12.2.1: Mass Media and Its Messages
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
- Anonymous
- LibreTexts
Learning Objectives
- Explain the different ways mass media affects culture.
- Analyze cultural messages that the media send.
- Explain the ways new media have affected culture.
When media consumers think of media messages, they may think of televised public service announcements or political advertisements. These obvious examples provide a venue for the transfer of a message through a medium, whether that message is a plea for fire safety or the statement of a political position. But what about more abstract political advertisements that simply show the logo of a candidate and a few simple words? Media messages can range from overt statements to vague expressions of cultural values.
Disagreements over the content of media messages certainly exist. Consider the common allegations of political bias against various news organizations. Accusations of hidden messages or agenda-driven content have always been an issue in the media, but as the presence of media grows, the debate concerning media messages increases. This dialogue is an important one; after all, mass media have long been used to persuade. Many modern persuasive techniques stem from the use of media as a propaganda tool. The role of propaganda and persuasion in the mass media is a good place to start when considering various types of media effects.
Propaganda and Persuasion
Encyclopedia Britannica defines propaganda simply as the “manipulation of information to influence public opinion.” Britannica Concise Encyclopedia , s.v. “Propaganda.” This definition works well for this discussion because the study and use of propaganda has had an enormous influence on the role of persuasion in modern mass media. In his book The Creation of the Media , Paul Starr argues that the United States, as a liberal democracy, has favored employing an independent press as a public guardian, thus putting the media in an inherently political position.Paul Starr, Creation of the Media (New York: Basic Books, 2004), 394–395. The United States—in contrast to other nations where media are held in check—has encouraged an independent commercial press and thus given the powers of propaganda and persuasion to the public.Paul Starr, Creation of the Media (New York: Basic Books, 2004), 394–395.
Like any type of communication, propaganda is not inherently good or bad. Whether propaganda has a positive or negative effect on society and culture depends on the motivations of those who use it and the understandings of those who receive it. People promoting movements as wide-ranging as Christianity, the American Revolution, and the communist revolutions of the 20th century have all used propaganda to disseminate their messages.Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 60–61. Newspapers and pamphlets that glorified the sacrifices at Lexington and Concord and trumpeted the victories of George Washington’s army greatly aided the American Revolution. For example, Benjamin Franklin’s famous illustration of a severed snake with the caption “Join, or Die” serves as an early testament to the power and use of print propaganda.Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 80–81.
As you will learn in Chapter 4, the penny press made newspapers accessible to a mass audience and became a force for social cohesion during the 1830s.Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 95–96. Magazines adopted a similar format later in the 19th century, and print media’s political and social power rose. In an infamous example of the new power of print media, some newspapers encouraged the Spanish-American War of 1898 by fabricating stories of Spanish atrocities and sabotage.Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 103–104. For example, after the USS Maine sunk off the coast of Havana, Cuba, some newspapers blamed the Spanish—even though there was no evidence—fueling the public’s desire for war with Spain.
The present-day, pejorative connotation of propaganda recalls the utilization of mass media by World War I–era governments to motivate the citizenry of many countries to go to war. Some media outlets characterized that war as a global fight between Anglo civilization and Prussian barbarianism. Although some of those fighting the war had little understanding of the political motivations behind it, wartime propaganda convinced them to enlist.Mark Crispin Miller, introduction to Propaganda , by Edward Bernays (Brooklyn, NY: IG Publishing, 2005), 11. As you will read in Chapter 12, World War I legitimized the advertising profession in the minds of government and corporate leaders because its techniques were useful in patriotic propaganda campaigns. Corporations quickly adapted to this development and created an advertising boom in the 1920s by using World War I propaganda techniques to sell products.Mark Crispin Miller, introduction to Propaganda , by Edward Bernays (Brooklyn, NY: IG Publishing, 2005), 12.
In modern society, the persuasive power of the mass media is well known. In the years after 9/11, there were multiple reports of the death of Osama bin Laden; people desperately wanted to believe he was killed. In reality, he was killed in 2011. Governments, corporations, nonprofit organizations, and political campaigns rely on both new and old media to create messages and to send them to the general public. During and since the 2008 Presidential election, there has been constant scrutiny over Barack Obama’s birthplace and citizenship; the reports are discredited, but the questions resurface. The comparatively unregulated nature of U.S. media has made, for better or worse, a society in which the tools of public persuasion are available to everyone.
