3.2: Military Service- United States v. Miller 307 U.S. 174 (1939)
U.S. Supreme Court
United States v. Miller, 307 U.S. 174 (1939)
United States v. Miller
No. 696
Argued March 30, 1939
Decided May 15, 1939
307 U.S. 174
APPEAL FROM THE DISTRICT COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
FOR THE WESTERN DISTRICT OF ARKANSAS
Syllabus
The National Firearms Act, as applied to one indicted for transporting in interstate commerce a 12-gauge shotgun with a barrel less than 18 inches long without having registered it and without having in his possession a stamp-affixed written order for it, as required by the Act, held:
1. Not unconstitutional as an invasion of the reserved powers of the States. Citing Sonzinsky v. United States, 300 U. S. 506 , and Narcotic Act cases. P. 307 U. S. 177 .
2. Not violative of the Second Amendment of the Federal Constitution. P. 307 U. S. 178 .
The Court cannot take judicial notice that a shotgun having a barrel less than 18 inches long has today any reasonable relation to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia, and therefore cannot say that the Second Amendment guarantees to the citizen the right to keep and bear such a weapon.
26 F.Supp. 1002, reversed.
APPEAL under the Criminal Appeals Act from a judgment sustaining a demurrer to an indictment for violation of the National Firearms Act.
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MR. JUSTICE McREYNOLDS delivered the opinion of the Court.
An indictment in the District Court, Western District Arkansas, charged that Jack Miller and Frank Layton
“did unlawfully, knowingly, willfully, and feloniously transport in interstate commerce from the town of Claremore in the State of Oklahoma to the town of Siloam Springs in the State of Arkansas a certain firearm, to-wit, a double barrel 12-gauge Stevens shotgun having a barrel less than 18 inches in length, bearing identification number 76230, said defendants, at the time of so transporting said firearm in interstate commerce as aforesaid, not having registered said firearm as required by Section 1132d of Title 26, United States Code (Act of June 26, 1934, c. 737, Sec. 4 [§ 5], 48 Stat. 1237), and not having in their possession a stamp-affixed written order for said firearm as provided by Section 1132c, Title 2, United States Code (June 26, 1934, c. 737, Sec. 4, 48 Stat. 1237) and the regulations issued under authority of the said Act of Congress known as the ‘National Firearms Act,’ approved June 26, 1934, contrary to the form of the statute in such case made and provided, and against the peace and dignity of the United States. [ Footnote 1 ] ”
Home Page 307 U. S. 176
A duly interposed demurrer alleged: the National Firearms Act is not a revenue measure, but an attempt to usurp police power reserved to the States, and is therefore unconstitutional. Also, it offends the inhibition of the Second Amendment to the Constitution — “A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.”
Home Page 307 U. S. 177
The District Court held that section eleven of the Act violates the Second Amendment. It accordingly sustained the demurrer and quashed the indictment.
The cause is here by direct appeal.
Considering Sonzinsky v. United States (1937), 300 U. S. 506 , 300 U. S. 513 , and what was ruled in sundry causes arising
Home Page 307 U. S. 178
under the Harrison Narcotic Act [ Footnote 2 ] — United States v. Jin Fuey Moy (1916), 241 U. S. 394 , United States v. Doremus (1919), 249 U. S. 86 , 249 U. S. 94 ; Linder v. United States (1925), 268 U. S. 5 ; Alston v. United States (1927), 274 U. S. 289 ; Nigro v. United States (1928), 276 U. S. 332 — the objection that the Act usurps police power reserved to the States is plainly untenable.
In the absence of any evidence tending to show that possession or use of a “shotgun having a barrel of less than eighteen inches in length” at this time has some reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia, we cannot say that the Second Amendment guarantees the right to keep and bear such an instrument. Certainly it is not within judicial notice that this weapon is any part of the ordinary military equipment, or that its use could contribute to the common defense. Aymette v. State, 2 Humphreys (Tenn.) 154, 158.
The Constitution, as originally adopted, granted to the Congress power —
“To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.”
With obvious purpose to assure the continuation and render possible the effectiveness of such forces, the declaration and guarantee of the Second Amendment were made. It must be interpreted and applied with that end in view.
The Militia which the States were expected to maintain and train is set in contrast with Troops which they
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were forbidden to keep without the consent of Congress. The sentiment of the time strongly disfavored standing armies; the common view was that adequate defense of country and laws could be secured through the Militia — civilians primarily, soldiers on occasion.
The signification attributed to the term Militia appears from the debates in the Convention, the history and legislation of Colonies and States, and the writings of approved commentators. These show plainly enough that the Militia comprised all males physically capable of acting in concert for the common defense. “A body of citizens enrolled for military discipline.” And further, that ordinarily, when called for service these men were expected to appear bearing arms supplied by themselves and of the kind in common use at the time.
Blackstone’s Commentaries, Vol. 2, Ch. 13, p. 409 points out “that king Alfred first settled a national militia in this kingdom,” and traces the subsequent development and use of such forces.
Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, Book V, Ch. 1, contains an extended account of the Militia. It is there said: “Men of republican principles have been jealous of a standing army as dangerous to liberty.”
“In a militia, the character of the labourer, artificer, or tradesman, predominates over that of the soldier: in a standing army, that of the soldier predominates over every other character, and in this distinction seems to consist the essential difference between those two different species of military force.”
“The American Colonies In The 17th Century,” Osgood, Vol. 1, ch. XIII, affirms in reference to the early system of defense in New England —
“In all the colonies, as in England, the militia system was based on the principle of the assize of arms. This implied the general obligation of all adult male inhabitants to possess arms, and, with certain exceptions, to
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cooperate in the work of defence.”
“The possession of arms also implied the possession of ammunition, and the authorities paid quite as much attention to the latter as to the former.”
“A year later [1632] it was ordered that any single man who had not furnished himself with arms might be put out to service, and this became a permanent part of the legislation of the colony [Massachusetts].”
Also,
“Clauses intended to insure the possession of arms and ammunition by all who were subject to military service appear in all the important enactments concerning military affairs. Fines were the penalty for delinquency, whether of towns or individuals. According to the usage of the times, the infantry of Massachusetts consisted of pikemen and musketeers. The law, as enacted in 1649 and thereafter, provided that each of the former should be armed with a pike, corselet, head-piece, sword, and knapsack. The musketeer should carry a ‘good fixed musket,’ not under bastard musket bore, not less than three feet, nine inches, nor more than four feet three inches in length, a priming wire, scourer, and mould, a sword, rest, bandoleers, one pound of powder, twenty bullets, and two fathoms of match. The law also required that two-thirds of each company should be musketeers.”
The General Court of Massachusetts, January Session 1784, provided for the organization and government of the Militia. It directed that the Train Band should “contain all able bodied men, from sixteen to forty years of age, and the Alarm List, all other men under sixty years of age, . . .” Also,
“That every noncommissioned officer and private soldier of the said militia not under the controul of parents, masters or guardians, and being of sufficient ability therefor in the judgment of the Selectmen of the town in which he shall dwell, shall equip himself, and be constantly provided with a good fire arm,”
etc.
By an Act passed April 4, 1786, the New York Legislature directed:
“That every able-bodied Male Person, being
Home Page 307 U. S. 181
a Citizen of this State, or of any of the United States, and residing in this State, (except such Persons as are hereinafter excepted) and who are of the Age of Sixteen, and under the Age of Forty-five Years, shall, by the Captain or commanding Officer of the Beat in which such Citizens shall reside, within four Months after the passing of this Act, be enrolled in the Company of such Beat. . . . That every Citizen so enrolled and notified shall, within three Months thereafter, provide himself, at his own Expense, with a good Musket or Firelock, a sufficient Bayonet and Belt, a Pouch with a Box therein to contain not less than Twenty-four Cartridges suited to the Bore of his Musket or Firelock, each Cartridge containing a proper Quantity of Powder and Ball, two spare Flints, a Blanket and Knapsack; . . .”
The General Assembly of Virginia, October, 1785, (12 Hening’s Statutes) declared,
“The defense and safety of the commonwealth depend upon having its citizens properly armed and taught the knowledge of military duty.”
It further provided for organization and control of the Militia, and directed that “All free male persons between the ages of eighteen and fifty years,” with certain exceptions, “shall be inrolled or formed into companies.” “There shall be a private muster of every company once in two months.”
