1.5: What do I need to do to become a teacher?
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Written by: Jasmine Tucay
Note
"Those who can't do, teach..." - The School of Rock.
Learning Objectives
- The reader will find out what makes a good teacher
- The reader will learn about different types of degrees and the cerficates that are offered
- The reader will learn about the tests that one is required to take prior to becoming a teacher
- The reader will learn about the career opportunities existing after getting licensed
Introduction
"Those who can't do, teach, and those who can't teach...teach gym" (IMDb.com, Inc., 2008). All silliness aside, in the movie "The School of Rock" the career of a teacher, in so many words, chose the main character. Through various realistic, and unrealistic events, he learned to love the profession. However, he lacked the credentials and certification that teachers need to teach.
All right, so life isn't exactly like the movies, but this particular movie does show an important point. There are certain steps that a person has to take before he or she can be a licensed teacher.
In today's career driven society, there are always steps that you have to take to get where you want to go. Becoming a teacher falls in line with this mentality. The first step to becoming a teacher is taking the plunge and deciding that you want to be in the field of education. After this decision, you want to find a university offering a program that will earn you a degree and licensure to teach. While taking various classes, you'll be required to take numerous exams to assess your competency on knowledge regarding your future as an educator. After taking classes and teaching tests, you can receive your degree(s) and find a school to start your career as an educator.
What Makes a Good Teacher?
There are many qualities and characteristics that make up a good teacher. Engaging, caring and innovative are some things that may come to mind. According to Dr. Richard M. Reis, a professor and executive director at Stanford University, the top priority of teachers should be that they want to be good teachers. In his article he states that as teachers "we respect students who really try, even if they do not succeed in everything they do, so they will respect us, even if we are not as good as we want to be" (Reis, 2007). Your future students will know that you want to be a good teacher if you yourself strive to become one. To supplement this point, "among 150 teachers in the first three years of their careers aged under 26 reveals that 85 per cent of this 'Generation Y' probably or definitely want to be working in a school in 20 years, with only two per cent definitely not" (National College for School Leadership). With this being said, teachers with enthusiasm are working in the education field today.
In addition, Reis adds that teachers should be good listeners as well (Reis, 2007). With the varying ages, gender and personalities of your future students, it will benefit you and the students you teach to listen to what works for them, and what to never try again.
There are many opinions on what goes into a good teacher, but only you can implement the characteristics in your own teaching career.
Getting Your Degree
There are many programs that you can pursue on your way to get your degree. First you would choose your specific grade level, then you would go onto to taking your various classes. For example, at Old Dominion University, there are a few different educational tracks that you can pursue including: Pre-K - 3, Pre-K - 6, K - 12, K - 12 with a emphasis on Special Education, and Secondary Education which includes 6 - 12 (Darden College of Education 2008).
After picking a program, you will be required to take different courses such as History and Math, depending on your focus. For example, if you were pursuing a Bachelor of Science Degree in Interdisciplinary Studies Teacher Prep. with a Concentration on Pre-K - 3 Early Childhood Emphasis, you would be taking various general education courses, major content courses and some classes focusing on professional aspects of being a teacher (Old Dominion University Catalog, 2006-2008). Within the profession education courses, you may be required to observe in the classroom among other things. For example, during my observation period, I saw how a first grade classroom was taught and managed. It was a rewarded experience that I'm glad is required for teachers in the state of Virginia. I learned a lot and got to interact with the children as well. Observing is just half the battle though. After some professional education courses, you will still have other classes to pass.
Once you've graduated with your Bachelor's Degree, you may want to move on to take your Master's Degree. You may be thinking that an extra year of school isn't going to matter. There are two sides to this argument. According to Linda Gorman, a writer for the National Bureau of Economic Research, " Teachers who entered teaching with a master's degree, or who earned it within five years of beginning to teach, were as effective as teachers without a master's degree" (Gorman). You may be one of the people who has what it takes to make it as a teacher with four years of college and an undergraduate degree. Contrary to this opinion, according to The Apple, teachers in the United States with a Master's degree can get paid any where from $2,000 to almost $10,000 more than what they would be getting paid with only a Bachelor's (The Apple, 2008).
Note
According to The Apple, teachers in the United States with a Master's degree can get paid any where from $2,000 to almost $10,000 more than what they would be getting paid with only a Bachelor's - The Apple.
Testing
There are many tests that are required for future educators to take. Two of the most known ones in Virginia, that have many future teachers writhing in fear, are the Praxis 1 and 2. According to the Educational Testing Service, better known as ETS, the Praxis is a test consisting of "rigorous and validated assessments that provides accurate, reliable information for use by state education agencies in making licensing decisions" (ETS, 2008). Within these tests, you will be assessed on basic mathematics, reading and writing skills in the Praxis 1, along with a specialized test that is more focused on the path of education that you chose to go for in the Praxis 2 (ETS, 2008). Preparing for the Praxis tests can be very intimidating, but your university may provide help with prepping for the tests. Along with this, you can also purchase a study guide for the Praxis tests online or your local bookstore. I found that practicing with old praxis tests was very useful for helping me pass my Praxis tests.
After achieving a passing score on the Praxis 1 and 2 tests, you have a couple more tests to pass. The Virgina Communication and Literacy Assessment (VCLA) and the Virginia Reading Assessment (VRA) are two tests that assess your knowledge communicating and literary abilities and how well you can teach reading skills (2008–2009 VCLA and VRA Registration Bulletin, 2008). These tests are required to be taken by future elementary education and special education students that want to teach in Virginia (2008–2009 VCLA and VRA Registration Bulletin, 2008).
Once you achieve passing scores on the tests listed above, you're ready to apply for a teaching license. Applying for licensure is different for every state. For example, in the state of Virginia, "An individual seeking licensure must establish a file in the Department of Education by submitting a complete application packet, which includes official student transcripts " (Virginia Department of Education, 2007). For a general list of what to do to apply for your teaching license, you may want to visit a general website such as Ehow.com (Reynolds, 1999 - 2008) or ask your university for information.
Venturing Into The Real World of Education
Now that you're licensed to teach, you can now start looking into finding a career. According to the Department of Labor, "Job opportunities for teachers over the next 10 years will vary from good to excellent, depending on the locality, grade level, and subject taught" (U.S. Department of Labor, 2007). The reason for the good outlook on jobs is that many teachers may be retiring.
Along with finding a job as a teacher, you may want to further your career to become an administrator to a school, or even a superintendent to a school district. For these job opportunities to work out, you would have to go back to school again. Along with this, you may want to try for your PhD in education.
You may also want to teach classes at a local recreation center, or do volunteer work helping a teacher a school around your neighborhood. Although it may not be a paying job, I believe that every one still has time to learn something no matter what stage they are at in their lives. Along with this, you can gain experience, and give a local teacher a helping hand.
Another career move could be possibly teaching overseas. There are many teaching abroad programs and you could even become a teacher through the Department of Defense or the Department of State (U.S. Department of State, 2008). "During 1995-96, 190 schools received grant assistance and technical support from A/OPR/OS. Because they are private institutions, these schools hire their own staffs" (U.S. Department of State, 2008) and many of these schools are over seas. Personally, I plan on trying this program sometime in my near future career as an educator.
Conclusion
Although there is a long process in becoming a teacher, I believe that the product from your hard work will be more than rewarding. Through the classes, the credentials, and the tests, you get a license to teach students in a chosen state, or even all around the world if that is where life takes you.
Much like Jack Black's Character in "The School of Rock", if the career of teaching does choose you, or you choose it, what is most important in my eyes is the students that you will be teaching. Whether you become an elementary school teacher, or a gym teacher, the steps all boil down to the deciding that education is in your intended career.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Choose the best answer for the following questions.
1. According to Dr. Richard Reis, what is the top priority of what makes a good teacher?
- A. the teacher should be on time
- B. the teacher should be engaging
- C. the teacher must want to be a good teacher
- D. the teacher must a good listener
2. What three skills are tested in the Praxis 1?
- A. math, writing, and reading
- B. science, English, and math
- C. reading, math, and geometric figures
- D. math, history, and reading
3. If you wanted to travel abroad, what kind of career path would you choose?
- A. a 2nd grade teacher at the school a mile away from your house
- B. to Washington D.C. for a teaching job at GWU
- C. a history professor at Old Dominion University
- D. a teacher for the department of defense or state
4. What kind of degree do you need to become a teacher?
- A. Bachelor's
- B. Masters
- C. Both A and B
- D. None of the Above
5. You want to pursue a more options for your career in education, and you already have your
Master's Degree, what choices do you have?
- A. Go back to school for a PhD
- B. Travel abroad and teach
- C. See what you can do in your community and volunteer
- D. All of the above
- Answer
-
The answers to the questions are BOLD
1. According to Dr. Richard Reis, what is the top priority of what makes a good teacher?
A. the teacher should be on time
B. the teacher should be engaging
C. the teacher must want to be a good teacher
D. the teacher must a good listener
2. What three skills are tested in the Praxis 1?
A. math, writing, and reading
B. science, English, and math
C. reading, math, and geometric figures
D. math, history, and reading
3. If you wanted to travel abroad, what kind of career path would you choose?
A. a 2nd grade teacher at the school a mile away from your house
B. to Washington D.C. for a teaching job at GWU
C. a history professor at Old Dominion University
D. a teacher for the department of defense or state
4. What kind of degree can you have to become a teacher?
A. Bachelor's
B. Masters
C. Both A and B
D. None of the Above
5. You want to pursue a more options for your career in education, and you already have your
Master's Degree, what choices do you have?
A. Go back to school for a PhD
B. Travel abroad and teach
C. See what you can do in your community and volunteer
D. All of the above
References
2008–2009 VCLA and VRA Registration Bulletin. (2008). Pearson Education, Inc. October 5, 2008, from www.va.nesinc.com/VA5_overview.asp.
