9.3: Cognition in Adolescence
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the formal operational stage of cognitive development in adolescence
- Describe the information processing perspective on cognitive development in adolescence
- Explain influences that promote or inhibit cognitive development in adolescence
Anna is a seventeen-year-old student in twelfth grade in a public school. They recently sought counseling because they were having trouble dealing with the stress of senior year. Coming from a culture that places great importance on academic success, Anna faces intense parental pressure to achieve high grades and attend college. Anna does not want to let them down but is constantly feeling exhausted and anxious. They feel like they overthink everything they do, and after every interaction, Anna wonders how people might have perceived them or thought of their behavior, which gets tiring and stressful. This has led Anna to avoid social interactions with others as much as possible. What can Anna do to overcome unwanted thoughts and deal with academic stress?
Psychologists studying these types of development look to cognitive functioning and growth to understand the changes that occur to the brain during adolescence. Metaphorically, you might consider the brain as “hardware” and cognition as “software,” or perhaps a collection of apps with an operating system. During adolescence, there are many changes in the developing capabilities of the teen’s new “operating system.” These changes help us understand what is going on in Anna’s brain functioning that might be triggering anxiety around exams and their self-judgment during peer-to-peer social interactions.
Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
Recalling Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, adolescence is the period when individuals reach the final stage of formal operations . The term “formal” signifies that the adolescent has achieved the capability to reason using formal logical systems and symbols. In a larger sense, Piaget considered cognitive development complete during adolescence: the adolescent has achieved formal adult thinking capabilities.
One way to understand the key developments in adolescent cognition is to connect them to the concept of possibilities. Adolescents are able think about all the possibilities in a situation beforehand and then test them systematically (Crain, 2005). In contrast, while younger children can think in rather complex and logical ways, they are limited to reasoning about concrete, physical situations. Adolescents, in addition to increasing the complexity of their reasoning, gain the ability to think about all aspects of a situation, even a situation that doesn’t or can’t exist. For example, high school history teachers might ask their students to imagine they could go back in time to change just one event and write about the consequences. A school-aged child would struggle with this assignment and might indicate that time-travel isn’t possible or provide an example but discuss only immediate consequences, whereas a teenager would be able to think through the scenario and provide more nuanced ramifications for the historical change. For example, the school-aged child might focus on President Abraham Lincoln still being alive if he wasn’t assassinated, whereas a high-school student might develop additional policies that Lincoln could have enacted based on his political leanings, if he were able to remain alive and in power. Two major achievements of adolescent cognition are the ability to think about what is possible and to apply formal logic and reason.
Individuals derive many cognitive skills and developments from the ability to think about what might be possible. For example, people use hypothetical reasoning to predict what might occur given a set of circumstances: If a storm cloud is present and the air feels humid, it may rain soon. People use deductive reasoning to test propositions in a logical and orderly way. For example, let’s say a student believes that when people study together, they will do better in a class. Adolescents can test this belief by looking at the outcome of their next exam and comparing their performance before they attended the study group session and after. They are also capable of thinking about why the group session may have helped them, including potential ways they may have studied differently during the group session and how they might extend those study strategies to the next time they try to study on their own. Not only do adolescents gain the ability to think about all the possibilities and angles of a particular problem, but they achieve the mindset to systematically explore and test each one.
Among many other things, Piaget is also credited with developing a unique style of interviewing for testing aspects of his theory in children (Pramling, 2006; Sommer-Flanagan et al., 2015). Specifically in these structured interviews, researchers would pose a problem or scenario, and the child would have to solve it while verbalizing the logic behind their answers. The researcher would ask follow-up questions based on the child’s responses to further delve into the child’s logical reasoning. Piaget devised several scenarios to test aspects of his theory. One example is the pendulum problem he devised to test deductive reasoning. The problem asks which of four variables makes a pendulum swing faster: (1) the length of the string, (2) the height from which the weight on the string is dropped, (3) the amount of weight, or (4) the force of the initial push. What’s important to psychological research is not the participant having the correct answer, but how the participant goes about discovering it. While a younger child in the concrete operational stage (seven to eleven years old) might try out several different solutions seemingly at random and quickly come up with an answer, correct or not, an adolescent will be more likely to methodically plan and test many possible combinations of the four variables, having thought ahead about how to do so and how the four options might interact with one another.
This planning and testing of options is a hallmark of scientific thinking —thinking that involves the systematic testing of possibilities to learn more about a topic. Scientific thinking also relies on the adolescent’s ability to reason using propositional logic —the ability to come to a conclusion based on imagining the proposed situation rather than observing an actual scenario. For example, teenagers, along with their recently conquered decentration from the previous concrete operational stage, are capable of simultaneously thinking about and combining different facets/variables about a problem in their mind, as they contemplate and evaluate the outcomes of each possibility (Roberge & Flexer, 1979), making them even better scientists. Taken together, these cognitive capabilities allow adolescents to discover complex relations and truths about the world.
Multidimensional Facets of Adolescent Thinking
Adolescent thought is characterized by several other tendencies that stem from teens’ new ability to think about what is possible. First is the ability to think in complex ways about abstract ideas. Adolescents become aware of the world of ideas that don’t necessarily exist in physical form, and concepts, like justice, equality, equity, and truth take on new and profound importance. A child in the concrete operations stage might be able to talk about respect in simple terms, such as the give and take of mutual benefits (i.e., respect is when you are kind and share your things (Malti et al., 2020). An adolescent’s description would be much more nuanced and might include a discussion of equality and fairness (another abstract yet real concept).
Adolescents are also able to think about multiple dimensions of a problem or situation and the way various factors combine to influence an observed outcome. For example, when faced with a dress code violation at school, a high school student might be able to see how the policy creates a standard against which all students are held, while also arguing against the lost class time that being sent home to change entails. Seeing the irony of such a situation is a hallmark of adolescent thinking and may lead to frustration and de-idealization of the adults who control their world. An appreciation of sarcasm, which relies on the ability to think in multiple dimensions and from multiple perspectives, also emerges in adolescence (Glenwright et al., 2017). Not only can adolescents begin to understand when sarcasm is being used, but they can begin to understand its functional use in public discourse. Questioning rules, especially rules that seem arbitrary, is another hallmark of the adolescent experience.
Because they can now think about possibilities, in both abstract ways and in multiple dimensions, adolescents also develop relativistic thinking , which is the belief that most truths and statements of fact are relative to the position of the observer (Chandler et al., 1990). Prior to this stage, children tend to think in absolutes (e.g., right versus wrong; good versus bad). Adolescents who have developed more relativistic thinking can simultaneously evaluate the possibility that both positions can exist, depending on whose perspective you are taking. For example, if two friends are discussing whose answer on a test was correct, a teenager would be able to see how both friends could be right given the context of their examples in the answer. They could then use this information to discuss with their instructor how to gain a better understanding of the material. When all things are possible and all perspectives can be considered, everyone can seem correct . . . and everyone can seem wrong. It’s a matter of perspective.