Also that
“Every officer and soldier shall appear at his respective muster-field on the day appointed, by eleven o’clock in the forenoon, armed, equipped, and accoutred, as follows: . . . every non-commissioned officer and private with a good, clean musket carrying an ounce ball, and three feet eight inches long in the barrel, with a good bayonet and iron ramrod well fitted thereto, a cartridge box properly made, to contain and secure twenty cartridges fitted to his musket, a good knapsack and canteen, and moreover, each non-commissioned officer and private shall have at every muster one pound of good
Home Page 307 U. S. 182
powder, and four pounds of lead, including twenty blind cartridges, and each serjeant shall have a pair of moulds fit to cast balls for their respective companies, to be purchased by the commanding officer out of the monies arising on delinquencies. Provided, That the militia of the counties westward of the Blue Ridge, and the counties below adjoining thereto, shall not be obliged to be armed with muskets, but may have good rifles with proper accoutrements, in lieu thereof. And every of the said officers, non-commissioned officers, and privates, shall constantly keep the aforesaid arms, accoutrements, and ammunition ready to be produced whenever called for by his commanding officer. If any private shall make it appear to the satisfaction of the court hereafter to be appointed for trying delinquencies under this act that he is so poor that he cannot purchase the arms herein required, such court shall cause them to be purchased out of the money arising from delinquents.”
Most if not all of the States have adopted provisions touching the right to keep and bear arms. Differences in the language employed in these have naturally led to somewhat variant conclusions concerning the scope of the right guaranteed. But none of them seems to afford any material support for the challenged ruling of the court below.
In the margin, some of the more important opinions and comments by writers are cited. [ Footnote 3 ]
We are unable to accept the conclusion of the court below, and the challenged judgment must be reversed. The cause will be remanded for further proceedings.
MR. JUSTICE DOUGLAS took no part in the consideration or decision of this cause.
[ Footnote 1 ]
Act of June 26, 1934, c. 757, 48 Stat. 1236-1240, 26 U.S.C. § 1132.
“That for the purposes of this Act –”
“(a) The term ‘firearm’ means a shotgun or rifle having a barrel of less than eighteen inches in length, or any other weapon, except a pistol or revolver, from which a shot is discharged by an explosive if such weapon is capable of being concealed on the person, or a machine gun, and includes a muffler or silencer for any firearm whether or not such firearm is included within the foregoing definition [The Act of April 10, 1936, c. 169, 49 Stat. 1192 added the words], but does not include any rifle which is within the foregoing provisions solely by reason of the length of its barrel if the caliber of such rifle is .22 or smaller and if its barrel is sixteen inches or more in length.”
“Sec. 3. (a) There shall be levied, collected, and paid upon firearms transferred in the continental United States a tax at the rate of $200 for each firearm, such tax to be paid by the transferor, and to be represented by appropriate stamps to be provided by the Commissioner, with the approval of the Secretary, and the stamps herein provided shall be affixed to the order for such firearm, hereinafter provided for. The tax imposed by this section shall be in addition to any import duty imposed on such firearm.”
“Sec. 4. (a) It shall be unlawful for any person to transfer a firearm except in pursuance of a written order from the person seeking to obtain such article, on an application form issued in blank in duplicate for that purpose by the Commissioner. Such order shall identify the applicant by such means of identification as may be prescribed by regulations under this Act: Provided, That, if the applicant is an individual, such identification shall include fingerprints and a photograph thereof.”
“(c) Every person so transferring a firearm shall set forth in each copy of such order the manufacturer’s number or other mark identifying such firearm, and shall forward a copy of such order to the Commissioner. The original thereof, with stamps affixed, shall be returned to the applicant.”
“(d) No person shall transfer a firearm which has previously been transferred on or after the effective date of this Act, unless such person, in addition to complying with subsection (c), transfers therewith the stamp-affixed order provided for in this section for each such prior transfer, in compliance with such regulations as may be prescribed under this Act for proof of payment of all taxes on such firearms.”
“Sec. 5. (a) Within sixty days after the effective date of this Act every person possessing a firearm shall register, with the collector of the district in which he resides, the number or other mark identifying such firearm, together with his name, address, place where such firearm is usually kept, and place of business or employment, and, if such person is other than a natural person, the name and home address of an executive officer thereof: Provided, That no person shall be required to register under this section with respect to any firearm acquired after the effective date of, and in conformity with the provisions of, this Act.”
“Sec. 6. It shall be unlawful for any person to receive or possess any firearm which has at any time been transferred in violation of section 3 or 4 of this Act.”
“Sec. 11. It shall be unlawful for any person who is required to register as provided in section 5 hereof and who shall not have so registered, or any other person who has not in his possession a stamp-affixed order as provided in section 4 hereof, to ship, carry, or deliver any firearm in interstate commerce.”
“Sec. 12. The Commissioner, with the approval of the Secretary, shall prescribe such rules and regulations as may be necessary for carrying the provisions of this Act into effect.”
“Sec. 14. Any person who violates or fails to comply with any of the requirements of this Act shall, upon conviction, be fined not more than $2,000 or be imprisoned for not more than five years, or both, in the discretion of the court.”
“Sec. 16. If any provision of this Act, or the application thereof to any person or circumstance, is held invalid, the remainder of the Act, and the application of such provision to other persons or circumstances, shall not be affected thereby.”
“Sec. 18. This Act may be cited as the ‘National Firearms Act.'”
[ Footnote 2 ]
Act December 17, 1914, c. 1, 38 Stat. 785; February 24, 1919, c. 18, 40 Stat. 1057.
[ Footnote 3 ]
Concerning The Militia — Presser v. Illinois, 116 U. S. 252 ; Robertson v. Baldwin, 165 U. S. 275 ; Fife v. State, 31 Ark. 455; Jeffers v. Fair, 33 Ga. 347; Salina v. Blaksley, 72 Kan. 230; 83 P. 619; People v. Brown, 253 Mich. 537; 235 N.W. 245; Aymette v. State, 2 Humphr. (Tenn.) 154; State v. Duke, 42 Texas 455; State v. Workman, 35 W.Va. 367; 14 S.E. 9; Cooley’s Constitutional Limitations, Vol. 1, p. 729; Story on The Constitution, 5th Ed., Vol. 2, p. 646; Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. X, p. 471, 474.
Contributors and Attributions
- Authored by : US Government. Located at : https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/307/174/case.html . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


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Helping Others Follow
Note:
Examples: The Language of Arguments
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As you switch from component to component in your paper, you’ll be making what are called rhetorical moves—taking subsequent steps to move your argument along and be persuasive. Your readers will probably know what you’re doing because the components in everyday oral argument are the same as in written argument. But why you’re switching between components of your argument, and with these particular sources, might be less clear.
The ideas and examples in this section are informed by all three editions of Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say . The third edition of the They Say/I Say provides templates of actual language to be used in written arguments. This can be extremely helpful to beginning writers because it takes some of the mystery out of what to say and when to say it. For these templates, check the book out from your library.
You can help readers follow your argument by inserting phrases that signal why you’re doing what you’re doing. Here are some examples:
“Many people have believed …, but I have a different opinion.”
Phrases like these can grease the skids of your argument in your readers’ minds, making it a lot easier for them to quickly get it instead of getting stuck on figuring out why you’re bringing something up at a particular point. You will have pulled them into an argument conversation.
Examples: The Language of Arguments
The blog that accompanies the book They Say/I Say with Readings, by Gerald Graff, Cathy Birkenstein, and Russel Durst, contains short, elegantly constructed contemporary arguments from a variety of publications. Take a look at the They Say/I Say blog for a moment and read part of at least one of the readings to see how it can be helpful to you the next time you have to make a written argument.
Take a look at these sites for argument essay advice for students:


24.3: The Nurse’s Role in Promoting Organizational Cultural and Linguistic Competency
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- Advocate for policies of social justice and health equity that promote cultural and linguistic responsiveness.
- Implement sociocultural and linguistically responsive interventions.
- Develop partnerships to support organizational cultural and linguistic competence.
Nurses play an important role in promoting organizational cultural and linguistic competency. According to Cervený et al. (2022), nurses can integrate culturally competent behaviors into their daily interactions by putting their awareness, attitude, and knowledge into practice through effective and respectful communication and body language. Additionally, promoting ethnic diversity within the nursing workforce enhances the ability to provide culturally competent care to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse population. At the organizational level, cultural competence or responsiveness refers to a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that enable a system, agency, or group of professionals, including nurses, to work effectively in multicultural environments. Nurses, along with other health care professionals, should have the capacity to value diversity, conduct self-assessment, manage the dynamics of difference, acquire and institutionalize cultural knowledge, and adapt to diversity and the cultural contexts of the communities they serve. By embodying cultural and linguistic competency in their daily practice, nurses can help promote the provisions of CLAS , which respond to the individual preferences and needs of each client, improve health outcomes, and decrease health disparities.
Nurse Advocacy for Policies That Support Cultural Responsiveness
According to the American Nurses Association (ANA) Standard 8 (2021), nurses play a vital role in advancing health care policy and ensuring equal access to health care for all individuals. Policy discussions often involve the effects of discrimination , oppression , and social and environmental determinants of health on cultural groups, leading to health disparities . As advocates, nurses promote policies that aim to improve the health and well-being of culturally diverse, underserved, or underrepresented individuals. This includes advocating for equal access to health care services, tests, interventions, and health promotion programs for all consumers, with a particular emphasis on those who are culturally diverse and underserved .