Darden College of Education: Teacher Education Services. (2008). Undergraduate Teacher Education Programs. September 21, 2008, from http://education.odu.edu/tes/pages/admission_ug.shtml .
Educational Testing Services. (2008). Tests Directory: Ptaxis. September 21, 2008, from www.ets.org/portal/site/ets/menuitem.36b6150d13d7bab7b1935b10c3921509/?vgnextoid=e63ce3b5f64f4010VgnVCM10000022f95190RCRD.
Gorman, Linda. Teacher Credentials Don't Matter for Student Achievement. National Bureau of Economic Research. September 21, 2008, from http://www.nber.org/digest/aug07/w12828.html .
IMDb.com, Inc. (1990 - 2008) Memorable Quotes for The School of Rock. September 21, 2008, from http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0332379/quotes
Old Dominion University Course Catalog. (2006-2008). Bachelor of Science Degree in Interdisciplinary Studies – Teacher Prep. Concentration. September 21, 2008, from http://uc.odu.edu/advising/docs/curriculumsheets/2006-2008/al-IDSTeacherPrepPK-3.pdf .
Reis, Richard M. (2007) What Makes a Good Teacher Article. Minnesota State University Mankato. September 21, 2008, from http://www.mnsu.edu/cetl/teachingresources/articles/goodteacher.html .
Reynolds, L. (1999 - 2008). How to Apply for a Teaching License. eHow. How to Do Just About Everything. September 21, 2008, from http://www.ehow.com/how_2164868_apply-teaching-license.html .
Rudin, Scott. (Producer), & White, Mike. (Director). (October 2, 2003). The School of Rock[Motion picture]. United States of America: Paramount Pictures.
The Apple. (2008). Bachelor’s vs. Master’s: Compare Salaries in 50 States. September 28, 2008, from www.theapple.com/careers/articles/2078-bachelors-vs-masters-compare-salaries-in-50-states-.
Today's new teachers expect a long school career helping children - with the majority keen on taking up a leadership role eventually. (June 2008). National College for School Leadership. September 21, 2008, from http://www.ncsl.org.uk/aboutus-index/press_office-index/pressoffice-latestreleases.htm?id=23246 .
U.S. Department of Labor. (2007, April) Teachers- Preschool, Kindergarten, Elementary, Middle and Secondary. September 21, 2008, from www.bls.gov/oco/ocos069.htm.
U.S. Department of State. (2008) Teaching Overseas. September 21, 2008, from http://www.state.gov/m/dghr/flo/c21946.htm .
Virginia Department of Education. (September 21, 2007). Routes to Licensure in Virginia. October 5, 2008, from www.doe.virginia.gov/VDOE/newvdoe/licroute.pdf.


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2.5: Quadratic Equations
2: Equations and Inequalities
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2.5E: Quadratic Equations (Exercises)
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4.1: Water Budgets for Sustainable Water Management
Stacy L. Hutchinson
Kansas State University
Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| Key Terms |
| Hydrologic cycle | Infiltration and runoff | Water balance |
| Soil water relationships | Evapotranspiration | Agricultural water management |
| Precipitation | Water storage | Urban stormwater management |
Variables
Introduction
Water is central to many discussions regionally, nationally, and globally—be it the lack of water, the overabundance of water, or poor water quality—pushing us to seek answers on how to ensure we can maintain a safe, reliable, adequate water supply for human and environmental well-being. The United Nations (2013) defines water security as
. . . the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability . . .
This highlights the need to understand the complex relationships associated with water and the need to research, develop, and implement engineered systems that assist with enhancing water security across the nation and world. This chapter focuses on understanding the system water balance, which is the fundamental basis for all water management decisions.
Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
- • Describe the basic components of a water balance, including precipitation, infiltration, evaporation, evapotranspiration, and runoff
- • Calculate a water budget
- • Use a water budget for the design and implementation of a simple water management system for irrigation or sustainable stormwater management
Concepts
Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrology is the study of how water moves around the Earth in continuous motion, cycling through liquid, gaseous, and solid phases. This cycle is called the hydrologic cycle or water cycle (Figure 3.4.1). At the global scale, the hydrologic cycle can be thought of as a closed system that obeys the conservation law; a closed system has no external interactions. The vast majority of water in the system continues to cycle through the three states of matter: liquid, gaseous, and solid.
Key processes in the hydrologic cycle are:
- • Precipitation (P), which is the primary input into a water budget. Precipitation describes all forms of water (liquid and solid) that falls or condenses from the atmosphere and reaches the earth’s surface (Huffman et al., 2013), including rainfall, drizzle, snow, hail, and dew.
- • Infiltration (In), which is the movement of water into the soil. Infiltrated water from precipitation and irrigation are the primary sources of water for plant growth.
- • Evaporation (E), which is the conversion of liquid or solid water into water vapor (gaseous water).
- • Transpiration (T), which is the process through which plants use water. Water is absorbed from the soil, moved through the plant, and evaporated from the leaves.
- • Evapotranspiration (ET), which is the combination of evaporation and transpiration to describe the water use, or output, from vegetated surfaces.
- • Runoff (R), which is the precipitation water that does not infiltrate into the soil. Runoff is generally an output, or loss of water, from the system or area of interest, but can also be an input if this water runs into the system or area of interest.
- • Deep seepage (DS), which is water that infiltrates below the root zone, which is the depth of the area of interest for the water budget.
Soil Water Relationships
The design of water management systems by biosystems engineers involves water moving through or being held in the soil. Thus, soil-water dynamics are a critical factor in the design process.
A volume of soil is comprised of solids and voids, or pore space. Porosity is the volume of voids as compared to the total volume of the soil. The proportions of solids and voids depend on the soil particles (sand, slit, clay, organic matter) and structure (known as peds), with coarse-textured soils (i.e., dominated by sand) having approximately 30% voids and finer-textured soils (i.e., containing more silt or clay) having as much as 50% void space. Water that infiltrates into the soil profile is stored in the soil voids. When all the void space is filled with water, the soil is at saturation water content.
Gravitational forces remove water up to 33 kPa (1/3 bar) of tension; this is drainage or gravitational water. The soil water content after gravitational drainage for approximately 24 hrs is called field capacity ( FC ) and is the maximum water available for plant growth. At this point, water is held in the soil in the smaller pore spaces by capillary action and surface tension, and can be removed from the soil profile by plant roots extracting the water from those pores. The water tension of the soil at field capacity (the suction pressure required to extract water from the pore spaces) is around 10 kPa (0.1 bars) for sands to 30 kPa (0.3 bars) for heavier soils containing more silt or clay. Plants are able to extract water from the soil profile with up to 1,500 kPa (15 bars) of tension; the water content at 1,500 kPa (15 bars) of tension is called the permanent wilt point ( PWP ). The total plant available water ( AW ) for a given soil profile is the difference between FC and PWP :
\[ AW = FC - PWP \]
Plant water use is the primary means of removing water from the soil profile. Once all of the available water has been taken up by plants, some water remains in the soil, in very small pore spaces where very high suction pressure would be needed to remove that water. This film of water is more tightly bound to soil particles than can be extracted by plants and is called hygroscopic water . These relationships are shown in Figure 3.4.2.
The amount of water in the soil is called the soil water content or soil moisture content, and is often indicated using the symbol θ . When soil water content is expressed on a mass basis, i.e., mass of water in the soil compared to total mass of soil, it is called gravimetric water content ( θ g ). Gravimetric water content can be calculated by expressing mass of water as a proportion of total wet mass of soil, known as wet weight water content, or as a proportion of total dry mass of soil, known as dry weight water content (Equation 3.4.2). When expressed on a volume basis, i.e., volume of water as a proportion of the total volume, with units cm w 3 cm −3 , the value is called volumetric water content ( θ v ) (Equation 3.4.3). Gravimetric (dry weight) and volumetric water content are related through the bulk density of the soil ( ρ b ), which is the mass of soil particles in a given volume of soil, expressed in g cm −3 .
\[ \text{gravimetric water content} (\Theta_{g}) = \frac{\text{mass water}}{\text{mass dry soil}} = \frac{\text{mass total soil - mass dry soil}}{\text{mass dry soil}} \]
\[ \text{volumetric water content} (\Theta_{v}) = \frac{\text{volume water}}{\text{total volume soil}} = \Theta_{g} \frac{\text{solid bulk density } (\rho_{b})}{\text{density of water }(\rho_{w})} \]
As collection of a known volume of soil is more difficult than collecting a simple grab sample of soil, it is much easier to determine gravimetric water content by mass. However, volumetric soil moisture is much easier to use in calculations because it can be expressed as an equivalent depth of rainfall (mm) over a given area and, thus, be directly related to rainfall, which is most commonly reported in units of depth (such as mm) and never in mass. The volume of water input to the water budget can be calculated by multiplying the depth of rainfall by the area receiving rain.
Water Budget Calculation
A water budget, or water balance, is a measure of all water flowing into and out of an area of interest, along with the change of water storage in the area. This could be an irrigated field, a lake or pond, or green infrastructure such as a stormwater management system like a bioretention cell or a rain garden (a vegetated area to absorb and store stormwater runoff). At smaller scales, the hydrologic cycle is characterized using a water budget, which is the primary tool used for designing and managing water resources systems, including stormwater runoff management and irrigation systems. Water budgets are calculated for a defined system or area (e.g., field, pond) over a specified time period (e.g., rainfall event, growing season, month, year).
