9.6: Social and Cultural Practices of Violence Against Women
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe social violence and the populations affected
- Define the different types of hate crimes
- Identify the inequality in child and forced marriages
Violence against women can be directed against women in general, or it can be focused on a group of women or an individual. Violence against women can be perpetrated as social violence, hate crimes, acid attacks, forced child marriages, and more. Social violence includes violence against groups such as members of the LGBTQIA+ community . Hate crimes include violence based on race, religion, gender, and so forth. Acid attacks, honor killings, and female genital mutilation are types of hate crimes. Child and forced marriages are types of gender-inequality crimes. Nurses should be knowledgeable of these practices and empower their patients through education.
Social Violence
Also known as community violence, social violence refers to the intentional use of force or power to harm individuals or groups within a community (CDC, 2022c). This can take many forms, including gang violence, hate crimes, and mass shootings. Those who are at risk of social violence may include persons who belong to marginalized communities , such as racial or ethnic minorities, the LGBTQIA+ community, or those who are homeless or living in poverty (CDC, 2022c). Incels, who have extreme misogynistic views, are perpetrators of social violence by inciting violence against women .
Incels are men who are involuntary celibates who believe they are entitled to relationships with or sexual access to women. Because of the online activity of many incel communities, incels are viewed as having potential to pose a danger to others.
Identifying social violence can be challenging because it often occurs suddenly and unpredictably. Some signs that social violence may be imminent include threats or acts of violence, the presence of weapons or other dangerous objects, or social media posts or other communications that indicate an intent to harm. Nurses play a crucial role in identifying signs of violence or abuse while patients are under their care. Beyond reporting the abuse, nurses may not be able to help a particular patient. But nurses can help society by implementing comprehensive violence prevention programs, providing training and education to health-care workers regarding signs of violence and abuse, improving communications between staff and patients when abuse is suspected, and ensuring that appropriate support is available to those who have experienced violence. Nurses can provide support and resources to those who have been impacted by social violence, including counseling, mental health care, and other forms of support to help them heal from the trauma of violence.
 For example, LGBTQIA+ persons are nine times more likely to be victims of violent hate crimes than non-LGBTQIA+ persons and are more likely to have a white assailant (88 percent vs. 54 percent) (UCLA School of Law, Williams Institute, 2022). Hate crimes can take many forms, including physical assault, verbal harassment , property damage, or even murder (U.S. Department of Justice, 2024). Anyone who belongs to a group that is historically marginalized or discriminated against can be at risk of being the target of a hate crime.
Acid Attacks
An acid attack is premeditated attacks in which acid is thrown like a weapon on someone, usually a woman, to torment, hurt, burn, and disfigure them. Acid attacks are hate crimes and are sometimes known as acid violence. Sulfuric acid is the most common acid used in these crimes. Acid attacks are not meant to kill; instead, they are meant to permanently scar the victim and leave a lifelong reminder of the violence. When acid is thrown on the body, it causes the skin to melt. If the acid is not washed off quickly, it can dissolve bone and cause disfigurement, hair loss, blindness, and hearing loss (Goswami & Handa, 2020). Globally, acid attacks are most commonly found in India, Pakistan, Norway, Malaysia, the Gambia, South Africa, Jamaica, and Egypt, although they can occur anywhere (Goswami & Handa, 2020). Documented causes of acid attacks include a male-dominated society, domestic violence , peer jealousy, vengeance by rejected and rebuffed lovers, and safeguarding the honor of the family (Goswami & Handa, 2020). To combat acid attacks, various measures are being implemented globally, including stricter regulations on the sale and purchase of acid, increased public awareness campaigns, and enhanced legal penalties for perpetrators. Survivors, like Natalia Ponce de León of Colombia (Figure 9.3), have campaigned for stricter legal penalties.
Honor Killings
An honor killing , the killing of a family member, usually a woman, who has brought “shame” on the family, has been practiced for hundreds of years and is most commonly seen in North Africa and the Middle East, with the highest number of honor killings in Pakistan (AlQahtani et al., 2022).  Today, men continue to practice honor killings for the same reasons; however, the woman does not need to actually commit a transgression. The mere suspicion of “improper” behavior brings shame to the family, causing the family member to kill the woman to eliminate the source of shame (Government of Canada, 2021). Other behaviors for which honor killings are committed include getting pregnant outside marriage, being a rape survivor, refusing an arranged marriage, wanting a divorce, and attending college against the male head of the household’s will (AlQahtani et al., 2022). Causes of honor killings include deep-rooted patriarchal dominance, desire to maintain social status, poor education, and a sense that violence against women can be justified (AlQahtani et al., 2022).
Female Genital Mutilation
Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female circumcision, is the act of removing part or all of the external female genitalia for nonmedical reasons, and it is a form of violence against women (WHO, 2024; Williams-Breault, 2018). FGM is usually performed between birth and adolescence and generally occurs in western, eastern, and northeastern areas of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia (WHO, 2024). Approximately 200 million women alive today have experienced FGM (WHO, 2024). Historically, this practice was seen as a cultural rite; however, the WHO (2024) notes that FGM is an international violation of human rights and is a brutal form of discrimination against the female gender. Acute complications of FGM include severe pain, hemorrhage, fever, infections, urinary problems, shock, and death (Williams-Breault , 2018). Long-term complications can include vaginal infections, urinary infections, pain with intercourse, difficulty with childbirth, scar tissue, depression , anxiety , and PTSD (Williams-Breault, 2018). Nurses may encounter more patients who have had FGM due to the immigration of people from areas where it is common. Nurses can provide compassionate care and education on urinary and vaginal health to prevent infections.
Child Marriages and Forced Marriages
Child marriage is the marriage of a person under 18 years of age to an adult. Child marriage is the result of gender inequality where girls are seen as property or as not having a voice. Married girls under 18 are at high risk for domestic violence, poor economic and health outcomes, and pregnancy during adolescence (UNICEF, 2023). Factors enabling child marriage include poverty , lack of education, limited access to health care, and a culture where families marry off their daughters to reduce economic burden or to secure their daughter’s future (UNICEF, 2023). In the United States, many child marriages occur in religiously conservative areas as a result of a young person becoming pregnant and the parents insisting they are married to not bring shame on the family (Padilla, 2023). Most states have minimum age limits for marriage (10 states: 17 years; 23 states: 16 years; 2 states: 15 years; 5 states: no minimum age); however, most states make exceptions to the minimum age limit with parental consent (Padilla, 2023).
Forced marriage is similar to child marriage because many forced marriages occur in girls under 18. Forced marriage can occur at any age, however, and includes the lack of consent of one or both persons (U.S. Department of State, 2024). In 2021, 22 million people in the world were living in a forced marriage , an increase of 6.6 million people between 2016 and 2021 (International Labour Organization, 2022). In many forced marriages, younger girls are made to marry older men. Girls are not allowed to stay in school, are often isolated, and lose their freedom (Save the Children, n.d.). With forced marriage comes forced pregnancy. Girls giving birth at very young ages have more complications due to their immature bodies and lack of knowledge or education. Girls in forced marriages also experience more poverty and domestic violence, with approximately 84 percent of victims of forced marriage being physically abused (Lindner, 2023).
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) is committed to ending the practice of child marriage. UNICEF and United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) have joined together to create a global program to end child marriage in 12 of the most high-prevalence areas.