To achieve this goal, nurses must advocate for appropriate funding to support the planning, delivery, and sustainability of culturally congruent care . This means advocating for sufficient resources and funding to ensure that health care services are culturally sensitive and responsive to the needs of diverse populations.
Nursing schools should incorporate cultural content throughout all nursing curricula that place an emphasis on education about cultural norms, values, and health-related needs within diverse communities. This foundational knowledge enables nurses to identify policy areas that require attention and reform. Nurses can participate in policy-making processes at local, state, and national levels, where they can contribute to drafting policies that promote cultural training , adequate interpretation services, and equitable resource allocation . Nurses can also support policies that encourage a diverse nursing workforce and create welcoming spaces for clients and health care workers.
Direct involvement with communities is essential for nurses to understand specific cultural needs, preferences, and barriers to health care access. This grassroots-level insight can guide advocacy efforts in shaping policies that directly address community needs. Evidence-based practice is central to nursing, and the same applies to advocacy. Nurses must employ existing research and generate new evidence to support the need for policies promoting cultural competency.
Nurse researchers are encouraged to build substantial research programs beyond descriptive investigations. The essential next step is to design and test interventions that have meaning for populations from different cultures and improve their health and quality of life . Because this step requires sample sizes large enough to support meaningful conclusions, nurses and supporters need to advocate for more funding for these studies at the national level. Such research can help to eliminate the dismal inequities seen in diverse-consumer health outcomes.
Nurses can raise awareness about the importance of cultural competency and the specific policy changes needed to support it. Utilizing media, professional networks, and public speaking opportunities can help to reach wider audiences and generate support for cultural competency policies. Table 24.4 provides some strategies nurses can use to advocate for policies that support cultural competency.
| Advocacy | Explanation | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Engage with Health Care Organizations | Nurses can collaborate with health care organizations to advocate for policies and initiatives that support cultural competency. |
|
| Partner with Administrators | Nurses can collaborate with administrators to promote cultural competency within health care institutions. |
|
| Get Involved with Policymakers | Nurses can engage with policymakers at local, regional, and national levels to advocate for policies that support cultural competency. |
|
| Collaborate with Community Leaders | Nurses can actively collaborate with community leaders to gain insights into the specific cultural needs and preferences of diverse communities (Figure 24.5). |
|
| Conduct Nursing Research | Nurse researchers can design and test interventions. |
|
Nursing Practice That Is Congruent with Cultural Diversity
Nurses can practice with sociocultural and linguistically responsive interventions (Jongen et al., 2018). Cultural practices can vary widely between different ethnic, religious, and social groups, and it is important for nurses to be aware of and sensitive to these differences to provide appropriate care (Figure 24.6). Table 24.5 provides some examples of the types of cultural practices that nurses might encounter.
| Communication Styles |
|
| Health Beliefs and Practices |
|
| Dietary Practices |
|
| Family Roles and Dynamics |
|
| Modesty and Personal Space |
|
| End-of-Life Care and Death Rituals |
|
| Mental Health Perspectives | Stigmatization: recognizing cultural stigmas related to mental health conditions and adapting communication and treatment accordingly |
| Childbirth Practices | Birthing customs: preferences for birthing positions, people present at birth, post-birth rituals, etc. |
| Disability and Long-Term Illness | Cultural attitudes: understanding how different cultures perceive and manage disability and long-term illnesses |
| Alternative and Complementary Therapies | Acceptance or rejection: different attitudes toward conventional medicine versus alternative therapies |
| Trust in Health Care Providers | Historical or cultural mistrust: recognizing potential mistrust due to historical or cultural factors and building rapport accordingly |
| Substance Use and Addiction | Cultural perspectives: understanding how various cultures perceive and respond to substance use and addiction |
| Sexual Health and Orientation | Cultural norms: respecting cultural norms related to sexuality and sexual orientation |
Being aware of these cultural practices requires ongoing education, openness to learning, and a willingness to ask clients about their preferences and beliefs. Individualized care that respects cultural diversity will generally lead to better client satisfaction and outcomes. It is important to approach cultural practices with curiosity rather than judgment, recognizing that each client’s cultural context is unique and multifaceted.
Developing Partnerships to Support Organizational Cultural and Linguistic Competence
Cultural and linguistic competence within health care organizations is essential for delivering effective and equitable care to diverse populations. Community health nurses play a pivotal role in this endeavor by developing partnerships with various concerned parties (Handtke et al., 2019) and can use the following strategies:
-
Assessing Community Needs
- Engaging with the community: understand the unique cultural and linguistic needs of the community through direct engagement.
- Using existing research: analyze data and existing studies that identify cultural and linguistic gaps in care.
- See Assessment, Analysis, and Diagnosis for more details on conducting a community needs assessment.
-
Collaboration with
Key Community Partners
- Identifying partners: engage with community leaders, cultural organizations, educational institutions, and other health care providers.
- Defining shared goals: develop common objectives aligned to the community’s cultural and linguistic needs.
- See Assessment, Analysis, and Diagnosis for more details on collaborating with community partners.
-
Implementing
Cultural and Linguistic Training
:
- Developing curricula: create training programs that enhance cultural awareness and linguistic skills.
- Promoting ongoing education: encourage continuous learning through workshops, seminars, literature, and online resources.
- See Planning Community Health Education for more details on planning community education programs.
-
Leveraging Technology:
- Using language assistance tools: implement technology that facilitates effective language translation and interpretation.
- Promoting telehealth services: ensure that virtual health care platforms accommodate individuals with diverse linguistic needs.
-
Policy Advocacy
:
- Supporting legislative initiatives: advocate for policies that promote cultural and linguistic competence at local, state, and national levels.
- Aligning with accreditation standards : ensure that practices align with standards set by accrediting bodies.
-
Evaluating and Adapting Strategies:
- Monitoring outcomes: regularly assess partnership initiative effectiveness via feedback and data analysis.
- Iterating strategies: continuously refine and adapt strategies to meet evolving community needs.
- See Implementation and Evaluation Considerations for more details on evaluating program effectiveness.
Developing partnerships to support organizational cultural and linguistic competence is a dynamic and multifaceted process. Community health nurses, in collaboration with various community partners, can spearhead efforts to ensure that health care delivery aligns with the diverse needs of the communities they serve. Through thoughtful engagement, education, advocacy, technology utilization, and continuous evaluation, health care organizations can create an environment that truly resonates with all members of the community.


1.5: Piecewise Defined Functions
Piecewise Defined Functions
If a function describing a relationship between two quantities does not have a constant rate of change, we can't use a linear function to model the relationship. At this point, it is only linear functions that we have fully developed for use in modeling relationships. We know what the graph looks like (a line), what the formula looks like (y = mx+ b), what the rate of change is, how these are related, and when to use a linear function (the rate of change is constant). Moving forward, our goal is develop more functions in a similar way to describe relationships without a constant rate of change. In this section, we explore piecewise defined functions which are built with pieces of two or more functions on different intervals.
We have already worked with one piecewise defined function, the absolute value function \(f(x)=\left|x\right|\). For a positive number, such as \(x=3\), the absolute value is the same as the number inputted, \(\left|3\right| = 3\). For a negative number, such as \(x=-2\), the absolute value is the opposite of the number inputted, \(\left|-2\right| = -(-2) = 2\). There are two different rules or ways of calculating the absolute value of a number. In general, if \(x\) is a positive number or zero where \(x \ge 0\), the absolute value is the same as the number inputted, \(\left|x\right| = x\). If \(x\) is a negative number where \(x < 0\), the absolute value is the opposite of the number inputted, \(\left|x\right| = -x \). We can write the absolute value function as a piecewise defined function as follows \[\left|x\right|=\left\{\begin{array}{ccc} {x} & {if} & {x \ge 0} \\ {-x} & {if} & {x < 0} \end{array}\right.\nonumber \]
To graph the absolute value function, we need to graph each formula in the piecewise defined function only in the interval where it is defined. The formula \(y=x\) is a line with slope \(m=1\) and y-intercept at \(y=0\). We need to graph with line only where it is defined for the absolute value \(x \ge 0\). The formula \(y=-x\) is a line with slope \(m=-1\) and y-intercept at \(y=0\). We need to graph with line only where it is defined for the absolute value \(x < 0\). Graphing each piece separately on the interval they are defined on, we have
Putting them on the same graph, we have the graph of the absolute value function below with the different pieces highlighted in different colors.
Given the piecewise defined function \(g(x)=\left\{\begin{array}{ccc} {2x+1} & {if} & {x > 2} \\ {3} & {if} & {x \le 2} \end{array}\right.\)
- Evaluate \(g(1)\)
- Evaluate \(g(2)\)
- Evaluate \(g(3)\)
- Evaluate \(g(4)\)
- Graph \(g(x)\)
Solution
- Since the input \(x=1 \le 2\), we use the second function \(y=3\) to calculate the output. So \(g(1)=3\).