Intersections and Contexts: Adolescent Idealism and Changing the World
Where does idealism come from? The perspective of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development provides several relevant themes that combine to give adolescence this distinct characteristic. The new ability to think about possibilities opens the door for idealism to emerge in adolescence, as well as the ability to think logically about complex abstract concepts, even going so far as to test out hypotheses in one’s head. Adolescent theorist David Elkind was pivotal in exploring the consequences of these combined abilities (Elkind, 1998; Tyler, 2020). He noted that as adolescents grow in their analytical capabilities, it’s natural for them to become critical of the world around them. For example, teens may notice their parents exceeding the speed limit, a teacher with alcohol on his breath, or a police officer on her cell phone while driving. And turning on the TV or scanning social media shows a world that includes serious issues like hunger, war, homelessness, and political unrest.
Adolescents react to this perception of disorder and hypocrisy in a predictable way, according to Elkind (1967, 1978). Remember that adolescents are growing into adulthood, and the desire to take on adult responsibilities and roles adds to their determination to see the wrongs in the world and to do better. A search for solutions often becomes personal and emotionally charged. The not-quite-adult individual has the capacity to imagine a better world and wants to take immediate action.
Teachers, health-care professionals, and other adult mentors may provide opportunities for teens to explore the constructive power of idealism. Joining advocacy clubs at school, getting involved in community projects, and arguing with adults are all part of this newfound sense of what’s possible and what can be made right. Rather than seeing adolescents’ argumentativeness and passion as “acting out,” adults can recognize that their idealism—and the accompanying de-idealization of parents and other authority figures—is a normative part of the transition to adulthood, and they can work with adolescents to help them channel their interests and energy. For example, a parent might identify that when their teen argues with them, their teen is showing deep concern about issues of environmental sustainability. The parent might identify a local arbor club or relevant non-profit that the teen could get involved with so that they could foster their interests and enact positive change in their community.
In adolescent egocentrism , an adolescent has the tendency to believe that other people—sometimes called an imaginary audience —are as preoccupied with the teen’s appearance, body, and behavior as they are (Elkind, 1967). Teens may feel that everyone is watching them and have a strong need to impress others, though usually their peers are also consumed by what others think of them and don’t necessarily worry about what they think about others. According to Elkind, another aspect of adolescent egocentrism is the personal fable . That is, teenagers often believe they and their feelings are unique, and that no one else can feel suffering with such intensity (Elkind, 1967). Another feature of adolescent egocentrism is the invincibility fable , the adolescent belief that they cannot be harmed or defeated. Preoccupation with the personal fable and concerns about pleasing the imaginary audience likely peak around age fifteen years, along with self-consciousness in general.
For examples of the features of adolescent egocentrism, consider the scenario of Sage. Sage is a teenager who just had a dramatic breakup with his first romantic partner. Sage is recounting to his father, Justin, his immense heartbreak and self-doubt. Justin tries to comfort his son by saying that the wound will heal in time. Sage snaps back, “You can’t possibly understand what I’m feeling!” (personal fable). The next day, Sage walks into school and sees two of his classmates whisper something to each other. Sage confronts them about how they should mind their own business about the breakup only to be embarrassed to find out that his peers were talking about something completely different (imaginary audience). A week or two later, as Sage is trying to find new things to do with his free time, he gets the clever idea to become an influencer by doing more and more daring skate tricks confident that no harm will befall him (invincibility fable).
Social media can reinforce teens’ belief that they are unique (Houlihan, 2014). Online bullying is an apt example, given that adolescents feel they are invulnerable to the negative outcomes of their actions (Houlihan, 2014). Interestingly, this digital environment makes the “imaginary audience” of their life feel more real, increasing the likelihood of engaging in risky behavior, such as sharing one’s location on the internet (Cingel et al., 2015). These behaviors might open them up to further negative outcomes that they hadn’t predicted.
While Piaget’s theory of cognitive development offered a comprehensive accounting of children’s cognitive skills at various ages and explained how those skills develop, some aspects of this theory and its research have limitations. First, recall that Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is a stage theory. This means that children learn specific cognitive skills at different ages that map directly or indirectly to their brain maturation, such as the ability to focus on more than one aspect of a problem and a maturing frontal cortex. It turns out, however, that development doesn’t occur in a stepwise fashion implied by the term “ stage theory .” The stage model also assumes that all individuals reach the same level of cognitive development at the same time, which we know isn’t true. Rather, cognitive abilities and mature thinking can occur in a continuous fashion, given proper guidance and scaffolding from others (e.g., formal schooling, peer interactions, adult caregivers). Moreover, Piaget’s focus on the role of nature and the brain’s physical maturation led to an underestimation of the significant roles that culture and social interaction and experience play in cognitive development (Franzoi, 2011; Lourenço, 2016). This connects with Lev Vygotsky’s research suggesting that children’s cognitive development occurs within a sociocultural environment and that cultural tools like language and counting systems have a significant influence on cognitive growth (Bernstein et al., 2008).
Second, Piaget’s research relied on an interview style that often heavily used children’s verbal descriptions of their thought processes (Ginsburg & Opper, 1988; Müller et al., 2009). This may work well for children who have a well-developed vocabulary and insight into their own thinking, but a child who lacks these skills may not be able to explain their actual understanding, and the Piagetian approach may mistakenly claim the child doesn’t understand the concept in question. The research technique was also prone to focus on what children of various ages were incapable of doing or simply got wrong. Later researchers have criticized the tendency to equate task performance with competency in Piaget’s initial studies (Lourenço, 2016). Ultimately, each research method be it interviewing the adolescent, surveying the adolescent, or interviewing teachers or caregivers, has various advantages and disadvantages. By combining various research techniques, we can form a more complete picture. The advantage to Piaget’s technique stands: hearing the adolescent’s perspective and thinking.
A final criticism of Piaget’s foundational research into children’s cognitive development is the view of formal operations and scientific thinking as a complete and fully attained state, the end-state for human cognitive development, which reflects the bias of historically WEIRD research in the discipline of lifespan development (1.4 Contexts and Settings of Development). Some societies and cultures have different perspectives on the ultimate goals of cognition, including a focus on artistic expression, wisdom represented in folklore, or practical success in everyday life (Lourenço, 2016; Martin et al., 2010). In some cultures, educational institutions don’t emphasize critical thinking, which is needed to reach Piaget’s formal operational stage. As a result, only about half of the people in these societies achieve this level of thinking skills (Bernstein et al., 2008). Additionally, some biological psychologists suggest that teenagers worldwide cannot handle complex calculations effectively until the age of twenty years because their brain activity is still developing (Cacioppo & Freyberg, 2013).
Information Processing Perspective on Cognitive Development
The information processing perspective on cognitive development retains several features of Piaget’s theory while adding a more contemporary focus on the biological supports for various thinking abilities or cognitive domains . These domains include processing and perceptual speed, metacognition, and other cognitive abilities such as reasoning and decision-making.
Adolescent brain growth and maturation lead to rapid increases in abilities across all the cognitive domains. Most of these increases continue into early adulthood before leveling off. One notable exception is perceptual speed , the ability to quickly recognize objects and other symbols, which peaks in late adolescence and then declines throughout the rest of life (Kail & Ferrer, 2007; Schaie, 1994). For example, a person in this age group would be faster and more accurate than their parent at finding and identifying hidden items in a picture. This enhanced perceptual speed has been shown to be associated with greater job performance (Mount et al., 2008), as well as school performance via increased creativity and intelligence (Rindermann & Neubauer, 2004). Specifically, when a person can quickly process and identify items in their surroundings, they tend to also be more creative and intelligent, which directly impacts their performance in school.
