outcomes, as an individual or a population.
Barriers to Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Within a Health Care Delivery System
The structure of health care delivery systems is made up of internal and external factors that can influence health promotion and disease prevention, therefore impacting health outcomes. Internal factors include everything within the environment in which health care services are provided as well as the resources required for providing those services. These include, but are not limited to, leadership styles, organizational culture, policies and procedures, and information sharing. External factors include government’s role in health care, community expectations and influences, ownership of the health care system, and the extent of services the system provides.
A nurse serving in a role related to health promotion and disease prevention may encounter internal or external barriers from the health care system. The system may lack financial or political support for health promotion implementation. There may be a lack of time for effective health promotion and disease prevention activities, particularly in competition with the day-to-day demands. Poor communication may exist between the various entities within and outside the health care system. Finally, others within the system may lack interest in health promotion and disease prevention (Rogers et al., 2021).
Read the scenario, and then answer the questions that follow based on all the case information provided in the chapter thus far. This case study is a follow-up to Case Study Part A.
During Deanna’s appointment, a nurse working in the primary care provider’s office is teaching Deanna about lifestyle modifications to lower her high blood pressure level, such as a low-sodium diet and regular exercise. As the nurse is discussing lifestyle changes with Deanna and answering her questions, the office manager calls the nurse out of the room and asks why they are spending longer than the allotted 15 minutes with the client. The nurse explains that Deanna has many questions about the recommended dietary changes. The manager indicates that the client should be dismissed and instruction can be continued at her follow-up appointment in 2 months.
3. Which of the following is likely correct regarding the office manager?
- They are fostering a culture that values teamwork and collaboration with other departments.
- They are providing equity in time to all clients to decrease the potential for health disparities.
- They do not perceive health promotion and disease prevention as a valuable part of health care.
- They do not have a focus on managing client demand as it relates to the health care system.
4. Which level of prevention is the nurse using when providing dietary instruction to Deanna?
- Primordial prevention
- Primary prevention
- Secondary prevention
- Tertiary prevention
Factors That Influence Participation in Health Promotion Activities
How individuals and populations define health and health problems, and their perception of health’s importance, influence any attempts to improve their health through health promotion activities. Three factors either support or form barriers to participation in health promotion activities:
- A predisposing factor includes any characteristics of the individual or population that affect personal motivation to bring a change in behavior, including their knowledge, beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms. An example of a predisposing factor leading to a positive health outcome would be the belief that smoking is harmful to health.
- Reinforcing factors occur in the form of positive or negative feedback, such as rewards or punishments, and the influence of a peer, teacher, family, or other person or group perceived as important (Figure 15.2). Continued receipt of feedback can motivate repetition of behavior. Using the smoking example, a reinforcing factor leading to a negative health outcome would be peer pressure to smoke.
- Enabling factors are social and environmental factors that facilitate or motivate attainment of specific behaviors, such as ease of access, availability, health-related laws, resources, and skills. An example of an enabling factor that leads to a negative health outcome would be the easy availability of cigarettes when other members of the family smoke. Table 15.10 provides additional descriptions and examples of these factors.
| Factors | Description | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Predisposing factors | Intellectual and emotional “givens” that tend to make individuals or populations more or less likely to adopt a healthy or risky behavior or lifestyle or to approve of or accept particular environmental conditions | Knowledge | A person is more likely to avoid using smokeless tobacco if they know it can lead to cancer. |
| Attitudes | People who have participated in athletics as youths tend to see regular exercise as a normal part of life. | ||
| Beliefs |
A client may believe that if a food’s label says “low fat,” it is healthy to eat
or that premarital sex is a sin, so teenagers should not be provided with condoms. |
||
| Values | A person who values cleanliness is more likely to follow hand hygiene guidelines. | ||
| Confidence | A client may not attempt to follow a weight loss regimen simply because they do not feel they are capable of doing so. | ||
| Enabling factors | Internal and external conditions directly related to the issue that help individuals or populations adopt and maintain healthy or unhealthy behaviors or lifestyles, or to embrace or reject particular environmental conditions | Availability of Resources | A person who abuses drugs is more likely to get help if recovery assistance is readily available to them. |
| Accessibility of Services | If a specialist has a waiting list over a year long and is located 10 hours away, a client is less likely to agree to their care. | ||
| Community and/or Government Laws/Policies | A person is less likely to drink alcohol if they live in a community that does not sell or serve alcoholic beverages. | ||
| Issue-Related Skills | A person who is very organized and manages their time well will be more likely to stick to a prescribed health regimen. | ||
| Reinforcing factors | The people and community attitudes that support or make difficult adopting healthy behaviors or fostering healthy environmental conditions | Largely the attitudes of influential people or groups | A child from a family who supported the use of masks during the COVID-19 pandemic was more likely to wear a mask in public. |
Educational interventions can influence some of these factors, while some are not as easily influenced. In the case of reinforcing factors, it may be useful to aim interventions at these influential people and groups to effectively impact an actual target individual or group (The University of Kansas, 2023).
When providing educational interventions, the nurse must also consider the health literacy of individuals. Health literacy involves each person’s ability to find, understand, and use health information and services (HHS, 2021). Health literacy will be discussed in more detail in Assessment, Analysis, and Diagnosis.