7.9E: Arches of the Feet
The arches of the foot are formed by the tarsal and metatarsal bones; they dissipate impact forces and store energy for the subsequent step.
- Differentiate among the arches of the foot
Key Points
- The arches of the foot are formed by the tarsal and metatarsal bones and strengthened by ligaments and tendons. They allow the foot to support the weight of the body in the erect posture with the least weight.
- The slight mobility of the arches when weight is applied to and removed from the foot makes walking and running more economical in terms of energy.
- The longitudinal arch of the foot can be broken down into several smaller arches. The main arches are the antero- posterior arches, which may, for descriptive purposes, be regarded as divisible into two types—a medial and a lateral.
- The two longitudinal arches serve as pillars for the transverse arch that runs obliquely across the tarsometatarsal joints.
Key Terms
- arches of the foot : The area of the foot formed by the tarsal and metatarsal bones and strengthened by ligaments and tendons. They allow the foot to support the weight of the body in the erect posture with the least weight.
Arches of the Foot
Arches of the Foot : Skeleton of foot. Lateral aspect.
The arches of the foot are formed by the tarsal and metatarsal bones. Strengthened by ligaments and tendons, the elastic properties of arches allow the foot to act as a spring, dissipating impact forces and storing energy to be transfered into the subsequent step improving locomotion.
The two longitudinal arches and a transverse arch are maintained by the interlocking shapes of the foot bones, strong ligaments, and pulling muscles during activity. The slight mobility of these arches when weight is applied to and removed from the foot makes walking and running more economical in terms of energy.
Excessive strain on the tendons and ligaments of the feet can result in fallen arches or flat feet.
Longitudinal Arches
The longitudinal arch of the foot can be broken down into several smaller arches. The main arches are the antero-posterior arches, which may, for descriptive purposes, be regarded as divisible into two types—a medial and a lateral.
Medial Arch
Arches of Foot : Skeleton of foot. Medial aspect.
As can be examined in a footprint, the medial longitudinal arch curves above the ground. It is made by the calcaneus, the talus, the navicular, the three cuneiforms, and the first, second, and third metatarsals.
Its summit is at the superior articular surface of the talus. Its two extremities or piers, on which it rests in standing, are the tuberosity on the plantar surface of the calcaneus posteriorly, and the heads of the first, second, and third metatarsal bones anteriorly.
The chief characteristic of this arch is its elasticity, due to its height and to the number of small joints between its component parts. Its weakest part (i.e., the part most liable to yield from too much pressure) is the joint between the talus and navicular, but this portion is braced by the plantar calcaneonavicular ligament, also called the spring ligament, which is elastic and is thus able to quickly restore the arch to its original condition when the disturbing force is removed.
The ligament is strengthened medially by blending with the deltoid ligament of the ankle joint, and is supported inferiorly by the tendon of the tibialis posterior, which is spread out in a fan-shaped insertion and prevents undue tension of the ligament or such an amount of stretching as would permanently elongate it.
The arch is further supported by the plantar aponeurosis, by the small muscles in the sole of the foot, by the tendons of the peroneus longus and the tibialis anterior and posterior, and by the ligaments of all the articulations involved.
Lateral Arch
In contrast, the lateral longitudinal arch is very low. It is composed of the calcaneus, the cuboid, and the fourth and fifth metatarsals.
Its summit is at the talocalcaneal articulation, and its chief joint is the calcaneocuboid, which possesses a special mechanism for locking and allows only a limited movement. The most marked features of this arch are its solidity and its slight elevation.
Two strong ligaments—the long plantar and the plantar calcaneocuboid—the extensor tendons, and the short muscles of the little toe preserve its integrity.
Fundamental Longitudinal Arch
While these medial and lateral arches may be readily demonstrated as the component antero-posterior arches of the foot, the fundamental longitudinal arch is contributed to by both, and consists of the calcaneus, cuboid, third cuneiform, and third metatarsal: all the other bones of the foot may be removed without destroying this arch.
Transversal Arches
In addition to the longitudinal arches, the foot presents a series of transverse arches. The arches are complete at the posterior part of the metatarsus and the anterior part of the tarsus, but in the middle of the tarsus they present more of the characteristics of concavities.
These are directed downward and medially, so that when the medial borders of the feet are placed in apposition, a complete tarsal dome is formed. The transverse arches are strengthened by the interosseous, plantar, and dorsal ligaments; by the short muscles of the first and fifth toes (especially the transverse head of the adductor hallucis), and by the peroneus longus, whose tendon stretches between the piers of the arches.
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10.8: Reading- Natural Mass Wasting
Contributing Factors
There are several factors that increase the chance that a landslide will occur. Some of these we can prevent and some we cannot.
Water
A little bit of water helps to hold grains of sand or soil together. For example, you can build a larger sand castle with slightly wet sand than with dry sand. However too much water causes the sand to flow quickly away. Rapid snow melt or rainfall adds extra water to the soil, which increases the weight of the slope and makes sediment grains lose contact with each other, allowing flow.
Rock Type
Layers of weak rock, such as clay, also allow more landslides. Wet clay is very slippery, which provides an easy surface for materials to slide over.
Undercutting
If people dig into the base of a slope to create a road or a homesite, the slope may become unstable and move downhill. This is particularly dangerous when the underlying rock layers slope towards the area (figure 8).
When construction workers cut into slopes for homes or roads, they must stabilize the slope to help prevent a landslide (figure 9). Trees roots or even grasses can bind soil together. It is also a good idea to provide drainage so that the slope does not become saturated with water.
Ground shaking
An earthquake, volcanic eruption, or even just a truck going by can shake unstable ground loose and cause a slide. Skiers and hikers may disturb the snow they travel over and set off an avalanche.
A very good introduction to the topic, “Landslide 101,” is a video seen on National Geographic Videos, Environment Video, Natural Disasters, Landslides, and more.
Landslides
Although there are multiple types of causes of landslides, the three that cause most of the damaging landslides around the world are these:
Landslides and Water
Slope saturation by water is a primary cause of landslides. This effect can occur in the form of intense rainfall, snowmelt, changes in ground-water levels, and water-level changes along coastlines, earth dams, and the banks of lakes, reservoirs, canals, and rivers.
Landsliding and flooding are closely allied because both are related to precipitation, runoff, and the saturation of ground by water. In addition, debris flows and mudflows usually occur in small, steep stream channels and often are mistaken for floods; in fact, these two events often occur simultaneously in the same area.
Landslides can cause flooding by forming landslide dams that block valleys and stream channels, allowing large amounts of water to back up. This causes backwater flooding and, if the dam fails, subsequent downstream flooding. Also, solid landslide debris can “bulk” or add volume and density to otherwise normal streamflow or cause channel blockages and diversions creating flood conditions or localized erosion. Landslides can also cause overtopping of reservoirs and/or reduced capacity of reservoirs to store water.
Landslides and Seismic Activity
Many mountainous areas that are vulnerable to landslides have also experienced at least moderate rates of earthquake occurrence in recorded times. The occurrence of earthquakes in steep landslide-prone areas greatly increases the likelihood that landslides will occur, due to ground shaking alone or shaking-caused dilation of soil materials, which allows rapid infiltration of water. The 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake caused widespread landsliding and other ground failure, which caused most of the monetary loss due to the earthquake. Other areas of the United States, such as California and the Puget Sound region in Washington, have experienced slides, lateral spreading, and other types of ground failure due to moderate to large earthquakes. Widespread rockfalls also are caused by loosening of rocks as a result of ground shaking. Worldwide, landslides caused by earthquakes kill people and damage structures at higher rates than in the United States.
Landslides and Volcanic Activity
Landslides due to volcanic activity are some of the most devastating types. Volcanic lava may melt snow at a rapid rate, causing a deluge of rock, soil, ash, and water that accelerates rapidly on the steep slopes of volcanoes, devastating anything in its path. These volcanic debris flows (also known as lahars) reach great distances, once they leave the flanks of the volcano, and can damage structures in flat areas surrounding the volcanoes. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, in Washington triggered a massive landslide on the north flank of the volcano, the largest landslide in recorded times.
Geological Causes
- Weak or sensitive materials
- Weathered materials
- Sheared, jointed, or fissured materials
- Adversely oriented discontinuity (bedding, schistosity, fault, unconformity, contact, and so forth)
- Contrast in permeability and/or stiffness of materials
Morphological Causes
- Tectonic or volcanic uplift
- Glacial rebound
- Fluvial, wave, or glacial erosion of slope toe or lateral margins
- Subterranean erosion (solution, piping)
- Deposition loading slope or its crest
- Vegetation removal (by fire, drought)
- Thawing
- Freeze-and-thaw weathering
- Shrink-and-swell weathering
Contributors and Attributions
- 10.5: Erosion and Deposition by Gravity. Provided by : CK-12. Located at : http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Earth-Science-For-High-School/section/10.5/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Landslide Types and Processes. Provided by : USGS. Located at : http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2004/3072/fs-2004-3072.html . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


20: Nuclear Chemistry
The chemical reactions that we have considered in previous chapters involve changes in the electronic structure of the species involved, that is, the arrangement of the electrons around atoms, ions, or molecules. Nuclear structure, the numbers of protons and neutrons within the nuclei of the atoms involved, remains unchanged during chemical reactions. This chapter will introduce the topic of nuclear chemistry, which began with the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 by French physicist Antoine Becquerel and has become increasingly important during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, providing the basis for various technologies related to energy, medicine, geology, and many other areas.
Contributors
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Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley (Stephen F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>).


1.2: Overview
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Genetics – is the scientific study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics. It includes the study of genes, themselves, how they function, interact, and produce the visible and measurable characteristics we see in individuals and populations of species as they change from one generation to the next, over time, and in different environments.
Heredity – Humans have always been aware that the characteristics of an individual plant or animal in a population could be passed down through the generations. Offspring look more like their parents.Humans also knew that some heritable characteristics (such as the size or color of fruit) varied between individuals, and that they could select or breed crops and animals for the most favorable traits. Knowledge of these hereditary properties has been of significant value in the history of human development. In the past, humans could only manipulate and select from naturally existing combinations of genes. More recently, with the discovery of the substance and nature of genetic material, DNA, we can now identify, clone, and create novel, better combinations of genes that will serve our goals. Understanding the mechanisms of genetics is fundamental to using it wisely and for the betterment of all.
Fig.1-1: Parent and offspring. Wolf’s Monkey. (Flickr-eclectic echos-CC:AND)


12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of contacts
Although we are likely dealing only with disconformities when talking about sedimentary rocks and stratigraphic relationships, its worth remembering that there are three types of unconformities:
Angular unconformity – occurs when there is a marked discordance between layers caused by a period of uplift and erosion during unconformity development.
Nonconformity – occurs when you have sedimentary rocks deposited atop crystalline rocks that formed at depth.
Disconformity – occurs when you have sedimentary rocks atop sedimentary rocks with no obvious angular discordance. The unconformity surface can have significant amounts of erosional relief.