Media Effects and Behavior
Although the mass media send messages created specifically for public consumption, they also convey messages that are not properly defined as propaganda or persuasion. Some argue that these messages influence behavior, especially the behavior of young people.Alexandra Beatty, “Studying Media Effects on Children and Youth: Improving Methods and Measures, Workshop Summary,” March 2–3, 2006, The National Academies Press, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11706 ; “Media Influence on Youth,” Crisis Connection, www.crisisconnectioninc.org/t...e_on_youth.htm. Violent, sexual, and compulsive behaviors have been linked to media consumption and thus raise important questions about the effects of media on culture.
Violence and the Media
On April 20, 1999, students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold entered their Denver-area high school, Columbine High School, armed with semiautomatic weapons and explosives. Over the next few hours, the pair killed 12 classmates and one faculty member before committing suicide.Gina Lamb, “Columbine High School,” Times Topics, New York Times , April 17, 2008, http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/organizations/c/columbine_high_school/index.html . The tragedy and its aftermath captured national attention, and in the weeks following the Columbine High School shootings, politicians and pundits worked to assign blame. Their targets ranged from the makers of the first-person shooter video game Doom to the Hollywood studios responsible for The Matrix .Tom Brook, “Is Hollywood to Blame?” BBC News , April 23, 1999, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/03/99/tom_brook/326529.stm .
However, in the years since the massacre, research has revealed that the perpetrators were actually attempting a terrorist bombing rather than a first-person shooter style rampage.Greg Toppo, “10 Years Later, the Real Story Behind Columbine,” USA Today , April 13, 2009, http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2009-04-13-columbine-myths_N.htm . But did violent video games so desensitize the two teenagers to violence that they could contemplate such a plan? Did movies that glorify violent solutions create a culture that would encourage people to consider such methods? Because modern culture is so immersed in media, the issue becomes a particularly complex one, and it can be difficult to understand the types of effects that violent media produce.
A number of studies have verified certain connections between violent video games and violent behavior in young people. For example, studies have found that some young people who play violent video games reported angry thoughts and aggressive feelings immediately after playing. Other studies, such as one conducted by Dr. Chris A. Anderson and colleagues, point to correlations between the amount of time spent playing violent video games and increased incidence of aggression.Craig A. Anderson and others, “The Influence of Media Violence on Youth,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 4, no. 3 (2003): 81–110. However, these studies do not prove that video games cause violence. Video game defenders argue that violent people can be drawn to violent games, and they point to lower overall incidence of youth violence in recent years compared to past decades.Jill U. Adams, “Effects of Violent Video Games,” Los Angeles Times , May 3, 2010, http://articles.latimes.com/2010/may/03/health/la-he-closer-20100503 . Other researchers admit that individuals prone to violent acts are indeed drawn to violent media; however, they claim that by keeping these individuals in a movie theater or at home, violent media have actually contributed to a reduction in violent social acts.Peter Goodman, “Violent Films May Cut Real Crime, Study Finds,” New York Times , January 7, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/07/technology/07iht-violence.4.9058958.html .
Whether violent media actually cause violence remains unknown, but unquestionably these forms of media send an emotional message to which individuals respond. Media messages are not limited to overt statements; they can also use emotions, such as fear, love, happiness, and depression. These emotional reactions partially account for the intense power of media in our culture.
 A recent study by researchers at the University of North Carolina titled “Sexy Media Matter: Exposure to Sexual Content in Music, Movies, Television, and Magazines Predicts Black and White Adolescents’ Sexual Behavior” found that young people with heavy exposure to sexually themed media ranging from music to movies are twice as likely to engage in early sexual behavior as young people with light exposure. Although the study does not prove a conclusive link between sexual behavior and sexually oriented media, researchers concluded that media acted as an influential source of information about sex for these youth groups.Kathleen Doheny, “Mass Media May Prompt Kids to Try Sex: Study,” Health Scout , April 3, 2006, www.healthscout.com/news/1/531862/main.html. Researcher Jane Brown thinks part of the reason children watch sexual content is related to puberty and their desire to learn about sex. While many parents are hesitant to discuss sex with their children, the media can act like a “super peer,” providing information in movies, television, music, and magazines.Kathleen Doheny, “Mass Media May Prompt Kids to Try Sex: Study,” Health Scout , April 3, 2006, www.healthscout.com/news/1/531862/main.html. Reality series, such as Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant , are prevalent on the popular MTV station. We will explore in greater detail the impact of sexual content in the media in Chapter 14.
