2.28: Interquartile Range and Boxplots (3 of 3)
Learning Objectives
- Use a five-number summary and a boxplot to describe a distribution.
Comparing Distributions with Side-by-Side Boxplots
In the next two examples, we again use boxplots to compare two distributions. This time we focus on writing a description of the two distributions. We practiced writing descriptions in the earlier section, “Distributions for Quantitative Data,” using dotplots and histograms. Now we use boxplots. As before, we describe shape, center, spread, and outliers. But now we use the five-number summary to make our descriptions more precise.
Example
Best Actor/Actress Oscar Winners
So far we have examined the age distributions of Oscar winners for males and females separately.
It will be interesting to compare the age distributions of actors and actresses who won best acting Oscars. To do that, we look at side-by-side boxplots of the age distributions by gender.
- Actors: Min = 31, Q1 = 37.75, M = 42.5, Q3 = 48.75, Max = 76
- Actresses: Min = 21, Q1 = 32, M = 35, Q3 = 41.5, Max = 80
Based on the graph and numerical measures, we can make the following comparison between the two distributions:
Note: A good summary compares the two distributions using shape, center, spread, and outliers. Let’s begin with observations about these characteristics of the distributions.
Shape : The shape of a distribution can be hard to determine from the boxplot, but we can compare the variability in the upper half of the data (Max − Median) to the variability in the lower half of the data (Median − Min) to get a sense of shape. For the men, the distribution appears skewed to the right because the lower half of the data has less variability than the upper half. The lower half of the data has a range of 11.5 years (42.5 − 31), compared to the upper half of the data with a range of 33.5 years (76 − 42.5). The distribution for women also appears right-skewed. The lower half of the data has a range of 14 years (35 − 21), compared to a range of 45 years for the upper half of the data (80 − 35). In both cases, the shape suggests that the Oscar is awarded to younger actors and actresses.
Center : Actresses tend to win the Oscar at a younger age than do actors. The median age for females (35) is lower than for the males (42.5). Note also that the third quartile of the females’ distribution (41.5) is lower than the median age for males. It tells us that only 25% of the actresses were 41.5 years old or older when they won the Oscar, compared to 50% of the males who were 42.5 years old or older.
Spread : Not only do actresses win at a younger age, but the Oscar is awarded more consistently to younger actresses, as we can see by comparing the interquartile ranges. There is less variability in the middle half of the actresses’ ages (IQR = 9.5) than in the actors’ ages (IQR = 11). On the other hand, the actresses have more variability in their overall ages (range = 59) compared to the actors (range = 45).
Outliers : We see that we have outliers in both distributions. There is only one high outlier in the actors’ distribution (76, Henry Fonda, On Golden Pond), compared with three high outliers in the actresses’ distribution.
Now let’s pull these observations together into a paragraph. A good paragraph compares the two distributions and uses observations about the distributions to support a central thesis.
In general, actresses win the Best Actress Oscar at a younger age than do actors. The median age for actresses is 35, compared to 42.5 for actors. Not only do actresses win at a younger age, the Oscar is awarded more consistently to younger actresses, as seen when we compare the interquartile ranges. There is less variability in the middle half of the actresses’ ages (IQR = 9.5) than in the actors’ ages (IQR = 11). Both distributions have older winners that are outliers. These older winners are unusual and skew the distribution of ages to the right.
Example
Temperature of Pittsburgh vs. San Francisco
To compare the average high temperatures of Pittsburgh to those of San Francisco, we look at the following side-by-side boxplots and supplement the graph with the descriptive statistics of each of the two distributions.
When looking at the graph, the similarities and differences between the two distributions are striking. Both distributions have roughly the same center (medians are 61.4 for Pittsburgh and 62.7 for San Francisco). However, the temperatures in Pittsburgh have a much larger variability than the temperatures in San Francisco (Range: 49 vs. 12; IQR: 36.5 vs. 5).
The practical interpretation of the results we obtained is that the weather in San Francisco is much more consistent than the weather in Pittsburgh, which varies a lot during the year. Also, because the temperatures in San Francisco vary so little during the year, knowing that the median temperature is around 63 is actually very informative. On the other hand, knowing that the median temperature in Pittsburgh is around 61 is practically useless, since temperatures vary so much during the year and can get much warmer or much colder than in San Francisco.
Note that this example provides more intuition about variability by interpreting small variability as consistency and large variability as lack of consistency. Also, through this example, we learned that the center of the distribution is more meaningful as a typical value for the distribution when there is little variability (or, as statisticians say, little “noise”) around it. When there is large variability, the center loses its practical meaning as a typical value.
Let’s Summarize
- The range measures the variability of a distribution by looking at the interval covered by all the data. The IQR measures the variability of a distribution by giving us the interval covered by the middle 50% of the data.
- The five-number summary of a distribution consists of the minimum, quartile 1, median, quartile 3, and maximum.
- The IQR is the measure of spread we should use when using the median to measure center.
-
When using the median and IQR to measure center and spread, a data point is considered an outlier if it satisfies one of the following conditions.
- More than 1.5 IQRs greater than Q3 (i.e., the value is greater than Q3 + 1.5 * IQR).
- More than 1.5 IQRs less than Q1 (i.e., the value is less than Q1 – 1.5 * IQR).
- The boxplot is a graphical representation of a data set. It displays the five-number summary and highlights any points that are considered outliers (using the 1.5 * IQR rule described in the previous bullet).
- Side-by-side boxplots are commonly used to compare two data sets.
Contributors and Attributions
- Concepts in Statistics. Provided by : Open Learning Initiative. Located at : http://oli.cmu.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution


14.2: Nutritional Requirements of Plants
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
- Tom Buckley
- University of California, Davis
Skills to Develop
- Describe how plants obtain nutrients
- List the elements and compounds required for proper plant nutrition
- Describe an essential nutrient
Plants are unique organisms that can absorb nutrients and water through their root system, as well as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Soil quality and climate are the major determinants of plant distribution and growth. The combination of soil nutrients, water, and carbon dioxide, along with sunlight, allows plants to grow.
The Chemical Composition of Plants
Since plants require nutrients in the form of elements such as carbon and potassium, it is important to understand the chemical composition of plants. The majority of volume in a plant cell is water; it typically comprises 80 to 90 percent of the plant’s total weight. Soil is the water source for land plants, and can be an abundant source of water, even if it appears dry. Plant roots absorb water from the soil through root hairs and transport it up to the leaves through the xylem. As water vapor is lost from the leaves, the process of transpiration and the polarity of water molecules (which enables them to form hydrogen bonds) draws more water from the roots up through the plant to the leaves (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Plants need water to support cell structure, for metabolic functions, to carry nutrients, and for photosynthesis.
Plant cells need essential substances, collectively called nutrients, to sustain life. Plant nutrients may be composed of either organic or inorganic compounds. An organic compound is a chemical compound that contains carbon, such as carbon dioxide obtained from the atmosphere. Carbon that was obtained from atmospheric CO2 composes the majority of the dry mass within most plants. An inorganic compound does not contain carbon and is not part of, or produced by, a living organism. Inorganic substances, which form the majority of the soil solution, are commonly called minerals: those required by plants include nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) for structure and regulation.
Essential Nutrients
Plants require only light, water and about 20 elements to support all their biochemical needs: these 20 elements are called essential nutrients. For an element to be regarded as essential , three criteria are required: 1) a plant cannot complete its life cycle without the element; 2) no other element can perform the function of the element; and 3) the element is directly involved in plant nutrition.
| Macronutrients | Micronutrients |
|---|---|
| Carbon (C) | Iron (Fe) |
| Hydrogen (H) | Manganese (Mn) |
| Oxygen (O) | Boron (B) |
| Nitrogen (N) | Molybdenum (Mo) |
| Phosphorus (P) | Copper (Cu) |
| Potassium (K) | Zinc (Zn) |
| Calcium (Ca) | Chlorine (Cl) |
| Magnesium (Mg) | Nickel (Ni) |
| Sulfur (S) | Cobalt (Co) |
| Sodium (S) | |
| Silicon (Si) |
Macronutrients and Micronutrients
The essential elements can be divided into two groups: macronutrients and micronutrients. Nutrients that plants require in larger amounts are called macronutrients . About half of the essential elements are considered macronutrients: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur. The first of these macronutrients, carbon (C), is required to form carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and many other compounds; it is therefore present in all macromolecules. On average, the dry weight (excluding water) of a cell is 50 percent carbon. As shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\), carbon is a key part of plant biomolecules.
The next most abundant element in plant cells is nitrogen (N); it is part of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen is also used in the synthesis of some vitamins. Hydrogen and oxygen are macronutrients that are part of many organic compounds, and also form water. Oxygen is necessary for cellular respiration; plants use oxygen to store energy in the form of ATP. Phosphorus (P), another macromolecule, is necessary to synthesize nucleic acids and phospholipids. As part of ATP, phosphorus enables food energy to be converted into chemical energy through oxidative phosphorylation. Likewise, light energy is converted into chemical energy during photophosphorylation in photosynthesis, and into chemical energy to be extracted during respiration. Sulfur is part of certain amino acids, such as cysteine and methionine, and is present in several coenzymes. Sulfur also plays a role in photosynthesis as part of the electron transport chain, where hydrogen gradients play a key role in the conversion of light energy into ATP. Potassium (K) is important because of its role in regulating stomatal opening and closing. As the openings for gas exchange, stomata help maintain a healthy water balance; a potassium ion pump supports this process.
Magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) are also important macronutrients. The role of calcium is twofold: to regulate nutrient transport, and to support many enzyme functions. Magnesium is important to the photosynthetic process. These minerals, along with the micronutrients, which are described below, also contribute to the plant’s ionic balance.
In addition to macronutrients, organisms require various elements in small amounts. These micronutrients , or trace elements, are present in very small quantities. They include boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), silicon (Si), and sodium (Na).
Deficiencies in any of these nutrients—particularly the macronutrients—can adversely affect plant growth (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). Depending on the specific nutrient, a lack can cause stunted growth, slow growth, or chlorosis (yellowing of the leaves). Extreme deficiencies may result in leaves showing signs of cell death.
Everyday Connection: Hydroponics
Hydroponics is a method of growing plants in a water-nutrient solution instead of soil. Since its advent, hydroponics has developed into a growing process that researchers often use. Scientists who are interested in studying plant nutrient deficiencies can use hydroponics to study the effects of different nutrient combinations under strictly controlled conditions. Hydroponics has also developed as a way to grow flowers, vegetables, and other crops in greenhouse environments. You might find hydroponically grown produce at your local grocery store. Today, many lettuces and tomatoes in your market have been hydroponically grown.
Summary
Plants can absorb inorganic nutrients and water through their root system, and carbon dioxide from the environment. The combination of organic compounds, along with water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight, produce the energy that allows plants to grow. Inorganic compounds form the majority of the soil solution. Plants access water though the soil. Water is absorbed by the plant root, transports nutrients throughout the plant, and maintains the structure of the plant. Essential elements are indispensable elements for plant growth. They are divided into macronutrients and micronutrients. The macronutrients plants require are carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Important micronutrients include iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine, nickel, cobalt, silicon and sodium.
Glossary
- inorganic compound
- chemical compound that does not contain carbon; it is not part of or produced by a living organism
- macronutrient
- nutrient that is required in large amounts for plant growth; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur
- micronutrient
- nutrient required in small amounts; also called trace element
- organic compound
- chemical compound that contains carbon