The water budget is calculated by quantifying the inputs, outputs, and change in water storage (∆ S ) of the system or project (Equation 4.1.4; Figure 4.1.3). While precipitation is the primary input to the water budget, others include runoff into the system ( R in ) and water added through irrigation ( Ir ). Outputs from the system include runoff ( R out ), deep seepage ( DS ), and evapotranspiration ( ET ). The change in system storage (∆ S ) may be positive, such as an increase in pond water level after a rainfall event, or negative, such as the decline in soil moisture from plant water use.
\[ P+Ir \ \pm R - ET - DS = \Delta S \]
where P = precipitation
Ir = irrigation
R = net runoff ( R in – R out )
ET = evapotranspiration
DS = deep seepage
∆ S = change in soil water storage
The first step in developing a water budget for water resources management is to collect input, output, and storage data. There are many sources of data for this, including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) (NOAA, 2019), which includes data from around the world. Within the U.S., the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) real-time water data (USGS, 2020b) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Web Soil Survey (USDA-NRCS, 2019a) are also available. Each of these sources has extensive sets of data available to assist with management of water resources. Local-level data from state climatologists, research farms, and project gages should also be considered when available. High quality precipitation data are particularly valuable, and necessary, when designing and implementing water management systems including irrigation systems and green infrastructure.
Precipitation
Precipitation is the primary input into a water budget. The most important form of precipitation for agricultural and biological engineering applications in most parts of the world is rainfall. Precipitation varies significantly across regions (Figure 4.1.4) and throughout the year, but is relatively consistent over long time periods at a given location. This means long-term precipitation records can be used to calculate a water budget and for planning water resource management systems.
In addition to data available from NOAA NCEI and local sources mentioned above, long-term design storm information is available for the U.S. from the NOAA Atlas 14 point precipitation frequency estimates (HDSC, 2019). Statistical analysis of historic precipitation data is used to determine the magnitude and annual probability for various rainfall events. These values are used to size stormwater systems to deal with the majority of events, but not the most extreme.
Infiltration
Precipitation starts moving into the soil profile, i.e., infiltrating, as soon as it reaches the ground surface. Initial infiltration rates depend on the initial soil water content, but if the soil is drier than field capacity, can be very high as water fills depressions on the soil surface and begins moving into the soil. As the surface depressions fill and the surface soil becomes saturated, infiltration slows to steady-state and excess precipitation begins to run off the surface. Depending on the type of precipitation, initial soil water content, duration, and intensity (depth per time), precipitation may infiltrate into the soil profile and become soil water, or it will not infiltrate and will become runoff. The infiltration rate is related to soil bulk density, porosity, pore size distribution, and pore connectivity.
Runoff
Water that does not infiltrate into the soil is an output from the water budget (a loss from the water management system) unless the system is designed to collect it. The amount of runoff depends on land cover type, soil type, initial soil water content, and rainfall intensity; these four factors all interact and are not independent of each other. Land cover plays a significant role in determining the amount of runoff. Natural vegetated land usually has the highest infiltration rates. Infiltration rates decrease as natural land is converted to production land, due to increased compaction and changes in soil structure, and to developed land, due to impervious surfaces such as buildings and roads. Soil type also influences whether water can infiltrate. Soils with greater connected pore space will tend to generate less runoff. Initial soil water content is important because, if the soil is at or near saturation water content, the infiltration rate is more likely to be less than the rainfall rate. If rainfall rate is very high, runoff can occur even if the soil is quite dry. One of the most common methods for estimating likely surface runoff is the curve number method (USDA-NRCS, 2004). More information on the curve number method can be found in Chapter 10, Part 630, of the USDA-NRCS National Engineering Handbook (USDA-NRCS, 2004).
Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the primary means for removing water from the top of the soil system when plants are present. If there are no plants this loss will be confined to evaporation only. The amount of ET depends on the type and growth stage of the vegetation, the current weather, and soil water content at the location. The most accurate ET calculations involve an energy balance associated with incoming solar radiation and the mass transfer of water from moist vegetation surfaces to a drier atmosphere (Allen et al., 2005). ET is driven by solar radiation, but as the soil becomes drier, ET decreases. The relationship depends on the pore size distribution of the soil, so is regulated by the interaction of soil texture (sand, silt, and clay content) and structure (presence and type of soil peds).
Storage
Soils can store a significant amount of water and play an important role in controlling the rainfall-runoff processes, stream flow, and ET (Dobriyal et al., 2012; Meng et al., 2017). Available soil water influences productivity of natural and agricultural systems (Dobriyal et al., 2012). Understanding the available water stored in surface soils allows effective design and implementation of irrigation and stormwater management systems. The maximum storage is determined by the total porosity of the soil, which will be almost the same as the saturated water content. The ability of the soil to store more water at any given time is determined by the difference in current water content and saturated water content. These factors are influenced by soil texture, structure, porosity, and bulk density. More information about soils can be found from sources such as the FAO Soils Portal of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 2020), the European Soil Data Centre ( https://esdac.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ ), and on the Web Soil Survey maintained by the USDA-NRCS (2019b).
Applications
Water is essential for life and critical for both food and energy production. With a finite supply of available fresh water and increasing global population demanding access to clean water for drinking, energy, and food production, proper water management is of the utmost importance. It is imperative to research, develop, and implement engineered systems that enhance local, regional, national, and global water security. Water balances are used in the design of systems to manage excess stormwater and to manage scarce available water in low-rainfall areas. Excess water management systems include components to retain and regulate runoff safely, while limited water management systems include components to provide irrigation water during dry seasons.
Urban Stormwater Management
As urbanization and land development occurs, the addition of impervious structures (roads, sidewalks, buildings) dramatically changes the hydrology of an area. Runoff volume linearly increases with increases in the impervious surface area. Hydrologic models and long-term stream flow monitoring show that, compared to pre-development, developed suburban areas have 2 to 4 times more annual runoff, and high-density areas have 15 times more runoff (Sahu et al., 2012; Suresh Babu and Mishra, 2012; Christianson et al., 2015). As runoff travels over pavement, rooftops, and fertilized lawns that make up much of the urban landscape, it picks up contaminants such as pathogens, heavy metals, sediments, and excess nutrients (Davis et al., 2001), creating both water quantity and water quality concerns.
Increases in the total volume of runoff from urban areas are caused not only by impervious structures. Even in low-density suburban areas where individual lots have large lawns and large public parks are created, current methods of construction and development greatly reduce the infiltration capacity of soils. Development typically involves stripping native vegetation from large areas of land, accelerating soil erosion rates 40,000 times (Gaffield et al., 2003). During this process, construction equipment compacts soil, reducing its ability to absorb runoff. Developed lawns can generate 90% as much runoff as pavement (Gaffield et al., 2003). Urban runoff may also include dry-weather flows from the irrigation of lawns and public parks. The final result of urban development is a significant increase in runoff that transports pollutants from dense urban centers to receiving water bodies, and small changes in land use can relate to large increases in flood potential and pollutant loading.
Over the past three decades, urban and urbanizing areas have started to increase the use of green infrastructure, or natural-based systems, for stormwater management. Green infrastructure works to reduce stormwater runoff and increase stormwater treatment on-site for floodwater and nonpoint, or diffuse, source pollution control using infiltration and biologically based treatment in the root zone. Green infrastructure is very different from traditional grey stormwater management systems, such as storm sewers. The more traditional grey systems use a centralized approach to water management, designed to quickly move runoff off the land and into nearby surface water with little to no storage or treatment. Green infrastructure is more resilient and can offer additional benefits, such as habitat, in developed and developing areas. For more information about green infrastructure see the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) green infrastructure webpage (USEPA, 2020).
Bioretention cells are one of the most effective green infrastructure systems. Bioretention cells are designed to infiltrate, store, and treat runoff water from impervious surfaces such as parking lots and roadways. Bioretention cells can be lined to prevent contaminants from moving into groundwater or unlined when there is no concern of groundwater contamination. Ideally, bioretention cells are designed to infiltrate and store the “first flush” rainfall event. (The first flush rainfall is the first 13-25 mm of rain that removes the majority of accumulated pollution from surfaces.) However, in many cases, there is not enough space to install such a large bioretention cell and the system is designed to fit the space in order to treat as much stormwater as possible.
Initial design and assessment of bioretention cell function is completed using a system water balance. Runoff from the impervious parking is directed toward stormwater management practices, like bioretention cells, where water infiltrates and is stored until removed from the soil (or growing media) through evapotranspiration.
Agricultural Water Management
Changing climate conditions, population growth, and urbanization present challenges for food supply. Agricultural intensification impacts local resources, particularly usable freshwater. This vulnerability is amplified by a changing climate, in which drought and variability in precipitation are becoming increasingly common. As a result, 52% of the world’s population is projected to live in regions under water stress by 2050 (Schlosser et al., 2014). Concurrently, varying water availability, along with limiting nutrients, will constrain future food and energy production.
Agricultural water management is key to optimizing crop production. The amount of water needed for crop growth depends on the crop type, location, and time of year, but averages roughly 6.5 mm day −1 during the growing season (Brouwer and Heibloem, 1986). Depending on location, installation of runoff management systems such as terraces (ASAE S268.6 MAR2017) and grassed waterways (ASABE EP 464.1 FEB2016) (ASABE Standards, 2016, 2017) may be needed to manage excess rainfall and reduce flooding and erosion within fields. Design standards with specific design criteria are available from the ASABE Standards ( https://asabe.org/Publications-Standards/Standards-Development/National-Standards/Published-Standards ).
In addition to managing runoff from rainfall events, supplementing natural rainfall with irrigation water for crop production may also be required (sometimes in the same places). Maintaining available water for crop growth and development has a significant impact on crop yields. Irrigation system design and management rely on the use of detailed soil water balances to minimize water losses and optimize crop production. A daily water budget to account for all inputs and outputs from the system can be calculated.