Opportunities for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Across Health Care Settings
The Ottawa Charter first introduced the term health promotion setting , a place or social context where daily activities and various factors interact to influence health and well-being. Health promotion settings are actively used and shaped to address health-related issues rather than used solely for delivering specific services or programs. Typically, settings have physical boundaries, defined roles for people, and an organizational structure (WHO, 2021b, p. 30). Health promotion settings exist in cities, hospitals, schools, universities and colleges, and workplaces (Kokko & Baybutt, 2022). These are described more in Table 15.11.
| Setting | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Health Promotion Cities | Global networks of cities that have come together to engage in health promotion and disease prevention |
South-East Asia Healthy Cities Network
The Partnership for Healthy Cities |
| Health Promotion Hospitals | First identified in the 1990s as a way to support hospitals that were beginning to put the Ottawa Charter into practice; now range from implementing one health promotion project, to assigning a specific role or department to health promotion, to playing a large part in promoting the health of the community | The Wellness Institute at Seven Oaks General Hospital in Canada |
| Health Promotion Schools | Established to enhance health through education and promotion for students, school staff, families, and the community | CDC’s Virtual Healthy School that uses the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model |
| Health Promotion Universities and Colleges | Guided by the 2015 Okanagan Charter, An International Charter for Health Promoting Universities and Colleges , which calls on institutes of higher education to embed health into all aspects of campus culture and to lead health promotion actions and collaboration locally and globally | The University of Alabama at Birmingham Health Promoting University |
| Health Promotion Workplaces | Provide programs and policies to reduce health risks and improve the quality of life for workers | CDC’s Workplace Health Promotion focused on hospital employees’ health |
Data on urban health inequities, or disparities in health outcomes among and within cities, has been extensively documented worldwide, spanning countries and regions, irrespective of their economic development and health care infrastructure. These disparities reflect the overarching disparities in the SDOH including economic conditions, education, the physical and built environment, and the quality and accessibility of health care. To promote health equity, nurses must tailor their health promotion and disease prevention efforts to the specific location and the population being served.
(See Freitas et al., 2020.)
Prisons, the digital environment (including social media), and more recently airports, places of worship, and specific coastal communities in the United Kingdom are other identified health promoting settings (Kokko & Baybutt, 2022). Global initiatives to address the health of those who work and live in prisons, particularly in the United Kingdom, have provided benefits from the development of a “whole-prison approach” to health promotion. This approach involves peer support for both workers and incarcerated people, behavior modification initiatives, disease prevention and screening, easily accessible information about health services and current health campaigns, and a focus on continuity of care (Woodall & Freeman, 2019). This approach has not been adopted in the United States. However, the CDC (2022) does offer recommendations and guidance for correctional settings, including information on infectious disease, COVID-19 management, traumatic brain injury, and other medical problems and conditions.
The WHO (2021a) issued its Global Strategy on Digital Health 2020–2025 , which provided guiding principles, strategic objectives, a framework for action, and implementation principles for the strategy and action plan related to using digital technologies to shape the future of global health. This strategy incorporates the use of a variety of technologies to create a continuum of care (WHO, 2021a, p. 8). The WHO (2023b) has also convened a panel of experts to address infodemic management and social listening. An infodemic is an overabundance of information, including misinformation, that surges during a health emergency. The WHO recognizes that during a health emergency, people seek, receive, process, and act on information differently than in other times, making it even more important to use evidence-based strategies to address health issues. Social listening is the process of gathering information about people’s questions and concerns and the circulating narratives and misinformation about health from online and offline data sources. This includes data from social media platforms. The WHO (2023b) hopes to provide an ethical framework and tools that can be used for social listening and infodemic management.
Watch this video to learn more about the misinformation that spread during the COVID-19 pandemic, and then respond to the following questions.
- What are some negative consequences of an infodemic?
- Do you see any positive aspects of an infodemic? Explain your answer.
- Name three ways you can protect yourself from an infodemic during a pandemic.
Over 400 airports of various sizes prioritized health and safety during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic by becoming accredited or participating in the Airports Council International (ACI, 2023) Airport Health Accreditation (AHA) program. These airports, including several in the United States, implemented airport industry best practices to ensure an airport-centric approach to health requirements. Moving forward, the program has moved to the Public Health and Safety Readiness (PHSR) accreditation, which considers a wider range of health emergencies that may lead to air travel concerns (ACI, 2023). A variety of research has also been performed investigating the benefits of health promotion in places of worship (Kwon et al., 2017; Tomalin et al., 2019; Woodard et al., 2020) and determined that faith-based organizations and places of worship can play a vital role in health promotion, particularly for Black, Asian, and minority ethnic communities.
Finally, a setting for health promotion can be even larger than a city. The United Kingdom House of Commons (2022) identified, through a 2021 Chief Medical Officer’s report, that English coastal communities have a higher disease burden across physical and mental health conditions as well as lower health outcomes including life expectancy, healthy life expectancy, and disability-free life expectancy. In particular, there are worrying trends in public-health-related outcomes for children and young people. As a result, the Royal College of Physicians and others are encouraging a national strategy to improve the health of these coastal communities.
No consensus exists on a single setting that is best for health promotion. Instead, there are a variety of settings around which individuals and groups live, grow, work, and age that are appropriate for health promotion and disease prevention activities. Settings can be as small as an office and as large as a country, but collaboration and coordination of all entities involved can lead to improvement of health outcomes.


8.1: Biblical Insight
Applying the Bible to Business
"Where there is no vision, the people perish.” Proverbs 29:18. This bible scripture shows the significance of having a vision. This is true for businesses as well. Vision and mission statements drive the direction, focus, and communication of any successful organization. Senior leaders use the vision and mission as a guide to the decision-making process when establishing an organization's strategic goals and objectives.
What vision do you have for your life? What can you see yourself doing with your business degree? Where do you want to live? Do you have a vision to have a family one day? It is important to take the time to ask God what He has planned for you in your work, family, and community.


1.2: Themes of Development
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the difference between continuous and discontinuous development
- Describe nature and nurture as sources for developmental change
- Explain the importance of the timing of opportunities for development
Maya, who is in her late forties, never understood the draw of social media. She put off creating a Facebook account until she found herself missing out on information about her niece’s school shared via Facebook groups. Now she finds herself reconnecting with old friends and acquaintances from high school and neighborhoods where she’s lived, almost like a virtual reunion. She is fascinated by how people have both changed and stayed the same. Maya’s college girlfriend, who swore that she never wanted children, is now a mother of four. But she held to her goal of joining—and eventually running—her family’s business. Maya’s timid high school classmate took a leap and now lives an adventurous life as a travel writer. But the writer part doesn’t surprise Maya at all. She always turned to this friend for support on school papers.
To a developmental psychologist, such a scenario is endlessly fascinating. People often have a natural inclination to wonder about how people from our past turned out. The field of lifespan development has established and advanced several themes and questions to focus this curiosity and exploration. These themes look at the form of, sources for, and timing of developmental experiences and achievements.