1
Which vitamin has the greatest chance of toxicity if taken in large doses?
-
Vitamin A
-
Riboflavin (B
2
)
-
Vitamin C
-
Pantothenic acid
2
The nurse provides dietary instruction to a client who is having difficulty controlling their blood glucose level. Which mineral deficiency should the nurse anticipate?
-
Chromium
-
Calcium
-
Copper
-
Iron
3
The nurse is teaching a client how to read a supplement label. Which of the following statements by the client about what information can be included in a supplement label indicates additional instruction is needed?
-
“It will describe how the ingredients can affect my body.”
-
“It will list the amount of the ingredients in the supplement.”
-
“It will describe how much of the supplement I should take.”
-
“It will describe how the supplement will cure my high blood pressure.”
4
The nurse is assessing a child with bowed legs. Which vitamin deficiency should the nurse anticipate is related to this disorder?
-
Vitamin C
-
Calcium
-
Vitamin D
-
Riboflavin
5
Which information should the nurse give to a client taking high doses of water-soluble vitamins?
-
Excess water-soluble vitamins are stored in fatty tissue.
-
Excess water-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver.
-
Excess water-soluble vitamins quickly reach toxic levels.
-
Excess water-soluble vitamins are excreted in the urine.
6
Which vitamin supplement should the nurse recommend to a client who is trying to conceive?
-
Thiamin
-
Niacin
-
Folate
-
Choline
7
Which minerals should the nurse instruct parents to include in the diet of preschool-aged children for the development of healthy bones and teeth?
-
Phosphorus and potassium
-
Iron and zinc
-
Calcium and phosphorus
-
Chloride and calcium
8
Which mineral deficiency should the nurse anticipate in the client diagnosed with goiter?
-
Iron
-
Iodine
-
Potassium
-
Sodium
9
Which food preparation technique should the nurse advise a client to use to prevent loss of water-soluble vitamins from the food?
-
Use less water in food preparation.
-
Cook food for a longer time.
-
Cook at a higher temperature.
-
Cut food into larger pieces.
10
Which vitamin deficiency should the nurse anticipate in the client with chronic alcohol use?
-
Riboflavin
-
Niacin
-
Vitamin C
-
Thiamin


26.5: Telescopes
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Outline the invention of a telescope.
- Describe the working of a telescope.
Telescopes are meant for viewing distant objects, producing an image that is larger than the image that can be seen with the unaided eye. Telescopes gather far more light than the eye, allowing dim objects to be observed with greater magnification and better resolution. Although Galileo is often credited with inventing the telescope, he actually did not. What he did was more important. He constructed several early telescopes, was the first to study the heavens with them, and made monumental discoveries using them. Among these are the moons of Jupiter, the craters and mountains on the Moon, the details of sunspots, and the fact that the Milky Way is composed of vast numbers of individual stars.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1a}\) shows a telescope made of two lenses, the convex objective and the concave eyepiece, the same construction used by Galileo. Such an arrangement produces an upright image and is used in spyglasses and opera glasses.
The most common two-lens telescope, like the simple microscope, uses two convex lenses and is shown in Figure 1b. The object is so far away from the telescope that it is essentially at infinity compared with the focal lengths of the lenses (\(d \approx \infty \)). The first image is thus produced at \(d_{i} = f_{o}\), as shown in the figure. To prove this, note that
\[\frac{1}{d_{i}} = \frac{1}{f_{o}} - \frac{1}{d_{o}} = \frac{1}{f_{o}} - \frac{1}{\infty}.\]
Because \(1/\infty = 0\), this simplifies to
\[\frac{1}{d_{i}} = \frac{1}{f_{o}},\]
which implies that \(d_{i} = f_{o}\), as claimed. It is true that for any distant object and any lens or mirror, the image is at the focal length.
The first image formed by a telescope objective as seen in Figure \(\PageIndex{1b}\) will not be large compared with what you might see by looking at the object directly. For example, the spot formed by sunlight focused on a piece of paper by a magnifying glass is the image of the Sun, and it is small. The telescope eyepiece (like the microscope eyepiece) magnifies this first image. The distance between the eyepiece and the objective lens is made slightly less than the sum of their focal lengths so that the first image is closer to the eyepiece than its focal length. That is, \(d_{o}'\) is less that \(f_{e}\), and so the eyepiece forms a case 2 image that is large and to the left for easy viewing. If the angle subtended by an object as viewed by the unaided eye is \(\theta\), and the angle subtended by the telescope image is \(\theta '\), then the angular magnification \(M\) is defined to be their ratio. That is, \(M = \theta ' / \theta \). It can be shown that the angular magnification of a telescope is related to the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece; and is given by
\[M = \frac{\theta '}{\theta} = - \frac{f_{o}}{f_{e}}.\label{26.6.1}\]
The minus sign indicates the image is inverted. To obtain the greatest angular magnification, it is best to have a long focal length objective and a short focal length eyepiece. The greater the angular magnification \(M\), the larger an object will appear when viewed through a telescope, making more details visible. Limits to observable details are imposed by many factors, including lens quality and atmospheric disturbance.
The image in most telescopes is inverted, which is unimportant for observing the stars but a real problem for other applications, such as telescopes on ships or telescopic gun sights. If an upright image is needed, Galileo’s arrangement in Figure \(\PageIndex{1a}\) can be used. But a more common arrangement is to use a third convex lens as an eyepiece, increasing the distance between the first two and inverting the image once again as seen in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).
A telescope can also be made with a concave mirror as its first element or objective, since a concave mirror acts like a convex lens as seen in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). Flat mirrors are often employed in optical instruments to make them more compact or to send light to cameras and other sensing devices. There are many advantages to using mirrors rather than lenses for telescope objectives. Mirrors can be constructed much larger than lenses and can, thus, gather large amounts of light, as needed to view distant galaxies, for example. Large and relatively flat mirrors have very long focal lengths, so that great angular magnification is possible.
Telescopes, like microscopes, can utilize a range of frequencies from the electromagnetic spectrum. Figure 4a shows the Australia Telescope Compact Array, which uses six 22-m antennas for mapping the southern skies using radio waves. Figure \(\PageIndex{4b}\) shows the focusing of x rays on the Chandra X-ray Observatory -- a satellite orbiting earth since 1999 and looking at high temperature events as exploding stars, quasars, and black holes. X rays, with much more energy and shorter wavelengths than RF and light, are mainly absorbed and not reflected when incident perpendicular to the medium. But they can be reflected when incident at small glancing angles, much like a rock will skip on a lake if thrown at a small angle. The mirrors for the Chandra consist of a long barrelled pathway and 4 pairs of mirrors to focus the rays at a point 10 meters away from the entrance. The mirrors are extremely smooth and consist of a glass ceramic base with a thin coating of metal (iridium).
A current exciting development is a collaborative effort involving 17 countries to construct a Square Kilometre Array (SKA) of telescopes capable of covering from 80 MHz to 2 GHz. The initial stage of the project is the construction of the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder in Western Australia (see Figure 5). The project will use cutting-edge technologies such as adaptive optics in which the lens or mirror is constructed from lots of carefully aligned tiny lenses and mirrors that can be manipulated using computers. A range of rapidly changing distortions can be minimized by deforming or tilting the tiny lenses and mirrors. The use of adaptive optics in vision correction is a current area of research.
Summary
- Simple telescopes can be made with two lenses. They are used for viewing objects at large distances and utilize the entire range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
- The angular magnification M for a telescope is given by \[M = \frac{\theta '}{\theta} = - \frac{f_{o}}{f_{e}},\] where \(\theta\) is the angle subtended by an object viewed by the unaided eye, \(\theta ' \) is the angle subtended by a magnified image, and \(f_{o}\) and \(f_{e}\) are the focal lengths of the objective and the eyepiece.
Glossary
- adaptive optics
- optical technology in which computers adjust the lenses and mirrors in a device to correct for image distortions
- angular magnification
- a ratio related to the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece and given as \(M = - \frac{f_{o}}{f_{e}}\)