- Similarly, since the input \(x=2 \le 2\), we again use the second function \(y=3\) to calculate the output. So \(g(2)=3\).
- Since the input \(x=3 > 2\), we use the first function \(y=2x+1\) to calculate the output. So \(g(3)=2(3)+1 = 7\).
- Similarly, since the input \(x=4 \ge 2\), we use the first function \(y=2x+1\) to calculate the output. So \(g(4)=2(4)+1 = 9\).
- We need to graph each piece of the function on the interval it is defined on. The formula \(y=2x+1\) is a line with slope \(m=2\) and y-intercept at \(y=1\). The formula \(y=3\) is a horizontal line with a y-intercept at \(y=3\). Graphing each piece separately on the interval they are defined on, we have
At \(x=2\), we have to differentiate which point we want on the graph. We use a closed circle on the graph of \(y=3\) at the point (2,3) to include this point as part of the graph since the formula prescribes that we use \(y=3\) at \(x=2\). We use an open circle on the graph of \(y=2x+1\) at the point (2,5) to exclude this point from the graph since the formula prescribes that we don't use \(y=2x+1\) at \(x=2\).
Putting them on the same graph, we have the graph of \(y=g(x)\).
.
How would the graph in example 1.5.1 change if the function \(g\) was changed to \(g_{new}(x)=\left\{\begin{array}{ccc} {2x+1} & {if} & {x \ge 1} \\ {3} & {if} & {x < 1} \end{array}\right.\)
Solution
The two pieces are the same as \(g\), but the interval where they are defined has change. The first function is defined on \(x \ge 1\), while the second function is defined on \(x < 1 \). We need to adjust the graph accordingly.
Notice that both functions meet at a single point \(y=3\) at \(x = 1\) so there is not need to differentiate between points at \(x = 1\) like we did in the previous example.
Given the piecewise defined function \(f(x)=\left\{\begin{array}{ccc} {x^{2} } & {if} & {x\le 1} \\ {3} & {if} & {1<x\le 2} \\ {6-x} & {if} & {x>2} \end{array}\right.\)
- Evaluate \(f(0)\)
- Evaluate \(f(1)\)
- Evaluate \(f(2)\)
- Evaluate \(f(3)\)
- Graph \(f(x)\)
Solution
- Since the input \(x=0 \le 1\), we use the first function \(y=x^2\) to calculate the output. So \(f(0)=0^2=0\).
- Similarly, since the input \(x=1 \le 1\), we again use the first function \(y=x^2\) to calculate the output. So \(f(1)=1^2 =1\).
- Since the input \(x=2 > 1\) and \(x=2 \le 2\) , we use the second function \(y=3\) to calculate the output. So \(f(2)=3\).
- Similarly, since the input \(x=3 > 2\), we again use the third function \(y=6-x\) to calculate the output. So \(f(3)=6-3 =3\)
- To graph \(f(x)\) we need to graph each piece of the function on the interval it is defined on. The formula \(y=x^2\) is a parabola which changes direction at \(x = 0\). We can graph this function with points or with a graphing calculator or similar technology. We only need the piece where \(x \le 1\). The formula \(y=3\) is a horizontal line with a y-intercept at \(y=3\). The formula \(y=6-x\) is a line with slope \(m=-1\) and y-intercept at \(y=6\). Graphing each of these separately.
Notice that we used closed circles to indicate the points included in the graph at a place where the formula changes corresponding to a \( \le \) or \( \ge \) symbol. We used open circles to indicate the points that are excluded from the graph at a place where the formula changes corresponding to a < or > symbol. Now that we have each piece individually, we combine them onto the same graph below.
Given the piecewise defined function \(h(x)=\left\{\begin{array}{ccc} {3x-1} & {if} & {x\ge 1} \\ {-2x+5} & {if} & {x<1} \end{array}\right.\)
- Evaluate \(h(0)\)
- Evaluate \(h(1)\)
- Evaluate \(h(2)\)
- Graph \(h(x)\)
- Answer
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- \(h(0)=3\).
- \(h(1) =2\).
- \(h(2) =5\)
Find a formula for a piecewise defined function \(y=f(x) \) whose graph is given below.
- Answer
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The formula is \(f(x)=\left\{\begin{array}{ccc} {2x-1} & {if} & {x < 2} \\ {-2} & {if} & {x \ge 2} \end{array}\right.\).
Focus: Applications of Piecewise Defined Functions
Piecewise defined functions can be used to model relationships between two quantities in applications when there are two are more ways of calculating a particular quantity.
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\)
A museum charges $5 per person for a guided tour with a group of 1 to 9 people, or a fixed $50 fee for 10 or more people in the group. Write a formula for a piecewise defined function relating the number of people, \(n\), to the cost, \(C\).
Solution
A piecewise defined function is appropriate here, since there are two ways of calculating the cost. For \(n \le 9\), the rate of increase in cost is a constant \( \dfrac{$5}{1 \text{ person}}\). Therefore, a linear function would be appropriate with the slope \(m = 5\). Since the cost of \(n=0\) people is \(C=0\), the linear formula for this piece is C = 5 n for values of n under 10. For 10 or more people, the cost is constant C = 50.
\[C(n) = \begin{cases} 5n & if & 0 < n < 10 \\ 50 & if & n \ge 10 \end{cases}\nonumber \]
Example \(\PageIndex{5}\)
A cell phone company uses the function below to determine the cost, C , in dollars for g gigabytes of data transfer.
\[C(g)=\left\{\begin{array}{ccc} {25} & {if} & {0<g<2} \\ {25+10(g-2)} & {if} & {g\ge 2} \end{array}\right.\nonumber \]
- Find the cost of using 1.5 gigabytes of data.
- Find the cost of using 4 gigabytes of data.
Solution
- To find the cost of using 1.5 gigabytes of data where we must use the first formula \(C(g)\) = $25 since \(g = 1.5 < 2\). So \(C(1.5)\) = $25.
- To find the cost of using 4 gigabytes of data we must use the second formula \(C(g) = 25+10(g-2)\) since \(g = 4 \ge 2\). So \(C(4) = 25 + 10(4 - 2) = $45\).
At Pierce College during the 2009-2010 school year tuition rates for in-state residents were $89.50 per credit for the first 10 credits, $33 per credit for credits 11-18, and for each credit over 18 the rate is $73 per credit (www.pierce.ctc.edu/dist/tuit...ition_rate.pdf, retrieved August 6, 2010). Write a piecewise defined function for the total tuition, \(T\), at Pierce College during 2009-2010 as a function of the number of credits taken, \(c\). Be sure to consider a reasonable domain for the piecewise defined function
- Answer
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\(T(c) = \begin{cases} 89.5c & if & c \le 10 \\ 895 + 33(c - 10) & if & 10 < c \le 18 \\ 1159 + 73(c - 18) & if & c > 18 \end{cases}\) Tuition, \(T\), as a function of credits, \(c\).
A reasonable domain should be whole numbers 0 to (answers may vary), e.g. [0, 23]
Important Topics of this Section
- Using piecewise defined functions
- Graphing with piecewise defined functions
- Modeling with piecewise defined functions


11.3: Black Lives Matter
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- Last updated
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- Erika Gutierrez, Janét Hund, Shaheen Johnson, Carlos Ramos, Lisette Rodriguez, & Joy Tsuhako
- Long Beach City College, Cerritos College, & Saddleback College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)
Social Movement Stages, Media, and Black Lives Matter
Chances are you have been asked to tweet, friend, like, or donate online for a cause. Nowadays, social movements are woven throughout our social media activities. After all, social movements start by activating people.
Considering the ideal type stages discussed above, you can see that social media has the potential to dramatically transform how people get involved. Look at stage one, the preliminary stage : people become aware of an issue, and leaders emerge. Imagine how social media speeds up this step. Suddenly, a shrewd user of Twitter can alert their thousands of followers about an emerging cause or an issue on their mind. Issue awareness can spread at the speed of a click, with thousands of people across the globe becoming informed at the same time. In a similar vein, those who are savvy and engaged with social media emerge as leaders.  You don’t even need to leave your house. You can build an audience through social media without ever meeting the people you are inspiring.
This is what happened in the case of the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement. The movement was co-founded in 2013 by three Black community organizers: Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi. Garza, Cullors and Tometi met through Black Organizing for Leadership & Dignity (BOLD), a national organization that trains community organizers. They began to question how they were going to respond to what they saw as the devaluation of Black lives after George Zimmerman’s acquittal in the shooting death of African-American teen Trayvon Martin in February 2012. Garza wrote a Facebook post titled “A Love Note to Black People” in which she said: “Our Lives Matter, Black Lives Matter." Cullors replied: "#BlackLivesMatter." Tometi then added her support, and BLM was born as an online campaign to support all Black lives - including women, queer, and transgender people.