1.4: Measuring Mass
An electronic scale is used to measure the mass of an object. The instructor will demonstrate its use.
- Obtain a small object such as dice. Record the mass of the object in grams (g) and milligrams (mg).
- Tare the weigh boat. Empty the salt into the weigh boat. Record the mass of the salt in grams (g) and milligrams (mg).
You should consume less than 3 grams of salt/day. You weighed an amount that many in the United States consume daily. How does this compare with the recommended amount?
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1 pound = 0.454 kilograms
1 kg = 2.2 pounds -
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
1 meter = 39.4 inches -
1 quart = 0.946 liters
1 liter = 1.057 quarts
A person weighs 90,000 grams (g). What is the mass in kilogram (kg)? What is the mass in pounds?
What is your height in inches, centimeters, and meters?
Could a normal person be 3 meters tall? What is this height in feet/inches?
A bottle of water is 500 ml. Approximately how many cups of water does a person consuming this bottle drink?


12.S: Techniques of Molecular Genetics (Summary)
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- Ying Liu
- City College of San Francisco
- Molecular biology involves the isolation and analysis of DNA and other macromolecules
- Isolation of total genomic DNA involves separating DNA from protein and other cellular components, for example by ethanol precipitation of DNA.
- PCR can be used as part of a sensitive method to detect the presence of a particular DNA sequence
- PCR can also be used as part of a method to isolate and prepare large quantities of a particular DNA sequence
- Restriction enzymes are natural endonucleases used in molecular biology to cut DNA sequences at specific sites.
- DNA fragments with compatible ends can be joined together through ligation.If the ligation produces a sequence not found in nature, the molecule is said to be recombinant.
- Transformation is the introduction of DNA (usually recombinant plasmids) into bacteria.
- Cloning of genes in E. coli is a common technique in molecular biology, since it allows large quantities of a DNA for gene to made, which allows further analysis or manipulation
- Cloning can also be used to produce useful proteins, such as insulin, in microbes.
- Southern blotting can be used to detect the presence of any sequence that matches a probe, within a mixture of DNA (such as total genomic DNA).
- The stringency of hybridization in blotting and in PCR is dependent on physical parameters such as temperature and washing solution content.
Key Terms:
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macromolecules lysis detergent chelating agent EDTA nuclease pellet PCR primer thermalcycle denature anneal extend Taq DNApol electrophoretic gel restriction endonuclease EcoRI sticky end blunt end compatible end |
ligation ligase plasmid transformation competent electroporation selectable marker agarose vector band ethidium bromide Southern blot membrane denaturation hybridization washing probe stringency northern blot western blot transgene |
GMO transformation transfection naked DNA vector electroporation microinjection vesicles callus knock-out recalcitrant Agrobacterium particle bombardment T-DNA Ti plasmid position effects stem cells |


9.3: On the Move- The Transportation Revolution
Americans in the early 1800s were a people on the move, as thousands left the eastern coastal states for opportunities in the West. Unlike their predecessors, who traveled by foot or wagon train, these settlers had new transport options. Their trek was made possible by the construction of roads, canals, and railroads, projects that required the funding of the federal government and the states.
New technologies, like the steamship and railroad lines, had brought about what historians call the transportation revolution. States competed for the honor of having the most advanced transport systems. People celebrated the transformation of the wilderness into an orderly world of improvement demonstrating the steady march of progress and the greatness of the republic. In 1817, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina looked to a future of rapid internal improvements, declaring, “Let us . . . bind the Republic together with a perfect system of roads and canals.” Americans agreed that internal transportation routes would promote progress. By the eve of the Civil War, the United States had moved beyond roads and canals to a well-established and extensive system of railroads.
ROADS AND CANALS
One key part of the transportation revolution was the widespread building of roads and turnpikes. In 1811, construction began on the Cumberland Road, a national highway that provided thousands with a route from Maryland to Illinois. The federal government funded this important artery to the West, beginning the creation of a transportation infrastructure for the benefit of settlers and farmers. Other entities built turnpikes, which (as today) charged fees for use. New York State, for instance, chartered turnpike companies that dramatically increased the miles of state roads from one thousand in 1810 to four thousand by 1820. New York led the way in building turnpikes.
Canal mania swept the United States in the first half of the nineteenth century. Promoters knew these artificial rivers could save travelers immense amounts of time and money. Even short waterways, such as the two-and-a-half-mile canal going around the rapids of the Ohio River near Louisville, Kentucky, proved a huge leap forward, in this case by opening a water route from Pittsburgh to New Orleans. The preeminent example was the Erie Canal (Figure 9.3.1), which linked the Hudson River, and thus New York City and the Atlantic seaboard, to the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River Valley.
With its central location, large harbor, and access to the hinterland via the Hudson River, New York City already commanded the lion’s share of commerce. Still, the city’s merchants worried about losing ground to their competitors in Philadelphia and Baltimore. Their search for commercial advantage led to the dream of creating a water highway connecting the city’s Hudson River to Lake Erie and markets in the West. The result was the Erie Canal. Chartered in 1817 by the state of New York, the canal took seven years to complete. When it opened in 1825, it dramatically decreased the cost of shipping while reducing the time to travel to the West. Soon $15 million worth of goods (more than $200 million in today’s money) was being transported on the 363-mile waterway every year.
Explore the Erie Canal on ErieCanal.org via an interactive map. Click throughout the map for images of and artifacts from this historic waterway.
The success of the Erie Canal led to other, similar projects. The Wabash and Erie Canal, which opened in the early 1840s, stretched over 450 miles, making it the longest canal in North America (Figure 9.3.2). Canals added immensely to the country’s sense of progress. Indeed, they appeared to be the logical next step in the process of transforming wilderness into civilization.
As with highway projects such as the Cumberland Road, many canals were federally sponsored, especially during the presidency of John Quincy Adams in the late 1820s. Adams, along with Secretary of State Henry Clay, championed what was known as the American System, part of which included plans for a broad range of internal transportation improvements. Adams endorsed the creation of roads and canals to facilitate commerce and develop markets for agriculture as well as to advance settlement in the West.
RAILROADS
Starting in the late 1820s, steam locomotives began to compete with horse-drawn locomotives. The railroads with steam locomotives offered a new mode of transportation that fascinated citizens, buoying their optimistic view of the possibilities of technological progress. The Mohawk and Hudson Railroad was the first to begin service with a steam locomotive. Its inaugural train ran in 1831 on a track outside Albany and covered twelve miles in twenty-five minutes. Soon it was traveling regularly between Albany and Schenectady.
Toward the middle of the century, railroad construction kicked into high gear, and eager investors quickly formed a number of railroad companies. As a railroad grid began to take shape, it stimulated a greater demand for coal, iron, and steel. Soon, both railroads and canals crisscrossed the states (Figure 9.3.3), providing a transportation infrastructure that fueled the growth of American commerce. Indeed, the transportation revolution led to development in the coal, iron, and steel industries, providing many Americans with new job opportunities.
AMERICANS ON THE MOVE
The expansion of roads, canals, and railroads changed people’s lives. In 1786, it had taken a minimum of four days to travel from Boston, Massachusetts, to Providence, Rhode Island. By 1840, the trip took half a day on a train. In the twenty-first century, this may seem intolerably slow, but people at the time were amazed by the railroad’s speed. Its average of twenty miles per hour was twice as fast as other available modes of transportation.
By 1840, more than three thousand miles of canals had been dug in the United States, and thirty thousand miles of railroad track had been laid by the beginning of the Civil War. Together with the hundreds of steamboats that plied American rivers, these advances in transportation made it easier and less expensive to ship agricultural products from the West to feed people in eastern cities, and to send manufactured goods from the East to people in the West. Without this ability to transport goods, the market revolution would not have been possible. Rural families also became less isolated as a result of the transportation revolution. Traveling circuses, menageries, peddlers, and itinerant painters could now more easily make their way into rural districts, and people in search of work found cities and mill towns within their reach.
Section Summary
A transportation infrastructure rapidly took shape in the 1800s as American investors and the government began building roads, turnpikes, canals, and railroads. The time required to travel shrank vastly, and people marveled at their ability to conquer great distances, enhancing their sense of the steady advance of progress. The transportation revolution also made it possible to ship agricultural and manufactured goods throughout the country and enabled rural people to travel to towns and cities for employment opportunities.
Review Questions
Which of the following was not a factor in the transportation revolution?
the steam-powered locomotive
the canal system
the combustion engine
the government-funded road system
C
What was the significance of the Cumberland Road?
It gave settlers a quicker way to move west.
It reduced the time it took to move goods from New York Harbor to Lake Erie.
It improved trade from the Port of New Orleans.
It was the first paved road.
A
What were the benefits of the transportation revolution?
The Cumberland Road made transportation to the West easier for new settlers. The Erie Canal facilitated trade with the West by connecting the Hudson River to Lake Erie. Railroads shortened transportation times throughout the country, making it easier and less expensive to move people and goods.
Glossary
- Cumberland Road
- a national highway that provided thousands with a route from Maryland to Illinois
- Erie Canal
- a canal that connected the Hudson River to Lake Erie and markets in the West
- Mohawk and Hudson Railroad
- the first steam-powered locomotive railroad in the United States