3.14: Glossary
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
- Michael Brown
- Northeast Wisconsin Technical College
Authoritarianism Refers to an individual’s orientation toward authority.
Basic incongruity thesis Consists of three parts: what individuals want from organizations, what organizations want from individuals, and how these two potentially conflicting sets of desires are harmonized.
Cognitive complexity Represents a person’s capacity to acquire and sort through various pieces of information from the environment and organize them in such a way that they make sense.
Culture The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one human group from another; the interactive aggregate of common characteristics that influences a human group’s response to its environment.
Dependability Individuals who are seen as self-reliant, responsible, and consistent, are viewed as dependable.
Dogmatism Refers to a particular cognitive style that is characterized by closed-mindedness and inflexibility.
Ethics Values that help us determine appropriate standards of behavior and place limits on our behavior both inside and outside the organization.
Extroversion Refers to people who direct more of their attention to other people, objects, and events.
Instrumental values Represent those values concerning the way we approach end-states and whether individuals believe in ambition, cleanliness, honesty, or obedience.
Introversion Refers to people who focus their energies inwardly and have a greater sensitivity to abstract feelings.
Locus of control Refers to the tendency among individuals to attribute the events affecting their lives either to their own actions or to external forces; it is a measure of how much you think you control your own destiny.
Mental abilities An individual’s intellectual capabilities and are closely linked to how a person makes decisions and processes information. Included here are such factors as verbal comprehension, inductive reasoning, and memory.
Personal values Represent an important force in organizational behavior for several reasons.
Personality A stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those communalities and differences in the psychological behavior (thoughts, feelings, and actions) of people that have continuity in time and that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment.

Psychomotor abilities Examples are manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, and manipulation skills.
Self-esteem One’s opinion or belief about one’s self and self-worth.
Terminal values End-state goals that we prize.
Work ethic Refers to the strength of one’s commitment and dedication to hard work, both as an end in itself and as a means to future rewards.


15.1: Introduction
Module 15
Climate Change
Introduction
Climate is an average of the long-term weather patterns across a geographic area, which is a complicated metric controlled by factors within the lithosphere, atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and anthrosphere (the part of the environment that is influenced and modified mainly by human activity— sometimes also called the technosphere), as well as factors beyond our own planet. It is helpful to separate out humans from other life (anthrosphere verses biosphere) for several reasons, primarily because many of our activities are unique (industrialization, for instance) and it is helpful in understanding our role in climate change. Therefore, the science examining past, current, and future climate is extremely complex and interdisciplinary.
You may not think of climate as a geological field of study, but the history of climate is recorded within rocks, the current climate is altered by geologic events, and the future climate will be influenced by our use of geological resources such as fossil fuels. In addition to the complex nature of this subject, it is also one, if not the most, important scientific fields of study, both in terms of understanding the dynamics and implications of future climate change as well as attempting to combat or mitigate the potential effects.
Though the basic science behind climate and climate change has been well studied to a point of near consensus within the scientific community, there is still significant debate among the broader population. This is likely related to many factors beyond science, including economics, politics, the portrayal of the science by the media, and the overall public’s scientific literacy. Gaining a better understanding of this issue is difficult given the enormous wealth of information and disparity in scientific literacy. This lab will explore this issue by examining climate data, as well as how we, as scientists or scientific-minded citizens, make interpretations and conclusions regarding data— how it is presented, and how it relates to our understanding of the world around us.
Module Objectives
At the completion of this module you will be able to:
- Summarize the properties of greenhouse gases and their role in controlling the climate.

- Describe the significance of both albedo and permafrost melting to climate.
- Explain how extraction of fossil fuels and food production contribute to climate change.
- Describe the role of climate change in sea-level rise.
- Describe the link between climate change and the distribution of diseases and pests.
- Examine ways in which we as individuals can limit our personal contribution to climate change.
Activities Overview
See the Schedule of Work for dates of availability and due dates.
Be sure to read through the directions for all of this module’s activities before getting started so that you can plan your time accordingly. You are expected to work on this course throughout the week.
Module 15 Assignment: Changes in Extent of Sea Ice at the Poles
10 points
After you complete the reading, you can start working on Module 15 Assignment – Changes in Extent of Sea Ice at the Poles
Module 15 Quiz
10 points
Module 15 Quiz has 10 multiple-choice questions and is based on the content of the Module 15 readings and Assignment 15.
The quiz is worth a total of 10 points (1 points per question). You will have only 10 minutes to complete the quiz, and you may take this quiz only once. Note : that is not enough time to look up the answers!
Make sure that you fully understand all of the concepts presented and study for this quiz as though it were going to be proctored in a classroom, or you will likely find yourself running out of time.
Keep track of the time, and be sure to look over your full quiz results after you have submitted it for a grade.
Exam 3: Final Exam
75 points
The questions in this exam are “deep-thinking” questions designed to cultivate critical thinking based on what you have learned in the course up to this point. Each question will be worth 25 points (25 points x 3 questions = 75 points total).
Exam 3 Instructions and Questions
You will submit the results from your project in the Assignments folder labeled “Exam 3” by the end of this week (Module 15).
Your Questions and Concerns…
Please contact me if you have any questions or concerns.
General course questions : If your question is of a general nature such that other students would benefit from the answer, then go to the discussions area and post it as a question thread in the “General course questions” discussion area.
Personal questions : If your question is personal, (e.g. regarding my comments to you specifically), then send me an email from within this course.


35.4: How Neurons Communicate - Nerve Impulse Transmission within a Neuron- Resting Potential
- Explain the formation of the resting potential in neurons
Nerve Impulse Transmission within a Neuron
For the nervous system to function, neurons must be able to send and receive signals. These signals are possible because each neuron has a charged cellular membrane (a voltage difference between the inside and the outside). The charge of this membrane can change in response to neurotransmitter molecules released from other neurons and environmental stimuli. Any voltage is a difference in electric potential between two points; for example, the separation of positive and negative electric charges on opposite sides of a resistive barrier. To understand how neurons communicate, one must first understand the basis of charged membranes and the baseline or ‘resting’ membrane charge.
Neuronal Charged Membranes
The lipid bilayer membrane that surrounds a neuron is impermeable to charged molecules or ions. To enter or exit the neuron, ions must pass through special proteins called ion channels that span the membrane. Ion channels have different configurations: open, closed, and inactive. Some ion channels need to be activated in order to open and allow ions to pass into or out of the cell. These ion channels are sensitive to the environment and can change their shape accordingly. Ion channels that change their structure in response to voltage changes are called voltage-gated ion channels. Voltage-gated ion channels regulate the relative concentrations of different ions inside and outside the cell. The difference in total charge between the inside and outside of the cell is called the membrane potential.
Resting Membrane Potential
For quiescent cells, the relatively-static membrane potential is known as the resting membrane potential. The resting membrane potential is at equilibrium since it relies on the constant expenditure of energy for its maintenance. It is dominated by the ionic species in the system that has the greatest conductance across the membrane. For most cells, this is potassium. As potassium is also the ion with the most-negative equilibrium potential, usually the resting potential can be no more negative than the potassium equilibrium potential.
A neuron at rest is negatively charged because the inside of a cell is approximately 70 millivolts more negative than the outside (−70 mV); this number varies by neuron type and by species. This voltage is called the resting membrane potential and is caused by differences in the concentrations of ions inside and outside the cell. If the membrane were equally permeable to all ions, each type of ion would flow across the membrane and the system would reach equilibrium. Because ions cannot simply cross the membrane at will, there are different concentrations of several ions inside and outside the cell. The difference in the number of positively-charged potassium ions (K + ) inside and outside the cell dominates the resting membrane potential. When the membrane is at rest, K + ions accumulate inside the cell due to a net movement with the concentration gradient. The negative resting membrane potential is created and maintained by increasing the concentration of cations outside the cell (in the extracellular fluid) relative to inside the cell (in the cytoplasm). The negative charge within the cell is created by the cell membrane being more permeable to K + movement than Na + movement.
In neurons, potassium ions (K+) are maintained at high concentrations within the cell, while sodium ions (Na+) are maintained at high concentrations outside of the cell. The cell possesses potassium and sodium leakage channels that allow the two cations to diffuse down their concentration gradient. However, the neurons have far more potassium leakage channels than sodium leakage channels. Therefore, potassium diffuses out of the cell at a much faster rate than sodium leaks in. More cations leaving the cell than entering it causes the interior of the cell to be negatively charged relative to the outside of the cell. The actions of the sodium-potassium pump help to maintain the resting potential, once it is established. Recall that sodium-potassium pumps bring two K + ions into the cell while removing three Na+ ions per ATP consumed. As more cations are expelled from the cell than are taken in, the inside of the cell remains negatively charged relative to the extracellular fluid.
Key Points
- When the neuronal membrane is at rest, the resting potential is negative due to the accumulation of more sodium ions outside the cell than potassium ions inside the cell.
- Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell at a much faster rate than sodium ions diffuse into the cell because neurons have many more potassium leakage channels than sodium leakage channels.
- Sodium-potassium pumps move two potassium ions inside the cell as three sodium ions are pumped out to maintain the negatively-charged membrane inside the cell; this helps maintain the resting potential.
Key Terms
- ion channel : a protein complex or single protein that penetrates a cell membrane and catalyzes the passage of specific ions through that membrane
- membrane potential : the difference in electrical potential across the enclosing membrane of a cell
- resting potential : the nearly latent membrane potential of inactive cells