This emergence stage quickly escalated to coalescence, as the movement became nationally recognized for its street demonstrations following the 2014 deaths of two African Americans: Michael Brown—resulting in protests and unrest in Ferguson (St. Louis) - and Eric Garner in New York City. Since the Ferguson protests, participants in the movement have demonstrated against the deaths of numerous other African Americans by police actions or while in police custody. In the summer of 2015, Black Lives Matter activists became involved in the 2016 United States presidential election.
Social media is immensely helpful during the coalescence stage . Coalescence is the point when people join together to publicize the issue and get organized. President Obama’s 2008 campaign was essentially a case study in organizing and publicizing through social media. Using Twitter and other online tools, the campaign engaged volunteers who had typically not bothered with politics and empowered those who were more active to generate still more activity. It is no coincidence that Obama’s earlier work experience included grassroots community organizing. In 2009, when student protests erupted in Tehran, social media was considered so important to the organizing effort that the U.S. State Department actually asked Twitter to suspend scheduled maintenance so that a vital tool would not be disabled during the demonstrations.
The next stage of the development of a social movement is institutionalization, when it it is an established organization, typically with a paid staff. In the case of Black Lives Matter, the movement grew into a national network of over 30 local chapters between 2014 and 2016. The overall Black Lives Matter movement, however, is a decentralized network and has no formal hierarchy. The movement still has a strong presence and has even joined forces with other, more systematically organized groups, such as the Movement for Black Lives (M4BL) . There is now a coalition of groups across the United States which represent the interests of Black communities. It was formed in 2014 as a response to sustained and increasingly visible violence against Black communities, with the purpose of creating a united front and establishing a political platform. The collective, also known as a social movement sector, is made up of more than 150 organizations, with members such as the Black Lives Matter Network, the National Conference of Black Lawyers, and the Ella Baker Center for Human Rights.
Watch the Video 11.3.2 below, Black Lives Matter: A History, as it explains how this group has been fighting to be heard since 2013 - and the phrase itself is now being seen on streets and screens all around the world after the killing of George Floyd.
2020 Uprisings
In the summer of 2020, in the middle of a global pandemic, masses of Americans took the streets to demand justice for George Floyd who was pressed to the ground by his neck by a Minneapolis police officer for more than 9 minutes while he called for his deceased mother and pleaded, "I can’t breathe" (as was presented at the beginning of Chapter 1.1 ). The footage of the brutal murder went viral via social media incensing Americans already in a state of anxiety, locked down in their homes, and economy shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The calls for justice soon began to culminate in more specific demands to defund the police. Scholar Angela Davis, also a prison and police abolitionist, argues that these calls are rooted in abolitionist philosophy which aims to strategically shrink the size of the prison industrial complex (PIC) eventually rendering it impotent while diverting funds towards community investment and social services such as youth centers, addiction and substance abuse supportive services, mental health, and education to more effectively target the root causes of crime (Democracy Now!, 2020). Activists and scholars view the prison industrial complex as a system designed to marginalize Black, Brown, Indigenous, and poor communities while providing slave labor for corporations and the state while also disenfranchising those communities electorally (CR10 Publications Collective, 2008).
While some argue that defunding the police would make communities less safe (Southers, 2020), abolitionists argue that the latest expansion of the PIC originates in false fears engineered by politicians, like Richard Nixon, aiming to redirect the primary national concerns of the Vietnam War and the Civil Rights Movement to the need to crack down on drugs and crime. As explained in the 13th documentary below, in the 1980's President Ronald Reagan doubled-down on this tactic by waging a "War on Drugs" that disproportionately incarcerated Black and Latinx populations. The “tough on crime” political tactic has been effective in ginning up the public fear needed to justify expansion of local police budgets and lengthier sentencing policies such as those featured in the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, which was signed in to law by President Bill Clinton and largely written by now Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden (Alexander, 2010).
Another point of controversy is that fact that these uprisings grew violent, sparked by the burning down of the 3rd precinct where the 4 officers involved in Floyd's murder worked. One Monmouth University poll revealed that 54% of respondents thought the actions taken by protesters, including the burning of the precinct building, was fully or partially justified (Monmouth University Poll, 2020). The demands to defund the police have been influential in Minneapolis where Floyd's murder took place, as the City Council has agreed to disband the police department and create a new public safety system, though activists say they will have to wait and see what actually comes of these efforts.
While comparisons to the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s abound, the broader legislative and structural impact of these uprisings is yet to be seen. Still, polls showed that in the two weeks following Floyd's murder, support for Black Lives Matter increased significantly as unfavorable views of the police surfaced which combined with increasing public sentiment, among all Americans, that African Americans face substantial discrimination.
Contributors and Attributions
- Tsuhako, Joy. (Cerritos College)
- Johnson, Shaheen. (Long Beach City College)
- Introduction to Sociology 2e (OpenStax) ( CC BY 4.0 )
Works Cited
- Alexander, M. (2010). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York, NY: The New Press.
- CR10 Publications Collective. (2008). Abolition now!: Ten Years of Strategy and Struggle Against the Prison Industrial Complex. Oakland, CA: AK Press.
- Democracy Now! (n.d.). Freedom Struggle: Angela Davis on Calls to Defund Police, Racism & Capitalism, and the 2020 Election. [Video]. Democracy Now.
- Monmouth University Poll. (2020). National: protestors' anger justified even if actions may not be. Monmouth University.
- Southers, E.G. (2020, June 11). Black ex-cop: i understand the anger but don't defund police. It could make things worse. USA Today.


14.4: Customizing Reports
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Create a customized report
- Modify what appears on a report
- Change the appearance of a report
Reports offer a way to view, format, and summarize the information in your Access database. For example, at WorldCorp, you can create an invoice for all your sales, or a summary of total sales across different regions and time periods depending on which corporate business unit on WorldCorp you are surveying. In the chapter on Understanding and Using Databases, you learned about how to create and modify reports using the Report Wizard. In this chapter, we will go deeper into creating and modifying reports.
Building a Custom Report
The Report Wizard does provide a quick and efficient way to create reports. At times, however, you will need to make a report from scratch. Understanding the section types enables you to use them to their fullest potential.
Often, queries are used to combine tables and define fields that will be included in a report at WorldCorp. As with creating a form, queries become the primary building block for developing a desired report that meets the current demands of the ever-changing WorldCorp objectives.
A report is divided into sections that can be seen in Design View. To create professional-looking reports, you will need to understand how each section works. For example, the section in which you choose to place a calculated control determines how Access calculates the results. What you want on the cover page of the report may be very different than what you want at the top of the pages that follow.
In addition to the report header, page header, report footer, and page footer, which we covered in Understanding and Using Databases, there are other sections in the report that you should know:
- Group Header : This section appears at the beginning of each group in the report and is used to display summary information about each group.
- Detail : This section is where the actual data from the report is displayed. It appears for each record in the report.
- Group Footer : This section appears at the end of each group and is used to display summary information about the group.
Using these sections allows you to create a well-organized, easy-to-read report that contains all the necessary information.
Modifying a Report
There are several tools and views that you can use to create, format, and customize reports. The different views allow you to see and preview your report in different ways, each of which may be useful to you at times. We reviewed these different views and some of these tools in Understanding and Using Databases, but here, we will go into more depth.
Layout View
Layout View is a great way to see the print preview grid lines, with the ability to change the size and placement of all labels, text boxes, and design elements. Right-clicking and selecting Layout View shows how much of the report will fit on a page. In Layout View, each control on the report displays real data, making this a useful view for setting the size of controls or performing tasks that affect the report’s appearance and usability, as Figure 14.50 shows.
Design View
In Access, Design View is a view that allows you to create and customize the layout and structure of a report. Design View is an important feature for creating professional-looking reports, as it allows you to customize the design and appearance of the report to suit your needs.
When you open a report in Design View, you’ll see a grid that represents the layout of the report. The report is divided into several sections, including the Report Header, Page Header, Group Header, Detail, Group Footer, Page Footer, and Report Footer. Each section has its own set of properties that you can modify to change the appearance and behavior of the section. You can also add various types of controls to the report, including text boxes, labels, buttons, and images in this view. Grouping and sorting options to the report can help organize and display the data in a meaningful way.
Design View also allows you to set properties for the entire report, such as its orientation, margins, and page size. You can also add themes and styles to give the report a consistent and professional appearance. Overall, this view allows you to create custom reports that suit your needs in inventory management and retail store operations while at WorldCorp. By taking advantage of the many customization options available in Design View, you can create reports that are both informative and visually appealing.
As you can see in Figure 14.51, the Design View includes all sections of the report.