Examples
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Example 1: Calculating soil water content
Problem:
The following information is provided to determine the amount of available water storage in a soil profile. A soil sample collected in the field has a wet weight of 238 g. After drying at 105°C for 24 hrs, the soil sample dry weight is 209 g. Careful measurement of the soil sample determines the volume of the soil core is 135 cm 3 . Determine the available water storage, in both mass and volume basis, in the soil profile. (a) What was the original water content of the soil on a gravimetric basis (mass of water per total mass) and (b) on a volumetric basis (volume of water per volume of bulk soil)?
Solution
- (a) Calculate the gravimetric water content using Equation 3.4.2:
\( \text{gravimetric water content } (\Theta_{g}) = \frac{\text{mass water}}{\text{mass dry soil}} = \frac{\text{total mass soil - dry soil mass}}{\text{dry soil mass}} \)
\( \text {mass water (g)} = 238 \text{ g total} - 209 \text{ g dry} = 29 \text{ g water} \)
\( \text {gravimetry water content} (\Theta_{g}) = \frac{29 \text{ g water}}{209 \text{ g dry}} = 0.139 \frac{\text{g water}}{\text{g dry}} = 13.9 \% \text{ water by mass} \)
- (b) Calculate the volumetric water content using Equation 4.1.3:
\( \text{volumetric water content } (\Theta_{v}) = \frac{\text{volume water}}{\text{total volume}} \)
\( \text{volume of water} = \frac{\text{mass water}}{\text{density of water}} = \frac{29 \text{ g water}}{1 \text{ g per cm}^{3}} = 29 \text{ cm}^{3} \text{ water} \)
\( \text{volumetric water content } (\Theta_{v}) = \frac{29 \text{ cm}^{3} \text{ water}}{135 \text{ cm}^{3} \text{ dry}} = 0.215 \frac{ \text{cm}^{3} \text{ water}}{\text{cm}^{3} \text{ dry}} = 21.5 \% \text{ water by volume} \)
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Example 2: Determining plant available water
Problem:
Plant available water is one factor that helps to determine the need for irrigation as well as the available water storage in bioretention cells. A field has an established grass cover. The grass has an effective root zone depth of 0.90 m. The soil is a fine sandy loam with FC = 23% (vol) and PWP = 10% (vol), as shown in the water balance diagram.
(a) If the soil is at field capacity, how much available water (cm) is in the effective root zone? (b) If the field water content averages 18% (vol) in the root zone, what is the available water storage depth for rainfall?
Solution
- (a) Calculate the available water using Equation 4.1.1:
\( AW = FC - PWP = 23 \% \text{(vol)} - 10 \% \text{(vol)} = 13 \% \text{(vol)} \)
- Thus, 13% of the soil volume is available water for plant use. When the volumetric water content is considered on a per unit area of soil, e.g., (cm 3 water cm −2 soil)/(cm 3 soil cm −2 soil), the units become depth water/depth soil, e.g. cm water cm −1 soil profile. Thus, consider a unit area of soil and calculate the depth of available water:
\( \text{available water} = \frac{13 \text{ cm water}}{100 \text{ cm soil profile}} \times 90 \text{ cm} = 11.7 \text{ cm water available in root zone} \)
- (b) If the soil water content is 18% (vol), calculate the available storage as the difference between FC and volumetric water content:
\( \text{available storage} = FC - \Theta_{v} = 23 \% - 18 \% = 5 \% \)
- And the depth of available storage in the root zone is:
\( \text{depth of available storage} = 0.05 \times 90 \text{ cm} = 4.5 \text{ cm} \)
Thus, the soil profile would be able to store 4.5 cm in the 90 cm root zone.
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Example 3: Using a water balance to design a simple pond to store runoff
Problem:
A developer is planning the layout of a small housing development on 16.2 ha (40 ac) of land near Manhattan, KS, USA. According to local ordinance, the developer must retain any increased runoff due to development from the 2-yr, 24-hr rainfall event (86 mm) (HDSC, 2019). Prior to development, the area was able to infiltrate and store approximately 50 mm of this rainfall event. With the increase of impervious land cover (e.g. houses and roads), it is expected that infiltration and storage will be reduced to 30 mm. Determine the pond volume required to store the difference in expected runoff.
Solution
Apply Equation 4.1.4 to the 16.2-ha site to determine the expected increase in runoff from the site to due development:
Water balance equation:
\( \text{inputs} - \text{outputs} = \text{change in storage} \)
\( P+Ir \pm R - ET-DS=\Delta S \)
Assumptions:
Pond is dry prior to rain
Ir = 0
ET = 0 for short duration events
DS = 0
Therefore, P ± R = ∆ S
Pre-development:
P = 86 mm
R = ?
∆ S = 50 mm
R = 86 mm – 50 mm = 36 mm of runoff
Post-development:
P = 86 mm
R = ?
∆ S = 30 mm
R = 86 mm – 30 mm = 56 mm of runoff
Change in runoff:
∆ S = 56 mm – 36 mm = 20 mm runoff
= 20 mm × 16.2 ha
= 0.02 m × 162,000 m 2 = 3,240 m 3
The pond must be designed to detain, or slow down, 20 mm of runoff from the developed land. This equates to 3,240 m 3 of runoff water from the entire development of 16.2 ha.
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\)
Example 4: Estimate the amount of storage available in a bioretention cell
Problem:
Consider a bioretention cell located in the center of a parking lot. The parking lot, an area of 26 m by 12 m, is sloped to direct runoff into the bioretention cell. The cell contains an engineered growing media that is 60% sand and 40% organic compost, with a porosity of 45% by volume, planted with native grasses and forbs. The cell is 2.0 m wide, 1.2 m deep, and 12 m long.
- (a) What is the maximum water storage volume of the bioretention cell?
- (b) What is the largest storm (maximum precipitation depth) the cell can infiltrate if all storage is available?
Solution
Solution:
- (a) Calculate the total volume of the bioretention cell:
- \( \text{volume of cell} = \text{length} \times \text{width} \times \text{depth} \)
= 12 m × 2 m × 1.2 m = 28.8 m 3
- The maximum storage is equal to the total void space (porosity):
- \( \text{void space} = \text{volume of cell} \times \text{porosity} \)
= 28.8 m 3 × 0.45 = 12.96 m 3
- (b) Assuming all rainfall will run off the parking lot, the maximum storm depth that can be stored is:
- \( \text{rainfall} = \frac{\text{volume of cell void space}}{\text{area of parking lot}} = \frac{12.96m^{3}}{12m \times 26m} = 0.042m = 42mm \)
- −1, preparing the cell to store the next rainfall event.
Example \(\PageIndex{5}\)
Example 5: Development of an irrigation schedule for corn in a water limited area
Problem:
Given the following information, determine the daily changes in the soil water content. How much irrigation water should be added on the 10 th day to raise the water content of the root zone back to the initial water content? The root zone is 1 m and the initial soil moisture content is 20% by volume. Assume all seepage passes through the root zone and is not stored.
Solution
Convert the initial soil amount in the profile at the beginning of day 1, θ v = 20% of root zone, to units of depth of water in the root zone:
\( \theta_{vi} = 0.2 \times 1000 \ mm = 200 \ mm\text{ of water} \)
Apply Equation 4.1.4 to the root zone for each day:
\( \text{Daily water balance} = P+Ir \pm R-ET -DS=\Delta S \)
\( \text{Day 1 inputs} = P+Ir \pm R = 0+0+0=0\ mm \)
\( \text{Day 1 outputs} = R+ET+\text{seepage} = 0+7+0 = 7 \ mm \)
\( \text{Day 1 } \Delta S = \text{inputs} - \text{outputs} = 0\ mm - 7 \ mm = -7 \ mm \)
\( \text{Day 1 } \theta_{v1} = \theta_{vi} - \Delta S = 200 \ mm - 7 \ mm = 193 \ mm \)
There is 193 mm of water in the soil profile at the end of day 1.
It is easiest to complete the rest of these calculations by setting up a spreadsheet. The following table shows the daily water budget components, the summed inputs and outputs as calculated above, and the resulting soil water depth (mm) in the right-most column. Initial water = 200 mm. At water content is 183 mm. Thus, to return the amount of water in the profile to in the initial soil water content of 200 mm, 17 mm would need to be added on day 10.
Image Credits
Figure 1. USGS. (CC By 1.0). (2020). The water cycle. Retrieved from https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/water-cycle-natural-water-cycle
Figure 2. Hutchinson, S. L. (CC By 4.0). (2020). Soil water.
Figure 3. Hutchinson, S. L. (CC By 4.0). (2020). Water Balance.
Figure 4. Ruane et. Al. (2018). Annual Precipitation. Retrieved from https://data.giss.nasa.gov/impacts/agmipcf/
Figure 5. Hutchinson, S. L. (CC By 4.0). (2020). Example 2.
Figure 6. Hutchinson, S. L. (CC By 4.0). (2020). Example 4.
Figure 7. Hutchinson, S. L. (CC By 4.0). (2020). Example 5.
References
Allen, R. G., Walter, I. A., Elliott, R. L., Howell, T. A., Itenfisu, D., Jensen, M. E., & Snyder, R. L. (2005). The ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers.
ASABE Standards. (2016) EP 464.1: Grassed waterway for runoff control. St. Joseph, MI: ASABE.
ASAE Standards. (2017). S268.6: Terrace systems. St. Joseph, MI: ASABE.
Brouwer, C., & Heibloem, M. (1986). Irrigation water management: Irrigation water needs. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/s2022e/s2022e00.htm#Contents
Christianson, R., Hutchinson, S., & Brown, G. (2015). Curve number estimation accuracy on disturbed and undisturbed soils. J. Hydrol. Eng. , 21 (2). http://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0001274 .