Cultural Messages and the Media
The media sends messages that reinforce cultural values. These values are perhaps most visible in celebrities and the roles that they adopt. Actors such as Jake Gyllenhaal and Scarlett Johansson have come to represent aspects of masculinity and femininity that have been adopted into mainstream culture in the last 10 years. In recent years, baseball player Derek Jeter appeared in television, film, magazines, and advertising campaigns as a model of athleticism and willpower. Singers such as Bono of U2 have represented a sense of freedom and rebellion against mainstream culture.
Although many consider celebrity culture superficial and a poor reflection of a country’s values, not all celebrities are simply entertainers. Civil rights leaders, social reformers, and other famous public figures have come to represent important cultural accomplishments and advancements through their representations in the media. When images of Abraham Lincoln or Lady Gaga appear in the media, they resonate with cultural and historical themes greatly separated from mere fame.
Celebrities can also reinforce cultural stereotypes that marginalize certain groups. Television and magazines from the mid-20th century often portrayed women in a submissive, domestic role, both reflecting and reinforcing the cultural limitations imposed on women at the time. Advertising icons developed during the early 20th century, such as Aunt Jemima and the Cream of Wheat chef, similarly reflected and reinforced a submissive, domestic servant role for African Americans. Other famous stereotypes—such as the Lone Ranger’s Native American sidekick, Tonto, or Mickey Rooney’s Mr. Yunioshi role in Breakfast at Tiffany’s —also reinforced American preconceptions about ethnic predispositions and capabilities.
Whether actual or fictional, celebrities and their assumed roles send a number of different messages about cultural values. They can promote courageous truth telling, hide and prolong social problems, or provide a concrete example of an abstract cultural value.
New Media and Society
New media—the Internet and other digital forms of communication—have had large effects on society. This communication and information revolution has created a great deal of anguish about digital literacy and other issues that inevitably accompany such a social change. In his book on technology and communication, A Better Pencil , Dennis Baron discusses this issue:
For Plato, only speech, not writing, can produce the kind of back-and-forth—the dialogue—that’s needed to get at the truth … the text, orphaned by its author once it’s on the page, cannot defend itself against misreading…. These are strong arguments, but even in Plato’s day they had been rendered moot by the success of the written word. Although the literacy rate in classical Greece was well below 10 percent, writing had become an important feature of the culture. People had learned to trust and use certain kinds of writing—legal texts, public inscriptions, business documents, personal letters, and even literature—and as they did so, they realized that writing, on closer examination, turned out to be neither more nor less reliable or ambiguous than the spoken word, and it was just as real.Dennis Baron, A Better Pencil: Readers, Writers, and the Digital Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 5.
Baron makes the point that all communication revolutions have created upheavals and have changed the standards of literacy and communication. This historical perspective gives a positive interpretation to some otherwise ominous developments in communication and culture.
Information
The Internet has made an incredible amount of new information available to the general public. Both this wealth of information and the ways people process it are having an enormous effect on culture. New perceptions of information have emerged as access to it grows. Older-media consumption habits required in-depth processing of information through a particular form of media. For example, consumers read, watched, or viewed a news report in its entirety, typically within the context of a news publication or program. Fiction appeared in book or magazine form.
Today, information is easier to access, thus more likely to traverse several forms of media. An individual may read an article on a news website and then forward part of it to a friend. That person in turn describes it to a coworker without having seen the original context. The ready availability of information through search engines may explain how a clearly satirical Onion article on the Harry Potter phenomenon came to be taken as fact. Increasingly, media outlets cater to this habit of searching for specific bits of information devoid of context. Information that will attract the most attention is often featured at the expense of more important stories. At one point on March 11, 2010, for example, The Washington Post website’s most popular story was “Maintaining a Sex Life.”Michiko Kakutani, “Texts Without Context,” New York Times , March 17, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/21/books/21mash.html .