Grouping and Sorting in a Report
Tools that can group and sort your information will be of utmost importance when organizing your report. Information is often easier to understand when it is divided into groups. For example, in the invoice for Awesome Clothes Inc., the sections are used to group the details and relevant information. In addition, placing a total (a sum of all Amounts) in the Report Footer section can replace a lot of manual interaction with a calculator. The customer can quickly see the total of the grouped sections, showing the amount owed.
Grouping and sorting are important features in Access reports that allow you to organize data in a meaningful way. Additional considerations why you might want to use grouping and sorting in your Access reports are endless. Grouping and sorting can make it easier for users to read and understand the data in a report. By grouping related data together and sorting it in a logical order, you can help users quickly identify patterns and trends. It also allows you to summarize data by creating subtotals or totals for each group. Sorting can help you identify outliers or anomalies in your data. For example, if you’re sorting a list of customers by purchase amount, you might notice that one customer has made an unusually large purchase, which could indicate a potential sales opportunity or a data entry error.
Grouping and sorting can help you make more informed decisions by presenting the data in a clear way. By using these tools in different ways, you can analyze the data from multiple perspectives and identify opportunities for improvement. By using these features, you can create reports that are more informative and easier to understand, which can ultimately help you make better business decisions that affect our success at WorldCorp.
Filtering Records
Another useful tool in Access is the filtering tool. This gives you the ability to filter a report prior to printing or presenting the information. There are just a couple quick steps you can take every time to ensure the information that is obtained in the report is correctly filtered to the desired data points.
To start, open the report in Design View. Click on the Sorting and Grouping button in the Grouping & Totals section of the Design tab on the ribbon. In the Sorting and Grouping dialog box, select the field that you want to filter by. Simply click on the “...” button next to the Filter property. In the Filter dialog box, select the criteria that you want to use for the filter. You can select from a variety of options, including Equals, Not Equals, Contains, Does Not Contain, Between, and more.
Enter the value or values that you want to use for the filter. You can enter a single value, multiple values separated by commas, or a range of values. Next, click the OK button to close the Filter dialog box and save and close the report. Open the report in Print Preview or Report View to see the filtered results. Note that you can also apply filters to a report while viewing the report in Print Preview or Report View. To do this, click on the Filter button in the Sort & Filter section of the Home tab on the ribbon, and then select the criteria that you want to use for the filter.
To use an actual example, let’s filter our customers living in Ohio. Simply right-click on states listed as OH, and click Text Filters - Equals OH (see Figure 14.52).
In Figure 14.53, Access applies the filter, and you can now print the report including only the data selected from the filter.
Adding Totals and Subtotals
Adding total s and subtotal s to a report in Microsoft Access is useful for summarizing data and providing meaningful insights to numerous activities at WorldCorp. A few reasons why you might want to add totals and subtotals to your report could include summarizing data, grouping data, identifying outliers, and comparing datasets.
Totals and subtotals allow you to summarize data in a report by providing aggregate values such as sum, average, count, minimum, maximum, and more. This can help users quickly understand the overall trends in the data. Grouping data by a particular field or criteria, such as by department or product category is very useful for subtotals by allowing users to analyze the data from different perspectives. Totals can be used to identify outliers or anomalies in the data. For example, if the total sales for a particular product are much higher than the other products, it may indicate that there is a potential opportunity for growth. In addition, they can be used to compare data across different time periods, geographic locations, or other criteria. This can help users identify trends and patterns in the data that may not be immediately apparent. Layout View be used to add totals or averages to a report.
To add a total in a report, start by opening the report in Design View. Click on the field where you want to add the total. Then, in the Properties window, scroll down to the Total property and select the type of total you want to add. See Figure 14.54 for the available options. Finally, save the report and reopen it in Print Preview or Report View to see the total.
Adding Fields to a Report
To add field s to a report in Access, start by opening the report in Design View. Select the Add Existing Fields button in the Controls section of the Design tab on the ribbon. In the Add Existing Fields dialog box, select the table or query that contains the fields that you want to add to the report. Select the fields that you want to add to the report by checking the boxes next to their names. Click the Add button to add the selected fields to the report.
In addition, you can drag the fields to the desired location on the report once they are added. You can also resize the fields by dragging the edges of the control box. Make sure to save the report. Once you are done adding the fields to the report, you can customize their appearance and formatting by adjusting the properties in the Properties window.
As an example, we will review how text boxes can be added to a report to improve its ability to communicate information at WorldCorp. Start by opening your report in Layout View or Design View. Note: If your database does not contain any tables, the Field List pane will be empty. When you find the field(s) you want to add, double-click the field and then drag it from the Field List pane to the form or report, as Figure 14.55 shows.
Adding Time and Date
One area that is very important on an invoice is the invoice date and due date . In addition to the original purchase date, it can be helpful to calculate a due date or add a mailing date. In the following example, we will see the procedure for adding three dates: origin date, due date, and mailing date. This custom build will clearly explain to the customer the payment due date parameters.
Start in Layout View or Design View. The DateOut field, as shown in Figure 14.56 was included in the field list. This information can be presented on the report and used later in calculating the additional information.
Formatting a text box prior to copying it is highly recommended to save time and keep attributes alike. In the example shown in Figure 14.57, copy and paste the label and text box twice, pasting the second instance directly below the first. Then, change the labels to represent the three dates the customer should see: Purchase date, Invoice date, and Due Date (Figure 14.58). For appearance, the borders on each label were changed to transparent.
Next, open the property sheet and select the Invoice Date text box. Change the control source to =Date()—a quick change that will provide the current date for the text box, as shown in Figure 14.59.
Select the Due Date text box and open the property sheet. Change the control source to =[DateOut] + 30. The control source is the field to which your text box is linked; it will display the data in that field and any updates you make to the field. This sample expression makes a calculation: It takes the field DateOut and adds 30 days to the field. The text box will display the expected due date of the invoice, as you can see in Figure 14.60. As this is probably the most important date in the report for the customer, change the font to red and make it boldface. This subtle change will help direct the customer’s eyes to the important due date field.
Changing the Appearance of a Report
In Understanding and Using Databases, we briefly covered how to add images and custom text to your report. Here, we will go into detail about further customizing the appearance of your report.
Adding and Formatting Text
Many companies require particular directions when they invoice their customers. Terms and conditions are required and standardized through contracts. Placement, size, and accessibility are important, especially for current or future customers. In the example of the customer invoice, suppose you want to include a direction in the Page Footer section to instruct the customer on how to make a payment. In the following example, a label is used in the Report Footer section as direction for making payment. It provides information on how to direct the payment and where to send it. In designing this label, you will need to know how to set the size, font, and color to meet company guidelines or standards.
To do this, open the report in Layout View and select the Label option from the Report Layout Design Controls (see Figure 14.61). Draw the label in the Footer section and proceed to enter the payment directions.
While still on the label, select the Label option Format and adjust the font, size, and color within the font section. Within the label, font styles, sizes, and colors can be changed from the ribbon, as in all Microsoft Office products (Figure 14.62).
Once complete, review the report in Print Preview View. Make sure the message is displayed in the correct position and with the correct formatting. You can repeat these steps for any other information that may be standardized on the report (e.g., contract guidelines or customer service contact information).
Adding Page Numbers
Open the report in Design View or Layout View. On the Design tab, in the Header/Footer group, click Page Numbers . When the Page Numbers dialog box appears, choose the format, position, and alignment that you want (Figure 14.63). Note: If you do not want a number to appear on the first page of the report, be sure to uncheck the option to clear the Show Number on the First page checkbox. When you are done, click OK, and the page numbers will be added to the report. (To see how the page numbers will look when the report is run, switch to Print Preview.)
Adding Logo s and Images
In the example of the customer invoice, a company logo helps clearly represent the company’s ownership and brand. Beyond simply using font styles and colors to distinguish your company, a company logo can make reports look professional. Note: Before finalizing a report that may go out to a large audience, be sure to check with your company’s guidelines on placement, size, and color guidelines for logos. Larger companies often offer a marketing toolkit to help guide employees in the use of logos.
To better understand the use of logos, we will walk through steps for adding and modifying a static image on a form, using our clothing company example.
First, choose the image that you want to use as the logo for the clothing company. Ideally, this image has been given to you or made available. Company logos are usually saved as a JPEG or PNG file type. Open the report in Design View when you are ready to add the logo. Select the Image button in the Controls section of the Design tab on the ribbon. This will add an image control to the report.
Resize the image control to the desired size by dragging the edges of the control box. Right-click on the image control and select Properties from the context menu. In the Properties window, go to the Picture property and click on the ellipsis button (...) to select the image file that is the saved logo.
In the Picture Size Mode property, choose the Clip option to ensure that the image is displayed at its original size. Save the report once complete. You can also modify the appearance of the image by adjusting the properties in the Properties window. For example, you can change the border style, color, and thickness, as well as the background color of the control box. In this example, shown in Figure 14.64, the logo was placed in the center of the invoice header section, replacing the company name.