6.7: Electronegativity and Polarity - Why Oil and Water Don’t Mix
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Learning Objectives
- Explain how polar compounds differ from nonpolar compounds.
- Determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar.
- Given a pair of compounds, predict which would have a higher melting or boiling point.
Bond Polarity
The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons is called electronegativity . When two atoms combine, the difference between their electronegativities is an indication of the type of bond that will form. If the difference between the electronegativities of the two atoms is small, neither atom can take the shared electrons completely away from the other atom, and the bond will be covalent. If the difference between the electronegativities is large, the more electronegative atom will take the bonding electrons completely away from the other atom (electron transfer will occur), and the bond will be ionic. This is why metals (low electronegativities) bonded with nonmetals (high electronegativities) typically produce ionic compounds.
A bond may be so polar that an electron actually transfers from one atom to another, forming a true ionic bond. How do we judge the degree of polarity? Scientists have devised a scale called electronegativity , a scale for judging how much atoms of any element attract electrons. Electronegativity is a unitless number; the higher the number, the more an atom attracts electrons. A common scale for electronegativity is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\).
The polarity of a covalent bond can be judged by determining the difference of the electronegativities of the two atoms involved in the covalent bond, as summarized in the following table:
| Electronegativity Difference | Bond Type |
|---|---|
| 0–0.4 | pure covalent |
| 0.5–2.0 | polar covalent |
| >2.0 | likely ionic |
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
A bond in which the electronegativity difference is less than 1.9 is considered to be mostly covalent in character. However, at this point we need to distinguish between two general types of covalent bonds. A nonpolar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are shared equally between the two atoms. In a nonpolar covalent bond, the distribution of electrical charge is balanced between the two atoms.
The two chlorine atoms share the pair of electrons in the single covalent bond equally, and the electron density surrounding the \(\ce{Cl_2}\) molecule is symmetrical. Also note that molecules in which the electronegativity difference is very small (<0.5) are also considered nonpolar covalent. An example would be a bond between chlorine and bromine (\(\Delta\)EN \(=3.0 - 2.8 = 0.2\)).
Polar Covalent Bonds
A bond in which the electronegativity difference between the atoms is between 0.5 and 2.0 is called a polar covalent bond. A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the atoms have an unequal attraction for electrons and so the sharing is unequal. In a polar covalent bond, sometimes simply called a polar bond, the distribution of electrons around the molecule is no longer symmetrical.
An easy way to illustrate the uneven electron distribution in a polar covalent bond is to use the Greek letter delta \(\left( \delta \right)\).
The atom with the greater electronegativity acquires a partial negative charge, while the atom with the lesser electronegativity acquires a partial positive charge. The delta symbol is used to indicate that the quantity of charge is less than one. A crossed arrow can also be used to indicate the direction of greater electron density.
Electronegativity differences in bonding using Pauling scale. Differences in electronegativity classify bonds as covalent, polar covalent, or ionic.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Bond Polarity
What is the polarity of each bond?
- C–H
- O–H
Solution
Using Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), we can calculate the difference of the electronegativities of the atoms involved in the bond.
- For the C–H bond, the difference in the electronegativities is 2.5 − 2.1 = 0.4. Thus we predict that this bond will be nonpolar covalent.
- For the O–H bond, the difference in electronegativities is 3.5 − 2.1 = 1.4, so we predict that this bond will be polar covalent.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
What is the polarity of each bond?
- Rb–F
- P–Cl
- Answer a
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likely ionic
- Answer b
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polar covalent
Molecular Polarity
To determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar, it is generally useful to look at Lewis structures. Nonpolar compounds will be symmetric, meaning all of the sides around the central atom are identical—bonded to the same element with no unshared pairs of electrons. Polar molecules are asymmetric, either containing lone pairs of electrons on a central atom or having atoms with different electronegativities bonded. This works pretty well, as long as you can visualize the molecular geometry. That's the hard part. To know how the bonds are oriented in space, you have to have a strong grasp of Lewis structures and VSEPR theory. Assuming that you do, you can look at the structure of each one and decide if it is polar or not, whether or not you know the individual atom's electronegativity . This is because you know that all bonds between dissimilar elements are polar, and in these particular examples, it doesn't matter which direction the dipole moment vectors are pointing (out or in).
A polar molecule is a molecule in which one end of the molecule is slightly positive, while the other end is slightly negative. A diatomic molecule that consists of a polar covalent bond, such as \(\ce{HF}\), is a polar molecule. The two electrically charged regions on either end of the molecule are called poles, similar to a magnet having a north and a south pole. A molecule with two poles is called a dipole (see figure below). Hydrogen fluoride is a dipole.
For molecules with more than two atoms, the molecular geometry must also be taken into account when determining if the molecule is polar or nonpolar. The figure below shows a comparison between carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide \(\left( \ce{CO_2} \right)\) is a linear molecule. The oxygen atoms are more electronegative than the carbon atom, so there are two individual dipoles pointing outward from the \(\ce{C}\) atom to each \(\ce{O}\) atom. However, since the dipoles are of equal strength and are oriented this way, they cancel out and the overall molecular polarity of \(\ce{CO_2}\) is zero.
Water is a bent molecule because of the two lone pairs on the central oxygen atom. The individual dipoles point from the \(\ce{H}\) atoms toward the \(\ce{O}\) atom. Because of the shape, the dipoles do not cancel each other out and the water molecule is polar. In the figure below, the net dipole is shown in blue and points upward.
Some other molecules are shown in the figure below. Notice that a tetrahedral molecule such as \(\ce{CH_4}\) is nonpolar. However, if one of the peripheral \(\ce{H}\) atoms is replaced with another atom that has a different electronegativity, the molecule becomes polar. A trigonal planar molecule \(\left( \ce{BF_3} \right)\) may be nonpolar if all three peripheral atoms are the same, but a trigonal pyramidal molecule \(\left( \ce{NH_3} \right)\) is polar.
To summarize, to be polar, a molecule must:
- Contain at least one polar covalent bond.
- Have a molecular structure such that the sum of the vectors of each bond dipole moment do not cancel.
Steps to Identify Polar Molecules
- Draw the Lewis structure.
- Figure out the geometry (using VSEPR theory).
- Visualize or draw the geometry.
- Find the net dipole moment (you don't have to actually do calculations if you can visualize it).
- If the net dipole moment is zero, it is non-polar. Otherwise, it is polar.
Properties of Polar Molecules
Polar molecules tend to align when placed in an electric field with the positive end of the molecule oriented toward the negative plate and the negative end toward the positive plate (Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\)). We can use an electrically charged object to attract polar molecules, but nonpolar molecules are not attracted. Also, polar solvents are better at dissolving polar substances, and nonpolar solvents are better at dissolving nonpolar substances.
While molecules can be described as "polar covalent" or "ionic", it must be noted that this is often a relative term, with one molecule simply being more polar or less polar than another. However, the following properties are typical of such molecules. Polar molecules tend to:
- have higher melting points than nonpolar molecules
- have higher boiling points than nonpolar molecules
- be more soluble in water (dissolve better) than nonpolar molecules
- have lower vapor pressures than nonpolar molecules
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\):
Label each of the following as polar or nonpolar.
- Water, H 2 O:
- Methanol, CH 3 OH:
- Hydrogen Cyanide, HCN:
- Oxygen, O 2 :
- Propane, C 3 H 8 :
Solution
- Water is polar. Any molecule with lone pairs of electrons around the central atom is polar.
- Methanol is polar. This is not a symmetric molecule. The \(\ce{-OH}\) side is different from the other 3 \(\ce{-H}\) sides.
- Hydrogen cyanide is polar. The molecule is not symmetric. The nitrogen and hydrogen have different electronegativities, creating an uneven pull on the electrons.
- Oxygen is nonpolar. The molecule is symmetric. The two oxygen atoms pull on the electrons by exactly the same amount.
- Propane is nonpolar, because it is symmetric, with \(\ce{H}\) atoms bonded to every side around the central atoms and no unshared pairs of electrons.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Label each of the following as polar or nonpolar.
- \(\ce{SO3}\)
- \(\ce{NH3}\)
- Answer a
- nonpolar
- Answer b
- polar


21: Facilitation of Elimination Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 44491 Ernstmeyer & Christman (Eds.) Chippewa Valley Technical College via OpenRN 21.1: Facilitation of Elimination Introduction 21.2: Basic Concepts 21.3: Preventing CAUTI 21.4: Inserting and Managing Indwelling Urinary Catheters 21.5: Obtaining Urine Specimen for Culture 21.6: Removing an Indwelling Urinary Catheter 21.7: Managing Ostomies 21.8: Applying the Nursing Process to Catheterization 21.9: Sample Documentation 21.10: Checklist for Foley Catheter Insertion (Male) 21.11: Checklist for Foley Catheter Insertion (Female) 21.12: Checklist for Obtaining a Urine Specimen from a Foley Catheter 21.13: Checklist for Foley Removal 21.14: Checklist for Straight Catheterization – Female/Male 21.15: Checklist for Ostomy Appliance Change 21.16: Learning Activities 21.17: XXI Glossary Thumbnail: Urinary catheter. (Public Domain; Saltanat ebli via Wikimedia Commons )