Continuous versus Discontinuous Development
The first theme that helps organize the way we think about the nature of development over time is the shape of developmental change (Figure 1.5). Theories about this developmental change are often called stage theories: a stage theory attempts to explain why we may observe brief periods of rapid development followed by longer stretches of stability . Stage theories give us an idea about the nature of change as well. Relatively abrupt change is likely to be more apparent and cause us to wonder about its source or mechanism.
When we observe a gradual day-by-day or week-over-week progression of change, we see continuous development . Many topics in the field of lifespan development show a continuous pattern of development. For example, vocabulary growth across the toddler and early childhood years shows a dramatic but smooth progression of growth in the number of words a child produces and comprehends (e.g., Pan et al., 2005).
However, early psychological theorists, such as Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson (whose work you’ll learn about throughout this course), noted that certain cognitive and personality characteristics seem to develop in intermittent fits and spurts—or stages. For a period of time, the developing individual has one set of capabilities, such as a toddler who communicates in two-word utterances, and then, rather abruptly, a reorganization takes place, and the individual is transformed. Seemingly overnight, that toddler begins speaking in complete sentences. This is discontinuous development —a change in developmental kind, form, or degree that does not directly follow from what came before. Some developmental progressions may appear to be discontinuous, such as the sudden changes of puberty. However, when researchers consider the biological changes that prepare a body for the growth spurts of puberty, such as hormone changes, we begin to see that continuous development patterns are also present.
Whether a characteristic appears to follow a continuous or a discontinuous pattern, an underlying assumption in developmental psychology is the idea that development is progressive and proceeds from basic forms of a characteristic in early life to more advanced forms later. That is, development moves forward. From this perspective, moving backward to an early stage or lower capability, a process termed regression , is a sign that something may be wrong. In order to promote early child development, major organizations like the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have made it a priority to educate caregivers about the importance of psychosocial development (Lucas et al. 2018). For example, poor nutrition can lead to delayed physical growth and poorer long-term health. However, interventions that provide nutrition supplementation in early childhood can help children catch up on physical growth and improve health outcomes (Lucas et al., 2018).
Sources of Developmental Change
We now turn to the theme for which developmental psychology is best known: the relationship between nature and nurture . You may also hear this referred to as the nature versus nurture debate (Angoff, 1988). Suppose we observe a developmental change (such as a growth spurt in height) or a state of stability in an individual (such as having a consistent outgoing personality), and their genetic blueprint appears to be the reason for it. In that case, we argue that nature or biological forces are directing the changes or working to keep the characteristics consistent. On the other hand, if the impetus for change seems to come from outside the individual, whether it be a physical or a social aspect of the environment (such as engaging in a new hobby or growing up in a certain family dynamic), then we argue that nurture (the environment) is the reason.
For most physical and psychological characteristics, the source for developmental change or stability is rarely nature or nurture alone. Instead, developmental psychologists focus on the complex and fascinating ways that nature and nurture combine and work together to direct change and stability across the lifespan (Figure 1.6).
Heritability
Until a few decades ago, the field of psychology often explored the question of what caused developmental change by asking whether it was nature or nurture. Due to advances in the discipline’s methodologies, findings, and theories, we now think in terms of nature and nurture, recognizing that most development has both genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) influences. In fact, nearly every psychological characteristic is composed of a combination of biological genetic components and environmental influences. The amount of influence from genetics and environment varies depending on the characteristic. Today, psychologists work to discover exactly how much each source contributes. The extent to which the genetic component explains difference is called a heritability estimate . A good example of how nature and nurture both contribute is the timing of the onset of puberty. It is determined via the combined influence of nature and nurture, given that both biological determinants (nature) like genes, and environmental elements (nurture) like nutrition, can trigger its emergence.
Closely related to our thinking about the relative contributions of nature and nurture is the concept of reaction range (Figure 1.7). This is the idea that our genes likely set upper and lower levels for particular traits, behaviors, and abilities, as well as how sensitive these are to environmental forces. One example to consider is general intelligence (Sternberg, 2012). While scientists have yet to fully identify the specific genes responsible for intelligence, we know it’s not solely determined by genetics: environmental factors are of equal importance. However, it’s difficult to directly measure the impact of these environmental influences because researchers cannot ethically manipulate a child’s upbringing to observe the effects on their intelligence. Although the application of reaction range to intelligence remains largely theoretical, it serves as a useful way to conceptualize the complex interplay of genetics and environment in human development. It reminds us that both nature and nurture contribute to who we become.
Gene-Environment Correlations
Another way developmental psychologists try to discern the relative contributions of genetic and environmental influences is gene-environment correlation . Gene-environment correlation describes the complex interplay between our genes and the environments we experience (Price & Jaffee, 2008), and encompasses three main types: passive, evocative, and active.
- The passive type occurs when a child inherits genes from their parents that influence the environment in which they are raised. For example, parents who enjoy reading are more likely to read to their children regularly and have many books in the house.
- The evocative type explains how our genetically influenced behaviors can evoke reactions in others, shaping our environment in turn. For example, parents are more likely to take their child to the library if they notice the child enjoys reading.
- The active type refers to how our genetic tendencies guide us to select specific environments. For example, a child joins a book reading club at school because they have a passion for reading.
Studies of twins and adopted children have shown that our genes play a role in shaping the environments we experience, highlighting that what seems like environmental influence may actually be partly due to our genetic makeup.
Epigenetics
A breakthrough concept over the past few decades called epigenetics also explores the complexity of the nature and nurture question, as well as the level of sophistication in our current thinking about how best to answer it. The process of epigenetics explains how an individual’s behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way their genes work. (Smeeth et al., 2021). Biologists, neuroscientists, and psychologists alike now recognize that environmental influences can modify an individual’s genetic expression. There is evidence that stressful environments can trigger a chemical tagging of someone’s DNA. For example, trauma experienced in childhood (like growing up in a highly stressful home environment, violence-ridden neighborhood, or a war zone) could make someone sensitized to and highly reactive to signs of conflict later in life (Gladish et al., 2022; Ramo-Fernández et al., 2015). More specifically, the genes responsible for building the brain systems that regulate our stress level could be altered. The nature and nurture question is as fascinating to explore as it is complex to answer, and it underlies just about every topic of inquiry studied by lifespan psychologists.