Now it is time to print your report. Before you do, make sure you are happy with the final version. Remember that although forms are designed for users, reports are for audiences and stakeholders. It’s important to consider whether your message and data are clearly presented and whether the report meets all company guidelines for publication.
Personal information such as addresses, work history, and in some cases medical history, could be contained in a variety of different databases and with a variety of different organizations or companies. Our personal information is regularly exchanged and sold to entities to solicit sales, send mailers, or for political purposes just to name a few examples. More and more people are becoming concerned with the use and privacy of their information.
Two areas of particular concern are medical data and academic/educational data. You might be familiar with FERPA – The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974. This piece of legislation was passed to protect your academic records. The Act also gives protections to individuals for how their educational records are used by government agencies such as the Department of Education. Your right to keep those records private is part of the legislation. In addition, you have the right to request your records at any time. The data essentially belongs to you. There are certain provisions that allow usage of the data for reporting and auditing purposes. But when the data is used, personally identifiable information is generally not disclosed.
In a similar manner, HIPPA, or the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1995, protects your medical information. Your specific medical information is kept private under most circumstances. Information such as treatment plans or medication might be shared with insurance companies but that information is protected through the insurance companies from outside entities under the same HIPPA legislation.
In general, under both legislative acts, unless there is a justifiable compelling reason to disclose your personal information, it is kept private. Both acts give options for you to disclose to certain entities. For example, you can decide to allow your parents access to your educational records or your spouse/partner have access to your medical records. Signed approval for such disclosure is needed to release the information to someone other than yourself.


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1.0: Prelude to Functions
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There is a definite relationship between the year and stock market average. For any year we choose, we can determine the corresponding value of the stock market average.
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1.1: Functions and Function Notation
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A jetliner changes altitude as its distance from the starting point of a flight increases. The weight of a growing child increases with time. In each case, one quantity depends on another. There is a relationship between the two quantities that we can describe, analyze, and use to make predictions. In this section, we will analyze such relationships.
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1.2: Domain and Range
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In creating various functions using the data, we can identify different independent and dependent variables, and we can analyze the data and the functions to determine the domain and range. In this section, we will investigate methods for determining the domain and range of functions.
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1.3: Rates of Change and Behavior of Graphs
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In this section, we will investigate changes in functions. For example, a rate of change relates a change in an output quantity to a change in an input quantity. The average rate of change is determined using only the beginning and ending data. Identifying points that mark the interval on a graph can be used to find the average rate of change. Comparing pairs of input and output values in a table can also be used to find the average rate of change.
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1.4: Composition of Functions
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Combining two relationships into one function, we have performed function composition, which is the focus of this section. Function composition is only one way to combine existing functions. Another way is to carry out the usual algebraic operations on functions, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. We do this by performing the operations with the function outputs, defining the result as the output of our new function.
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1.5: Transformation of Functions
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Often when given a problem, we try to model the scenario using mathematics in the form of words, tables, graphs, and equations. One method we can employ is to adapt the basic graphs of the toolkit functions to build new models for a given scenario. There are systematic ways to alter functions to construct appropriate models for the problems we are trying to solve.
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1.6: Absolute Value Functions
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Distances in the universe can be measured in all directions. As such, it is useful to consider distance as an absolute value function. In this section, we will investigate absolute value functions. The absolute value function is commonly thought of as providing the distance the number is from zero on a number line. Algebraically, for whatever the input value is, the output is the value without regard to sign.
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1.7: Inverse Functions
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If some physical machines can run in two directions, we might ask whether some of the function “machines” we have been studying can also run backwards. In this section, we will consider the reverse nature of functions.
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1.E: Functions (Exercises)
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1.R: Functions (Review)
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Readings Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 168993 Todd Smith Western Washington University 1.1: Defining Popular Music and Stephen Foster 1.2: Early Popular Music Styles in America 1.3: The Blues 1.4: Gospel Music and Country Music 1.5: Urban Blues 1.6: A Changing Nation- Rhythm and Blues 1.7: Rock and Roll 1.8: Teen Idols and Surf 1.9: Soul Music 1.10: The Beatles 1.11: British Invasion 1.12: American Folk Music 1.13: Psychedelic Music and the 1960s 1.14: Country Rock, Southern Rock and Jazz Rock 1.15: Hard Rock and Heavy Metal 1.16: Progressive Rock 1.17: Punk, New Wave, Reggae, and Ska 1.18: Funk and Disco 1.19: Hip Hop 1.20: MTV and the 1980s 1.21: Alternative Rock 1.22: 1990s and Early Electronic Music 1.23: African Popular Music 1.24: European Folk and Popular Music of South and Central America 1.25: Asian Popular Music- Special Focus on Japan and India


4.2: The Human Eye
An Introduction to your Eyes
The eye is a marvelous sensor! With sight as one of our five senses, the eye allows us to experience our world — our Universe. The eye as a sense not only allows us to see our Universe, but to determine color, shapes, basic identifications, and relative sizes of objects. Think of the eye as a sensor that allows our brain to collect, organize, and interpret things around us. What would the beauty of a sunset be without color? Or the distance to a coffee cup as you are trying to pick it up without the eye and brain working together to determine depth perception? Our brain stores these experiences, building on what we see and experience in our universe.
Science has revolved around the human ability to observe, among other things like reasoning, whether it be what occurs when one puts two chemicals together, how the location of sunrise changes over a period of time, the different feather patterns on a male and female bird of the same species, or variations in clouds, shells, and rocks. Astronomy fully used the visual senses to observe the Universe. The eye, as a sensor, is very sensitive to an object’s brightness as well as its color.
Before the late-19 th century, all astronomy was visual. Both professional and amateur astronomers used only their eyes to examine the universe around them.  It also is adaptable. The human eye can function in bright sunlight and faint starlight — an intensity range of more than 10 million.
Understanding the eye allows one to better understand the workings of optical instruments, such as the telescope and camera. All use a lens to focus, and many of the features of the eye are incorporated in a direct or indirect way into these instruments. (1)
The Human Eye
The human eye has a number of parts which must function together to assure eyesight. Failure or weakness of any one of these can impair eyesight, or cause blindness.
Note that the human eye is different both functionally and structurally than most eyes in the Animal Kingdom; for example, many insects feature compound eyes.
- Cornea
- The transparent “front window” of the eye. It is a thick, nearly circular structure covering the lens. The cornea is an important part of the focusing system of the eye.
- Pupil
- The round black hole in the center of the iris. The size of the pupil changes automatically to control the amount of light entering the eye.
- Iris
- The pigmented (colored) membrane of the eye, the iris is located between the cornea and the lens. Its color varies from pale blue to dark brown.
- Lens
- A transparent biconvex structure located behind the iris. It focuses light rays entering through the pupil in order to form an image on the retina.
- Retina
- A thin multi-layered membrane which lines the inside back two-thirds of the eye. It is composed of millions of visual cells and it is connected by the optic nerve to the brain. The retina receives light and sends electrical impulses to the brain that result in sight.
- Macula
- An area of the eye near the center of the retina where visual perception is most acute. The macula is responsible for the sharp, straight-ahead vision that is used for seeing fine detail, reading, driving, and recognizing faces. It is one hundred times more sensitive to detail than the peripheral retina. The macula is sometimes referred to as “the bull’s eye center of the retina.”
- Optic Nerve
- Cable-like structure composed of thousands of nerve fibers that connect the macula and retina with the brain. The optic nerve carries electrical impulses from the macula and retina to the processing center of the brain where they are interpreted into clear, colorful sight. (1)
- Authored by : Florida State College at Jacksonville. License : CC BY: Attribution


21 .
Using some of the internet search strategies discussed earlier in the chapter, choose an industry and research some leading technologies in that industry.
22 .
Think about the concept of lifelong learning. Using the strategies outlined in the chapter, discuss how lifelong learning can be incorporated into your life.
23 .
A computer’s memory capacity and speed have an impact on its price. Perform a Google search to compare the prices of at least three laptops and three desktop computers with various speeds and memory capacities. Which is more expensive, and why? What factor has the greatest impact on the price of the computers?
25 .
You want to find out about music festivals happening this summer close to your home. First, follow your typical procedure for conducting an internet search. Then, conduct another internet search for the same information, this time using some of the techniques discussed in the chapter. What differences do you notice in the results?
26 .
Conduct an internet search for a topic that interests you. Then, navigate to a website devoted to that topic. Using the strategies discussed in this chapter, evaluate the credibility of the information contained on the site.
27 .
View your social media account (or someone else’s, if you don’t have one). From the perspective of an outsider, what do you see? Is everything that is viewable acceptable? Would you want your employer to view this social media account?
28 .
Discuss how you would protect your personal computer, including access restriction and prevention of data loss.