3.13: Accounting Entries for Depreciation
The following represents the accounting book entries for straight-line depreciation in the second year (from the prior page) , by way of example .
(000)
Income Statement Book Entry
Depreciation Expense ( dr ) $200
Balance Sheet Book Entries (End of second Year)
Note above that the debits are indented to the left, and the credits are more to the right. That’s as it should be.
Balance Sheet Appearance
The balance sheet , at the end of the second year, will contain the following items:
You will recall that equities are credit balance accounts. As noted earlier, y ou should think of the income statement as part of the equity section of the balance sheet. This is not a stretch as retained earnings are derived from the income statement, i.e., when the “ addition to retained earnings ” are transferred to the balance sheet – at year’s end, at the time that the books are cl o sed . Therefore , think of revenues as credits , and expenses as debits.
-Solomon ibn Gabirol


3.1: Regulations
SBX7-7
For many years, water agencies conducted water conservation programs as public outreach. They often set goals of fairly minimal savings over long periods of time—in other words, goals that were easy to achieve. Rebates were intended to help people save water, but also make them feel good and appreciate the water agency at the same time. Meanwhile, water agencies often had their own revenues in mind. They did not want people to be wasteful with water, but they also calculated a certain demand in order to set rates. They did not want too much conservation without planning for a reduction in revenue.
SBX7-7 changed everything. In 2009, Governor Schwarzenegger signed into law SBX7-7, the Water Conservation Act of 2009, which required retail water suppliers to determine their baseline per capita water use and reduce water use by 20% of their baseline by 2020.
What happens if a retail water supplier misses its target? Compliance with SBX7-7 determines eligibility for state water grants and loans. Failure to meet the target establishes a violation of law for administrative or judicial proceedings. This means a supplier wouldn’t be eligible for many grants and loans that suppliers rely on to fund infrastructure, and could have legal actions taken against it.
No doubt in 2020 some water suppliers will not meet SBX7-7 goals either intentionally or unintentionally. What will actually happen to them?  Some may be penalized with proceedings and some may not be because they made a good faith effort. This will be interesting to see.
State Water Resources Control Board Mandatory Measures
While SBX7-7 set a long-term goal of 20% by 2020, in July of 2014, mandatory measures from the State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) were enacted to combat the severity of the drought. The table below walks you through the executive and regulatory decisions about the drought.
|
January 2014 |
Governor Brown declared a drought state of emergency. |
|
April 2014 |
Governor Brown signed an Executive Order (April 2014 Proclamation), which asked for reductions of 20% by all Californians with an emphasis on outdoor conservation. The order prohibited HOAs from punishing homeowners who limit their watering, |
|
July 2014 |
State Water Resource Control Board (SWRCB) asked for mandatory reductions with an emphasis on outdoor reductions. |
|
March 2015 |
SWRCB adopted an expanded mandatory emergency conservation regulation, which prohibited:
Water suppliers are tasked with enforcement and ordered to report data monthly to the SWRCB. |
|
April 2015 |
Governor Brown directed the SWRCB to implement mandatory water reductions in urban areas to reduce urban use overall by 25% compared to 2013. Instructions to the SWRCB included considering relative per capita water usage of each supplier’s service area and requiring areas with higher use to cut consumption more. |
|
May 2015 |
SWRCB adopted an emergency conservation regulation with residential gallons per capita per day (R-GPCD targets). |
|
January 2016 |
Mandatory measures are extended through October 2016 with adjustments to R-GPCD possible for suppliers for climate and growth. |
|
May 2016 |
Prohibited measures described above become permanent. Water suppliers are allowed to “self-certify” their conservation targets by analyzing their water demand (average of 2013 and 2014) and their water supply and using a target for any shortfall. |
So while SBX7-7 concentrated on long-term conservation goals compared to a baseline of total water production, the SWRCB mandatory measures concentrated on short-term conservation goals, particularly in the residential sector and particularly outdoors.
The goals (or targets) were widely criticized for not being fair. This is usually referred to as having "equity issues." While the SWRCB separated out commercial, industrial and institutional water use and concentrated strictly on a residential water reduction, it tended to penalize the water suppliers with higher per capita consumption with larger goals. Water suppliers with higher per capita consumption tended to be inland areas with higher water demand—meaning it was simply hotter inland and the plant water needs were much greater.
And then the winter of 2017 was wet. In Northern California, it was unbelievably wet breaking records. In Southern California, it was slightly wetter than average. In the Santa Clarita Valley, while it "felt" like a break from the drought, you can see that Water Year 16/17 (October 2016 – September 2017) was only slightly wetter than average with around 20 inches of rain for the entire year.
Is the drought over? Certainly, if you rely on imported water from the State Water Project, there was plenty of water in 2017. But most Southern California communities that used groundwater still found their groundwater supplies below average. For some parts of Southern California, including Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties, the drought was definitely not over. Looking at the graph above, would you say the drought was over in the Santa Clarita Valley?
As of this writing, the State Water Resources Control Board is implementing targets by service area to include an indoor component, a landscape component, a water loss requirement, and separate measures for commercial, industrial, and institutional users.
Building Codes
What type of regulations govern the building of a home? In terms of water use, how does a developer decide what type of toilet to use? Or aerators to install? Or landscaping to put in? These sorts of choices are governed by layers of codes, including city, county, state, and federal. In most instances, when there are overlapping standards, the most stringent apply.
Cal Green Building Code (2014 update)
|
Indoors |
Water Use |
|
Toilets |
1.28 gallons per flush |
|
Showerheads |
2.0 gallons per minute at 80 psi |
|
Bathroom faucets |
1.2 gallons at 60 psi |
|
Kitchen faucets |
1.8 gallons at 60 psi |
|
Outdoor |
|
|
Controllers |
All controllers shall be weather-based or soil-moisture-based and shall have a rain shut off |
All of the indoor devices listed above have a specific flow or flush rate. This is the rate from the manufacturer and may not be the rate in real life. Toilets, for example, leak over time and may use more than 1.28 gallons per flush. Similarly, faucets have a rating at 60 pounds per square inch, but it is entirely possible to have more pressure inside a house and use more water because of it.
Building codes are very useful in driving long-term demand downwards, primarily inside the home. In California; if there was a change to the code that forbid turf grass from being installed in new homes, demand could be driven down further outside rather than simply relying on controllers.
The graph above shows the savings in 2020 in the Santa Clarita Valley as a result of various measures, including incentives (rebates), plumbing code and standards, pricing and water loss reduction. Note that 9% of the savings are from conservation pricing and 25% of the savings are from plumbing codes and standards. These are powerful ways to drive demand down.
Try It!
Conduct a quick inventory of a bathroom at home. What can you tell about the flow rate of these devices?
|
Toilets |
___________ gallons per flush |
|
Showerheads |
___________ gallons per minute at 80 psi |
|
Bathroom faucets |
___________ gallons at 60 psi |
- Which type of regulation (SBX7-7, SWRCB restrictions, or Building Code) do you think will result in the most savings over time?
- Which measure prohibited by the SWRCB would be the most difficult for customers to prevent?


35 .
Where are the two places where you can find the margin commands? Explain the steps for each one.
36 .
Why is readability important for business documents?
37 .
Discuss some accessibility options that you should consider when creating a document.
38 .
Explain the difference between serif and sans serif fonts. Provide an example font of each.
40 .
What does the Editor tool do that extends beyond a typical spell-check?
41 .
Why might you use both comments and Track Changes in a document?
42 .
What is a theme, and why would you use one?
43 .
Explain what the action bar is and how it can help you when creating a document in Docs.
44 .
Explain the process for creating a new Doc.
45 .
How do you modify document section formatting in Docs?
46 .
Why would you insert different sections in a report?
47 .
Describe how the Explore command might be useful when writing a research paper for a class. Provide an example.
48 .
Why would looking at version history be helpful in developing the final version of documents? Explain, giving at least five reasons.