Link to Learning
This TEDEd talk on epigenetics with Carlos Guerrero-Bosagna explains that beyond nature and nurture, we can learn a lot from research into how genes can be altered by environmental influences.
Windows of Opportunity for Development
In addition to studying what changes are expected and how they occur, developmental psychologists ask when we should expect certain skills to develop, and whether there are windows of opportunity for these that affect developmental outcomes. Is it possible to speed up development if we introduce an experience at just the right time? Is it possible to hinder or even prevent the development of a particular ability or characteristic altogether, such as speech? What are the impacts of highly enriching environments? What are the impacts of being deprived of certain experiences, such as human contact?
Scientists have learned that across nearly all psychological characteristics, humans are highly adaptable. They observe normative developmental outcomes, meaning those that are typical or expected, across a wide range of environmental conditions. Certainly, there are optimal environments for these developmental outcomes, but good outcomes occur even in suboptimal circumstances. This is central to resilience , an individual’s capacity for and “process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or even significant sources of stress” (American Psychological Association [APA], 2014). It takes extreme deprivation to severely restrict a developing human’s potential, as well as such deprivation occurring at specific developmental times. In other words, resilience is common and lifespan development principles can be applied to increase the likelihood of resilience.
A critical period is the developmental age range in which certain experiences are required for a psychological or physical ability to develop (Colombo et al., 2019). For example, it appears that exposure to human speech is necessary in the early years of life for typical language development . Consider the 1970s case of Genie , a child who was severely neglected and isolated to the point that she was rarely spoken to. Upon her rescue at age thirteen years, Genie faced the monumental task of learning a language (a primary task of infants and toddlers) with an adolescent (post-pubescent) brain (Jones, 1995). Genie became the subject of intense study and remediation efforts by doctors, speech pathologists, and psychologists (Fromkin et al., 1974). Despite her extreme early deprivation, she made many improvements in language comprehension and speech production. However, her development of language differed markedly from what is normative. For example, language production and comprehension happen in the left hemisphere of the brain for the vast majority of humans, but Genie showed processing of language in her right cerebral hemisphere.
Link to Learning
This concise video describes Genie’s case and includes archival footage about her story. Extensive attempts for rehabilitation and intense study by linguists, medical doctors, and psychologists added to the body of knowledge about language learning and the effects of long-term child neglect and maltreatment.
A sensitive period describes an age range during which the development of a characteristic is particularly amenable to inputs and influences from the environment (Colombo et al., 2019). For a critical period, certain experiences are necessary for normal development, whereas having certain experiences during a sensitive period makes an advantageous situation for ideal development (Pascalis, 2020). For example, a sports coach would want to know about normative periods for growth spurts in males and females, especially the typically wide variation around puberty. Not only could this awareness of timing help with training young athletes, but it could inform injury prevention practices. A faith-based youth leader working closely with a group of teenagers would want to understand that the adolescent period is a time of identity exploration and desire to fit in with peers, and plan activities accordingly. A social worker employed by an assisted living facility knows that residents might be concerned with life review and may develop a scrapbooking activity to support the process of reflection. Physical development, identity exploration, and reflections on past life can occur across the entire lifespan. What’s notable across these three examples is that each takes on more importance at a different stage in life, when the opportunities for impact on development are greatest. That is the concept of the sensitive period.
Variability and Diversity of Development
In this course, you’ll learn about numerous theories, topics, and research findings based on the developmental experiences of many thousands of people. It is sometimes easy to confuse or conflate the broad results of studies with individual life histories. Scientific ideas about development represent statistical averages for developmental outcomes across many individuals. But every individual is unique and has their own life history—one that may show varying degrees of similarity to and deviation from the findings presented as normative in this discipline.
For example, when you learn that two-word utterances typically appear around eighteen months, a reader might recall, “Well, my child did this when they were twelve months old.” The fact that this individual’s development doesn’t perfectly fit the finding doesn’t invalidate the overall research. What’s more important is the pattern or sequence from one-word utterances to two, and that this development occurs within a typical timeframe, the midpoint of thousands of examples with a range of variations on either side. So, while lifespan psychology attempts to uncover what is typical for all humans, psychologists recognize and allow for the inherent variability of a single individual’s development.
Variability in development can also occur on a cultural level. For example, research compared Dutch and Israeli parents and found cultural differences in how they promote their babies’ motor development (Oudgenoeg-Paz et al., 2020). Israeli parents encouraged more tummy time, believing it helps babies develop faster. Dutch parents were not as likely to encourage their infants spend time laying on their tummies. Interestingly, the Israeli babies who got more tummy time and stimulation from their parents showed better crawling skills than the Dutch babies. This study highlights that different cultures have different approaches to parenting, and these choices can influence how babies develop.