Davis, A. P., Shokouhian, M., Sharma, H., & Minami, C. (2001). Laboratory study of biological retention for urban stormwater management. Water Environ. Res. , 73 (1), 5-14. doi.org/10.2175/106143001x138624.
Dobriyal, P., Qureshi, A., Badola, R., & Hussain, S. A. (2012). A review of the methods available for estimating soil moisture and its implications for water resource management. J. Hydrol. , 458-459 , 110-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.06.021 .
FAO. (2020). FAO soils portal. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/en/ .
Gaffield, S. J., Goo, R. L., Richards, L. A., & Jackson, R. J. (2003). Public health effects of inadequately managed stormwater runoff. Am. J. Public Health , 93 (9), 1527-1533. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.93.9.1527 .
HDSC. (2019). NOAA atlas 14 point precipitation frequency estimates. Hydrometeorological Design Studies Center. Retrieved from hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/pfds_map_cont.html.
Huffman, R. L., Fangmeier, D. D., Elliot, W. J., Workman, S. R., & Schwab, G. O. (2013). Soil and water conservation engineering (7th ed.). St. Joseph, MI: ASABE.
Meng, S., Xie, X., & Liang, S. (2017). Assimilation of soil moisture and streamflow observations to improve flood forecasting with considering runoff routing lags. J. Hydrol. , 550 , 568-579. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.05.024 .
NOAA. (2019). Climate data online. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Centers for Environmental Information. Retrieved from https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/ .
Ruane, A. C., Goldberg, R., & Chryssanthacopoulos, J. (2015) AgMIP climate forcing datasets for agricultural modeling: Merged products for gap-filling and historical climate series estimation, Agr. Forest Meteorol. , 200 , 233-248, http://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.09.016 .
Sahu, R. K., Mishra, S., & Eldho, T. (2012). Improved storm duration and antecedent moisture condition coupled SCS-CN concept-based model. J. Hydrol. Eng. 17 (11). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000443 .
Schlosser, C. A., Strzepek, K., Gao, X., Fant, C., Blanc, E., Paltsev, S., . . . Gueneau, A. (2014). The future of global water stress: An integrated assessment. Earth’s Future , 2 (8), 341-361. doi.org/10.1002/2014EF000238.
Suresh Babu, P., & Mishra, S. (2012). Improved SCS-CN–inspired model. J. Hydrol. Eng. 17 (11). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000435
United Nations. (2013). Water security and the global water agenda. A UN-Water Analytical Brief. Retrieved from https://www.unwater.org/publications/water-security-global-water-agenda/ .
USDA-NRCS. (2004). Chapter 10: Estimation of direct runoff from storm rainfall. In National engineering handbook , part 630 hydrology. U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved from https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/national/water/manage/hydrology/?cid=STELPRDB1043063 .
USDA-NRCS. (2019a). Web soil survey. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved from https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/HomePage.htm .
USDA-NRCS. (2019b). Soils. U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved from https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/soils/survey/ .
USEPA (2020). Green infrastructure. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure .
USGS (2020a) The water science school. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved from https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html .
USGS (2020b). National Water Information System: Web interface. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved from https://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis .


2.1: Prelude to Geometric Optics and Image Formation
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This chapter introduces the major ideas of geometric optics, which describe the formation of images due to reflection and refraction. It is called “geometric” optics because the images can be characterized using geometric constructions, such as ray diagrams. We have seen that visible light is an electromagnetic wave; however, its wave nature becomes evident only when light interacts with objects with dimensions comparable to the wavelength (about 500 nm for visible light). Therefore, the laws of geometric optics only apply to light interacting with objects much larger than the wavelength of the light.


<IP_ADDRESS>: Instructions for completing the Research Portfolio assignment
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Research Portfolio:
There are 5 research designs you are required to address for this assignment. There is a discussion forum devoted to each design:
- Survey
- Correlational
- Quasiexperimental
- Experimental
- Qualitative
- You must submit a research article (or the link to a research article) which exemplifies each research design. In addition to facilitating the discussion of the articles you submit, you must participate in the discussions led by the other students.
Your initial post in each discussion forum must contain:
- a working link to the research article, OR
- the article as an attachment , OR
- paste in a copy of the article
As soon as you submit your initial post, reply to it with the following information (not all articles will contain all of this information):
- Identify the research as Basic or Applied – and justify your conclusion
- Identify the population of interest
- Identify the sampling procedure and the sample
- Identify the independent and dependent variables
- Identify the hypothesis
- Discuss any ethical issues
- Identify the research conclusion
- Discuss any theoretical implications
You are to facilitate the ensuing discussion of your research article. Make sure all of the salient issues are fully discussed.
In addition to facilitating the discussion of the article you submit, you must be an active participant in the discussion of the other articles submitted.
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Instructions for completing the Research Portfolio assignment. Authored by : William Pelz. Provided by : Herkimer College. Project : AtD - Research Methods for Social Science course. License : CC BY: Attribution


25.1: Mesoamerica
The Mixteca-Puebla Tradition
The Mixteca-Puelba tradition of artistry originates from the pre-Columbian Mixtec peoples from the region of Puebla, Mesoamerica.
Evaluate the Mixteca-Puebla tradition of art as it relates to Mixteca arts and crafts
Key Points
- The Mixteca were one of the major indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica; today they inhabit the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Puebla.
- Primarily producing work in stone, wood, and metal, the artistry of the Mixteca people was well-regarded throughout ancient Mesoamerica.
- Mixteca-Puebla art, which archaeologists classify as distinct from other Mixteca arts and crafts, is a variant of iconography and commonly found in pottery.
Key Terms
- phonetic : Relating to the sounds of spoken language.
- iconography : The branch of art history that studies the identification, description, and interpretation of the content of images.
The Mixteca People
Puebla, a state located in East-Central Mexico, originated from the city of the same name founded by the Spanish in 1531. In pre-Columbian times, the region was inhabited by people of many ethnicities, including the Mixteca. The term Mixteca (or Mixtecs ) comes from the Nahuatl word mixtecah , meaning “cloud people.” One of the major indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica, today they inhabit the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Puebla in the La Mixteca region. They are the fourth largest indigenous group in Mexico, although many have emigrated out of traditional Mixteca areas into other parts of the state, Mexico City, and even the United States.
Mixteca-Puebla Art
The work of Mixteca artisans was well-regarded throughout ancient Mesoamerica. Primarily producing work in stone, wood, and metal, they were well known for their “Codices,” or phonetic pictures in which their history and genealogies were written. They were also known for their exceptional mastery of jewelry, particularly gold and turquoise. Mixteca goldsmiths played an important role in the tributes paid to the Aztecs during the height of the Aztec Empire.
Archeologists classify Mixteca-Puebla art as distinct from other Mixteca arts and crafts. This variant of artistic style and iconography, commonly found in pottery, became associated with traits of the Toltec archaeological tradition in Mesoamerican culture during the early post-classic period (800–1000). The temples of a Pre-Columbian Maya walled city are situated on 12-meter tall cliffs in Tulum in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico; a mural can still be seen on the eastern wall that resembles the Mixteca-Puebla style of art. Using vast trading networks, the Mixteca-Puebla style of art spread from Cholula, a city located in the center west of Puebla, to other areas in the Valley of Mexico and eventually to Mesoamerica.
- Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- phonetic. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phonetic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Tulum. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulum. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Toltec. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Toltec. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Puebla. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Puebla. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Cholula, Puebla. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholula,_Puebla. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Mixtec. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixtec%23Language.2C_codices.2C_and_artwork. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- iconography. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/iconography. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- WLA lacma 1100 ceramic pipe. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WLA_lacma_1100_ceramic_pipe.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- WLA lacma Mosaic Skull Mixteca-Puebla Style. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WLA_lacma_Mosaic_Skull_Mixteca-Puebla_Style.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Large Mixtec bowl, Museo de Amu00e9rica. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Large_Mixtec_bowl,_Museo_de_Am%C3%A9rica.jpg. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


14.2: The Impact of Nutrition on Pulmonary Wellness Across the Lifespan
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- 14.1.1 Describe the impact of nutrition on the pulmonary system during pregnancy.
- 14.1.2 Describe the impact of nutrition on the pulmonary system during infancy.
- 14.1.3 Describe the impact of nutrition on the pulmonary system during childhood.
- 14.1.4 Describe the impact of nutrition on the pulmonary system during adolescence.
- 14.1.5 Describe the impact of nutrition on the pulmonary system during adulthood.
- 14.1.6 Describe the impact of nutrition on the pulmonary system during later adulthood.
Pregnancy
Nurses must be skilled in assessing the holistic aspects of client care across the lifespan. One of the critical aspects often overlooked but of incredible value is the nutritional intake of clients. Nurses must comprehend the pulmonary system from pregnancy and infancy to older age, as they assess the dietary aspect and provide education and advocacy for the clients they treat.
As clients progress through the reactions and lifestyle modifications that occur during pregnancy, considering nutrition and how it impacts the pulmonary system is yet another area of importance. Pregnancy elicits various responses from the pregnant client (Dokuhaki et al., 2021). The body undergoes various physiological changes to adapt to the introduction and adjusts to a growing fetus. The pregnant client’s nutritional needs transform to accommodate the developing fetus and consider the client’s physiological changes (Widysanto & Mathew, 2022). Maternal nutritional needs and deficiencies are vital to fetal lung development and prevention of fetal and childhood complications (Arigliani et al., 2018; Baiz et al., 2019; Fandino et al., 2019; Rocha et al., 2021).