8: Capacitance
Capacitors are important components of electrical circuits in many electronic devices, including pacemakers, cell phones, and computers. In this chapter, we study their properties, and, over the next few chapters, we examine their function in combination with other circuit elements. By themselves, capacitors are often used to store electrical energy and release it when needed; with other circuit components, capacitors often act as part of a filter that allows some electrical signals to pass while blocking others. You can see why capacitors are considered one of the fundamental components of electrical circuits.
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- 8.2: Capacitors and Capacitance
- A capacitor is a device used to store electrical charge and electrical energy. It consists of at least two electrical conductors separated by a distance. (Note that such electrical conductors are sometimes referred to as “electrodes,” but more correctly, they are “capacitor plates.”) The space between capacitors may simply be a vacuum, and, in that case, a capacitor is then known as a “vacuum capacitor.” However, the space is usually filled with an insulating material known as a dielectric.
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- 8.3: Capacitors in Series and in Parallel
- Several capacitors can be connected together to be used in a variety of applications. Multiple connections of capacitors behave as a single equivalent capacitor. The total capacitance of this equivalent single capacitor depends both on the individual capacitors and how they are connected. Capacitors can be arranged in two simple and common types of connections, known as series and parallel, for which we can easily calculate the total capacitance.
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- 8.4: Energy Stored in a Capacitor
- The energy delivered by the defibrillator is stored in a capacitor and can be adjusted to fit the situation. SI units of joules are often employed. Less dramatic is the use of capacitors in microelectronics to supply energy when batteries are charged (Figure). Capacitors are also used to supply energy for flash lamps on cameras.
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- 8.5: Capacitor with a Dielectric
- The capacitance of an empty capacitor is increased by a factor of κ when the space between its plates is completely filled by a dielectric with dielectric constant κ Each dielectric material has its specific dielectric constant. The energy stored in an empty isolated capacitor is decreased by a factor of κκ when the space between its plates is completely filled with a dielectric with dielectric constant κ
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- 8.6: Molecular Model of a Dielectric
- All molecules can be classified as either polar or nonpolar. There is a net separation of positive and negative charges in an isolated polar molecule, whereas there is no charge separation in an isolated nonpolar molecule. In other words, polar molecules have permanent electric-dipole moments and nonpolar molecules do not. Nonpolar molecules can become polar in the presence of an external electrical field, which is called induced polarization.


7.13: Lab- One-Way ANOVA
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Name: ______________________________
Section: _____________________________
Student ID#:__________________________
Work in groups on these problems. You should try to answer the questions without referring to your textbook. If you get stuck, try asking another group for help.
Student Learning Outcome
- The student will conduct a simple one-way \(ANOVA\) test involving three variables.
Collect the Data
Record the price per pound of eight fruits, eight vegetables, and eight breads in your local supermarket.
| Fruits | Vegetables | Breads |
|---|---|---|
Explain how you could try to collect the data randomly.
Analyze the Data and Conduct a Hypothesis Test
-
Compute the following:
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Fruit:
- \(\bar{x} =\) ______
- \(s_{x} =\) ______
- \(n =\) ______
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Vegetables:
- \(\bar{x} =\) ______
- \(s_{x} =\) ______
- \(n =\) ______
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Bread:
- \(\bar{x} =\) ______
- \(s_{x} =\) ______
- \(n =\) ______
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Fruit:
-
Find the following:
- \(df(\text{num}) =\) ______
- \(df(\text{denom}) =\) ______
- State the approximate distribution for the test.
- Test statistic: \(F =\) ______
- Sketch a graph of this situation. CLEARLY, label and scale the horizontal axis and shade the region(s) corresponding to the \(p\text{-value}\).
- \(p\text{-value} =\) ______
- Test at \(\alpha = 0.05\). State your decision and conclusion.
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- Decision: Why did you make this decision?
- Conclusion (write a complete sentence).
- Based on the results of your study, is there a need to investigate any of the food groups’ prices? Why or why not?


5.1: Good health and safety practices
Good health and safety practices should be a high priority within your organizational culture. In order to retain your staff, a safe and healthy work environment is key. Everybody values a safe work environment, especially young workers. According to WorkSafe BC, “in the past five years in British Columbia, more than 9,400 young workers in the tourism and hospitality industry suffered on-the-job injuries severe enough to keep them from working. The cost to the industry is staggering – almost $20 million and 170,000 days lost from work” (WorkSafeBC, OHS Guidelines, n.d.).
According to WorkSafeBC (Young Worker Safety Can’t Wait, n.d.), it is up to the employer to ensure the health and safety of all employees. To guarantee a safe environment, everyone in your organization should be properly trained and oriented within the scope of the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Regulation. This should be a continuous process and part of your ongoing training culture.
Developing and maintaining a safe and healthy work environment can be a time-demanding task; however, the importance of keeping a safe work environment is worth the investment. There are formal regulations and many resources available to assist in the creation and continuation of health and safety within your workplace.
To begin developing an occupational health and safety program in your organization, begin with a risk assessment of your entire workplace, identifying all of the potential hazards to you and/or your employees. Elements in your program should include:
- A statement of the employer’s aims, and of the responsibilities of the employer, supervisors, and workers
- Provision for regular inspection of premises, equipment, work methods, and work practices, at appropriate intervals, to ensure that prompt action is taken to correct any hazardous conditions found
- Appropriate written instructions, available for reference by all workers, to supplement the OHS Regulation
- Provision for the prompt investigation of incidents to determine the action necessary to prevent their recurrence
- Records and statistics, including reports of inspections and incident investigations, with provision for making this information available to the joint committee or worker health and safety representative, as applicable and, on request, to a prevention officer, the union representing the workers at the workplace or, if there is no union, the workers at the workplace
- Provision by the employer for the instruction and supervision of workers in the safe performance of their work
- Provision for holding periodic management meetings to review health and safety activities and incident trends, and to determine necessary courses of action
An effective program will:
- Identify hazards in the workplace
- Control the hazards and eliminate or minimize the potential for workplace injuries or illness
- Be monitored to ensure the program meets its goals and WorkSafeBC requirements under the Workers Compensation Act and the OHS Regulation
For more information visit WorkSafeBC .
As part of the Workers Compensation Act , the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Regulation applies to all employers and workers within BC. The OHS Regulation contains legal requirements in which all workplaces must comply under the jurisdiction of WorkSafeBC. The OHS Regulation acts as a foundation upon which organizations can build to maintain an effective and safe work environment.
Follow the OHS Regulation Guidelines to determine the legal requirements for your organization. Typically the guidelines are based on the number of workers you have. Whichever situation you fall under within the regulations, it is essential you organize a formal OHS meeting every month, where there must be workers represented. The meeting should focus on existing health and safety matters and how any unsafe conditions and practices will be dealt with. Keep a record of the meetings including when they are held, who attends them, and the general nature of what is discussed. This record should be made available for inspection by a prevention officer when requested.
Research shows that there are clear links between well-thought-out OHS programs and long-term business efficiency. Benefits of a good, updated program include:
- Reducing workplace injuries and the costs associated with them
- Enhancing your organization’s reputation
- Retaining staff
- Having a measureable system to continuously verify your current safety practices
In addition to the above benefits, if you choose to participate in the Certificate of Recognition (COR) Program , and your company is in good standing, you could receive incentive payments from WorkSafeBC. The program rewards employers that go above and beyond the legal requirements of the Workers Compensation Act and OHS Regulation by looking at best practices to injury prevention in the workplace.
Here are a few helpful links for information on occupational health and safety:


16.6: Discussion- Global Business Practices for Sun City Boards
Post 1: Initial Post
Instructions
This posting should be a minimum of one short paragraph and a maximum of two paragraphs. Word totals for this post should be in the 100–200-word range. Whether you agree or disagree, explain why with supporting evidence and concepts from the readings or a related experience. Include a reference, link, or citation when appropriate.
Scenario
Sun City Boards is in the initial stages of planning to open a surfboard manufacturing facility in Australia. Tom has heard the horror stories of companies that have taken an exploitative approach to globalization and he wants to do things differently. He has asked you to draft a policy statement that addresses respect for cultural differences, fair labor practices and working with suppliers that have a sustainable business orientation.
For Discussion
- As preparation for this discussion, review the Dimensions of Cultural Difference section and read Patagonia’s How We Work With Factories, Farms & Mills page.
- Reflect on what you’ve learned about Tom and Sun City Boards’ values and develop a policy statement that addresses ONE of the following: respect for local culture, fair labor practices or supplier guidelines. Your statement should include not only what the policy is but how it will be implemented and performance measured and include any related advocacy, association membership or commitment (i.e., to reporting) that you propose.
Posts 2 and 3: Respond to Classmates’ Posts
Instructions
After you have created your initial post, look over the discussion posts of your classmates and give at least two thoughtful responses to two different classmates (one per classmate).
A response posting should be a minimum of one short paragraph. Word totals for these posts should be in the 75–100-word range. Whether you agree or disagree, explain why with supporting evidence and concepts from the readings or a related experience. Include a reference, link, or citation when appropriate. The goal of your response posts is to extend discussions already taking place or pose new possibilities or opinions not previously voiced. Your goal should be to motivate the group discussion and present a creative approach to the topic.
Contributors and Attributions
- Discussion: Global Business Practices for Sun City Boards . Authored by : Nina Burokas. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