29.9D: Arrhythmia
- Describe what are cardiac arrhythmias
Cardiac arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat) is any of a large and heterogeneous group of conditions in which there is abnormal electrical activity in the heart. The heartbeat may be too fast or too slow and may be regular or irregular. Some arrhythmias are life-threatening medical emergencies that can result in cardiac arrest. Others cause symptoms such as an abnormal awareness of heartbeat (palpitations) and may be merely uncomfortable. These palpitations have also been known to be caused by atrial/ventricular fibrillation, wire faults, and other technical or mechanical issues in cardiac pacemakers/defibrillators. Still others may not be associated with any symptoms at all, but may predispose the patient to potentially life threatening stroke or embolism. SADS, or sudden arrhythmic death syndrome, is a term (as part of sudden unexpected death syndrome) used to describe sudden death due to cardiac arrest brought on by an arrhythmia in the absence of any structural heart disease on autopsy.
The Conduction System
Automaticity refers to a cardiac muscle cell firing off an impulse on its own. All of the cells in the heart have the ability to initiate an action potential; however, only some of these cells are designed to routinely trigger heart beats. These cells are found in the conduction system of the heart and include the SA node, AV node, Bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers. The sinoatrial node is a single specialized location in the atrium which has a higher automaticity (a faster pacemaker) than the rest of the heart and, therefore, is usually responsible for setting the heart rate and initiating each heart beat.
In normal electrical activity, each heart beat originates as an electrical impulse from a small area of tissue in the right atrium of the heart called the sinus node or sino-atrial node or SA node. The impulse initially causes both atria to contract, then activates the atrioventricular (or AV) node which is normally the only electrical connection between the atria and the ventricles (main pumping chambers). The impulse then spreads through both ventricles causing a synchronized contraction of the heart muscle and, thus, the pulse. In adults the normal resting heart rate ranges from 60 to 80 beats per minute. The resting heart rate in children is much faster.  This may be caused by a slowed signal from the sinus node (sinus bradycardia), a pause in the normal activity of the sinus node (sinus arrest), or by blocking of the electrical impulse on its way from the atria to the ventricles (AV block or heart block). Heart block comes in varying degrees and severity. Bradycardias may be present in the normally functioning heart of endurance athletes or other well-conditioned persons.
Arrhythmias
Arrhythmia may be classified by rate (normal, tachycardia, bradycardia), or mechanism (automaticity, reentry, fibrillation). It is also appropriate to classify by site of origin. Arrhythmias with atrial origin include: Premature Atrial Contractions (PACs), Wandering Atrial Pacemaker, Atrial flutter, and Atrial fibrillation (Afib). Arrhythmias arising at the junction: Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), Junctional rhythm, and Junctional tachycardia. Arrythmias arising from pathologies at the AV node (AV blocks): First degree heart block, which manifests as PR prolongation, Second degree heart block, and Third degree heart block, also known as complete heart block.
Fibrillation
When an entire chamber of the heart is involved in a multiple micro-reentry circuits and, therefore, quivering with chaotic electrical impulses, it is said to be in fibrillation. Fibrillation can affect the atrium (atrial fibrillation) or the ventricle (ventricular fibrillation); ventricular fibrillation is imminently life-threatening. Atrial fibrillation affects the upper chambers of the heart, known as the atria. Atrial fibrillation may be due to serious underlying medical conditions and should be evaluated by a physician. It is not typically a medical emergency. Ventricular fibrillation occurs in the ventricles (lower chambers) of the heart; it is always a medical emergency. If left untreated, ventricular fibrillation (VF, or V-fib) can lead to death within minutes. When a heart goes into V-fib, effective pumping of the blood stops. V-fib is considered a form of cardiac arrest.
Treatment
Dysrhythmias may also be treated electrically, by applying a shock across the heart—either externally to the chest wall or internally to the heart via implanted electrodes. Cardioversion is either achieved pharmacologically or via the application of a shock synchronized to the underlying heartbeat. It is used for treatment of supraventricular tachycardias. Defibrillation differs in that the shock is not synchronized. It is needed for the chaotic rhythm of ventricular fibrillation and is also used for pulseless ventricular tachycardia. Often, more electricity is required for defibrillation than for cardioversion. In most defibrillation, the recipient has lost consciousness so there is no need for sedation.
Key Points
- Some arrhythmias are life -threatening medical emergencies that can result in cardiac arrest. Others cause symptoms such as an abnormal awareness of heart beat (palpitations), and may be merely uncomfortable.
- The term cardiac arrhythmia covers a very large number of very different conditions. The most common symptom of arrhythmia is an abnormal awareness of heartbeat, called palpitations.
- Automaticity refers to a cardiac muscle cell firing off an impulse on its own. All of the cells in the heart have the ability to initiate an action potential; however, only some are designed to routinely trigger heart beats. These cells are found in the conduction system of the heart.
- Ventricular fibrillation is imminently life-threatening. Atrial fibrillation is not typically a medical emergency.
- Arrhythmia may be classified by rate (normal, tachycardia, bradycardia) or mechanism (automaticity, reentry, fibrillation). It is also appropriate to classify by site of origin.
- Causes of SADS in young people include viral myocarditis, long QT syndrome, Brugada syndrome, Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia.
Key Terms
- automaticity : The ability of the heart muscles to contract independently of each other when separated or in unison when reattached in whole or in groups.
- supraventricular tachycardia : Any rapid heart rhythm originating at or above the atrioventricular node.
- Cardiac arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat) : A large and heterogeneous group of conditions in which there is abnormal electrical activity in the heart.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY
- Curation and Revision. Authored by : Boundless.com. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
- Congenital heart defect. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_heart_defect . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- hypoplasia. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypoplasia . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- cyanosis. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cyanosis . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- long QT syndrome. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/long_QT_syndrome . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- VSD image. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VSD_image.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Phonocardiograms from normal and abnormal heart sounds. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ph...art_sounds.png . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Valvular heart disease. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Valvular_heart_disease . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- inflammation. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/inflammation . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- VSD image. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VSD_image.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Phonocardiograms from normal and abnormal heart sounds. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ph...art_sounds.png . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Myocardial infarction. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarction . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Ischaemic heart disease. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischaemic_heart_disease . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- angioplasty. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/angioplasty . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- ischemia. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ischemia . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- angiography. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/angiography . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- VSD image. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VSD_image.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Phonocardiograms from normal and abnormal heart sounds. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ph...art_sounds.png . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Stress test. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stress_test.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Endo dysfunction Athero. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...ion_Athero.PNG . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- AMI scheme. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AMI_scheme.png . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Arrhythmia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhythmia . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- automaticity. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/automaticity . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- supraventricular tachycardia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/suprave...%20tachycardia . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Cardiac arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat). Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac...r%20heartbeat) . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- VSD image. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VSD_image.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Phonocardiograms from normal and abnormal heart sounds. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ph...art_sounds.png . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Stress test. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stress_test.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Endo dysfunction Athero. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...ion_Athero.PNG . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- AMI scheme. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AMI_scheme.png . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Atrial flutter34. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:At..._flutter34.JPG . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Heart conduct sinus. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:He...duct_sinus.gif . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- SinusRhythmLabels. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Si...ythmLabels.svg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


19.1: General Guidelines
Sentencing
In most jurisdictions, the judge holds the responsibility of imposing criminal sentences on convicted offenders. Often, this is a difficult process that defines the application of simple sentencing principles. The latitude that a judge has in imposing sentences can vary widely from state to state. This is because state legislatures often set the minimum and maximum punishments for particular crimes in criminal statutes. The law also specifies alternatives to incarceration that a judge may use to tailor a sentence to an individual offender.
Sentencing Statutes and Guidelines
In the United States, most jurisdictions hold that criminal sentencing is entirely a matter of statute. That is, legislative bodies determine the punishments that are associated with particular crimes. These legislative assemblies establish such sentencing schemes by passing sentencing statutes or establishing sentencing guidelines . These sentences can be of different types that have a profound effect on both the administration of criminal justice and the life of the convicted offender.
Indeterminate Sentences
Indeterminate sentencing is a type of criminal sentencing where the convict is not given a sentence of a certain period in prison. Rather, the amount of time served is based on the offender’s conduct while incarcerated. Most often, a broad range is specified during sentencing, and then a parole board will decide when the offender has earned release.
Determinate Sentences
A determinate sentence is of a fixed length, and is generally not subject to review by a parole board. Convicts must serve all of the time sentenced, minus any good time earned while incarcerated.
Mandatory Sentences
Mandatory sentences are a type of sentence where the absolute minimum sentence is established by a legislative body. This effectively limits judicial discretion in such cases. Mandatory sentences are often included in habitual offender laws, such as repeat drug offenders. Under federal law, prosecutors have the powerful plea bargaining tool of agreeing not to file under the prior felony statute.
Sentencing Guidelines
The Sentencing Reform Act of 1984 was passed in response to congressional concern about fairness in federal sentencing practices. The Act completely changed the way courts sentenced federal offenders. The Act created a new federal agency, the U.S. Sentencing Commission, to set sentencing guidelines for every federal offense. When federal sentencing guidelines went into effect in 1987, they significantly altered judges’ sentencing discretion, probation officers’ preparation of the presentence investigation report, and officers’ overall role in the sentencing process. The new sentencing scheme also placed officers in a more adversarial environment in the courtroom, where attorneys might dispute facts, question guideline calculations, and object to the information in the presentence report. In addition to providing for a new sentencing process, the Act also replaced parole with “supervised release,” a term of community supervision to be served by prisoners after they completed prison terms (Courts, 2015).
When the Federal Courts began using sentencing guidelines, about half of the states adopted the practice. Sentencing guidelines indicate to the sentencing judge a narrow range of expected punishments for specific offenses. The purpose of these guidelines is to limit judicial discretion in sentencing. Several sentencing guidelines use a grid system, where the severity of the offense runs down one axis, and the criminal history of the offender runs across the other. The more serious the offense, the longer the sentence the offender receives. The longer the criminal history of the offender, the longer the sentence imposed. Some systems allow judges to go outside of the guidelines when aggravating or mitigating circumstances exist.
Presentence Investigation
Many jurisdictions require that a presentence investigation take place before a sentence is handed down. Most of the time, the presentence investigation is conducted by a probation officer, and results in a presentence investigation report . This document describes the convict’s education, employment record, criminal history, present offense, prospects for rehabilitation, and any personal issues, such as addiction, that may impact the court’s decision. The report usually contains a recommendation as to the sentence that the court should impose. These reports are a major influence on the judge’s final decision.
Victim Impact Statements
Many states now consider the impact that a crime had on the victim when determining an appropriate sentence. A few states even allow the victims to appear in court and testify. Victim impact statements are usually read aloud in open court during the sentencing phase of a trial. Criminal defendants have challenged the constitutionality of this process on the grounds that it violates the Proportionality Doctrine requirement of the Eighth Amendment, but the Supreme Court has rejected this argument and found the admission of victim statements constitutional.
The Sentencing Hearing
Many jurisdictions pass final sentences in a phase of the trial process known as a sentencing hearing . The prosecutor will recommend a sentence in the name of the people, or defend the recommended sentence in the presentence investigation report, depending on the jurisdiction. Defendants retain the right to counsel during this phase of the process. Defendants also have the right to make a statement to the judge before the sentence is handed down.
Influences on Sentencing Decisions
The severity of a sentence usually hinges on two major factors. The first is the seriousness of the offense. The other, which is much more complex, is the presence of aggravating or mitigating circumstances. In general the more serious the crime, the harsher the punishment.
Concurrent versus Consecutive Sentences
It is not uncommon for a person to be indicted on multiple offenses. This can be several different offenses, or a repetition of the same offense. In many jurisdictions, the judge has the option to order the sentences to be served concurrently or consecutively . A concurrent sentence means that the sentences are served at the same time. A consecutive sentence means that the defendant serves the sentences one after another.