6.12: Reading- Customer Relationship Management Systems
Marketing Information and Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
Earlier in this course, we cited the American Marketing Association’s definition of customer relationship management: “a discipline in marketing combining database and computer technology with customer service and marketing communications.” The AMA’s definition goes on to describe the ultimate goal of customer relationship management as the ability to provide “meaningful one-on-one communications with the customer by applying customer data (demographic, industry, buying history, etc.) to every communications vehicle.” [1] Because customer relationship management (CRM) relies on customer data—and specifically the effective use of internal data—it’s important to discuss CRM systems in the context of marketing information and research.
CRM systems are powerful software systems that serve several essential functions for marketing, sales, and account management. Organizations use them to:
- Capture internal data about customers and customer interactions and house these data in a central location
- Provide business users with access to customer data in order to inform a variety of customer touch points and interactions
- Conduct data analysis and generate insights about how to better meet the needs of target segments and individual customers
- Deliver a marketing mix tailored to the needs and interests of these target segments and individual customers
Leading providers of CRM systems include Salesforce.com, Oracle (Siebel), and Microsoft, among others. These large, many-faceted systems include several components. Databases and data warehouses provide information infrastructure for storing and accessing customer information. Contact management capabilities allow organizations to track a variety of customer interactions, including how each customer or prospective customer relationship is progressing over time. CRM packages also include sophisticated analytical tools to help marketing and sales analysts examine the data and find patterns and correlations that help them better anticipate and address customer needs (with the goal of strengthening each customer relationship).
Does this analytical process sound familiar? It should. Marketing analysts working with CRM data follow the same basic process outlined previously for general marketing research activities: Identify a problem; develop a plan for the information and analysis needed to solve the problem; conduct research; analyze and report findings; and take action based on the results. The primary difference from traditional marketing research projects is that the CRM inquiries may be more self-contained because of the breadth of marketing information and tools these systems provide.
The CRM system is especially effective at helping to surface a marketing problem, and it can provide the internal data needed for an analysis, which, in turn, is used to solve the problem. CRM systems are designed to capture data across the customer life cycle, starting with the initial contact point and progressing through each conversation and interaction that moves a prospective customer toward a purchasing decision. CRM systems also capture sales and spending data, and they enable analysts to project future spending patterns and lifetime value based on broader patterns in the customer data. These systems may also incorporate data about customer satisfaction and support, with accompanying insights into what is driving satisfaction ratings and customers’ perceptions of the company. In addition to bringing together disparate customer data, CRM systems can recommend an analytical approach and provide research tools to complete the analysis. Many CRM systems have mechanisms for reporting results, orchestrating plans for taking action on the results, and even evaluating the effectiveness of those actions.
Consider the following example of how sports company adidas is using Salesforce.com (a CRM provider) to improve its ability to engage customers and design better products. Notice the company’s emphasis on connecting the customers—with products, services, and other people—and why that’s such a key part of what the CRM system provides.
- www.ama.org/resources/Pages/Dictionary.aspx?dLetter=C ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Marketing Information and Customer Relationship Management. Authored by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Customer and Computer Cables. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : pixabay.com/en/ball-about-cable-lan-connected-563972/. License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
- adidas is a Trailblazer. Provided by : Salesforce. Located at : https://youtu.be/OCj-L0vC42s . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube license


9.1: Introduction
Many statistical applications in psychology, social science, business administration, and the natural sciences involve several groups. For example, an environmentalist is interested in knowing if the average amount of pollution varies in several bodies of water. A sociologist is interested in knowing if the amount of income a person earns varies according to his or her upbringing. A consumer looking for a new car might compare the average gas mileage of several models.
For hypothesis tests comparing averages among more than two groups, statisticians have developed a method called "Analysis of Variance" (abbreviated ANOVA). In this chapter, you will study the simplest form of ANOVA called single factor or one-way ANOVA. You will also study the \(F\) distribution, used for one-way ANOVA.


8.6: Resource Stewardship and Case Management
Resource Stewardship
Resource Stewardship is one of the Standards of Professional Performance established by the American Nursing Association (ANA). Resource stewardship is defined as using appropriate resources to plan, provide, and sustain evidence-based nursing services that are safe, effective, financially responsible, and used judiciously. See the following box for competencies associated with the ANA’s Resource Stewardship Standard of Professional Performance. [1]
Competencies of ANA’s Resource Stewardship Standard of Professional Performance [2]
- Partners with the health care consumer and other stakeholders to identify care needs and necessary resources to achieve desired outcomes.
- Collaborates with the health care consumer and other stakeholders to assess costs, availability, risks, and benefits in decisions about care.
- Secures appropriate resources to address needs across the health care continuum.
- Advocates for equitable resources that support and enhance nursing practice and health outcomes.
- Integrates connected health technologies into practice to promote positive interactions between health care consumers and care providers.
- Uses organizational and community resources to implement interprofessional plans.
- Addresses discriminatory health care practices and the adverse impact on allocation of resources.
Case Management
Nurses are tasked with daily case management activities and allocating appropriate resources to their clients. Two common types of case management that staff nurses provide are educating clients about using appropriate levels of care and encouraging the use of cost-effective health care team members.
Several levels of care are available to clients for their health care services:
- Emergency department care has specialized providers and high-level diagnostics and should be reserved for immediate and potentially life-threatening needs.
- Urgent care is an elevated level of care above an outpatient visit, yet below the needs of an emergency visit. Nurses should refer patients to this setting if they have a health need that needs attention within the next 24 hours but is not life-threatening.
- Outpatient health settings provide health maintenance for chronic disease or treatment of nonurgent acute conditions. They also provide preventative services like well-baby checks and immunizations. In the outpatient setting, the nurse recognizes the patient’s time with a provider is limited, so the majority of a nurse’s time is often spent providing patient education, answering questions, and coordinating care.
- Inpatient and acute care typically occurs in a hospital setting where skilled nursing, diagnostic tests, and medical treatments are required. Nursing goals in these settings are to address immediate health concerns, stabilize the client, and prepare them for discharge. Most inpatient stays are 72 hours or less, so nurses must provide efficient care that includes adequate patient education regarding follow-up care after discharge.
- Assisted living refers to licensed facilities that provide safe living accommodations and three meals daily. Residents receive assistance with medications and ADLs and may receive general nursing care. [3]
- Skilled nursing facilities , commonly referred to as “nursing homes” or “long-term care facilities,” are licensed facilities that provide 24-hour licensed nursing services. Residents may require total assistance with ADLs. [4]
- Home health refers to services provided in a client’s home that may include nursing, home health aide, physical therapy (PT), occupational therapy (OT), and speech therapy. [5]
- Hospice offers palliative and supportive services providing physical, psychological, social, and spiritual care for dying clients and their families. Services may be provided in the client’s home or an inpatient setting. Hospice may include nursing, home health aide, social worker, chaplain, PT, OT, ST, nutritional therapy, and volunteer services. [6]
- Telehealth is a fairly new and expanding health delivery model. Telehealth is a form of an outpatient health service where the patient and member of the health care team are able to connect remotely using telephone calls or video conferencing on a computer with an Internet connection. Devices may be provided to monitor vital signs and other health indicators. Telehealth enhances client access to multiple providers without the burden of travel. Telehealth has become an important resource in rural communities, especially due to social distancing required by the COVID-19 pandemic. [7]
Nurses can also address the economic pressures within the health care system by utilizing and advocating for cost-effective care by providers on the health care team. In this manner, limited health care resources are allocated wisely, and consumers receive the health care they need. For example, many Nurse Practitioners (NPs) and Physician Assistants (PAs) function as primary providers in outpatient settings and provide preventative services, treat self-limited acute medical conditions, and manage chronic disease. NPs and PAs are trained to refer clients for specialized care when indicated. Some NPs and PAs work in specialized inpatient areas and serve as the primary point of contact during a patient’s hospital stay. Nurses recognize the time of specialty physicians is limited and unnecessary referrals can be costly to the client. By using and advocating for the wise use of these health care human resources, nurses can help reduce the overall cost of health care.
- American Nurses Association. (2021). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (4th ed.). American Nurses Association. ↵
- American Nurses Association. (2021). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (4th ed.). American Nurses Association. ↵
- Utah Department of Health. (n.d.). Levels of care. https://health.utah.gov/hflcra/facinfo/HFLevelsOfCare.PDF ↵
- Utah Department of Health. (n.d.). Levels of care . https://health.utah.gov/hflcra/facinfo/HFLevelsOfCare.PDF ↵
- Utah Department of Health. (n.d.). Levels of care. https://health.utah.gov/hflcra/facinfo/HFLevelsOfCare.PDF ↵
- Utah Department of Health. (n.d.). Levels of care . https://health.utah.gov/hflcra/facinfo/HFLevelsOfCare.PDF ↵
- Health Resources & Services Administration. (2021, August 16). What is telehealth? https://telehealth.hhs.gov/patients/understanding-telehealth/ ↵