Physiological Changes to the Pulmonary System During Pregnancy
Upper-airway changes that occur during pregnancy include nasal congestion , called rhinitis , because of hyperemia, edema, plasma leakage into the stroma, glandular hypersecretion, increased phagocytic activity, and increased mucopolysaccharide content. Hyperemia occurs as a result of a higher-than-normal blood flow . The exact etiology of rhinitis during pregnancy is unknown but is thought to be related to increased blood volume and hormonal fluctuations. Complications of rhinitis in pregnancy include snoring and sleep-disordered breathing , both related to hypertension and preeclampsia.
The chest wall structurally adapts in pregnancy to anticipate the growing uterus and maternal weight gain as the subcostal angle of the rib cage widens between 68.5° and 103.5° and the circumference of the lower chest wall increases by 5–7 cm in girth while the diaphragm shifts upward. With pregnancy, total body blood volume increases 40% (Sanghavi & Rutherford, 2014; Soma-Pillay et al., 2016). The rise in the relaxin hormone initiates relaxation and loosening of ligament attachments in the lower ribs.
Nutritional Needs and Deficiencies Related to Pulmonary System During Pregnancy
Pregnant clients have additional specialized dietary needs that support the physiological changes of the client and growth of the fetus. A balance in macronutrients such as protein are vital for healthy pregnancies and babies (Herring et al., 2018). Baiz et al. (2019) recommend consuming eggs and raw or cooked vegetables to limit the effects of allergic rhinitis during pregnancy.
Under- or overnutrition of a pregnant client causes imbalances of nutrients such as amino acids and increases blood cortisol levels and oxidative stress (Herring et al., 2018). If malnutrition prevails during pregnancy, the results equate to “impairment of offspring growth and development, maternal insulin resistance, cretinism, IUGR [intrauterine growth restriction], birth defects, cognitive and behavioral defects, postpartum complications, preeclampsia, eclampsia, anemia, preterm birth, maternal hemorrhaging, and additional long-term effects for both mother and offspring” (Herring et al., 2018).
Maternal needs and nutritional deficiencies related to malnutrition negatively impact the pulmonary system during pregnancy. Undernutrition in a pregnant client alters hormones that disrupt the lung maturation of the fetus (Fandino et al., 2019). Macronutrient and micronutrient recommendations are discussed further in the next section.
Maternal Nutritional Impact on the Fetus
Adequate maternal nutrition prevents intrauterine complications such as intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and lung development in the growing fetus (Bendix et al., 2020; Fandino et al., 2019; Voraphani et al., 2022). See Figure 14.2 for the stages of lung development. IUGR results from below-average fetal development and equates to babies that are small for gestational age and have an abnormal growth trajectory; it is linked with placental dysfunction and malnutrition. The term IUGR is often interchanged with small for gestational age (SGA) , but the terms vary in that SGA means the fetus is small for gestational age but has an average growth trajectory. The clinical definition of IUGR is a baby weighing less than two standard deviations below the mean or remaining below the tenth percentile at a specified gestational age (Bendix et al., 2020). Infants with IUGR are at risk for complications such as asphyxia, hypothermia, hypoglycemia, and polycythemia. Long-term complications include growth limitations, neurodevelopmental handicaps, and disease processes linked to the cardiovascular, renal, and immunological systems. Even if the growth occurs in incremental units, the fetus may experience IUGR or meet poor outcomes from maternal malnutrition (Arigliani et al., 2018; Fandino et al., 2019; Rocha et al., 2021).
If a pregnant client has inadequate nutrition, the infant with IUGR is at a higher risk for reduced nutrient availability and oxygen related to placental insufficiency . Undernutrition during pregnancy leads to impaired alveolarization and suppressed surfactant protein expression , diminished pulmonary vascular development, lower alveolar surface area, increased extracellular matrix , and thickened blood-gas barrier , limiting compliance and capacity. Causes of IUGR include severe maternal starvation and suppressed pregnancy weight gain, high altitude , maternal hypoxia , diabetes, and infections such as tuberculosis. Inadequate protein intake during pregnancy leads to embryonic losses, IUGR, and reduced postnatal growth , leading to a deficiency in amino acids critical for cellular metabolism and function (Herring et al., 2018). In contrast, high protein intake during pregnancy may also cause IUGR and embryonic death related to amino acid excess and ammonia toxicity (Herring et al., 2018). Nurses must assess and educate the pregnant client on the importance of moderate protein consumption. The recommended protein intake for the first trimester is 46 g/day and increases to 71 g/day during the second and final trimesters (Murphy et al., 2021).
Infancy
Infancy is a stage that begins the lifespan. It follows pregnancy and birth and is characterized by rapid growth, development, and adaptations. During infancy , the baby experiences rapid weight and height gains. Generally, depending on the source, babies are considered infants from birth up to age 1. Cognitive development during infancy includes exploration, attention, memory, inquisitiveness, and communication acquisition. An infant’s milestones include holding their head up, rolling over, sitting with support, crawling, standing, and walking. Infants form bonds with their caregivers that are shared through eye contact, touch, responsive care, and body language. Infants rely on their parents or caregivers for full support.
The pulmonary system undergoes significant adaptations to support the transition between the in-utero and outside world. The fundamental pulmonary changes include the lungs’ transition from fluid-filled to breathing outside air (Arigliani et al., 2018; Fandino et al., 2019; Rocha et al., 2021). Surfactant production increases late in pregnancy and continues through development and maturation during the first few weeks of life. The lungs can expand and stretch, allowing for growing volume capacity. The airways continue to grow and mature. Infants obtain antibodies through breast milk in colostrum (in the first few days of life) and immunoglobulin A (after the first few days) to help infants fight infection and support their immune systems.
Nutritional Impact During Infancy
Nutrition is crucial in lung growth , development, and repair in fetuses, preterm infants, infants, and children (Arigliani et al., 2018; Bendix et al., 2020; Fandino et al., 2019; Rocha et al., 2021). One of the primary systems to develop in a fetus is the respiratory system , which begins on day 22 after conception. Although the process begins early with the trachea, lungs, bronchi, and alveoli, complete development does not occur until around age 8 (Rehman & Bacha, 2022). If a child is born with IUGR or SGA, health care providers must assess nutritional aspects to determine if undernutrition or malnutrition contributes to stunted growth. Micronutrients that play a role in lung maturation include vitamins A, D, E, selenium, and omega-3 fatty acids (Arigliani et al., 2018).
Childhood
Alveolarization continues from infancy through approximately 8 years of age. Even if pulmonary development and function is normal at birth, insulting exposures can cause setbacks. Some scientists have traced poor lung function from infancy through childhood to identify potential events associated with decreasing optimal pulmonary development and capacity. A child born without any difficulty in pulmonary function but exposed to second-hand smoke may experience stunted growth (Schultz et al., 2018). According to Schultz et al. (2018), in the same study, when individuals demonstrated limitations at age 8 in lung function, they maintained these lower levels of function even when retested at age 16. When 8-year-old children have developmental limitations and are exposed to second-hand smoke, their lung function diminishes. Maternal smoking habits throughout pregnancy also play a role in decreased lung development. Schultz et al. (2018) study results further support the view that being born prematurely increases the risk for diminished lung development and function as the child grows. These children do not recover the lost development with age. They also are at an increased risk for developing asthma, wheezing, and declination of lung function during respiratory infection season.
Nutritional Impact During Childhood
Nutrition plays a significant role in the development and function of the respiratory system throughout childhood. Adequate nutritional intake during childhood maintains a healthy growth pattern, aids lung tissue repair, and supports the immune system to prevent and treat infection (Gozzi-Silva et al., 2021). Intake of adequate amounts of macronutrient protein and micronutrients vitamins A, C, E, omega-3 fatty acids, and zinc is important for lung function. Inadequate consumption of the proper nutrients causes impaired lung function and respiratory problems. Improper nutritional intake affects the immune system, which protects the lungs from infection and inflammation. Malnutrition throughout childhood increases the risk for infection and exacerbates conditions like asthma. Childhood obesity causes detrimental effects on lung capacity by reducing lung capacity, expiratory reserve, and residual volume due to excessive adipose tissue increasing the intraabdominal pressure on the diaphragm, altering full chest expansion (Ferreira et al., 2020).
Adolescence
Childhood progresses into the adolescence stage through physiological alterations (Han et al., 2019; Schultz et al., 2018). These changes include increased lung volume , respiratory muscle strength , airway resistance , susceptibility to respiratory tract infection (RTI), and decreased respiratory rate, as follows:
- Lung volume increases as the child grows. The lung capacity and volume continue to grow as long as there are no underlying factors hindering growth (Schultz et al., 2018).
- Increased respiratory muscle strength continues, and muscles increase the ability to exchange air in the lungs.
- Increased airway resistance occurs because of functional and structural changes during adolescence.
- Increased susceptibility to respiratory infections occurs as changes to the immune system and lack of adequate nutritional intake influence.
Overall, the physiological changes that occur during adolescence contribute to or deter from pulmonary capacity and function. Although RTI susceptibility increases and asthma can be challenging during adolescence, the pulmonary systems of most adolescents experience growth.
Nutritional intake during adolescence is crucial as the pulmonary system grows and develops (Gozzi-Silva et al., 2021). Adequate macronutrient and micronutrient intake also aids in the immune system’s development. Protein consumption should include 0.85–1.2 g of protein per kilogram of body weight per day (Hudson et al., 2021). Solid recommended sources of protein include lean meats, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, beans, tofu, legumes, and nuts.
Micronutrient intake for adolescents should focus on vitamins A, C, and E, omega-3 fatty acids, magnesium, and water (Gozzi-Silva et al., 2021; Scoditti et al., 2019). Vitamins A, C, and E are essential antioxidants that protect the lungs from oxidative stress and inflammation. See Table 14.1 for a list of vitamins and possible food sources. Finally, adolescents must remain hydrated, which is essential for all life functions.
| Micronutrient | Food Source |
|---|---|
| Vitamin A |
|
| Vitamin C |
|
| Vitamin E |
|
| Magnesium |
|
| Omega-3 fatty acids |
|
Diets full of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats all regulate the development of lung tissue and repair, promoting a healthy immune system. In addition to these specified nutrients, adolescents need to consume a balanced and varied diet (Gozzi-Silva et al., 2021) and exercise regularly to support proper pulmonary function.