Metacognition, the ability to think about thinking, is another rapidly developing feature of adolescent thought that plateaus in adulthood and is a critical skill for complex problem-solving (Weil et al., 2013). Using metacognition , individuals can take a moment to pause and form a plan for approaching a problem, selectively choosing the strategy that might work, and monitoring progress toward a solution. They can also decide how much to rely on their own decisions and learning or the advice and learning of others (Paulus et al., 2013). For example, an adolescent’s ability to determine whether they will remember something at a later time is greatly improved, as well as the ability to predict someone else’s learning and memory of the material, especially if they’ve tried learning the same material already. The adolescent’s growing awareness and regulation of their own cognitive abilities and understanding of others’ thinking makes for a nearly mature thinker who begins to rely less on others’ input.
How often do adolescents use these capabilities in everyday life? A study noted that teens aim for greater autonomy in decision-making and can harness their emerging abilities to reject misleading advice but accept helpful guidance from others (Moses-Payne et al., 2021). In other words, adolescents are better able to decide whether someone else’s advice is worth following and, in turn, become more confident in their own decision-making. Furthermore, contrary to the popular stereotype of impulsive teenagers needlessly acting reckless, adolescents become better (reasoned) risk-takers due to their improved executive function rather than reactive risk-takers (Maslowsky et al., 2019; Romer et al., 2017).
Reasoned risk-taking involves careful planning and strategy, depending on improved cognitive control and a strong inclination for exploring new experiences, whereas teenagers are often stereotyped as impulsive and opportunistic risk-takers engaging in maladaptive behaviors due to a developmental deficit (Maslowsky et al., 2019). While both types of risk-taking occurs, researchers found that teenagers who engaged in more reasoned risk-taking also self-reported higher levels of sensation-seeking behaviors, better working memory, and a more positive focus on future planning (Maslowsky et al., 2019). These results show that teenagers, while more likely to engage in risky behaviors, are actually quite strategic in which risks they take.
Overall, as we consider the adolescent from the information processing perspective, we encounter individuals who are increasingly advanced across many cognitive domains, together with an ever more sophisticated ability to reason effectively using those skills. By and large, by the end of adolescence, a highly capable individual with the ability to think abstractly about multiple facets of a problem from multiple perspectives while contemplating the consequences of each aspect has emerged.
Link to Learning
Adriana Galván reveals the neurobiology behind typical teenage behaviors like risk-taking, exploration and thrill-seeking. Watch the video “Insight into the Teenage Brain” from TEDxYouth@Caltech to gain insights into the opportunities and vulnerabilities associated with the teen brain and behavior development, which can help shape policies, juvenile justice, and public health concerns that impact young people.
Contextual Influences on Cognitive Development
Both Piaget’s theory and the information processing perspective are fueled by a feedback loop between the individual’s maturing brain and the environmental inputs and supports for the brain’s further growth and development. An example is the U.S. school curricula across grade levels. The preschool curriculum takes advantage of the playful mindset of the preoperational child, while high school curricula leverage adolescents’ newfound abilities and appreciation for complex problem-solving, introducing abstract concepts. This back-and-forth interaction between the individual and the environment is an example of contexts that influence cognitive development in adolescents. These contexts include family and home environment, culture and language, and formal schooling (Figure 9.10). In cultures that don’t emphasize the development of scientific reasoning, Piaget’s stage of formal operations may not be reached, and the features associated with adolescent thought might not be readily observed (Cole, 2006; Nur et al., 2020).
Considering family dynamics and the home environment, the authoritative parenting style shows the most benefit for school performance and engagement if the development of formal operations is considered a goal of cognitive development (Steinberg et al., 1992). Authoritative parents set high expectations with high levels of warmth and nurturing. They explain the reasoning behind rules and encourage children to extract general principles from experiences and explore within boundaries. These parent–child interactions reinforce the reasoning fostered in formal schooling. Another way the family and home environment support cognitive development is by providing learning resources and opportunities for practice and exploration. Family activities such as games, reading, entertainment, and travel all offer opportunities to learn about the world and practice that understanding (Greenfield, 2014; Wu et al., 2021). There are clear socioeconomic differences in the amount and types of learning-relevant resources available in homes. Whereas clear socioeconomic differences in the amount and types of learning-relevant resources that are available in homes exist, caregivers can still foster cognitive development by providing a supportive environment and accessing community-based resources. However, that can still be resource demanding when families are struggling with limited access to resources.
A growing body of scientific literature shows that cultural factors can impact, at least partially, cognition and cognitive development (Kitayama & Uskul, 2011). For example, researchers have shown that some cultural differences, such as what a culture tends to emphasize in an environment, can influence our memory for that environment (Masuda & Nisbett, 2001). Specifically, the researchers suggest that individuals from East Asian cultures, including Japan, tended to interact with their environment in a more holistic or relational (big picture) way, whereas Westerners, including Americans, tended to focus heavily on objects in the environment and detach them from the surrounding context. When asked to remember items on a memory task, Japanese participants tended to do better than American participants when the background of the image matched the originally presented image, highlighting that the Japanese participants emphasized and encoded the item along with the background context. On the other hand, American participants tended to do better than Japanese participants when the item was presented with no background or a novel background, highlighting that the American participants were able to encode the item detached from the background. These results show how differences in cultural practices and perception could have an impact on cognitive processes.
Through the structure of language, culture can also support and propel learning and cognitive development. For example, in Chinese languages, fractions are represented simply as parts of a whole, so ¼ is said as “one out of four” instead of “one-fourth” (Xin & Liu, 2015). This simplicity and uniformity make learning and manipulating fractions easier and may contribute to observed cross-cultural differences in mathematics performance.
To the extent that a culture, or even an individual home environment, emphasizes the cognitive manipulation of visual symbols, such as icons, emojis, and other visual symbol systems, it is providing everyday practice for tests of fluid intelligence . Think for a moment how visual our current world is—people are constantly tapping, touching, or swiping various icons and symbols on screens, often with different fonts and abbreviations. This highly visual, nonverbal environment supports the development of our spatial and perceptual processing skills (Blazhenkova & Kozhevnikov, 2010; Williams, 1998). Our frequent interaction with icons and symbols in our digital world might be helping us develop the kind of thinking skills measured in fluid intelligence tests, which suggests a connection between technology and how our brains develop. Ultimately, the adolescent mind is a fascinating culmination of biological and contextual factors that, with experience and motivation, can notice, process, and interact with their environment in a multi-dimensional and less concrete way.
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2.3: SoilWeb Field Trip
Learning Objectives
- Explore soils in your local area.
- Demonstrate proficiency in using the SoilWeb web application.
- Become familiar with data available in the SSURGO database.
Soil information is critical to managing our landscape. There were soil mapping efforts in the US prior to the Dust Bowl. However, the need to implement conservation practices on farmland following the Dust Bowl ultimately led to the creation of what’s now known as the US Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS) as well as that agency’s primary missions – mapping the soils of the US to support conservation efforts. The importance of the nation-wide soils map data has expanded beyond implementing conservation practices on farmland, and is now used by many different disciplines. Examples include real estate development, habitat restoration, land valuation, and more. The USDA-NRCS leads soil mapping efforts in cooperation with many other federal, state, and local government agencies and Land-Grant institutions from around the country as part of the National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS). The resulting soils data is contained in five soil databases . Most of the time we access soil data from the SSURGO database, which is the same database used for the Web Soil Survey . Other services and applications also use this database, including the SoilWeb web application that we will use in this self-led laboratory.