References
American Psychological Association. (2024). Resilience. https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience
Angoff, W. H. (1988). The nature-nurture debate, aptitudes, and group differences. American Psychologist, 43 (9), 713–720. doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.43.9.713
Colombo, J. Gustafson, K. M., & Carlson, S. E. (2019). Critical and sensitive periods in development and nutrition [Supplemental material]. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 75 (1), 34–42. doi.org/10.1159/000508053
Fromkin, V., Krashen, S., Curtiss, S., Rigler, D., & Rigler, M. (1974). The development of language in Genie: A case of language acquisition beyond the “critical period.” Brain and Language, 1 (1), 81–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(74)90027-3
Gladish, N., Merrill, S. M., & Kobor, M. S. (2022). Childhood trauma and epigenetics: State of the science and future. Current Environmental Health Reports, 9 (4), 661–672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-022-00381-5
Jaffe, A. E., Straub, R.E., Shin, J. H., Tao, R., Gao, Y., Collado-Torres, L., Kam-Thong, T., Xi, H. S., Quan, J., Chen, Q., Colantuoni, C., Ulrich, W. S., Maher, B. J., Deep-Soboslay, A., The BrainSeq Consortium, Cross, A. J., Brandon, N. J., Leek, J. T., Hyde, T. M., Kleinman, J. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (2018). Developmental and genetic regulation of the human cortex transcriptome illuminate schizophrenia pathogenesis. Nature Neuroscience, 21 , 1117–1125. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-018-0197-y
Jones, P.E., (1995). Contradictions and unanswered questions in the Genie case: A fresh look at the linguistic evidence. Language & Communication, 15 (3), 261–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/0271-5309(95)00007-D
Lucas, J. E., Richter, L. M., & Daelmans, B. (2018). Care for Child Development: an intervention in support of responsive caregiving and early child development. Child: Care, health and development, 44 (1), 41–49. doi.org/10.1111/cch.12544
Oudgenoeg-Paz, O., Atun-Einy, O., & van Schaik, S. D. M. (2020). Two cultural models on infant motor development: Middle class parents in Israel and the Netherlands. Frontiers in Psychology, 11 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00119
Pan, B. A., Rowe, M. L., Singer, J. D., & Snow, C. E. (2005). Maternal correlates of growth in toddler vocabulary production in low-income families. Child Development, 76 (4), 763–782. doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00498-i1
Pascalis, O., Fort, M., & Quinn, P. C. (2020). Development of face processing: Are there critical or sensitive periods? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 36 , 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.05.005
Price, T. S., & Jaffee, S. R. (2008). Effects of the family environment: gene-environment interaction and passive gene-environment correlation. Developmental Psychology, 44 (2), 305. doi.org/10.1037/0012-16<IP_ADDRESS>5
Ramo-Fernández, L., Schneider, A., Wilker, S., & Kolassa, I. T. (2015). Epigenetic alterations associated with war trauma and childhood maltreatment. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 33 (5), 701–721. doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2200
Smeeth, D., Beck, S., Karam, E. G., & Pluess, M. (2021). The role of epigenetics in psychological resilience. Lancet Psychiatry, 8 (7), 620–629. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30515-0
Sternberg, R. (2012). Intelligence. WIREs Cognitive Science, 3 (4), 501–511. doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1193


1.2E: Rates of Change (Exercises)
Section 1.2 Exercises
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The table below gives the annual sales (in millions of dollars) of a product each year from 1998 to 2006.
- What was the average rate of change of annual sales between 1998 and 2000?
- What was the average rate of change of annual sales between 2000 and 2002?
- What was the average rate of change of annual sales between 2002 and 2004?
- What was the average rate of change of annual sales between 2004 and 2006?
- Describe what is happening to the rate of change in sales over time.
| year | 1998 | 1999 | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 |
| sales | 201 | 219 | 233 | 243 | 249 | 251 | 249 | 243 | 233 |
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The table below gives the population of a town, in thousands each year from 2000 to 2008.
- What was the average rate of change of population between 2000 and 2002?
- What was the average rate of change of population between 2002 and 2004?
- What was the average rate of change of population between 2004 and 2006?
- What was the average rate of change of population between 2006 and 2008?
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Describe what is happening to the rate of change in sales over time.
year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 population 87 84 83 80 77 76 75 78 81
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The value of a company \(t\) days since January 1 is given in the table below.
- What was the average rate of change in stock value from \(t=0\) to \(t=10\)?
- What was the average rate of change in stock value from \(t=10\) to \(t=20\)?
- What was the average rate of change in stock value from \(t=20\) to \(t=40\)?
- Describe what is happening to the stock price over time
| \(t\) days since Jan. 1 | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 |
| \(V\), Stock Value in $ | 123 | 144 | 161 | 174 | 185 |
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Based on the graph shown, estimate the average rate of change on each interval
- from \(x = 1\) to \(x = 4\).
- from \(x = 2\) to \(x = 5\).
- Find the average rate of change of each function on the interval specified of \(f(x)=x^{2}\) on [1, 5].
- Find the average rate of change of each function on the interval specified.\(q(x)=x^{3}\) on [-4, 2]
- Find the average rate of change of each function on the interval specified.\(g(x)=3x^{3} -1\) on [-3, 3]
- Find the average rate of change of each function on the interval specified.\(h(x)=5 - 2x^{2}\) on [-2, 4]
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Let \(f(x)= 4x^{2} -7\).
- Evaluate and simplify the difference quotient \(\dfrac{f(x)-f(a)}{x-a}\)
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change of \(f\) on [1,4].
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change of \(f\) on [4,8].
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Let \(g(x)= 2x^{2} -9\).
- Evaluate and simplify the difference quotient \( \dfrac{g(a+h)-g(a)}{h} \)
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change of \(g\) on [2,5].
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change of \(g\) on [5,9].
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Let \(k(x)= x^2+3x + 4\).
- Evaluate and simplify the difference quotient \( \dfrac{k(a+h)-k(a)}{h} \)
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change of \(k\) on [2,5].
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change of \(k\) on [5,9].
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Let \(f(x)= 4x^2 - 2x+1\).
- Evaluate and simplify the difference quotient \( \dfrac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h} \)
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change of \(f\) on [-2,1].
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change of \(f\) on [1,6].
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Let \(g(t)=\dfrac{1}{t + 4}\).
- Evaluate and simplify the difference quotient \( \dfrac{g(x)-g(a)}{x-a} \)
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change of \(g\) on [1,5].
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change of \(g\) on [5,12].
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Suppose the profit of a company (in millions) that produces \(t\) million units of a product can be modeled by the function \(P(t)=10t-t^2\).
- Evaluate and simplify the difference quotient for \(P(t)\) to find a formula for the average rate of change in profit relative to production. Use either from of the difference quotient \( \dfrac{P(a+h)-P(a)}{h} \) or \( \dfrac{P(x)-P(a)}{x-a} \).
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change in profit if production increased from 1 million units to 2 million units.
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change in profit if production increased from 2 million units to 3 million units.
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change in profit if production increased from 3 million units to 4 million units.
- Use your results in parts (b)-(d) to describe what it happening to the profit with this increased production.-
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An automobile is driven down a straight highway. It position (in feet) after t seconds can be modeled by the function \(s(t)=4.5t^2\).