5.11: Kirchoff’s Voltage Law for Electrostatics - Differential Form
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The integral form of Kirchoff’s Voltage Law for electrostatics (KVL; Section 5.10) states that an integral of the electric field along a closed path is equal to zero:
\[\oint_{\mathcal C}{ {\bf E} \cdot d{\bf l} } = 0 \nonumber \]
where \({\bf E}\) is electric field intensity and \({\mathcal C}\) is the closed curve. In this section, we derive the differential form of this equation. In some applications, this differential equation, combined with boundary conditions imposed by structure and materials (Sections 5.17 and 5.18), can be used to solve for the electric field in arbitrarily complicated scenarios. A more immediate reason for considering this differential equation is that we gain a little more insight into the behavior of the electric field, disclosed at the end of this section.
The equation we seek may be obtained using Stokes’ Theorem (Section 4.9), which in the present case may be written:
\[\int_{\mathcal S} \left( \nabla \times {\bf E} \right) \cdot d{\bf s} = \oint_{\mathcal C} {\bf E}\cdot d{\bf l} \label{m0152_eKVL2} \]
where \({\mathcal S}\) is any surface bounded by \({\mathcal C}\), and \(d{\bf s}\) is the normal to that surface with direction determined by right-hand rule. The integral form of KVL tells us that the right hand side of the above equation is zero, so:
\[\int_{\mathcal S} \left( \nabla \times {\bf E} \right) \cdot d{\bf s} = 0 \nonumber \]
The above relationship must hold regardless of the specific location or shape of \({\mathcal S}\). The only way this is possible for all possible surfaces is if the integrand is zero at every point in space. Thus, we obtain the desired expression:
\[\boxed{ \nabla \times {\bf E} = 0 } \label{m0152_eKVL} \]
Summarizing:
The differential form of Kirchoff’s Voltage Law for electrostatics (Equation \ref{m0152_eKVL}) states that the curl of the electrostatic field is zero.
Equation \ref{m0152_eKVL} is a partial differential equation. As noted above, this equation, combined with the appropriate boundary conditions, can be solved for the electric field in arbitrarily-complicated scenarios. Interestingly, it is not the only such equation available for this purpose – Gauss’ Law (Section 5.7) also does this. Thus, we see a system of partial differential equations emerging, and one may correctly infer that that the electric field is not necessarily fully constrained by either equation alone.


9.1A: Structure and Function of the Muscular System
The muscular system controls numerous functions, which is possible with the significant differentiation of muscle tissue morphology and ability.
- Describe the three types of muscle tissue
Key Points
- The muscular system is responsible for functions such as maintenance of posture, locomotion, and control of various circulatory systems.
- Muscle tissue can be divided functionally (voluntarily or involuntarily controlled) and morphologically ( striated or non-striated).
- These classifications describe three distinct muscle types: skeletal, cardiac and smooth. Skeletal muscle is voluntary and striated, cardiac muscle is involuntary and striated, and smooth muscle is involuntary and non-striated.
Key Terms
- myofibril : A fiber made up of several myofilaments that facilitates the generation of tension in a myocyte.
- myofilament : A filament composed of either multiple myosin or actin proteins that slide over each other to generate tension.
- myosin : A motor protein which forms myofilaments that interact with actin filaments to generate tension.
- actin : A protein which forms myofilaments that interact with myosin filaments to generate tension.
- striated : The striped appearance of certain muscle types in which myofibrils are aligned to produce a constant directional tension.
- voluntary : A muscle movement under conscious control (e.g. deciding to move the forearm).
- involuntary : A muscle movement not under conscious control (e.g. the beating of the heart).
- myocyte : A muscle cell.
The Musculoskeletal System
The muscular system is made up of muscle tissue and is responsible for functions such as maintenance of posture, locomotion and control of various circulatory systems. This includes the beating of the heart and the movement of food through the digestive system. The muscular system is closely associated with the skeletal system in facilitating movement. Both voluntary and involuntary muscular system functions are controlled by the nervous system.
The muscular system : Skeletal muscle of the muscular system is closely associated with the skeletal system and acts to maintain posture and control voluntary movement.
Muscle is a highly-specialized soft tissue that produces tension which results in the generation of force. Muscle cells, or myocytes, contain myofibrils comprised of actin and myosin myofilaments which slide past each other producing tension that changes the shape of the myocyte. Numerous myocytes make up muscle tissue and the controlled production of tension in these cells can generate significant force.
Muscle tissue can be classified functionally as voluntary or involuntary and morphologically as striated or non-striated. Voluntary refers to whether the muscle is under conscious control, while striation refers to the presence of visible banding within myocytes caused by the organization of myofibrils to produce constant tension.
Types of Muscle
The above classifications describe three forms of muscle tissue that perform a wide range of diverse functions.
Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle mainly attaches to the skeletal system via tendons to maintain posture and control movement. For example, contraction of the biceps muscle, attached to the scapula and radius, will raise the forearm. Some skeletal muscle can attach directly to other muscles or to the skin, as seen in the face where numerous muscles control facial expression.
Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, although this can be subconscious when maintaining posture or balance. Morphologically skeletal myocytes are elongated and tubular and appear striated with multiple peripheral nuclei.
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the heart, where cardiac contractions pump blood throughout the body and maintain blood pressure.
As with skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated; however it is not consciously controlled and so is classified as involuntary. Cardiac muscle can be further differentiated from skeletal muscle by the presence of intercalated discs that control the synchronized contraction of cardiac tissues. Cardiac myocytes are shorter than skeletal equivalents and contain only one or two centrally located nuclei.
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Smooth muscle tissue is associated with numerous organs and tissue systems, such as the digestive system and respiratory system. It plays an important role in the regulation of flow in such systems, such as aiding the movement of food through the digestive system via peristalsis.
Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary. Smooth muscle myocytes are spindle shaped with a single centrally located nucleus.
Types of muscle : The body contains three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle, visualized here using light microscopy. Visible striations in skeletal and cardiac muscle are visible, differentiating them from the more randomised appearance of smooth muscle.


1.2: Limits of Life
- Describe physical, chemical and evolutionary limitations to sustaining life.
Life on Earth exists in nearly every niche on our planet. However, life forms are not equally successful in all conditions on Earth, and one challenge is to find under which conditions life can be sustained. Certainly, life on Earth is very adaptable, which has led to an immense biomass and an incredible biodiversity. Therefore, it is a challenge to find where the limits to this adaptability are.
Try to come up with the best answer for the following question:
Which of the following may be the most limiting physical factor for animals living in aquatic environments? Why?
- locomotion
- being wet all the time
- access to nutrients
- access to oxygen
On Earth, life is based on carbon as a major building block, water as a solvent and chemical bonds and light as life-sustaining energy sources, which seems to be an ideal combination on a terrestrial planet like Earth, which has an average surface temperature of about 15 °C under a pressure of 1 bar. In principle, other building blocks than carbon are feasible, such as silicon, but these would require very different planetary conditions to be used in a comparable fashion to carbon on Earth. Water as a solvent has great benefits and also some challenges (reviewed by Schulze-Makuch and Irwin [Schulze-Makuch & Irwin., 2008]), but being the most abundant molecule on our planet that exists in liquid form, life had simply to adapt to some of its drawbacks. Light is plentiful on our planet, and organic compounds with covalent bonds are versatile at average Earth temperatures, thus providing a powerful combination that resulted on Earth in a biosphere with a large biomass and an incredible biodiversity, including complex life.
There are limits to the conditions under which life can exist on our planet. Most pronounced is the temperature envelope under which active life can exist. Organismic growth can usually occur at temperatures from at least −15 °C to about 113 °C. There are also reports in the literature that the temperature range may even be broader. For example, metabolic activity was inferred down to temperatures of −40 °C due to anomalous concentrations of gases [Campen et al ., 2003], and the upper temperature limit may be as high as about 122 °C. At that temperature, methanogenic archaea could be cultured under a pressure of 20 MPa [Takai et al ., 2008], only limited by the solubility of lipids in water and protein stability [McKay, 2014]. In principle, if the biochemistry of organisms could be adapted to these extremes, perhaps even higher temperatures may be tolerated, but the practical limit due to energetic and biochemical constraints under which life can still metabolize and reproduce is surely much lower [Schulze-Makuch, 2015]. Hyperthermophilic microorganisms require specialized cell components, like proteins and membranes, to be stable and function at high temperatures. Particularly, at temperatures of 100 °C and beyond, some low molecular weight compounds, such as ATP and NAD, hydrolyze quite rapidly, and thermolabile amino acids, like cysteine and glutamic acid, are decomposing [Stetter, 1999]. The pressure tolerance of life, though, is high and extends to at least 1100 bar [ 1 ] [Stan-Lotter, 2007].
Organisms, particularly microbes and other microscopic organisms, are quite tolerant to extreme pH values, from just below 0 to about 13. Ferroplasma sp. and Cephalosporium are examples of organisms that live at low pH-values, Natronobacterium, and several species of protists and rotifers are examples of organisms that live at very high pH-values [Schulze-Makuch & Irwin, 2008, Baross et al ., 2007].
However, life on Earth is relatively sensitive to a lack of water: bacteria, archaea, and fungi can only metabolize at water activities down to about 0.6 [Stevenson, et al., 2014]. Adaptation to water with high salt content, however, is quite common, as some Halobacteria and archaea can grow in 35% NaCl solution [Schulze-Makuch & Irwin, 2008].
Another physical limit to life is radiation, both UV, and ionizing radiation. Tolerances to radiation vary widely. Tardigrades, microscopic animals that usually live in mosses and lichen, can withstand ionizing radiation doses up to 5000 Gy when in the dormant state [Schulze-Makuchh & Seckbach, 2013] and display additional special adaptation traits, such as anhydrobiosis and cryptobiosis [Watanabe, 2006] (elaborated on below). Deinococcus radiodurans can still tolerate higher radiation doses and grow at doses upward of 10,000 Gy.
One non-chemical limitation of life on earth is related to scaling of body size.
Some examples of physical and chemical limitations of life were listed above. One aspect that was not discussed is size. How do you think size is a physical limitation for sustaining life for animals? Find one specific example with one of your peers. Once you have found your example, you should think about why the size is the limit in your example.
Add exercises text here. For the automatic numbDescribe five different limitations to life on Earth.
- Stan-Lotter, H. Extremophiles, the physicochemical limits of life (growth and survival). In Complete Course in Astrobiology; Horneck, G., Rettberg, P., Eds.; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2007; pp. 121–150. ↵