Materials
- Using the SoilWeb Web Application Problem Set
- A smartphone or tablet with access to the internet
- SoilWeb web application
Recommended Reading & Viewing
- SoilWeb Apps (O’Geen, 2021)
- Description of SSURGO Database (USDA-NRCS Soil Survey Staff, 2021)
- From the Surface Down: An Introduction to Soil Surveys for Agronomic Use (USDA NRCS, 2010)
Prelab Assignment
Using the recommended reading resources, consider the questions listed below.
- What is the difference between a “web application” (or “web app” for short) and a native application (app) installed on a phone or tablet?
- List and briefly describe each of the other applications available that are associated with SoilWeb.
- Based on the “Status Map of Soil Surveys Available from the Web Soil Survey” on the “Description of SSURGO Database” web page, what state has the most area remaining that needs to be mapped?
- What is the range of scale at which soils are mapped for the SSURGO database, and what is the most common scale?
Appropriate Clothing
We recommend wearing long pants, sturdy shoes or boots, and socks that extend past your ankles on this field trip. Sunscreen and bug spray may also be needed.
 We recommend you choose a safe area that you can walk or hike within your abilities, or that you find an alternative means of transportation as needed.
Assignment: Problem Set
A problem set will be provided to you. The questions in the problem set will guide you through the laboratory activity.


Questions to consider:
-
How do I set motivational goals?
-
What are SMART goals?
-
What’s the importance of an action plan?
-
How do I keep to my plan?
-
What beliefs help shape your decision-making and goals?
-
How do you set manageable goals that will help you stay on track?
Motivation often means the difference between success and failure. That applies to school, to specific tasks, and to life in general. One of the most effective ways to keep motivated is to set goals.
Goals can be big or small. A goal can range from
I am going to write one extra page tonight
, to
I am going to work to get an A in this course
, all the way to
I am going to graduate in the top of my class so I can start my career with a really good position
. The great thing about goals is that they can include and influence a number of other things that all work toward a much bigger picture. For example, if your goal is to get an A in a certain course, all the reading, studying, and every assignment you do for that course contributes to the larger goal. You have motivation to do each of those things and to do them well.
If obtaining a BSN degree is your primary goal, treat each year and semester as a milestone toward attaining the degree. Break that down further into the classes you need to take each semester. Each course has objectives that must be met to receive credit for the class. Assignments address the objectives, therefore, assignments are sub-goals of objectives. Each assignment also has requirements you must meet, so, even your assignments have sub-goals. Ultimately, as you address each sub-goal, you edge closer to your dream of graduating with a Nursing degree.
Setting goals is something that is frequently talked about, but it is often treated as something abstract. Like time management, goal setting is best done with careful thought and planning. This next section will explain how you can apply tested techniques to goal setting and what the benefits of each can be.
Values
Values are the basic beliefs that guide our thinking and actions. Whether we are consciously aware of them or not, values influence both our attitudes and our actions. They help us determine what is important and what makes us happy. It is important to think about and reflect on your values, especially as you make decisions.
Another way to recognize the important influence of values is to consider if you have ever made a decision that you later regretted. Did you reflect on your values prior to making that choice? Sometimes others ask us to do things that are inconsistent with our values. Knowing what you value and making plans accordingly is an important effort to help you stay on track toward your goals.
Set Goals That Motivate You
The first thing to know about goal setting is that a goal is a specific end result you desire. If the goal is not something you are really interested in, there is little motivational drive to achieve it. Think back to when you were much younger and some well-meaning adult set a goal for you—something that didn’t really appeal to you at all. How motivated were you to achieve the goal? More than likely, if you were successful at all in meeting the goal, it was because you were motivated by earning the approval of someone or receiving a possible reward, or you were concerned with avoiding something adverse that might happen if you did not do what you were told. From an honest perspective in that situation, your real goal was based on something else, not the meeting of the goal set for you. To get the most from the goals you set, make sure they are things that you are interested in achieving.
That is not to say you shouldn’t set goals that are supported by other motivations (e.g., If I finish studying by Friday, I can go out on Saturday), but the idea is to be intellectually honest with your goals.
Set SMART Goals
Goals should also be SMART. In this case, the word
smart
is not only a clever description of the type of goal, but it is also an acronym that stands for Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-bound. The reason these are all desirable traits for your goals is because they not only help you plan how to meet the goal, but they can also contribute to your decision-making processes during the planning stage.
What does it mean to create SMART goals?
-
Specific—For a goal to be specific, it must be defined enough to actually determine the goal. A goal of
get a good job when I graduate
is too general. It doesn’t define what a good job is. In fact, it doesn’t even necessarily include a job in your chosen profession. A more specific goal would be something like
be hired as a nurse in a place of employment where it is enjoyable to work and that has room for promotion.
-
Measurable—The concept of
measurable
is one that is often overlooked when setting goals. What this means is that the goal should have clearly defined outcomes that are detailed enough to measure and can be used for planning of how you will achieve the goal. For example, setting a goal of
doing well in school
is a bit undefined, but making a goal of
graduating with a GPA above 3.0
is measurable and something you can work with. If your goal is measurable, you can know ahead of time how many points you will have to earn on a specific assignment to stay in that range or how many points you will need to make up in the next assignment if you do not do as well as you planned.
-
Attainable—
Attainable
or
achievable
goals means they are reasonable and within your ability to accomplish. While a goal of
make an extra one million dollars by the end of the week
is something that would be nice to achieve, the odds that you could make that happen in a single week are not very realistic.
-
Relevant—For goal setting,
relevant
means it applies to the situation. In relation to college, a goal of
getting a horse to ride
is not very relevant, but
getting dependable transportation
is something that would contribute to your success in school.
-
Time-bound—Time-bound means you set a specific time frame to achieve the goal.
I will get my paper written by Wednesday
is time-bound. You know when you have to meet the goal.
I will get my paper written sometime soon
does not help you plan how and when you will accomplish the goal.
In the following table you can see some examples of goals that do and do not follow the SMART system. As you read each one, think about what elements make them SMART or how you might change those that are not.
Table 4.4
|
Goal
|
Is it SMART?
|
|
|
I am going to be rich someday.
|
No
|
There is nothing really specific, measurable, or time-bound in this goal.
|
|
I will graduate with my degree, on time.
|
Yes
|
The statement calls out specific, measureable, and time-bound details. The other attributes of attainable and relevant are implied.
|
|
I am going to save enough money to buy a newer car by June.
|
Yes
|
All SMART attributes are covered in this goal.
|
|
I would like to do well in all my courses next semester.
|
No
|
While this is clearly time-bound and meets most of the SMART goal attributes, it is not specific or measurable without defining what “do well” means.
|
|
I am going to start being a nicer person.
|
No
|
While most of the SMART attributes are implied, there is nothing really measurable in this goal.
|
|
I will earn at least a 3.0 GPA in all my courses next semester.
|
Yes
|
All of the SMART attributes are present in this goal.
|
|
I am going to start being more organized.
|
No
|
While most of the SMART attributes are implied, there is nothing really measurable in this goal.
|
APPLICATION
Try writing two SMART goals—something with a one-week time frame and something that you will accomplish over the next year. Make certain that you include all the appropriate elements—Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-bound.