- Evaluate and simplify the difference quotient for \(P(t)\) to find a formula for the average velocity (the average rate of change in position relative to time). Use either from of the difference quotient \( \dfrac{s(a+h)-s(a)}{h} \) or \( \dfrac{s(x)-s(a)}{x-a} \).
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change in position on the interval [6,7].
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change in position on the interval [6,6.1].
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change in position on the interval [6,6.01].
- Use the difference quotient to find the average rate of change in position on the interval [6,6.001].
- What do your results in parts (b)-(e) tell you about the velocity at the instant \(t=6\) seconds?
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The pressure of 10 moles of an ideal gas is given by the formula \(P=f(V)=\dfrac{240}{V\)} at the appropriate temperature. Find an interpret each of the following quantities.
- \(f(8)\)
- \(f(8)-f(5)\)
- \(\dfrac{f(8)-f(5)}{8-5} \)
- Answer
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1. (a) 16 million dollars per year (b) 8 million dollars per year (c) 0 , no change in sales (d) -8 million dollars per year (e) The increase in annual sales is getting smaller and smaller over time before eventually leveling off and then decreasing.
3. (a) $2.1 dollars per day (b) $1.7 dollars per day (c) $1.3 dollars per day (d) $1.15 dollars per day (e) The stock value is increasing at a smaller and smaller rate over time.
5. 6
7. 27
9. (a) \(\dfrac{\Delta y }{\Delta x } = 4(x+a)\) (b) 20 (c) 48
11. (a) \(\dfrac{\Delta y }{\Delta x } = 2a+h+3\) (b) 10 (c) 17
13. (a) \(\dfrac{\Delta y }{\Delta x } = \dfrac{-1}{(x+4)(a+4) }\) (b) \(\dfrac{-1}{45}\) (c) \(\dfrac{-1}{144}\)
15. (a) \(\dfrac{\Delta s }{\Delta t } = 4.5(x+a)\) (b) 58.5 \(\dfrac{\text{ft}}{\text{s}}\) (c) 54.45 \(\dfrac{\text{ft}}{\text{s}}\) (d) 54.045 \(\dfrac{\text{ft}}{\text{s}}\) (e) 54.0045 \(\dfrac{\text{ft}}{\text{s}}\) (f) The velocity at the instant \(t= 6\) seconds is 54 \(\dfrac{\text{ft}}{\text{s}}\).


5.1: Absenteeism- If You Miss School, You Miss Out
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Absenteeism, or truancy, is poor classroom attendance. Class attendance has a direct effect on how you will succeed in your courses, and in the big picture, how you will succeed in college. There is an undeniable relationship between your class attendance, your grades, and your overall quality of learning. Citing established research findings, this section will highlight the importance of classroom attendance and offer practical suggestions on how to ensure you never miss out on valuable information in class.
Many studies have focused on the relationship between absenteeism and student performance in the classroom. Overwhelmingly, the research has identified a correlation among good class attendance, higher grades, and effective learning. According to Moore (2006), students were more likely to answer an exam question incorrectly when the information pertaining to that question was covered in a missed class session. An additional study recognized a link between students’ rate of absenteeism and their ability to learn course material. Students who were absent during a class session where critical material was covered were 9–14% more likely to respond incorrectly to a question pertaining to that material (Marburger, 2006). These findings not only stress the importance of class attendance, but also confirm that students who are absent (even after borrowing a classmate’s notes) do not always acquire a complete picture of the missed information.
Class attendance and grades are two factors that work hand-in-hand in determining student success. After tracking student attendance in two sections of Introduction to Biology, Moore (2006) found that a student’s good attendance record increased his or her likelihood of earning a higher grade in the class, whereas a student’s low attendance record increased the probability that they would earn a lower grade in the class. Marburger (2001) found similar correlations while studying attendance patterns in a microeconomics course. Students who missed class on a given date were more likely to respond incorrectly to questions relating to the lecture material covered on that day (when compared to students who were in attendance). The findings suggested that the students’ exam scores were directly affected by their class attendance.
As you can see, good class attendance is the first step toward succeeding in your courses. On average, students who attend class regularly earn higher grades in the course than students who have regular or chronic absences.
Do set two alarms clocks if waking up in the morning before class is problematic. Also consider asking a roommate to wake you or have a friend call to wake you up.
Do get enough sleep so you can be alert in class.
Do take notes in class. Some information on the test may only be presented in class.
Do give your family and boss your class schedule with test dates and big assignments. If they know what you are faced with at school, they can support “time off” for studying.
Do ask questions in class to engage yourself with the material and professor.
Do communicate immediately with your professor if you have to miss class and make arrangements to make up any missed assignments.
Don’t come to class late every day. It is a disruption to the professor and those students who were in class on time.
Don’t fall asleep in class. Professors do not take kindly to students who sleep in class.
Don’t skip class for avoidable reasons. Even though you may think you can get class notes from someone else, notes taken by another student are not as good for studying later as the ones you take yourself.
Don’t sit in the back of the room. It is easier for you to be less attentive in the back.
Don’t rely on high energy and/or caffeine drinks to keep you awake in class. They only make you jittery and crash later.
Don’t come to class when you are really sick, so be sure to “save” some absences in case you do become ill during the semester.


2.4: Self-Report Statistics
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- Last updated
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- Alison S. Burke, David Carter, Brian Fedorek, Tiffany Morey, Lore Rutz-Burri, & Shanell Sanchez
- Southern Oregon University via OpenOregon
Self-report statistics are stats that are reported by individuals. Self-report statistics get gathered when people are asked to report the number of times they may have committed a particular crime during a set period in the past, regardless of getting caught or not. For example, in-class students take a criminal activity checklist and report behaviors they have engaged in at some point in their lives. People should be honest since the data has no identifying information collected, and report even if no one ever found out what we find during class time it that all the students, for over eight years of teaching, have committed a crime. However, the amount of students that have to get caught is minimal, especially those that received formal sanctioning from the CJ system (funneling of crime).