Another important development in the media’s approach to information is its increasing subjectivity. Some analysts have used the term cyberbalkanization to describe the way media consumers filter information. Balkanization is an allusion to the political fragmentation of Eastern Europe’s Balkan states following World War I, when the Ottoman Empire disintegrated into a number of ethnic and political fragments. Customized news feeds allow individuals to receive only the kinds of news and information they want and thus block out sources that report unwanted stories or perspectives. Many cultural critics have pointed to this kind of information filtering as the source of increasing political division and resulting loss of civic discourse. When media consumers hear only the information they want to, the common ground of public discourse that stems from general agreement on certain principles inevitably grows smaller.Michiko Kakutani, “Texts Without Context,” New York Times , March 17, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/21/books/21mash.html .
Literacy
On one hand, the growth of the Internet as the primary information source exposes the public to increased levels of text, thereby increasing overall literacy. Indeed, written text is essential to the Internet: Web content is overwhelmingly text-based, and successful participation in Internet culture through the use of blogs, forums, or a personal website requires a degree of textual literacy that is not necessary for engagement in television, music, or movies.
Critics of Internet literacy, however, describe the majority of forum and blog posts as subliterate and argue that the Internet has replaced the printed newspapers and books that actually raised the standards of literacy. One nuanced look at the Internet’s effect on the way a culture processes and perceives information states that literacy will not simply increase or decrease but will change qualitatively.Suzanne Choney, “Internet Making Our Brains Different, Not Dumb,” MSNBC , Feb. 19, 2010, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/35464896/ns/technology_and_science-tech_and_gadgets/ . Perhaps the standards for literacy will shift to an emphasis on simplicity and directness, for example, rather than on elaborate uses of language.
News
Certainly, the Internet has affected the way that cultures consume news. The public expects to receive information quickly, and news outlets respond rapidly to breaking stories. On Monday, June 21, 2010, for example, a spokesperson for Rolling Stone magazine first released quotes from a story featuring General Stanley McChrystal publicly criticizing members of the Obama administration on matters of foreign policy.  Later that same day, McChrystal issued a public apology, and on Wednesday flew to Washington where President Barack Obama fired him. The printed Rolling Stone issue featuring the article hit newsstands Friday, two days after McChrystal had been replaced.Jim Timpane, “New Media Too Speedy to Outflank,” Philly.com , June 24, 2010, http://www.philly.com/philly/entertainment/20100624_New_media_too_speedy_to_outflank.html .
Convergence Culture
As we have seen, the term convergence can hold several different meanings. In Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide , Henry Jenkins offers a useful definition of convergence as it applies to new media:
“By convergence, I mean the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behavior of media audiences who will go almost anywhere in search of the kinds of entertainment experiences they want.”Henry Jenkins, Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 2.
A self-produced video on the YouTube website that gains enormous popularity and thus receives the attention of a news outlet is a good example of this migration of both content and audiences. Consider this flow: The video appears and gains notoriety, so a news outlet broadcasts a story about the video, which in turn increases its popularity on YouTube. This migration works in a number of ways. Humorous or poignant excerpts from television or radio broadcasts are often posted on social media sites and blogs, where they gain popularity and are seen by more people than had seen the original broadcast.
Thanks to new media, consumers now view all types of media as participatory. For example, the massively popular talent show American Idol combines an older-media format—television—with modern media consumption patterns by allowing the home audience to vote for a favorite contestant. However, American Idol segments regularly appear on YouTube and other websites, where people who may never have seen the show comment on and dissect them. Phone companies report a regular increase in phone traffic following the show, presumably caused by viewers calling in to cast their votes or simply to discuss the program with friends and family. As a result, more people are exposed to the themes, principles, and culture of American Idol than the number of people who actually watch the show.Henry Jenkins, Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 83.
New media have encouraged greater personal participation in media as a whole. Although the long-term cultural consequences of this shift cannot yet be assessed, the development is undeniably a novel one. As audiences become more adept at navigating media, this trend will undoubtedly increase.