Make an Action Plan
Like anything else, making a step-by-step action plan of how you will attain your goals is the best way to make certain you achieve them. It doesn’t matter if it is a smaller goal with immediate results (e.g., finish all your homework due by Friday) or something bigger that takes several years to accomplish (graduate with my degree in the proper amount of time).
The planning techniques you use for time management and achieving goals can be similar. In fact, accurate goal setting is very much a part of time management if you treat the completion of each task as a goal.
What follows is an example of a simple action plan that lists the steps for writing a short paper. You can use something like this or modify it in a way that would better suit your own preferences.
Table 4.5
|
Action Plan
|
|
Task
|
Objective
|
When
|
|
Choose topic.
|
Select something interesting.
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Needs to be done by Monday!
|
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Write outline, look for references.
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Create structure of paper and outline each part.
|
Monday, 6:00 p.m.
|
|
Research references to support outline, look for good quotes.
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Strengthen paper and resources.
|
Tuesday, 6:00 p.m.
|
|
Write paper introduction and first page draft.
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Get main ideas and thesis statement down.
|
Wednesday, 7:00 p.m.
|
|
Write second page and closing draft.
|
Finish main content and tie it all together.
|
Thursday, 6:00 p.m.
|
|
Rewrite and polish final draft.
|
Clean up for grammar, writing style, and effective communication.
|
Friday, 5:00 p.m.
|
Another useful approach to goal setting is to create SMART goals and then write them down. For most people there is a higher level of commitment when we write something down. If you have your goals written out, you can refer to each component of the SMART acronym and make certain you are on track to achieve it.
Problem Solving: When Setbacks Happen
Even when you have clear goals and are motivated and focused to achieve them, problems sometimes happen. Accept that they
will
happen, since inevitably they do for everyone. The difference between those who succeed by solving the problem and moving on and those who get frustrated and give up is partly attitude and partly experience—and knowing how to cope when a problem occurs.
Lots of different kinds of setbacks may happen while you’re in college—just as to everyone in life. Here are a few examples:
-
A financial crisis
-
An illness or injury
-
A crisis involving family members or loved ones
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Stress related to frequently feeling you don’t have enough time
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Stress related to relationship problems
Some things happen that we cannot prevent—such as some kinds of illness, losing one’s job because of a business slowdown, or crises involving family members. But many other kinds of problems can be prevented or made less likely to occur. You can take steps to stay healthy. You can take control of your finances and avoid most financial problems common among college students. You can learn how to build successful social relationships and get along better with your instructors, with other students, and in personal relationships. You can learn time management techniques to ensure you use your time effectively for studying. Most of the chapters in this book also provide study tips and guidelines to help you do well in your classes with effective reading, note-taking, test-taking, and writing skills for classes.
Preventing
the problems that typically keep college students from succeeding is much of what this book is all about.
Not all problems can be avoided. Illness or a financial problem can significantly set one back—especially when you’re on a tight schedule and budget. Other problems, such as a social or relationship issue or an academic problem in a certain class, may be more complex and not easily prevented. What then?
First, work to resolve the immediate problem:
-
Stay motivated and focused. Don’t let frustration, anxiety, or other negative emotions make the problem worse than it already is.
-
Analyze the problem to consider all possible solutions. An unexpected financial setback doesn’t automatically mean you have to drop out of school—not when alternatives such as student loans, less expensive living arrangements, or other possible solutions may be available. Failing a midterm exam doesn’t automatically mean you’re going to fail the course—not when you make the effort to determine what went wrong, work with your instructor and others on an improved study plan, and use better strategies to prepare for the next test.
-
Seek help when you need to. None of us gets through life alone, and it’s not a sign of weakness to see your academic advisor or a college counselor if you have a problem.
-
When you’ve developed a plan for resolving the problem, work to follow through. If it will take a while before the problem is completely solved, track your progress in smaller steps so that you can see you really are succeeding. Every day will move you one step closer to putting it behind you.
After you’ve solved a problem, be sure to avoid it again in the future:
-
Be honest with yourself: how did you contribute to the problem? Sometimes it’s obvious: a student who drank heavily at a party the night before a big test failed the exam because he was so hung over he couldn’t think straight. Sometimes the source of the problem is not as obvious but may become clearer the more you think about it. Another student did a lot of partying during the term but studied all day before the big test and was well rested and clearheaded at test time but still did poorly; he may not yet have learned good study skills. Another student has frequent colds and other mild illnesses that keep him from doing his best: how much better would he feel if he ate well, got plenty of exercise, and slept enough every night? If you don’t honestly explore the factors that led to the problem, it’s more likely to happen again.
-
Take responsibility for your life and your role in what happens to you. Earlier we talked about people with negative attitudes, who are always blaming others, fate, or “the system” for their problems. It’s no coincidence that they keep on having problems. Unless you
want
to keep having problems, don’t keep blaming others.
-
Taking responsibility doesn’t mean being down on yourself. Failing at something doesn’t mean
you
are a failure. We all fail at something, sometime. Adjust your attitude so you’re ready to get back on track and feel happy that you’ll never make that mistake again!
-
Make a plan. You might still have a problem on that next big test if you don’t make an effective study plan and stick to it. You may need to change your behavior in some way, such as learning time management strategies. (Read on!)
Key Takeaways
-
Goals should be realistic, specific, and time oriented, and you must be committed to them.
-
Setting priorities helps keep you focused on your goals but doesn’t determine how you use your time at all times.
-
Attitude is often the major reason students succeed or fail in college. Everyone can work on developing a more positive, motivating attitude.
-
Planning, the essence of time management, is necessary to stay focused and continue moving toward your goals.
-
Networking with other students helps you stay motivated as well as making studying more effective.
-
Since problems and setbacks are inevitable, knowing how to solve problems is important for reaching goals. With a good attitude, most common student problems can be prevented.
Stick with It!
As with anything else, the key to reaching goals is to keep at it, keep yourself motivated, and overcome any obstacles along the way. In the following graphic you will find seven methods that highly successful people use to accomplish this.
Figure 4.19: These seven ways to stay motivated are good suggestions from highly successful people. What other strategies would you suggest?
Activity 4.7: Goal setting
Write a personal goal and an academic goal using the S.M.A.R.T. formula discussed in “Be S.M.A.R.T. about Your Goals” above.
Think about these questions:
-
Is there a level of education you’d like to complete?
-
Is there a particular role you’d like? Or an organization for whom you would like to work?
Now, list the objectives you need to meet to reach each goal.
-
Specific courses you need to take?
-
Networking and/or internship opportunities?


6.5: What are the ways in which sex education can be taught?
-
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Amanda Burke
Learning Objectives
- Define abstinence-only sexual education.

- Define Title V of the Social Security Act.
- Understand the controversy concerning sexual education.