Monitoring the Future is an ongoing study of the behaviors, attitudes, and values of American secondary school students, college students, and young adults. Each year, a total of approximately 50,000 8th, 10th, and 12th-grade students get surveyed (12th graders since 1975, and eighth and 10th graders since 1991). Besides, annual follow-up questionnaires are mailed to a sample of each graduating class for some years after their initial participation. The Monitoring the Future Study has been funded under a series of investigator-initiated competing research grants from the
National
Institute on Drug Abuse
, a part of the
National Institutes of Health
. MTF is conducted at the
Survey Research Center
in the
Institute for Social Research
at the
University
of Michigan
.
How do we get estimates on drug use amongst teens if most of them do not get caught? We rely on reports like the one above from the MTF. Monitoring the Future (MTF) is a long-term study of substance use among U.S. adolescents, college students, and adult high school graduates through age 60. The survey is conducted annually, which allows us to examine long term trends. MTF findings identify emerging substance use problems, track substance use trends, and inform national policy and intervention strategies. Respondents are confidential, which means we cannot link their answers to them. Therefore, people may be more likely, to tell the truth. [1]
In the Report: One Form of Drug Use Showed a Sharp Increase in Use in 2018
The most important findings to emerge from the 2018 survey is the dramatic increase in vaping by adolescents. Vaping is a relatively new phenomenon, so we are still developing measures related to this behavior, which included asking separately for the first time in 2017 about the vaping of three specific substances—nicotine, marijuana, and just flavoring. As the section on vaping in this monograph shows, there was a significant and substantial increase in 2018 in the vaping of all three of these substances, including some of the most substantial absolute increases MTF has ever tracked for any substance. Given that nicotine is involved in most vaping, and given that nicotine is a highly addictive substance, this presents a severe threat. [2]
Self-report statistics are great because they can help discover problems we were unaware of, such as vaping. Further, it helps us identify victimless crimes, or crimes to where there is no victim such as drug use, gambling, and underage drinking. Lastly, we uncover offenses that are not as serious such as shoplifting, which is less likely to be known to police. [3]
However, self-report data also has its limitations. Respondents may exaggerate or underreport their criminal behavior, for various reasons. For example, in the class activity, we do many students did not know what they did was illegal behavior until the statute was read, so they would never have thought they committed a crime. Lastly, if we do not capture a large sample, we may limit who gets the survey. If we are surveying kids in school about substance abuse, but not reaching out to all kids even if they get suspended, we may miss important data. [4]
Which Data Should We Use?
In each type of data (official, self-report, and victimization) there are pros and cons. Additionally, each source is more likely to produce a better picture of what is occurring depending on the area of study. If a person wanted to get the best statistics on reported homicides in the US, which source would be best? How about domestic violence? What if we were interested in finding out drug abuse rates amongst teens in high school?
- Johnston, L.D., Miech, R.A., O’Malley, P.M., Bachman, J.D., Schulenberg, J.E., & Patrick, M.E. (2018). MTF. 2018 Overview Key Findings on Adolescent Drug Use ↵
- ohnston, L.D., Miech, R.A., O’Malley, P.M., Bachman, J.D., Schulenberg, J.E., & Patrick, M.E. (2018). MTF. 2018 Overview Key Findings on Adolescent Drug Use ↵
- Hindelang, Hirschi, & Weis, (1981). Measuring delinquency. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Pubs. ↵
- Lab, S., Holcomb, J., & King, W. (2013). Criminal justice: The Essentials . Oxford University Press: Oxford. ↵


3.1: Interbeing of Fingerspelling
There is an understanding when practicing mindfulness that will help us greatly in our ASL fingerspelling communication and it’s the concept of interbeing. Interbeing is a term coined by Zen master, Thich Nhat Hanh, to describe the fact that we are interconnected with everything around us. His example is that when we look deeply at a flower, we can see the rain, the cloud, the soil...everything necessary for that flower to come into being. The same can be said of ASL—we come to the conversation with our current skill level and whatever else is going on for us that day and so does the other person. All these conditions make up the conversation we’re about to have. Many times in my career, I have seen professional, competent interpreters pay zero attention to the needs of the Deaf consumer. I’ve seen students pay zero attention to the needs of their signing partner. Here’s my point—good communicators are present for the ones with whom they’re communicating. When we can be present for each other, great communication happens. We will know if what we fingerspelled was understood, if we need to sign for clarity or speed and in this chapter, we’ll learn ways to help our communications flow more effortlessly. Now, we will address a few common questions that tend to be asked regarding fingerspelling etiquette:
How do I handle my mistakes?
It’s instinct when we make a fingerspelling error to want to air erase it like it’s some great catastrophe but think about what this does to the eyes. It’s analogous to me making a verbal error and then waggling my tongue loudly for a few seconds. Respect the signing space, keep it clean and purposeful. Best way to handle fingerspelling mistakes is to just do an “eye blink,” a slight exaggerated blink to show that you have erred. If the word is short, 4 letters or so, begin again and sign it over. If it’s a long word you can just back it up to the mistaken letter and keep going.
Being aware of the other is important when we make errors. If you make a fingerspelling blunder, ask yourself, did the person catch the word, in spite of the botch? If so, don’t worry about identifying the error, just keep going. Think of it from the standpoint of mispronunciation, we don’t always correct a verbal slip if our communication is still understood.
What if the person I’m signing with makes a fingerspelling error?
If you understand what is fingerspelled despite the error, just keep going. If you do not understand, interrupt with an attention-getting-hand-wave and sign “fingerspell” “again.” In this way, the entire conversation doesn’t need to be repeated and conversation can continue to flow naturally.
Where should I look when watching someone else fingerspell?
Not at the hand! Does this come as a surprise? In signed conversation, fingerspelling or otherwise—we always wish to maintain eye contact. I learned this lesson the hard way, and it was never taught to me in my Interpreting Training Program, but by a professional colleague. I had received an offer to teach ASL at Lake Tahoe Community College, but before I accepted the position, I met with my Deaf team instructor who, after conversing for a spell, shared that I had to get over my habit of looking at her hand when she fingerspelled! She explained that in the time it takes to break eye contact and look at the hand, the fingerspelled word could be over and done with! So, when we look to the hand, we either 1) miss the fingerspelled word entirely or 2) the signer is forced to slow down, wait for the eye gaze transition and all of this interrupts the flow of conversation and impacts the message. Remember, too, that over 60% of ASL relies on facial expression to convey meaning, so, if we’re breaking away, we’ll miss all the emotive indicators.