Read the following clinical scenario and then answer the questions that follow. This case study will evolve throughout the chapter.
Unlike many other American adolescents, Kai grew up eating fresh fruits and vegetables. His family had fruit trees in his yard, so he grew up picking fresh fruits from their source. His mother would obtain the rest of their food items from the local food market, with everything being grown locally. Kai’s mother would cook all their meals at home, and he would walk to school and play football to get plenty of exercise. No one in his family smoked, and they rarely ate outside of the home.
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His family’s history of eating fresh fruits and vegetables and his daily exercise
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His screen time
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His family not eating outside of the home
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Previous history of adolescent exercise and dietary selection
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Smoking cessation
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History of food sourcing
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History of being a football star
Adulthood
Adulthood is a developmental stage after adolescence and typically lasts until later adulthood. During this period, individuals reach physical and cognitive maturity and assume adult responsibilities, such as career development, marriage, and parenthood. Fewer physiological changes occur as the state of health stabilizes, and fewer rapid developmental changes occur. The body does gradually change in function and structure during the aging process. Some of these changes occur in the pulmonary system, so it is vital for nurses to advocate for healthy lifestyle modifications and perform regular health screenings to promote optimal pulmonary health throughout adulthood .
The physiological changes during this time include lung size and function, respiratory muscle strength , respiratory diseases, immune function, and lifestyle habits (Han et al., 2019; Schultz et al., 2018; Rogers & Cismowski, 2018). By adulthood, lung growth and development are maximized, and function begins to decline. Respiratory muscle strength improves during adolescence but declines as one ages. In adulthood, respiratory disease risk increases related to unhealthy lifestyle choices such as smoking, occupational exposure (chemical plant workers, construction workers, and health care providers exposed to chemicals such as chemotherapy), and not exercising. The immune system protects the respiratory system as one of its functions from infection and inflammation . When a client reaches adulthood, immune function diminishes gradually, making individuals more susceptible to illnesses throughout aging.
Read the following clinical scenario and then answer the questions that follow. This case study is a follow-up to Case Study Part A.
When Kai moved out of his parent’s house at age 20, he found it difficult to get a job, so he started working with a local construction company at age 24. Kai began smoking when he was 25 while working on the construction sites. He stated, “Smoking used to help me decompress.” The local construction company required Kai to work long hours, making healthy food choices and exercise incorporation challenging. Kai found himself relying on fast food options and the hard work on the construction sites as his daily “exercise.” Kai moved through the ranks and is now a foreman, where he supervises the employees under him at the job sites. He sits more frequently than he used to and found himself putting on more weight, jumping from 255 lb to 280 lb.
3
What lifestyle choices occur during adulthood might lead Kai to an increased risk for respiratory disease later in life?
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Construction work, smoking, and eating fast foods
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Smoking, drinking alcohol, and exercising
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Eating fast foods, construction work, and drinking lots of water
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Smoking, construction work, and working long hours
4
What lifestyle changes can Kai make early on to decrease his chance of developing a chronic respiratory disease?
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Working out
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Smoking cessation and eating better
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Different job
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Go back to school
Nutritional Needs Related to Pulmonary System for the Adult
Nutritional support is essential throughout the lifespan in maintaining healthy lung function (Collins et al., 2019; Scoditti et al., 2019; Sharifi-Rad et al., 2019; Vahid & Rahmani, 2021; Voraphai et al., 2022; Yuan et al., 2021). As lung function and capacity decline as a client ages, the importance of healthy lifestyles and nutrient-rich dietary choices cannot be overstated. The dietary choices include antioxidant-rich foods that protect the lungs from free radical damage (discussed in the next section) and oxidative stress. Fruits and vegetables are excellent sources of antioxidant-rich foods, especially berries, citrus fruits, leafy greens, and tomatoes. Omega-3 fatty acids hold anti-inflammatory properties that reduce inflammation in the lungs. Excellent sources of omega-3 fatty acids include salmon, mackerel, sardines, flaxseeds, chia seeds, and walnuts. Lean protein is an essential macronutrient to aid in repairing lung tissue and is found in skinless chicken, fish, beans, and legumes. Avoiding harmful environmental substances, not smoking, avoiding excessive alcohol intake, and getting regular exercise promotes lung function and health.
Later Adulthood
As people age, their progression parallels their risk for chronic disease. The lungs experience physiological changes as people age, leading to altered lung capacity and increased risk for infection. The lungs also suffer a barrage of continuous assaults over their lifetime. These assaults are chemical, mechanical, biological, immunological, and xenobiotic. These insults lead to oxidative stress in the lung tissue because of antioxidant capacity depletion.
Free radicals are unstable molecules that contain unpaired electrons in an atomic orbit that participate in phagocytosis's cellular destruction mechanism through macrophages and granulocytes (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2020). Phagocytosis is the process of phagocytes ingesting and eliminating larger particles. Free radicals are kept at bay by the body’s antioxidant system. Adverse effects occur when homeostasis of the free radicals is not maintained. Research studies indicate the free radicals of oxygen play a role in chronic disease and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2020). Increasing the amounts of free radicals cause cellular damage and apoptosis (the death of cells). Antioxidants counteract the free radical destruction process.
Nutritional Needs Related to Pulmonary System for the Older Adult
The nurse treating older clients must recognize the need for antioxidant supplements . The current American diet is high in processed foods and additives. These food choices increase the risk for oxidative stress in the body, depleting the antioxidant capacity. The pulmonary system’s reaction to oxidative stress includes activating the inflammatory response, which further compromises the lungs and cascades further oxidative stress. These oxidative reactions to the stressors are directly linked to chronic diseases such as asthma , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer (Rogers & Cismowski, 2018).


13.7: Reading- Sales Promotions
Sales promotion helps make personal selling and advertising more effective. Sales promotions are marketing events or sales efforts—not including traditional advertising, personal selling, and public relations—that stimulate buying. Sales promotion can be developed as part of the social media or e-commerce effort just as advertising can, but the methods and tactics are much different. Sales promotion is a $300 billion—and growing— industry. Sales promotion is usually targeted toward either of two distinctly different markets. Consumer sales promotion is targeted to the ultimate consumer market. Trade sales promotion is directed to members of the marketing channel, such as wholesalers and retailers.
The goal of many promotion tactics is immediate purchase. Therefore, it makes sense when planning a sales-promotion campaign to target customers according to their general behavior. For instance, is the consumer loyal to the marketer’s product or to the competitor’s? Does the consumer switch brands readily in favor of the best deal? Does the consumer buy only the least expensive product, no matter what? Does the consumer buy any products in your category at all?
Procter & Gamble believes shoppers make up their mind about a product in about the time it takes to read this paragraph.
This “first moment of truth,” as P&G calls it, is the three to seven seconds when someone notices an item on a store shelf. Despite spending billions on traditional advertising, the consumer-products giant thinks this instant is one of its most important marketing opportunities. It recently created a position entitled Director of First Moment of Truth, or Director of FMOT (pronounced “EFF-mott”), to produce sharper, flashier in-store displays. There is a 15-person FMOT department at P&G headquarters in Cincinnati as well as 50 FMOT leaders stationed around the world. [1]
One of P&G’s most prominent in-store promotions has been for a new line of Pampers. In the United States, P&G came up with what it calls a “shopper concept”—a single promotional theme that allows it to pitch products in a novel way. The theme for Pampers was “Babies First.” In stores, the company handed out information on childhood immunizations, car-seat safety, and healthy diets while promoting its diapers and wipes in other parts of the store. To market Pampers diapers in the United Kingdom, P&G persuaded retailers earlier this year to put fake doorknobs high up on restroom doors, to remind parents how much babies need to stretch.
Sales Promotion Techniques
Most consumers are familiar with common sales promotion techniques including samples, coupons, point-of-purchase displays, premiums, contents, loyalty programs and rebates.
Do you like free samples? Most people do. A sample is a sales promotion in which a small amount of a product that is for sale is given to consumers to try. Samples encourage trial and an increased awareness of the product. You have probably purchased a product that included a small free sample with it—for example, a small amount of conditioner packaged with your shampoo. Have you ever gone to a store that provided free samples of different food items? The motivation behind giving away samples is to get people to buy a product. Although sampling is an expensive strategy, it is usually very effective for food products. People try the product, the person providing the sample tells consumers about it, and mentions any special pricing or offers for the product.
The objectives of a promotion depend on the general behavior of target consumers, as described in Table 1. For example, marketers who are targeting loyal users of their product don’t want to change behavior. Instead, they want to reinforce existing behavior or increase product usage. Frequent-buyer programs that reward consumers for repeat purchases can be effective in strengthening brand loyalty. Other types of promotions are more effective with customers prone to brand switching or with those who are loyal to a competitor’s product. Cents-off coupons, free samples, or an eye-catching display in a store will often entice shoppers to try a different brand.