Introduction to Sexual Education
Sexual education is a very controversial topic in our public education system.  The goal of this program is to educate today's youth with the facts about sexual health. From the statistics on the right, posted by SADD in 2007, it is easy to see that teenagers are more sexually active than ever before. Children and teens are exposed to sex everyday in the form of movies, television, advertisements, magazines, and the internet. With this large scale exposure it is easy to understand the statistics. Teens feel pressured to become sexually active at a much earlier age, and pregnancy rates and STDs are on the rise. The need for education of today's youth is apparent, but the question is who should be teaching our children about sex? Should it be the parents, the childâ€™s religious organization, or the schools? Each person will probably answer this question in a different way, but most people seem to agree that sexual education should be taught in school. "A 1999 survey conducted by Hickman-Brown Research Inc. found that 93 percent of all Americans believe sex education should be taught in high schools, and 84 percent believe it should be taught in middle or junior high schools (Masland, 2008). So why is it so controversial if 93 percent believe that it should be taught? The answer to that question isn't if it should be taught, but what type of sexual education should be taught.
 The National Education Association (NEA) began calling for teacher training in sexual education as early as 1912, but the first step was the introduction of a family life program in 1953(Pardini, 1998). This was followed by the production of five pamphlets called the "sex education series," which was published as a joint effort between the NEA and the American Medical Association, in 1955 (Pardini, 1998). These programs and pamphlets continued through the 1980's despite growing opposition from religious organizations and others.  In 1986, due to a recognized AIDS epidemic, "U.S. Surgeon General C Everet Koop issued a report calling for comprehensive AIDS and sexuality education in public schools, beginning as early as the third grade" (Pardini, 1998). This spiked some of the most highly debated issues concerning sexual education. The same groups that had opposed these classes through the 60's and 70's claimed that teenagers would be more sexually active if they were given more knowledge about birth control methods, and this comprehensive style of learning would serve as more of an encouragement than a deterrent. The push began for an abstinence-only program. There are no federal laws that require sexual education to be taught in public schools. It is left up to the state to decide if and what kind of program will be offered, however in 1996, "Title V, Â§ 510(b) of the Social Security Act (now codified as 42 U.S.C. Â§ 710b), commonly known as Title V" was provisioned by the federal government (Wikipedia, 2008). This was a welfare reform law that guaranteed federal funding to states who were willing to teach abstinence-only programs in their schools. This gave states the option to participate to receive the funding or they could choose to continue with comprehensive education and receive no funding. Title V has been extended repeatedly, but there has been a strong push for something new. The Responsible Education About Life (REAL) Act has been proposed which will offer federal funding for programs that teach not only abstinence but comprehensive information about birth control (Wikipedia, 2008). To locate state specific laws please visit The Education Commission of the States, Sex Education Laws in the States at [1]
Note
Teenage Statistics
- 46.8% of high school students admit to having sex
- 6.2% of those had sex before age 13
- 14.3% of all sexually active students have had 4 or more partners
- 3 out of 10 teenage girls become pregnant at least once before age 20
- 1 in 2 sexually active teens will contract an STD by age 25
- Half of all new HIV infections occur in teenagers
- 40% of all older teens believe the birth control pill or shot protects them against HIV/STDs
(SADD Statistics, February 2007).
Abstinence-Only Sexual Education
Abstinence-only sex ed, is centered around the idea that teens should not engage in any sexual activity outside of marriage. "Critics [of this program] say some of the most popular of these programs rely on scare tactics to get their message across and sometimes include inadequate and inaccurate medical information (Pardini, 1998). It has been said by many that abstinence-only programs only focus on the failure rates of birth control methods in an attempt to scare teens into refraining from sexual intercourse. This type of program does not provide birth control, such as condoms, to the students, or provide any information about how to properly use birth control methods. Abstinence is seen as the only sure fire way to prevent pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases from occurring in teenagers. This has been the preferred method by many states since the early 1980's, and is also backed by federal funding.
Comprehensive Sexual Education
Comprehensive, or abstinence-plus sexual education, provides information about the different forms of birth control available in attempt to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy. This is done in addition to teaching that abstinence is the only way to be one hundred percent protected.
Elementary School Sexual Education
One aspect of sexual education, that is often overlooked, is the elementary years. Many states include sex ed or family life for elementary aged children. These programs usually cover such topics as good touches and bad touches, reproductive anatomy, correct terminology, puberty and menstruation, and similar information. Many states offer the option for parents to opt their children out of thess sensitive classes. It is important to recognize that sexual education does not only refer to secondary schools.
Controversy Concerning Sexual Education
Controversy still surrounds sexual education, although it is widely accepted that this is a needed curriculum in today's schools. "Ninety-three percent of public school teachers in five specialties-biology, health education, home economics, physical education, and school nursing--who teach grades 7-12 report that their schools offer sex education or AIDS education in some form (FAM,1989.) It is safe to assume that that number has grown over time. Educators have been effective in implementing and maintaining a sexual education program, but the question still remains which program is the most effective? Some argue that abstinence-only is the most effective program. It encourages today's youth to refrain from sexual activities, and withholds information about effective birth control methods. It is thought by many that this will scare teens into abstaining from sex. Those for abstinence-only argue that giving more information about birth control and proving that methods other than abstinence are effective, will only make teens more sexually active. Those in support of comprehensive education have proven that teens make more responsible choices when presented with the correct knowledge about what forms of birth control are available to them. This has resulted in a decrease in teen pregnancies and STDs in schools using a comprehensive program. Supporters of the comprehensive style of sex ed have often argued that teens will have sex anyway, and by not providing them with the proper knowledge, educators are putting them at a greater risk for becoming pregnant or contracting an STD.
The Future of Sexual Education and Today's Teachers
What is the future of sexual education? The United Stated is, once again, beginning to lean more towards the comprehensive style of sex ed. The proposed REAL Act would allow for federal funding of new comprehensive programs too.  Until the 1980s a comprehensive program was the norm. A study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of various sexuality programs on groups of students compared to control groups. In discussing the results the following was said of the comprehensive program, "Young people throughout the country tend to become more permissive toward premarital sex as they grow older. While the control groups became more permissive, the sexuality students in the longer, more comprehensive programs did not. This suggests the programs had a conservative effect on their attitudes" (Kirby, 1984). That was 1984, before the internet and the great technology boom. These growing influences, and the general acceptance of sex in society, have had an even greater effect on students. Technology gives them access to any kind of information they want. It is the school's responsibility to make sure they are getting correct and responsible information from qualified teachers. As educators we must recognize that times have changed, and be willing to embrace changes in curriculum that might arise from the new proposed act. States that once found themselves teaching abstinence-only programs may be quickly introduced to a more comprehensive plan. By keeping ourselves educated and up to date, we are helping our students. Sexuality is a natural part of every human being. The reality is most teens will not stop having sex, getting pregnant, or contracting STDs, but we can help combat these problems by providing today's students with the most effective programs available and helping them make better choices. Typically sex ed is taught by a health instructor, school nurse, or other specialized teacher in secondary schools, but even an elementary school teacher may find themselves covering early sex ed topics in their lesson plans. As educators, it is important to understand the history, facts, and the future of sexual education in today's schools.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
1. What Act provides federal funding to states for comprehensive sexual education programs?
a.All of the Above
b.NEA Act
c.REAL Act
d.SSA
2. A school that teaches about the proper use of condoms is using which type of sexual education program?
a.Abstinence-only Sexual Education
b.Comprehensive Sexual Education
c.Plus Education
d.Refrainment Sexual Education
3. Abstinence is?
a.Being sexually active with four or more partners
b.Opting out of a sex ed program.
c.Refraining from marriage until your 18.
d.Refraining from sex outside of marriage.