Where should I place my hand?
The dominant hand is traditionally used to fingerspell, unless of course you have a physical limitation, then it’s acceptable to use your non-dominant hand. The key is to maintain consistency and not bounce back and forth with your hand choice. Our signing partners will appreciate not having to play ping-pong! The hand should be just in front of the shoulder and a comfortable distance from the body at about 6-8 inches. Also, as is the cultural norm, we’re looking at the eyes of the one whom we’re communicating. If the person you sign with is struggling to read your fingerspelling for a variety of reasons, you can compassionately move your hand a bit closer to your face and make it easier on them. To do this, however, you must pay attention and know the needs of the other.


1.2: Edmund Burke, from On the Sublime and Beautiful (1757)
Edmund Burke, from On the Sublime and Beautiful (1757)
Jeanette A. Laredo
Part I, Section VII: Of the sublime
Whatever is fitted in any sort to excite the ideas of pain and danger, that is to say, whatever is in any sort terrible, or is conversant about terrible objects, or operates in a manner analogous to terror, is a source of the sublime ; that is, it is productive of the strongest emotion which the mind is capable of feeling. I say the strongest emotion, because I am satisfied the ideas of pain are much more powerful than those which enter on the part of pleasure. Without all doubt, the torments which we may be made to suffer are much greater in their effect on the body and mind, than any pleasures which the most learned voluptuary could suggest, or than the liveliest imagination, and the most sound and exquisitely sensible body, could enjoy. Nay, I am in great doubt whether any man could be found, who would earn a life of the most perfect satisfaction at the price of ending it in the torments, which justice inflicted in a few hours on the late unfortunate regicide in France. But as pain is stronger in its operation than pleasure, so death is in general a much more affecting idea than pain; because there are very few pains, however exquisite, which are not preferred to death: nay, what generally makes pain itself, if I may say so, more painful, is, that it is considered as an emissary of this king of terrors. When danger or pain press too nearly, they are incapable of giving any delight, and are simply terrible; but at certain distances, and with certain modifications, they may be, and they are, delightful, as we every day experience. The cause of this I shall endeavor to investigate hereafter.
Part II, Section I: Of the passion caused by the sublime
The passion caused by the great and sublime in nature , when those causes operate most powerfully, is astonishment: and astonishment is that state of the soul in which all its motions are suspended, with some degree of horror. In this case the mind is so entirely filled with its object, that it cannot entertain any other, nor by consequence reason on that object which employs it. Hence arises the great power of the sublime, that, far from being produced by them, it anticipates our reasonings, and hurries us on by an irresistible force. Astonishment, as I have said, is the effect of the sublime in its highest degree; the inferior effects are admiration, reverence, and respect.
Part II, Section II: Terror
No passion so effectually robs the mind of all its powers of acting and reasoning as fear . For fear being an apprehension of pain or death, it operates in a manner that resembles actual pain. Whatever therefore is terrible, with regard to sight, is sublime too, whether this cause of terror be endued with greatness of dimensions or not; for it is impossible to look on anything as trifling, or contemptible, that may be dangerous. There are many animals, who, though far from being large, are yet capable of raising ideas of the sublime, because they are considered as objects of terror. As serpents and poisonous animals of almost all kinds. And to things of great dimensions, if we annex an adventitious idea of terror, they become without comparison greater. A level plain of a vast extent on land, is certainly no mean idea; the prospect of such a plain may be as extensive as a prospect of the ocean; but can it ever fill the mind with anything so great as the ocean itself? This is owing to several causes; but it is owing to none more than this, that the ocean is an object of no small terror. Indeed terror is in all cases whatsoever, either more openly or latently, the ruling principle of the sublime. Several languages bear a strong testimony to the affinity of these ideas. They frequently use the same word to signify indifferently the modes of astonishment or admiration and those of terror. [Greek: Thambos] is in Greek either fear or wonder; [Greek: deinos] is terrible or respectable; [Greek: ahideo], to reverence or to fear. Vereor in Latin is what [Greek: ahideo] is in Greek. The Romans used the verb stupeo , a term which strongly marks the state of an astonished mind, to express the effect either of simple fear, or of astonishment; the word attonitus (thunderstruck) is equally expressive of the alliance of these ideas; and do not the French étonnement, and the English astonishment and amazement , point out as clearly the kindred emotions which attend fear and wonder? They who have a more general knowledge of languages, could produce, I make no doubt, many other and equally striking examples.
Part II, Section III: Obscurity
To make anything very terrible, obscurity seems in general to be necessary. When we know the full extent of any danger, when we can accustom our eyes to it, a great deal of the apprehension vanishes. Every one will be sensible of this, who considers how greatly night adds to our dread, in all cases of danger, and how much the notions of ghosts and goblins, of which none can form clear ideas, affect minds which give credit to the popular tales concerning such sorts of beings. Those despotic governments which are founded on the passions of men, and principally upon the passion of fear, keep their chief as much as may be from the public eye. The policy has been the same in many cases of religion. Almost all the heathen temples were dark. Even in the barbarous temples of the Americans at this day, they keep their idol in a dark part of the hut, which is consecrated to his worship. For this purpose too the Druids performed all their ceremonies in the bosom of the darkest woods, and in the shade of the oldest and most spreading oaks. No person seems better to have understood the secret of heightening, or of setting terrible things, if I may use the expression, in their strongest light, by the force of a judicious obscurity than Milton. His description of death in the second book is admirably studied; it is astonishing with what a gloomy pomp, with what a significant and expressive uncertainty of strokes and coloring, he has finished the portrait of the king of terrors:
“The other shape,
If shape it might be called that shape had noneIn this description all is dark, uncertain, confused, terrible, and sublime to the last degree.