18.5A: Introduction to Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is a vital sign reflecting the pressure exerted on blood vessels when blood is forced out of the heart during contraction.
- Explain the topic of blood pressure
Key Points
- Diastole is the relaxation of the chambers of the heart and systole is the contraction of the heart chambers.
- Blood pressure is composed of systolic and diastolic blood pressure, which correspond to the pressure following contraction of the heart and pressure during relaxation for the heart, respectively. Normal blood pressure should be around 120/80, with the systolic number on top.
- Mean blood pressure decreases as the circulating blood moves away from the heart through arteries, capillaries, and veins due to viscous loss of energy. Mean blood pressure drops during circulation, although most of this decrease occurs along the small arteries and arterioles.
Key Terms
- blood pressure : The pressure exerted by the blood against the walls of the arteries and veins; it varies during the heartbeat cycle and according to a person’s age, health, and physical condition.
- systolic pressure : The peak arterial pressure during heart contraction.
- diastolic pressure : The minimum arterial pressure between contractions, when the heart expands and refills.
 This pressure originates in the contraction of the heart, which forces blood out of the heart and into the blood vessels.
Two mechanisms take place in the heart: diastole and systole. Diastole is the relaxation of the chambers of the heart and systole is the contraction of the heart chambers. Systolic pressure is thus the pressure that your heart emits when blood is forced out of the heart and diastolic pressure is the pressure exerted when the heart is relaxed. This is the main mechanism by which blood pressure operates.
Blood pressure is one of the principal vital signs. During each heartbeat, blood pressure varies between a maximum (systolic) and a minimum (diastolic) pressure. A normal blood pressure should be around 120/80, with the systolic pressure expressed first.
Measurement of vital signs using a sphygmomanometer : Blood pressure and pulse, or the vital signs, are measured as indicators of several aspects of cardiovascular health.
Differences in mean blood pressure are responsible for blood flow from one location to another in circulation. The rate of mean blood flow depends on the resistance to flow presented by the blood vessels. Mean blood pressure decreases as circulating blood moves away from the heart through arteries, capillaries, and veins due to viscous loss of energy. Mean blood pressure decreases during circulation, although most of this decrease occurs along the small arteries and arterioles. Gravity affects blood pressure via hydrostatic forces (for example, during standing) Valves in veins, breathing, and pumping from contraction of skeletal muscles also influence venous blood pressure.