4. A school nurse presents the risks and failure rates only, of various birth control methods. This is what type of sexual education?
a.Abstinence-only Sexual Education
b.Comprehensive Sexual Education
c.Obstetric Sexual Education
d.Sexuality-based Sex Education
- Answer
-
1. c
2. b
3. d
4. a
References
Forrest, JD, Silverman J. (1989 Mar-Apr.)What public school teachers teach about preventing pregnancy, AIDS, and sexually transmitted diseases. Fam Plann Perspect. 21(2), 65-72. Retrieved September 21, 2008, from PubMed database.
Kirby, Douglas. (1984.)Sexuality Education: An Evaluation of Programs and Their Effects. Santa Cruz. Network Publications. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED277955.)
Masland, Molly.(2008.)Carnal Knowledge:The Sex Ed Debate. Retrieved September 21, 2008 from MSNBC. Website: http://www.msncb.msn.com/id/3071001/
Pardini, Priscilla. (2002.)Federal Law Mandates Abstinence-Only Sex Ed. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from Rethinking Schools Online. Website:www.rethinkingschools.org/sex/sexmain.shtml
SADD. (2007.) Statistics. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from Students Against Destructive Decisions. Website: www.sadd.org/stats.htm
Wikipedia.(2008.)Abstinence-only Sex Education. Retrieved September 20, 3008 from Wikipedia. Website: http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstinence-only_sex_education


 Find the force \(F\) needed to keep the sled moving at a constant speed.
- Solution
-
\(F_{pull} = 3.28\) lbs
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
A wooden box sits on a concrete slope (\(\mu_s = 0.62, \, \mu_k\) = 0.55). How much force would be needed to start pulling this box up the ramp? If we let go of the box, would it slide down the ramp?
- Solution
-
\(F_{pull} = 578.9\) N
Box will not slip if released.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)
A wheelbarrow with a weight of 60 lbs and the dimensions shown below sits on a ten-degree incline. Assume friction exists at the rear support (A) but no friction exists at the wheel (B). What is the minimum coefficient of friction needed between the support and the ground to keep the wheelbarrow from sliding down the hill?
- Solution
-
\(\mu_s = 0.418\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
The car below weighs a total of 1500 lbs, has a center of mass at the location shown, and is rear-wheel drive (only the rear wheels will create a friction force). Assuming that the tires are rubber and the surface is concrete \((\mu_s\) = 0.9), what is the maximum angle of the hill \((\theta)\) that the car will be able to climb at a constant rate before the wheels start to slip? What is the maximum angle if the car is front-wheel drive?
- Solution
-
\(\theta_{max} = 22.0\)° for rear-wheel drive
\(\theta_{max} = 25.7\)° for front-wheel drive
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
The fridge shown below has a total weight of 120 lbs and a center of mass as shown below. The fridge is pushed as shown until it either starts to slide or tips over. What is the minimum coefficient of friction needed for the fridge to tip before it starts sliding?
- Solution
-
\(\mu_s = 0.75\) at a minimum
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
You have a bookcase with the dimensions and weight shown below. You are examining the safety of your design.
- If a toddler were to pull on the bookcase as shown, what is the pulling force that would tip it over? (assume the center of gravity is the center of the bookcase and there is no slipping)
- What would the static coefficient of friction need to be to have the case slide before it tips over?
- Solution
-
\(F_{pull} = 34.64\) lbs
\(\mu_s = 0.218\) at a maximum
Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
The wedge shown below is pressed by a log splitter into a log with a force of 200 lbs. Assuming the coefficient of friction (both static and kinetic) between the steel wedge and the wood of the log is 0.3, what is the magnitude of the normal force exerted on either side of the log?
- Solution
-
\(F_{N1} = F_{N2} = 271.0\) lbs
Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)
The power screw in the screw jack shown below has an outside diameter of one and a half inches and a total of three threads per inch. Assume the coefficients of friction are both 0.16.
- What is the moment required to create a two-ton (4000 lb) lifting force?
- Is this power screw setup self-locking?
- Solution
-
\(M_{lift} = 58.3\) ft-lbs
Screw is self-locking.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{9}\)
The end bearing as shown below is used to support a rotating shaft with a load of 300 N on it. If the shaft and the bearing surface are both lubricated steel (assume the coefficients of friction are both 0.06), what is the moment exerted by the friction forces for…
- A solid shaft with a diameter of 2 cm?
- A hollow shaft with an outside diameter of 2 cm and an inside diameter of 1.5 cm?
- Solution
-
\(M_{friction} = 0.12\) N-m (solid shaft)
\(M_{friction} = 0.159\) N-m (hollow shaft)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{10}\)
A 120-lb person is being lifted by a rope thrown over a tree branch as shown below. If the static coefficient of friction between the rope and the tree branch is 0.61, what is the pulling force required to start lifting the person? What is the pulling force required to keep them from falling?
- Solution
-
\(F_{lift} = 505.1\) lbs
\(F_{hold} = 28.5\) lbs


4: Asexual reproduction
-
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- Tom Buckley
- University of California, Davis
Skills to Develop
- Compare the mechanisms and methods of natural and artificial asexual reproduction
- Describe the advantages and disadvantages of natural and artificial asexual reproduction
- Discuss plant life spans
Many plants are able to propagate themselves using asexual reproduction. This method does not require the investment required to produce a flower, attract pollinators, or find a means of seed dispersal. Asexual reproduction produces plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant because no mixing of male and female gametes takes place. Traditionally, these plants survive well under stable environmental conditions when compared with plants produced from sexual reproduction because they carry genes identical to those of their parents.
Many different types of roots exhibit asexual reproduction Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). The corm is used by gladiolus and garlic. Bulbs, such as a scaly bulb in lilies and a tunicate bulb in daffodils, are other common examples. A potato is a stem tuber, while parsnip propagates from a taproot. Ginger and iris produce rhizomes, while ivy uses an adventitious root (a root arising from a plant part other than the main or primary root), and the strawberry plant has a stolon, which is also called a runner.
Some plants can produce seeds without fertilization. Either the ovule or part of the ovary, which is diploid in nature, gives rise to a new seed. This method of reproduction is known as apomixis .
An advantage of asexual reproduction is that the resulting plant will reach maturity faster. Since the new plant is arising from an adult plant or plant parts, it will also be sturdier than a seedling. Asexual reproduction can take place by natural or artificial (assisted by humans) means.
Natural Methods of Asexual Reproduction
Natural methods of asexual reproduction include strategies that plants have developed to self-propagate. Many plants—like ginger, onion, gladioli, and dahlia—continue to grow from buds that are present on the surface of the stem. In some plants, such as the sweet potato, adventitious roots or runners can give rise to new plants Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). In Bryophyllum and kalanchoe, the leaves have small buds on their margins. When these are detached from the plant, they grow into independent plants; or, they may start growing into independent plants if the leaf touches the soil. Some plants can be propagated through cuttings alone.