16.2: Endocrine Glands and Hormones
Hormones are chemicals that are secreted by endocrine glands . Unlike exocrine glands (see chapter 5), endocrine glands have no ducts, but release their secretions directly into the blood system, which carries them throughout the body. However, hormones only affect the specific target organs that recognize them. For example, although it is carried to virtually every cell in the body, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), released from the anterior pituitary gland , only acts on the follicle cells of the ovaries causing them to develop.
A nerve impulse travels rapidly and produces an almost instantaneous response but one that lasts only briefly. In contrast, hormones act more slowly and their effects may be long lasting. Target cells respond to minute quantities of hormones and the concentration in the blood is always extremely low. However, target cells are sensitive to subtle changes in hormone concentration and the endocrine system regulates processes by changing the rate of hormone secretion.
Diagram 16.1: The main endocrine organs of the body
The main endocrine glands in the body are the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid , and adrenal glands , the pancreas, ovaries and testes . Their positions in the body are shown in diagram 16.1.


1.3.4: Models in Geography
A model is simply a representation of a real thing. You have seen and used models in the past, like a globe which is a model of the earth. Geographers construct models to analyze geographic processes because the real object of study may be too large to examine, the processes which created it operate over too long of a time frame, or experimentation might actually harm or destroy it. For instance, physical geographers construct physical models like stream tables to investigate the impact of hydrological processes on the earth. A stream table is more or less like a shallow sink filled with earth material similar to the land surface of interest. Water is applied to the material to see what effect varying amounts of water have on the erosion of the surface. Models may be simple conceptual models such as a box and arrow diagram showing the flows of energy between compartments of an ecosystem. Climate scientists use elaborate mathematical or numerical models . These could be complex numerical statements programmed into a computer model representing the impact of increasing carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere on global temperature.
Video : Climate in a Box (Courtesy NASA)


32.0: Prelude to Applications of Nuclear Physics
Applications of nuclear physics have become an integral part of modern life. From the bone scan that detects a cancer to the radioiodine treatment that cures another, nuclear radiation has diagnostic and therapeutic effects on medicine. From the fission power reactor to the hope of controlled fusion, nuclear energy is now commonplace and is a part of our plans for the future. Yet, the destructive potential of nuclear weapons haunts us, as does the possibility of nuclear reactor accidents.
Certainly, several applications of nuclear physics escape our view, as seen in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Not only has nuclear physics revealed secrets of nature, it has an inevitable impact based on its applications, as they are intertwined with human values. Because of its potential for alleviation of suffering, and its power as an ultimate destructor of life, nuclear physics is often viewed with ambivalence. But it provides perhaps the best example that applications can be good or evil, while knowledge itself is neither.