Bert Is Evil
In 2001, high school student Dino Ignacio created a collage of Sesame Street character Bert with terrorist Osama bin Laden as part of a series for his website. Called “Bert Is Evil,” the series featured the puppet engaged in a variety of illicit activities. A Bangladesh-based publisher looking for images of bin Laden found the collage on the Internet and used it in an anti-American protest poster, presumably without knowledge of who Bert was. This ended up in a CNN report on anti-American protests, and public outrage over the use of Bert made Ignacio’s original site a much-imitated cult phenomenon.
The voyage of this collage from a high school student’s website to an anti-American protest poster in the Middle East to a cable television news network and finally back to the Internet provides a good illustration of the ways in which content migrates across media platforms in the modern era. As the collage crossed geographic and cultural boundaries, it grew on both corporate and grassroots media. While this is not the norm for media content, the fact that such a phenomenon is possible illustrates the new directions in which media is headed.Henry Jenkins, Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 1–2.
Key Takeaways
- Propaganda and persuasion have long been a part of the interactions between media and culture.
- Most studies on media and behavior do not establish direct links between the two but do reveal important correlations among media, violence, and sexual behavior.
- Through the media, celebrities have come to signify important cultural values and tendencies, and they transmit specific cultural messages.
- New digital forms of media have revolutionized the way people access and consume media content. Rather than simply replacing old media, however, new forms of media encourage participatory media consumption and content migration.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
-
Celebrities can represent cultural values and principles when they are portrayed in the media. The same celebrity can represent very different things depending on the form of media and its portrayal of that person. Find a celebrity magazine, such as
People
or
Us Weekly
, either online or in print, and choose one of the celebrities mentioned. Then, answer the following questions:
- How is this celebrity portrayed in the magazine?
- What kind of roles does the celebrity take in other forms of media, such as television or film?
- How do these portrayals associate with specific cultural values?
-
Explain how the media has affected culture. Be sure to discuss the following topics and to provide examples of each.
- Propaganda and persuasion
- Behavior
- Cultural messages
- How has new media affected literacy and information consumption? How is this different from older forms of media?


8.5: Ammeter Impact on Measured Circuit
Just like voltmeters, ammeters tend to influence the amount of current in the circuits they’re connected to. However, unlike the ideal voltmeter, the ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance, so as to drop as little voltage as possible as electrons flow through it. Note that this ideal resistance value is exactly opposite as that of a voltmeter. With voltmeters, we want as little current to be drawn as possible from the circuit under test. With ammeters, we want as little voltage to be dropped as possible while conducting current.
Here is an extreme example of an ammeter’s effect upon a circuit:
With the ammeter disconnected from this circuit, the current through the 3 Ω resistor would be 666.7 mA, and the current through the 1.5 Ω resistor would be 1.33 amps. If the ammeter had an internal resistance of 1/2 Ω, and it were inserted into one of the branches of this circuit, though, its resistance would seriously affect the measured branch current:
Having effectively increased the left branch resistance from 3 Ω to 3.5 Ω, the ammeter will read 571.43 mA instead of 666.7 mA. Placing the same ammeter in the right branch would affect the current to an even greater extent:
Now the right branch current is 1 amp instead of 1.333 amps, due to the increase in resistance created by the addition of the ammeter into the current path.
When using standard ammeters that connect in series with the circuit being measured, it might not be practical or possible to redesign the meter for a lower input (lead-to-lead) resistance. However, if we were selecting a value of shunt resistor to place in the circuit for a current measurement based on voltage drop, and we had our choice of a wide range of resistances, it would be best to choose the lowest practical resistance for the application. Any more resistance than necessary and the shunt may impact the circuit adversely by adding excessive resistance in the current path.
One ingenious way to reduce the impact that a current-measuring device has on a circuit is to use the circuit wire as part of the ammeter movement itself. All current-carrying wires produce a magnetic field, the strength of which is in direct proportion to the strength of the current. By building an instrument that measures the strength of that magnetic field, a no-contact ammeter can be produced. Such a meter is able to measure the current through a conductor without even having to make physical contact with the circuit, much less break continuity or insert additional resistance.