Artificial Methods of Asexual Reproduction
These methods are frequently employed to give rise to new, and sometimes novel, plants. They include grafting, cutting, layering, and micropropagation.
Grafting
Grafting has long been used to produce novel varieties of roses, citrus species, and other plants. In grafting , two plant species are used; part of the stem of the desirable plant is grafted onto a rooted plant called the stock. The part that is grafted or attached is called the scion . Both are cut at an oblique angle (any angle other than a right angle), placed in close contact with each other, and are then held together Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). Matching up these two surfaces as closely as possible is extremely important because these will be holding the plant together. The vascular systems of the two plants grow and fuse, forming a graft. After a period of time, the scion starts producing shoots, and eventually starts bearing flowers and fruits. Grafting is widely used in viticulture (grape growing) and the citrus industry. Scions capable of producing a particular fruit variety are grated onto root stock with specific resistance to disease.
Cutting
Plants such as coleus and money plant are propagated through stem cuttings , where a portion of the stem containing nodes and internodes is placed in moist soil and allowed to root. In some species, stems can start producing a root even when placed only in water. For example, leaves of the African violet will root if kept in water undisturbed for several weeks.
Layering
Layering is a method in which a stem attached to the plant is bent and covered with soil. Young stems that can be bent easily without any injury are preferred. Jasmine and bougainvillea (paper flower) can be propagated this way Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). In some plants, a modified form of layering known as air layering is employed. A portion of the bark or outermost covering of the stem is removed and covered with moss, which is then taped. Some gardeners also apply rooting hormone. After some time, roots will appear, and this portion of the plant can be removed and transplanted into a separate pot.
Micropropagation
Micropropagation (also called plant tissue culture) is a method of propagating a large number of plants from a single plant in a short time under laboratory conditions Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\). This method allows propagation of rare, endangered species that may be difficult to grow under natural conditions, are economically important, or are in demand as disease-free plants.
To start plant tissue culture, a part of the plant such as a stem, leaf, embryo, anther, or seed can be used. The plant material is thoroughly sterilized using a combination of chemical treatments standardized for that species. Under sterile conditions, the plant material is placed on a plant tissue culture medium that contains all the minerals, vitamins, and hormones required by the plant. The plant part often gives rise to an undifferentiated mass known as callus, from which individual plantlets begin to grow after a period of time. These can be separated and are first grown under greenhouse conditions before they are moved to field conditions.
Plant Life Spans
The length of time from the beginning of development to the death of a plant is called its life span. The life cycle, on the other hand, is the sequence of stages a plant goes through from seed germination to seed production of the mature plant. Some plants, such as annuals, only need a few weeks to grow, produce seeds and die. Other plants, such as the bristlecone pine, live for thousands of years. Some bristlecone pines have a documented age of 4,500 years Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\). Even as some parts of a plant, such as regions containing meristematic tissue—the area of active plant growth consisting of undifferentiated cells capable of cell division—continue to grow, some parts undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis). The cork found on stems, and the water-conducting tissue of the xylem, for example, are composed of dead cells.
Plant species that complete their lifecycle in one season are known as annuals, an example of which is Arabidopsis , or mouse-ear cress. Biennials such as carrots complete their lifecycle in two seasons. In a biennial’s first season, the plant has a vegetative phase, whereas in the next season, it completes its reproductive phase. Commercial growers harvest the carrot roots after the first year of growth, and do not allow the plants to flower. Perennials, such as the magnolia, complete their lifecycle in two years or more.
In another classification based on flowering frequency, monocarpic plants flower only once in their lifetime; examples include bamboo and yucca. During the vegetative period of their life cycle (which may be as long as 120 years in some bamboo species), these plants may reproduce asexually and accumulate a great deal of food material that will be required during their once-in-a-lifetime flowering and setting of seed after fertilization. Soon after flowering, these plants die. Polycarpic plants form flowers many times during their lifetime. Fruit trees, such as apple and orange trees, are polycarpic; they flower every year. Other polycarpic species, such as perennials, flower several times during their life span, but not each year. By this means, the plant does not require all its nutrients to be channelled towards flowering each year.
As is the case with all living organisms, genetics and environmental conditions have a role to play in determining how long a plant will live. Susceptibility to disease, changing environmental conditions, drought, cold, and competition for nutrients are some of the factors that determine the survival of a plant. Plants continue to grow, despite the presence of dead tissue such as cork. Individual parts of plants, such as flowers and leaves, have different rates of survival. In many trees, the older leaves turn yellow and eventually fall from the tree. Leaf fall is triggered by factors such as a decrease in photosynthetic efficiency, due to shading by upper leaves, or oxidative damage incurred as a result of photosynthetic reactions. The components of the part to be shed are recycled by the plant for use in other processes, such as development of seed and storage. This process is known as nutrient recycling.
The aging of a plant and all the associated processes is known as senescence , which is marked by several complex biochemical changes. One of the characteristics of senescence is the breakdown of chloroplasts, which is characterized by the yellowing of leaves. The chloroplasts contain components of photosynthetic machinery such as membranes and proteins. Chloroplasts also contain DNA. The proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids are broken down by specific enzymes into smaller molecules and salvaged by the plant to support the growth of other plant tissues.
The complex pathways of nutrient recycling within a plant are not well understood. Hormones are known to play a role in senescence. Applications of cytokinins and ethylene delay or prevent senescence; in contrast, abscissic acid causes premature onset of senescence.
Summary
Many plants reproduce asexually as well as sexually. In asexual reproduction, part of the parent plant is used to generate a new plant. Grafting, layering, and micropropagation are some methods used for artificial asexual reproduction. The new plant is genetically identical to the parent plant from which the stock has been taken. Asexually reproducing plants thrive well in stable environments.
Plants have different life spans, dependent on species, genotype, and environmental conditions. Parts of the plant, such as regions containing meristematic tissue, continue to grow, while other parts experience programmed cell death. Leaves that are no longer photosynthetically active are shed from the plant as part of senescence, and the nutrients from these leaves are recycled by the plant. Other factors, including the presence of hormones, are known to play a role in delaying senescence.
Glossary
- apomixis
- process by which seeds are produced without fertilization of sperm and egg
- cutting
- method of asexual reproduction where a portion of the stem contains notes and internodes is placed in moist soil and allowed to root
- grafting
- method of asexual reproduction where the stem from one plant species is spliced to a different plant
- layering
- method of propagating plants by bending a stem under the soil
- micropropagation
- propagation of desirable plants from a plant part; carried out in a laboratory
- monocarpic
- plants that flower once in their lifetime
- polycarpic
- plants that flower several times in their lifetime
- scion
- the part of a plant that is grafted onto the root stock of another plant
- senescence
- process that describes aging in plant tissues


15.13: Introduction to Methods of Communication
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Words are just the beginning of communication and, to hear people tell it, they’re actually a very small part of the message we take in. Don’t believe it? Imagine you’re hanging out with your teenage cousin, and you ask him if he’s feeling happy today. He might respond, “Yeah, sure.” But depending on the tone of his voice and his body language, you might not believe him.
Listening and nonverbal cues affect communication as much as the written or spoken word. In this section, we’re going to learn how to use listening, verbal communication, and nonverbal communication to your advantage, so you can better understand and be better understood.