8.4: Architecture for the 21st Century
Introduction
Architecture is the art and process of designing and constructing buildings, both small and large. Architects accomplish practical and expressive requirements to provide both functional and artistic ends. Contemporary architecture is a compilation of many styles with no dominant hierarchy. From traditional to highly conceptional, the square buildings of the twentieth century have given way to buildings with the look of a sculptural piece of art. With the use of digital technology, the pencil has been replaced. We have entered a process of digitized architecture, transforming societies' way of life and raising awareness of the global environmental damage caused by the overuse of natural resources. New technologies challenge gravity as they spiral higher into the atmosphere as competitions become the highest. [1]
Architecture is one of the significant developments in building design in the new millennium, developing new concepts and designing mixed-use facilities to fit into compact settings with public transportation. The pressures of energy requirements to meet radical design turned the architects into efficient and functional artists. The concepts of immense towers caused adjustments in lifestyles and the concepts of where we live, work, transportation needs, and supporting public lands requirements.
The building materials of the new millennium are prefabricated on-demand using computer-aided machines to cut, construct, and process raw materials into pieces transported to the job site. The use of robotics guarantees the accuracy and continuity of the fabricated components and reduces human error. Testing labs for earthquake stability, wind stability, and fire prevention are essential for the design. More than half of the world's population resides in urban cities, and contextual models have become important.
The invention of CAD (computer-aided software) in 1961 had the most significant impact on architectural design. The realistic representations, speed, accuracy, and affordability make the CAD programs valuable for architects. Today's CAD programs incorporate 3D visualizations and simulations without the need to create physical models. Virtual tours offer exact views of the architectural design. Architects can draw a set of plans for the construction company to build the structure, also making a mock-up model in three dimensions as an example for the client to physically see the design. Today, architects use computers to help design and draw the final plans and make live 3-dimensional models viewable from different angles.
Contemporary Architecture design continues into the twenty-first century; however, the transformation from standard upright buildings to organically designed with diverse functions and connections to the surrounding environment takes precedent. Architects are challenged to create unusual designs using twenty-first-century materials and engineering techniques.
Zaha Hadid
Zaha Hadid (1950-2016) was an Iraqi-British architect artist and designer born in Baghdad, Iraq. She planned and pushed the boundaries of building design with computer-aided design technology. Hadid embraced new materials and designed intelligent buildings to represent the future. She was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize of Architecture, the Pritzker Prize , and the Queen of England made her a Dame in 2012 for her contributions to the art of Architecture. She has been described as the "Queen of Curve," liberating architectural geometry and giving architecture a new life and identity. [2]
Growing up in an upper-class Iraqi family, Hadid studied mathematics at the American University of Beirut and moved to London to study at the Architectural Association School of Architecture. After graduation, Hadid opened her firm, Zaha Hadid Architects, in London and continued her unique modern styles, setting her apart from other architects. Her pioneering vision redefined architecture worldwide as she transformed concrete, steel, and glass into free-flowing virtuosic construction. "Experiencing Hadid's architecture yields an understanding that the quest for beauty alone was not her modus operandi. Her buildings are beautiful—and beauty may account for their seductive urban presence, for their hold on the eye—but the beauty and virtuosity within her work are married to meaning. Her architecture is inventive, original, and civic, offering generous public spaces that are clearly organized and intuitive to navigate." [3]
The Phaeno Science Center (8.4.1) in Germany was completed in 2005 and is considered a "hypnotic work of architecture—the kind of building that utterly transforms our vision of the future." The building itself stands on stilts creating a covered plaza, allowing people to walk under the building. The structure is 27,000 square meters of concrete and steel girders laid out in distinct patterns and includes workshops, laboratories, theater, and shopping. The free-flowing space does not have any right angles, and the different floors are intertwined, giving the visitor a unique experience. It has been described as a spacecraft that has just landed and put out the welcome mat. The original design used digital animation to conceptualize the spatial diagram of the building and its contents.
The interior (8.4.2) needed to house an exhibition space with plenty of room for young visitors to explore. The open floor arrangement encourages children's learning experience, free of dogmatism or any pedagogical paradigm based on the approach to learning.
The new Library and Learning Center of Vienna University (8.4.3) in Austria is one of the tallest and largest pieces of architecture on campus. The polygonal cube design has both inclined and vertical facades and two elements of contrasting colors separated by glass. However, as you move inside, it becomes curvilinear, creating a free-form inner canyon. The building contains classrooms, an auditorium, cafeteria, social rooms, administrative offices, and an extensive library. The multiple spaces are joined together with ramps and bridges overlooking the great hall filled with light. The operational plan was to define the different areas of use into blocks of sites. The library can accommodate 25,000 students and 1500 staff for gathering, learning, and meeting. The facade of the building is made from maintenance-free Corten steel, which will age over time. There are over 100,000 square meters of floor space with 4,000 rooms, 90 auditoriums and classrooms, and over 3,000 workstations.
The Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center (8.4.4), located in Azerbaijan, challenges the concepts of geometry and gravity, giving way to all form and no structure. The flowing architecture curves in sweeping shapes containing halls and a museum without a right angle in sight. As the fluid form of the outside topography merges, the entrances are found in the surface folds.
When viewers enter the center, the building folds inside decrease, becoming part of the interior (8.4.5). The 57,506 square meters are made from glass-fiber-reinforced polyester panels, which are seamless as the building undulates like a giant wave. The interior is a large-scale column-free space created by a concrete structure and a space frame system showing off the hypermodern world wrapped inside. Inside the curved wave of white glass fiber, reinforced polyester plastic covers the visitors in the sense of comfort. Hadid's design continuously self-transforms into many different directions with no terminus and little sense of boundary. [4] The center is so large it can host several events simultaneously. The core of the building is a large atrium with floor-to-ceiling glass panels allowing sweeping views of the grass landscape.
Guangzhou Opera House (8.4.6) overlooks the Pearl River in Guangdong Province, China, and is one of China's most prominent theatres. Hadid designed the building to interplay between architecture and nature, engaging the ideologies of erosion, geology, and topography. The two buildings resemble two large rocks washed up on the river. The auditorium was made of concrete with large swaths of glass and granite blocks. The unique contoured twin boulder design has a promenade from the land across the water.
The 1800 seat auditorium (8.4.7) houses the latest acoustic technology and the smaller 400 seat performance hall for opera and concerts in the round. The cultural development will combine land and sea together in harmony.
Ole Scheeren
Ole Scheeren (1971-) is a German architect and urbanist who creates contemporary architecture in large cities worldwide. He is the son of a German architect, Dieter Scheeren, and by the age of 14, he was working with his father designing furniture. He graduated from the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London. After ten years, Scheeren started his own company, Buro Ole Scheeren Group. The Interlace (8.4.8) in Singapore won Scheeren the World Building in 2015. Scheeren employed a modernist style in many of his designs using Form Follows Function. [5] The Interlace is a vertical community of living and social spaces combined with the natural ecosystem. Completed in 2013 on eight hectares of property, it houses 1,040 families, amenities, parking, and retail over 170,000 square meters.
Instead of a stacked cube building, The Interlace incorporates thirty-one apartment blocks, six stories tall, stacked in a hexagonal arrangement around eight large courtyards. The blocks are arranged in three peaks of twenty-four stories to resemble the city's dramatic mountains. The six floors create picturesque terraced gardens giving the illusion the buildings are part floating, part resting on each other. This "interlaced" construction gives the residents choices for interacting with other inhabitants, projecting a sense of freedom. The central courtyard includes picnic areas, pet zones, organic gardens, tennis and basketball courts, and a one-kilometer running track. The building incorporates low impact passive energy using wind, solar, and daylight analysis, winning the Urban Habitat Award.
The CCTV Headquarters (8.4.9) in Beijing, China, became an icon when it was finished. It is not a predictable building; it is a three-dimensional experience of geometric and social connections. The Headquarters were completed in 2012 on a twenty-hectare site and are 599,000 square meters. The two towers rise from the ground and intersect at the top, producing a cantilevered connection. The two L-shaped high-rise towers are connected at the bottom and the top in a Z-crisscross. The building was difficult to engineer from the design of two 6-degree leaning towers, bent at 90-degrees at the bottom and the top providing a continuous loop. A diagrid exoskeleton construction system was adopted on the external faces of the building that resists gravity and other lateral forces. [6] A butterfly plate links perimeter columns, braces, and beams giving it stability to cope with different load conditions and earthquakes. The façade of the building is a network of diagonal steel beams with inlaid glass panels creating a soft grey color.
Eduardo Souto de Moura
Eduardo Souto de Moura (1952-) is a Portuguese architect and won the Pritzker Prize in 2011 for the Estadio Municipal de Braga, the home ground of the Sporting Clube d Braga. It is the largest stadium in Portugal. A graduate of the Porto School of Architecture, Souto de Moura began his career in the 1980s and is known for his formal yet straightforward, serious, and dramatic designs. He uses natural colors and materials mixed with versatile and contextual designs, seldom affected by contemporary trends.
In Portugal, the Municipal Stadium of Braga (8.4.10) was built in 2003, a striking, contemporary, and award-winning designed stadium. Capable of holding 30,286 fans, it was carved into the side of the mountain, a Monte do Castro quarry, a large part of the construction costs. Its organizational scheme is determined by two tribunes that face one another: one is carved into the rock, and sixteen concrete ribs hold the other. [7] Large canopies connected by dozens of steel strings are between the seating, a design inspired by the Incan bridges in ancient South America. Souto de Moura designed a light, precision simplicity in form and details as he was determined to fit the stadium into the quarry.
The site in Portugal for the Paulo Rego Museum (8.4.11) was a fenced forest area with a clearing in the center. An ideal spot for the new museum, Souto de Moura considered the terrain and the natural setting surrounding the museum. The eucalyptus and pine trees became essential elements during the project as the building was a configuration of four unique wings of different lengths. The museum's interior was subdivided into halls with an elevated central volume, and the natural colors contrast with the cold blue marble of Cascais. The interplay between the green forest and the red-orange of the exterior concrete are complimentary colors. A hierarchy was created with the two large pyramids at the entrance axis marking the gift shop, library, and restaurant locations. The pyramids are reminiscent of ancient Portuguese architects, like the chimney of the Alcobaca Monastery. All the exhibition halls have glass openings towards the green forest, which surrounds the building providing views of the natural versus the concrete and abstract contemporary building.
Frank Gehry
Frank Gehry (1929-) is a Canadian American architect from Los Angeles, California. Gehry won the prestigious Pritzker Prize for the Walt Disney Concert Hall in 1989, located in Los Angeles. Gehry graduated from the School of Architecture at the University of Southern California. After service in the United States Army, Gehry established his architecture firm to design complex and unique buildings. Gehry believed there were too many cold and metallic modernist buildings dotting the skylines in cities worldwide. He wanted to build unique and quirky structures and approached architecture as a sculptural object, light and airy. By the 1990s, Gehry's trademark style was in high demand worldwide.
The Walt Disney Concert Hall (8.4.12) was completed in 2003 to great acclaim. The home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, the concert hall is internationally acknowledged as one of the most acoustically sophisticated concert halls in the world. The stainless-steel curvature of the exterior embodies the energy and creative spirit of the building, while the interior, in contrast, is wood-paneled, creating a harmonic feeling. More than 6000 panels create the skin of the hall's exterior and reflect like silver sails. There are massive columns in the lobby which resemble tree trunks and serve as the house lighting, heating, and air conditioning systems.
The 2,265-seat auditorium (8.4.13) is an independent concrete box with vertical grain Douglas fir walls, while the floor is red oak. The large skylights allow natural light when used during the day. One of the focal points is a 50-foot organ with over 6,000 pipes ranging in size from a pencil to a telephone pole. The entire project cost well over 275 million dollars.