1.7: Book VII
RECEPTION OF ULYSSES AT THE PALACE OF KING ALCINOUS.
Thus, then, did Ulysses wait and pray; but the girl drove on to the town. When she reached her father’s house she drew up at the gateway, and her brothers—comely as the gods—gathered round her, took the mules out of the waggon, and carried the clothes into the house, while she went to her own room, where an old servant, Eurymedusa of Apeira, lit the fire for her. This old woman had been brought by sea from Apeira, and had been chosen as a prize for Alcinous because he was king over the Phaeacians, and the people obeyed him as though he were a god. 57 She had been nurse to Nausicaa, and had now lit the fire for her, and brought her supper for her into her own room.
Presently Ulysses got up to go towards the town; and Minerva shed a thick mist all round him to hide him in case any of the proud Phaeacians who met him should be rude to him, or ask him who he was. Then, as he was just entering the town, she came towards him in the likeness of a little girl carrying a pitcher. She stood right in front of him, and Ulysses said:
“My dear, will you be so kind as to show me the house of king Alcinous? I am an unfortunate foreigner in distress, and do not know one in your town and country.”
Then Minerva said, “Yes, father stranger, I will show you the house you want, for Alcinous lives quite close to my own father. I will go before you and show the way, but say not a word as you go, and do not look at any man, nor ask him questions; for the people here cannot abide strangers, and do not like men who come from some other place. They are a sea-faring folk, and sail the seas by the grace of Neptune in ships that glide along like thought, or as a bird in the air.”
On this she led the way, and Ulysses followed in her steps; but not one of the Phaeacians could see him as he passed through the city in the midst of them; for the great goddess Minerva in her good will towards him had hidden him in a thick cloud of darkness. He admired their harbours, ships, places of assembly, and the lofty walls of the city, which, with the palisade on top of them, were very striking, and when they reached the king’s house Minerva said:
“This is the house, father stranger, which you would have me show you. You will find a number of great people sitting at table, but do not be afraid; go straight in, for the bolder a man is the more likely he is to carry his point, even though he is a stranger. First find the queen. Her name is Arete, and she comes of the same family as her husband Alcinous. They both descend originally from Neptune, who was father to Nausithous by Periboea, a woman of great beauty. Periboea was the youngest daughter of Eurymedon, who at one time reigned over the giants, but he ruined his ill-fated people and lost his own life to boot.
“Neptune, however, lay with his daughter, and she had a son by him, the great Nausithous, who reigned over the Phaeacians. Nausithous had two sons Rhexenor and Alcinous; 58 Apollo killed the first of them while he was still a bridegroom and without male issue; but he left a daughter Arete, whom Alcinous married, and honours as no other woman is honoured of all those that keep house along with their husbands.
“Thus she both was, and still is, respected beyond measure by her children, by Alcinous himself, and by the whole people, who look upon her as a goddess, and greet her whenever she goes about the city, for she is a thoroughly good woman both in head and heart, and when any women are friends of hers, she will help their husbands also to settle their disputes. If you can gain her good will, you may have every hope of seeing your friends again, and getting safely back to your home and country.”
Then Minerva left Scheria and went away over the sea. She went to Marathon 59 and to the spacious streets of Athens, where she entered the abode of Erechtheus; but Ulysses went on to the house of Alcinous, and he pondered much as he paused a while before reaching the threshold of bronze, for the splendour of the palace was like that of the sun or moon. The walls on either side were of bronze from end to end, and the cornice was of blue enamel. The doors were gold, and hung on pillars of silver that rose from a floor of bronze, while the lintel was silver and the hook of the door was of gold.
On either side there stood gold and silver mastiffs which Vulcan, with his consummate skill, had fashioned expressly to keep watch over the palace of king Alcinous; so they were immortal and could never grow old. Seats were ranged all along the wall, here and there from one end to the other, with coverings of fine woven work which the women of the house had made. Here the chief persons of the Phaeacians used to sit and eat and drink, for there was abundance at all seasons; and there were golden figures of young men with lighted torches in their hands, raised on pedestals, to give light by night to those who were at table. There are 60 fifty maid servants in the house, some of whom are always grinding rich yellow grain at the mill, while others work at the loom, or sit and spin, and their shuttles go backwards and forwards like the fluttering of aspen leaves, while the linen is so closely woven that it will turn oil. As the Phaeacians are the best sailors in the world, so their women excel all others in weaving, for Minerva has taught them all manner of useful arts, and they are very intelligent.
Outside the gate of the outer court there is a large garden of about four acres with a wall all round it. It is full of beautiful trees—pears, pomegranates, and the most delicious apples. There are luscious figs also, and olives in full growth. The fruits never rot nor fail all the year round, neither winter nor summer, for the air is so soft that a new crop ripens before the old has dropped. Pear grows on pear, apple on apple, and fig on fig, and so also with the grapes, for there is an excellent vineyard: on the level ground of a part of this, the grapes are being made into raisins; in another part they are being gathered; some are being trodden in the wine tubs, others further on have shed their blossom and are beginning to show fruit, others again are just changing colour. In the furthest part of the ground there are beautifully arranged beds of flowers that are in bloom all the year round. Two streams go through it, the one turned in ducts throughout the whole garden, while the other is carried under the ground of the outer court to the house itself, and the town’s people draw water from it. Such, then, were the splendours with which the gods had endowed the house of king Alcinous.
So here Ulysses stood for a while and looked about him, but when he had looked long enough he crossed the threshold and went within the precincts of the house. There he found all the chief people among the Phaeacians making their drink offerings to Mercury, which they always did the last thing before going away for the night. 61 He went straight through the court, still hidden by the cloak of darkness in which Minerva had enveloped him, till he reached Arete and King Alcinous; then he laid his hands upon the knees of the queen, and at that moment the miraculous darkness fell away from him and he became visible. Every one was speechless with surprise at seeing a man there, but Ulysses began at once with his petition.
“Queen Arete,” he exclaimed, “daughter of great Rhexenor, in my distress I humbly pray you, as also your husband and these your guests (whom may heaven prosper with long life and happiness, and may they leave their possessions to their children, and all the honours conferred upon them by the state) to help me home to my own country as soon as possible; for I have been long in trouble and away from my friends.”
Then he sat down on the hearth among the ashes and they all held their peace, till presently the old hero Echeneus, who was an excellent speaker and an elder among the Phaeacians, plainly and in all honesty addressed them thus:
“Alcinous,” said he, “it is not creditable to you that a stranger should be seen sitting among the ashes of your hearth; every one is waiting to hear what you are about to say; tell him, then, to rise and take a seat on a stool inlaid with silver, and bid your servants mix some wine and water that we may make a drink offering to Jove the lord of thunder, who takes all well disposed suppliants under his protection; and let the housekeeper give him some supper, of whatever there may be in the house.”
When Alcinous heard this he took Ulysses by the hand, raised him from the hearth, and bade him take the seat of Laodamas, who had been sitting beside him, and was his favourite son. A maid servant then brought him water in a beautiful golden ewer and poured it into a silver basin for him to wash his hands, and she drew a clean table beside him; an upper servant brought him bread and offered him many good things of what there was in the house, and Ulysses ate and drank. Then Alcinous said to one of the servants, “Pontonous, mix a cup of wine and hand it round that we may make drink-offerings to Jove the lord of thunder, who is the protector of all well-disposed suppliants.”
Pontonous then mixed wine and water, and handed it round after giving every man his drink-offering. When they had made their offerings, and had drunk each as much as he was minded, Alcinous said:
“Aldermen and town councillors of the Phaeacians, hear my words. You have had your supper, so now go home to bed. To-morrow morning I shall invite a still larger number of aldermen, and will give a sacrificial banquet in honour of our guest; we can then discuss the question of his escort, and consider how we may at once send him back rejoicing to his own country without trouble or inconvenience to himself, no matter how distant it may be. We must see that he comes to no harm while on his homeward journey, but when he is once at home he will have to take the luck he was born with for better or worse like other people. It is possible, however, that the stranger is one of the immortals who has come down from heaven to visit us; but in this case the gods are departing from their usual practice, for hitherto they have made themselves perfectly clear to us when we have been offering them hecatombs. They come and sit at our feasts just like one of our selves, and if any solitary wayfarer happens to stumble upon some one or other of them, they affect no concealment, for we are as near of kin to the gods as the Cyclopes and the savage giants are.” 62
Then Ulysses said: “Pray, Alcinous, do not take any such notion into your head. I have nothing of the immortal about me, neither in body nor mind, and most resemble those among you who are the most afflicted.  Nevertheless, let me sup in spite of sorrow, for an empty stomach is a very importunate thing, and thrusts itself on a man’s notice no matter how dire is his distress. I am in great trouble, yet it insists that I shall eat and drink, bids me lay aside all memory of my sorrows and dwell only on the due replenishing of itself. As for yourselves, do as you propose, and at break of day set about helping me to get home. I shall be content to die if I may first once more behold my property, my bondsmen, and all the greatness of my house.” 63
Thus did he speak. Every one approved his saying, and agreed that he should have his escort inasmuch as he had spoken reasonably. Then when they had made their drink offerings, and had drunk each as much as he was minded they went home to bed every man in his own abode, leaving Ulysses in the cloister with Arete and Alcinous while the servants were taking the things away after supper. Arete was the first to speak, for she recognised the shirt, cloak, and good clothes that Ulysses was wearing, as the work of herself and of her maids; so she said, “Stranger, before we go any further, there is a question I should like to ask you. Who, and whence are you, and who gave you those clothes? Did you not say you had come here from beyond the sea?”
And Ulysses answered, “It would be a long story Madam, were I to relate in full the tale of my misfortunes, for the hand of heaven has been laid heavy upon me; but as regards your question, there is an island far away in the sea which is called ‘the Ogygian.’ Here dwells the cunning and powerful goddess Calypso, daughter of Atlas. She lives by herself far from all neighbours human or divine. Fortune, however, brought me to her hearth all desolate and alone, for Jove struck my ship with his thunderbolts, and broke it up in mid-ocean. My brave comrades were drowned every man of them, but I stuck to the keel and was carried hither and thither for the space of nine days, till at last during the darkness of the tenth night the gods brought me to the Ogygian island where the great goddess Calypso lives. She took me in and treated me with the utmost kindness; indeed she wanted to make me immortal that I might never grow old, but she could not persuade me to let her do so.
“I stayed with Calypso seven years straight on end, and watered the good clothes she gave me with my tears during the whole time; but at last when the eighth year came round she bade me depart of her own free will, either because Jove had told her she must, or because she had changed her mind. She sent me from her island on a raft, which she provisioned with abundance of bread and wine. Moreover she gave me good stout clothing, and sent me a wind that blew both warm and fair. Days seven and ten did I sail over the sea, and on the eighteenth I caught sight of the first outlines of the mountains upon your coast—and glad indeed was I to set eyes upon them. Nevertheless there was still much trouble in store for me, for at this point Neptune would let me go no further, and raised a great storm against me; the sea was so terribly high that I could no longer keep to my raft, which went to pieces under the fury of the gale, and I had to swim for it, till wind and current brought me to your shores.
“There I tried to land, but could not, for it was a bad place and the waves dashed me against the rocks, so I again took to the sea and swam on till I came to a river that seemed the most likely landing place, for there were no rocks and it was sheltered from the wind. Here, then, I got out of the water and gathered my senses together again. Night was coming on, so I left the river, and went into a thicket, where I covered myself all over with leaves, and presently heaven sent me off into a very deep sleep. Sick and sorry as I was I slept among the leaves all night, and through the next day till afternoon, when I woke as the sun was westering, and saw your daughter’s maid servants playing upon the beach, and your daughter among them looking like a goddess. I besought her aid, and she proved to be of an excellent disposition, much more so than could be expected from so young a person—for young people are apt to be thoughtless. She gave me plenty of bread and wine, and when she had had me washed in the river she also gave me the clothes in which you see me. Now, therefore, though it has pained me to do so, I have told you the whole truth.”
Then Alcinous said, “Stranger, it was very wrong of my daughter not to bring you on at once to my house along with the maids, seeing that she was the first person whose aid you asked.”
“Pray do not scold her,” replied Ulysses; “she is not to blame. She did tell me to follow along with the maids, but I was ashamed and afraid, for I thought you might perhaps be displeased if you saw me. Every human being is sometimes a little suspicious and irritable.”
“Stranger,” replied Alcinous, “I am not the kind of man to get angry about nothing; it is always better to be reasonable; but by Father Jove, Minerva, and Apollo, now that I see what kind of person you are, and how much you think as I do, I wish you would stay here, marry my daughter, and become my son-in-law.  You can sleep 64 during the whole voyage if you like, and the men shall sail you over smooth waters either to your own home, or wherever you please, even though it be a long way further off than Euboea, which those of my people who saw it when they took yellow-haired Rhadamanthus to see Tityus the son of Gaia, tell me is the furthest of any place—and yet they did the whole voyage in a single day without distressing themselves, and came back again afterwards. You will thus see how much my ships excel all others, and what magnificent oarsmen my sailors are.”
Then was Ulysses glad and prayed aloud saying, “Father Jove, grant that Alcinous may do all as he has said, for so he will win an imperishable name among mankind, and at the same time I shall return to my country.”
Thus did they converse. Then Arete told her maids to set a bed in the room that was in the gatehouse, and make it with good red rugs, and to spread coverlets on the top of them with woollen cloaks for Ulysses to wear. The maids thereon went out with torches in their hands, and when they had made the bed they came up to Ulysses and said, “Rise, sir stranger, and come with us for your bed is ready,” and glad indeed was he to go to his rest.
So Ulysses slept in a bed placed in a room over the echoing gateway; but Alcinous lay in the inner part of the house, with the queen his wife by his side.