The use of sales promotion for services products depends on the type of services. Consumer services, such as hairstyling, rely heavily on sales promotions (such as providing half off the price of a haircut for senior citizens on Mondays). Professional services, however, use very little sales promotion. Doctors, for example, do not often use coupons for performing an appendectomy, for example. In fact, service product companies must be careful not to utilize too many sales-promotion tactics because they can lower the credibility of the firm. Attorneys do not have a sale on providing services for divorce proceedings, for example.
| Type of Behavior | Desired Results | Sales Promotion Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Loyal customers: People who buy your product most or all of the time | Reinforce behavior, increase consumption, change purchase timing |
Loyalty marketing programs, such as frequent-buyer cards and frequent-shopper clubs Bonus packs that give loyal consumers an incentive to stock up or premiums offered in return for proof of purchase |
| Competitor’s customers: People who buy a competitor’s product most or all of the time | Break loyalty, persuade to switch to your brand | Sweepstakes, contests, or premiums that create interest in the product |
| Brand switchers: People who buy a variety of products in the category | Persuade to buy your brand more often | Sampling to introduce your product’s superior qualities compared to their brand |
| Price buyers: People who consistently buy the least expensive brand | Appeal with low prices or supply added value that makes price less important |
Trade deals that help make the product more readily available than competing products Coupons, cents-off packages, refunds, or trade deals that reduce the price of the brand to match that of the brand that would have been purchased |
Two growing areas of sales promotion are couponing and product placement. American consumers receive over $321 billion worth of coupons each year and redeem about $3 billion. [2] Almost 85 percent of all Americans redeem coupons. Sunday newspaper supplements remain the number one source, but there has been explosive growth of online or consumer-printed coupons. General Mills , Kimberly-Clark , and General Electric like online coupons because they have a higher redemption rate. Coupons are used most often for grocery shopping. Do they save you money? One study found that people using coupons at the grocery store spent eight percent more than those who didn’t. [3]
Product placement is paid inclusion of brands in mass media programming. This includes movies, TV, books, music videos, and video games. So when you see Ford vehicles in the latest James Bond movie or Tom Hanks putting on a pair on Nike s on-screen, that is product placement. Product placement has become a huge business. For example, companies paid more than $6 billion in a recent year to have their products placed prominently in a film or television program; that figure is expected to reach more than $11 billion by 2019. [4] It is easy to go overboard with this trend and be portrayed as a parody, however. The 2017 Emoji Movie is an example of failed product placements. The theme of the movie centered on various emojis caught in a smartphone as they are forced to play Candy Crush and say glowing things about such apps as Dropbox and Instagram as they make their way through the phone. [5] Also, some have suggested that product placement might doom the products and companies. For example, Atari products appeared in the classic 1982 film Blade Runner , but the original company went out of business shortly after the movie was released, while another product, the Cuisinart food processor, had to settle a price-fixing scandal after making an appearance in the film. This has not stopped companies such as Sony , Peugeot , and Coca-Cola from tempting fate by appearing in the recently released Blade Runner 2049 . [6] Many large companies are cutting their advertising budgets to spend more on product placements. One area of product placement that continues to raise ethical issues is so-called “experts” being paid to mention brands on the air.
Contests and sweepstakes are also popular consumer sales promotions. Contests are games of skill offered by a company, that offer consumers the chance to win a prize. Cheerios’ Spoonfuls of Stories contest, for example, invited people to submit an original children’s story and the chance to win money and the opportunity to have their story published. Sweepstakes are games of chance people enter for the opportunity to win money or prizes. Sweepstakes are often structured as some variation on a random drawing. The companies and organizations that conduct these activities hope consumers will not only enter their games, but also buy more of their products and ideally share their information for future marketing purposes. As the following video shows, marketers have become increasingly sophisticated in the way they approach this “gaming” aspect of sales promotions.
You can view the transcript for “Gamification” (opens in new window).
Although different types of sales promotions work best for different organizations, rebates are very profitable for companies because, as you have learned, many consumers forget to send in their rebate forms. In a weak economy, consumers tend to use more coupons, but they also buy more store brands. Coupons available online or at the point of purchase are being used more often by consumers. Trade shows can be very successful, although the companies that participate in them need to follow-up on the leads generated at the shows.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sales Promotions [7]
In addition to their primary purpose of boosting sales in the near term, companies can use consumer sales promotions to help them understand price sensitivity. Coupons and rebates provide useful information about how pricing influences consumers’ buying behavior. Sales promotions can also be a valuable–and sometimes sneaky–way to acquire contact information for current and prospective customers. Many of these offers require consumers to provide their names and other information in order to participate. Electronically-scanned coupons can be linked to other purchasing data, to inform organizations about buying habits. All this information can be used for future marketing research, campaigns and outreach.
Consumer sales promotions can generate loyalty and enthusiasm for a brand, product, or service. Frequent flyer programs, for example, motivate travelers to fly on a preferred airline even if the ticket prices are somewhat higher. If sales have slowed, a promotion such as a sweepstakes or contest can spur customer excitement and (re)new interest in the company’s offering. Sales promotions are a good way of energizing and inspiring customer action.
Trade promotions offer distribution channel partners financial incentives that encourage them to support and promote a company’s products. Offering incentives like prime shelf space at a retailer’s store in exchange for discounts on products has the potential to build and enhance business relationships with important distributors or businesses. Improving these relationships can lead to higher sales, stocking of other product lines, preferred business terms and other benefits.
Sales promotions can be a two-edged sword: if a company is continually handing out product samples and coupons, it can risk tarnishing the company’s brand. Offering too many freebies can signal to customers that they are not purchasing a prestigious or “limited” product. Another risk with too-frequent promotions is that savvy customers will hold off purchasing until the next promotion, thus depressing sales.
Often businesses rush to grow quickly by offering sales promotions, only to see these promotions fail to reach their sales goals and target customers. The temporary boost in short term sales may be attributed to highly price-sensitive consumers looking for a deal, rather than the long-term loyal customers a company wants to cultivate. Sales promotions need to be thought through, designed and promoted carefully. They also need to align well with the company’s larger business strategy. Failure to do so can be costly in terms of dollars, profitability and reputation.
If businesses become overly reliant on sales growth through promotions, they can get trapped in short-term marketing thinking and forget to focus on long-term goals. If, after each sales dip, a business offers another sales promotion, it can be damaging to the long-term value of its brand.
IMC Support for Sales Promotions
Sales promotions are delivered to targeted groups via marketing campaigns during a pre-set, limited amount of time. In order to broaden awareness, impact and participation, sales promotions are often combined with other marketing communication methods in the promotional mix. Examples of IMC support for sales promotions include:
- Weekly email messages to consumers informing them about the week’s sales, special offers, and coupons
- Promotional information on a Web site informing consumers about the availability of a rebate or other special offer
- Posters and other promotional materials to enhance a point-of-purchase display
- Sweepstakes forms incorporated into a magazine advertisement
- Social media campaigns encouraging people to post about entering a sponsored contest on Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram
These types of activities create synergies between the sales promotions and other marketing activities. IMC activities can amplify the message about the sales promotion and encourage active participation from target customers.
Finally, it is important to recognize that sales promotions cannot compensate for a poor product, a declining sales trend, ineffective advertising, or weak brand loyalty. If these fundamentals are not working, sales promotions can serve only as a temporary solution.
- Jim Tincher, “Your Moment of Truth,” Customer Think , customerthink.com, August 30, 2016. ↵
- “Coupon Statistics: The Ultimate Collection,” Access Development , http://blog.accessdevelopment.com , May 17, 2017. ↵
- Drew Hendricks, “5 Ways to Enhance Your SEO Campaign with Online Coupons,” Forbes , https://www.forbes.com , May 13, 2015 ↵
- Laurent Muzellec, “James Bond, Dunder Mifflin, and the Future of Product Placement,” Harvard Business Review, https://hbr.org , June 23, 2016. ↵
- Josh Terry, “Unfunny Emoji Movie Is a Sad Echo of 2015’s “Inside Out,” Deseret News , www.deseretnews.com, July 31, 2017. ↵
- Don Steinberg, “Science Affliction: Are Companies Cursed by Cameos in Blade Runner?” The Wall Street Journal, https://www.wsj.com , September 25, 2017. ↵
- edwardlowe.org/digital-library/how-to-establish-a-promotional-mix/ ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Revision and adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Sales Promotion, from Boundless Marketing. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-marketing/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Communicating to Mass Markets, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by : John Burnett. Project : Global Text. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Sales Promotion. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>. Project : Introduction to Business. License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- Sampler tray of Starbucks new Mocha Toffee Latte. Authored by : Urban Bohemian. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/urbanbohemian/4948232118/ . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
- Gamification. Provided by : BBC. Located at : https://youtu.be/1nikw1v5Zjo . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives


7.1: Introduction
Endocrine disorders, such as diabetes and thyroid disease, require careful diet and lifestyle management. Accordingly, nurses play a critical role in promoting nutrition for endocrine wellness. For example, nurses instructing clients with diabetes on proper nutrition can significantly improve their clients’ glycemic control (Martos-Cabrera et al., 2021). Nurses can collaborate with other health care professionals to develop comprehensive treatment plans for clients with endocrine disorders. Multidisciplinary interventions can improve glycemic control and reduce hospitalizations in clients with type 2 diabetes (Ni et al., 2019).
Consider this case: Meena, a 44-year-old Indian American female was recently diagnosed with hypothyroidism and type 2 diabetes. Meena develops some concerning symptoms and comes to the clinic for evaluation.


15: Corporate Social Responsibility Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 46950 Nina Burokas Lumen Learning 17.1: What is Corporate Social Responsibility? 17.2: Business and CSR 17.3: Embracing Corporate Social Responsibility 17.4: Putting It Together- Corporate Social Responsibility 17.5: Discussion- Corporate Social Responsibility 17.6: Assignment- HR’s Sustainability Role 17.7: Why It Matters- Corporate Social Responsibility 17.8: Introduction to Ethics 17.9: Ethics in the Workplace 17.10: Ethics in Human Resources 17.11: Creating an Ethical Workplace 17.12: Introduction to Sustainability 17.13: What is Sustainability? 17.14: Human Resources and Sustainability 17.15: Introduction to Corporate Social Responsibility