The Biomuseo (8.4.14) is a natural history museum in Panama designed by Gehry. The museum opened in 2014 and is located on the Amador Causeway facing the Pacific Ocean. The museum provides panoramic views of ships entering the canal. Gehry donated his design to the people of Panama because his wife is a Panamanian. The museum concentrates on the history of the isthmus of Panama and how it changed the world. The heart of the building is a significant public atrium protected by large colorful metal canopies to ward off the frequent rain and contrast with the tropical green ecosystems. On the second-floor atrium level, visitors are treated to a view of the surrounding city and the Panama Canal. The colorful canopies are joined together by large I-beams of steel, like arms holding up the colorful steel plates. The fragmentation of the canopies is designed to be an independent roof hovering over the rest of the buildings.
The Marques de Riscal (8.4.15) is a luxury hotel locate in Elciego, Spain, and is the crown jewel of the Marriot International hotel chain. The hotel is set in one oldest wineries in Spain, with traditions going back over 200 years. The surrounding sandstone buildings are an integral part of the heritage, and Gehry needed to marry the traditional with the future. The hotel combines the most profoundly rooted winemaking tradition with an avant-garde design, luxury, and the most advanced technology of the 21 st century. [8] Finished in 2006, it stands out with its stunning forms and skyline. The building is only 35 meters tall, so it does not surpass the nearby church bell tower. It was essential to preserve the identity of the La Rioja region of grapes and peace. 100,000 square meters of the complex is devoted to producing the wine, two gourmet restaurants, and 44 exclusive hotel suites. Gehry's design mimics the form and gestures of the grapevines growing in the fields. The metal framework on the exterior provides shade in the hot summers of Spain. The colors of purple and green tones pay homage to the tradition of winemaking.
A marvelous creature, with its hair flying in all directions launching itself over the vineyards—Frank Gehry
Kazuyo Sejima
Kazuyo Sejima (1956-) is a Japanese architect known for her clear modernist elements with shiny, slick, and clean surfaces. After graduating from Japan Women's University, she worked for another architect. Sejima founded Kazuyo Sejima and Associates (SANNA) as a studio for innovative building designs worldwide. Sejima redefined her style, and instead of narrowing down a design, she used models to finalize what she calls "process designs." Sejima was the second woman (Zaha Hadid was first) to win the coveted Pritzker Prize in 2012. In 2016, Fast Company named SANNA one of the 50 Most Innovative Companies.
The Sumida Hokusai Museum (8.4.16) in Tokyo is dedicated to the great print artist Katsushika Hokusai to celebrate his work. The monolithic block is five stories with angular cutouts bringing light into the museum's center. The building is surrounded by a patchwork of residential, commercial, and light industrial zones. She had to fit the building into an environment of the architectural hodgepodge. Sejima divided the building into several units of various sizes, so the entire building did not overwhelm the neighborhood. [9] The geometric forms continued inside, creating walkways with a triangular appearance. The outside of the structure is clad in aluminum panels that softly reflect the skies, and there are huge windows for natural light, producing a fluid passage between inside and outside. One of the design challenges Sejima confronted was to minimize the amount of sunlight to protect the delicate prints of Hokusai's artwork. Leveraging the slanted wall, she allowed sunlight into the building by utilizing the A-frame construction.
In 2007, The New Museum of Contemporary Art (8.4.17) opened its doors to 5,453 square meters of changeable exhibition spaces and as an incubator for new ideas. The bold decision to stack boxes on top of each other gave Sejima the ability to create a harmonious symbiotic connection to the surrounding neighborhood. The seven boxes are of various sizes and heights (53 meters), giving the appearance of a child stacking blocks prior to it falling. The four public galleries are located on the first through the fourth floor, with educational centers and offices occupying the rest of the building. The light and airy spaces are covered in a seamless, anodized, and expanded aluminum mesh wrapped to mimic a soft, shimmering skin. Visitors are drawn into the museum through large 4.5-meter glass doors stretching the entire width of the building. The grey concrete sidewalks change into the grey concrete polished floors inside the doors.
Moshe Safdie
Moshe Safdie (1938-) is a Canadian architect born in Israel and moved to Canada. Known for his designs that bend lines and curves to create geometry, the concept had never been defined before. "His designs emphasize the need to create meaningful, vital and inclusive spaces that enhance the community, with attention to the buildings particular locale, culture, and geography." [10]
Located in Singapore, Marina Bay Sands (8.4.18) is 845,000 square meters with three-tower structures containing a casino, hotel, mall, theatre, convention center, restaurants, and even an ice-skating rink. The resort is located on sixteen hectares of reclaimed land and is fifty-five stories tall. Across the top of the three buildings is the 340 meters long cantilevered Sky Park to anchor all three buildings together.
The Sky Park (8.4.19) looks like a boat on top of the three buildings allowing people to view the surrounding landscape. A 150-meter infinity pool overlooks the bay. The sky park extends sixty-five meters beyond the buildings giving the building its graceful lines in the sky. The developers had originally requested a single large building, but Safdie convinced them to build three buildings with space between them so the city could still see out to the ocean. "There is no city if all we build is towers. We have to find a way to deploy towers in a way that creates public place, public realm," Safdie [11] . The Marina Bay Sands is a continuous ribbon of public spaces and waterfront activity in keeping with Singapore's image of a city in a garden. The Gardens by the Bay connect to the land with Marina Bay Sands.
Gardens by the Bay (8.4.20) sits on 101 hectares of land and contains conceptual designs to transform the city into a 'city in a garden.' The Park has three waterfront gardens and is part of the government's plan to create a garden in the city and enhance the quality of life with beauty, flora, and greenery. The central feature is the two column-less glasshouses made of sustainable materials covering the flower gardens.
The Super-trees include ferns, orchids, bromeliad, and other exotic plants. They function like regular trees and include photovoltaic cells to harness the sun's energy for lighting. The trees also collect rainwater used in the fountains and irrigation as part of the conservatories' intake and exhaust air system. Elevated between two Super-trees (8.4.21), the walkway gives visitors a panoramic view.
Cloud Forest (8.4.22) is a garden replicating the colder moist conditions generally found 1000 meters above sea level. Rainwater is collected for the cooling system connected to the Super-trees and used to cool the circulated water and vent the hot air. The Super-trees are vertical gardens twenty to fifty meters high and planted as environmental engines for the gardens.
Safdie designed The Khalsa Heritage Memorial Complex (8.4.23), located in Anandpur Sahib, India, to celebrate over 500 years of Sikh history. The center was designed to be rooted in the surrounding landscape and seems to rise out of the grass, appearing as sand cliffs. The upwardly curving roof lines are like the traditional gold domes crowning Sikh buildings. The western complex houses galleries, a library, and a 400-seat auditorium connecting with reflecting pools—the eastern complex houses five galleries of Sikh history. The five virtues of the Sikh religion are incorporated into the museum, with symbolic themes of earth and sky, mass and lightness, and depth and ascension, all represented in the sandstone towers and reflective silver roofs. [12] The entire structure is covered with local sandstone and craftsmanship. The Khalsa Heritage Memorial Complex is a true pilgrimage destination.
Norman Robert Foster
Norman Robert Foster (1935-) was born in England and studied architecture at the University of Manchester and Yale University. Foster designed Apple Park (8.4.24) in Silicon Valley, California, dubbed the spaceship. When Steve Jobs, the CEO of Apple, planned to build a new facility for the employees, he wanted the site to focus on the landscape with groves of trees, gardens, orchards, and meadows all designed to be environmentally friendly supportive. However, the enormous building still dominates the site, with a courtyard covering over twenty acres inside the center. The outer walls are a continuous wall of curved glass, the building powered by renewable energy with a solar roof covering the entire building.
The unusual theater (8.4.25) has glass walls and no visible sign of supporting pillars with a facility for product launches, ample meetings, and press reviews.
Shigeru Ban
Shigeru Ban (1957-) is a Japanese architect born in Tokyo and attended the Southern California Institute of Architecture. Ban is known for his innovative and temporary prefabricated cardboard houses for disaster victims. In 2014, Ban was named the 37 th recipient of the Pritzker Prize of modern architecture. "The Pritzker Jury cited Ban for his innovative use of material and his dedication to humanitarian efforts around the world, calling him "a committed teacher who is not only a role model for the younger generation but also an inspiration." [13] Marrying his Eastern philosophy with Western building materials, Ban creates minimalistic structures, unlike others.
The Aspen Art Museum (8.4.26) in Aspen, Colorado, is 10,058 square meters with four levels. The facility opened in 2014 with six gallery spaces, outdoor commons, and a rooftop sculpture garden. The Grand Stair covers three levels and intersects with a glass wall blending inside and outside spaces. The exterior wood screen is made from composite materials of paper and resin covered by a wood veneer. The roof deck has a sculpture garden and allows incredible views of the Rocky Mountains.
The Nomadic Museum (8.4.27) is made from used shipping containers and large paper tubes, allowing it to be moved from city to city, usually constructed on a pier. The Canadian photographer Gregory Colbert wanted a traveling museum to display Ashes and Snow's art exhibition. He asked Ban to design a traveling building and first opened it on New York's Pier 54, then traveled to other cities. The containers are stacked in two parallel rows for 205 meters in a checkerboard pattern. A tubular triangle roof truss was erected to support the fabric roof panels giving the illusion of a European Gothic church nave.
A broad pathway of wooden flooring (recycled scaffolding wood) (8.4.28) defines the pathway for visitors. The remainder of the floor is covered with river rock, giving a sense of peace and continuity, further emphasizing the minimalist design Ban created to focus on the art. The best part about the traveling museum is containers are standard sizes, and you can rent them in any port city where the museum is moved for the exhibition. Overall, the design is cost-effective as it utilizes recycled materials yet creates a visually powerful nomadic gallery.
Fernando Romero
Fernando Romero (1971-) is a Mexican architect who studied at the Universidad Iberoamericana in Mexico City. Romero started his firm in 2000, designing elaborate homes for wealthy Mexicans. He is known for his focus on sustainability and environmental integrity, leaning toward urban cities to be vehicle-free. The Museo Soumaya is one of the most visited museums in the world. The museum is free to all visitors and houses some of the Romero family art they collected. The Museo Soumaya (8.4.29) is a museum in Mexico City housing over 66,000 pieces of art from over 30 centuries and opened in 2011. The finished building is 46 meters high and is covered with 16,000 hexagonal aluminum tiles.
The form, a rotated rhomboid, is supported by a steel exoskeleton of twenty-eight vertical curved columns and seven beams that encircle the structure (8.4.30). The fabrication of the beams had zero tolerance for fitting together with the tiles, and laser topography was used for alignment. The exterior walls support the interior walls, but instead of aluminum tiles, there are several layers of gypsum panes, insulation, plaster, and then a product to weatherproof the building. The conceptual form of the building stands out when you first see the building. As you enter the museum, the interior stairs lead you around and around the exterior of the building on ramps with art at your fingertips. The building was constructed with locally sourced products, Mexican plaster, and aluminum.
The millennial architecture demonstrates that "if you can dream it, we can build it" assertiveness. With the advent of CAD, laser scanning topography, and new materials, the sky is the limit and not the imagination of architects. The evolution of materials is taking architecture to new limits of design.
[1] Narvaez, M. (2016). Six concepts about the architecture of the new millennium. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/40636706/Six_concepts_about_the_architecture_of_the_new_millennium?email_work_card=title
[2] Vyas, K. (2018). 17 Most inventive architects of the 21 st Century. Interesting Engineering . (3) (21).
[3] Retrieved from https://www.zaha-hadid.com/people/zaha-hadid/
[4] Giovannini, J. (2013). Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center, Designed by Zaha Hadid Architects. https://www.architectmagazine.com/design/buildings/heydar-aliyev-cultural-center-designed-by-zaha-hadid-architects_o
[5] Vyas, K. (2018). 17 Most inventive architects of the 21 st Century. Interesting Engineering . (3) (21).
[6] Retrieved from: https://www.designbuild-network.com/projects/cctv/
[7] Retrieved from: https://arquitecturaviva.com/works/estadio-municipal-de-braga-7
[8] Retrieved from: https://www.marquesderiscal.com/en/marques-de-riscal-hotel
[9] Retrieved from: https://www.interactiongreen.com/sum...kazuyo-sejima/
[10] Vyas, K. (2018). 17 Most inventive architects of the 21 st Century. Interesting Engineering . (3) (21).
[11] Winston, A. (2014). Moshe Safdie on Marina Bay Sands: a single tower would have been “unberable”. (11) (10).
[12] Retrieved from: https://architizer.com/projects/khalsa-heritage-centre/
[13] Shigeru Ban named 2014 Pritzker Prize Winner" . ArchDaily .