Ammeters of this design are made, and are called “ clamp-on ” meters because they have “jaws” which can be opened and then secured around a circuit wire. Clamp-on ammeters make for quick and safe current measurements, especially on high-power industrial circuits. Because the circuit under test has had no additional resistance inserted into it by a clamp-on meter, there is no error induced in taking a current measurement.
The actual movement mechanism of a clamp-on ammeter is much the same as for an iron-vane instrument, except that there is no internal wire coil to generate the magnetic field.  Some clamp-on meters contain electronic amplifier circuitry to generate a small voltage proportional to the current in the wire between the jaws, that small voltage connected to a voltmeter for convenient readout by a technician. Thus, a clamp-on unit can be an accessory device to a voltmeter, for current measurement.
A less accurate type of magnetic-field-sensing ammeter than the clamp-on style is shown in the following photograph:
The operating principle for this ammeter is identical to the clamp-on style of meter: the circular magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying conductor deflects the meter’s needle, producing an indication on the scale. Note how there are two current scales on this particular meter: +/- 75 amps and +/- 400 amps. These two measurement scales correspond to the two sets of notches on the back of the meter. Depending on which set of notches the current-carrying conductor is laid in, a given strength of magnetic field will have a different amount of effect on the needle. In effect, the two different positions of the conductor relative to the movement act as two different range resistors in a direct-connection style of ammeter.
Review
- An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
- A “clamp-on” ammeter measures current through a wire by measuring the strength of the magnetic field around it rather than by becoming part of the circuit, making it an ideal ammeter.
- Clamp-on meters make for quick and safe current measurements, because there is no conductive contact between the meter and the circuit.


41.3.25: Chapter 26
Review Questions
1.
a.
A decrease in vasopressin production leads to normal glucose levels, an increased loss of water in the urine resulting in polyuria, an increased thirst (polydipsia), and an increased hunger (polyphagia).
2.
b.
CRH stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the anterior pituitary gland, which stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex, decreasing cortisol production and leading to a decrease in the body’s stress response.
3.
a.
(desired dose) (supply on hand)
(desired dose) (supply on hand)
4.
b.
Hydrocortisone is a steroid drug that can cause hyperglycemia and increase blood pressure. Monitoring for these potential adverse effects is essential to ensure client safety.
5.
d.
Acromegaly is a disorder caused by excessive growth hormone secretion from the pituitary, which results in abnormal growth of bones and soft tissues.
6.
a.
Fludrocortisone is a mineralocorticoid that can cause hypokalemia and hypertension. Monitoring for these adverse effects is essential to ensure client safety.
7.
a.
(desired dose)
(supply on hand)
therefore, the nurse should administer 1.9 mL per dose.
therefore, the nurse should administer 1.9 mL per dose.
8.
b.
Glucocorticoid medications require a tapering dose to allow the adrenal glands to resume their normal function.
9.
d.
Bromocriptine is contraindicated in clients with uncontrolled hypertension.
10.
b.
In hyperaldosteronism, the kidneys reabsorb too much sodium and excrete too much potassium, leading to an increased blood volume and blood pressure and decreased potassium levels.


3.5: Protein Synthesis
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain how the genetic code stored within DNA determines the protein that will form
- Describe the process of transcription
- Describe the process of translation
- Discuss the function of ribosomes
It was mentioned earlier that DNA provides a “blueprint” for the cell structure and physiology. This refers to the fact that DNA contains the information necessary for the cell to build one very important type of molecule: the protein. Most structural components of the cell are made up, at least in part, by proteins and virtually all the functions that a cell carries out are completed with the help of proteins. One of the most important classes of proteins is enzymes, which help speed up necessary biochemical reactions that take place inside the cell. Some of these critical biochemical reactions include building larger molecules from smaller components (such as occurs during DNA replication or synthesis of microtubules) and breaking down larger molecules into smaller components (such as when harvesting chemical energy from nutrient molecules). Whatever the cellular process may be, it is almost sure to involve proteins. Just as the cell’s genome describes its full complement of DNA, a cell’s proteome is its full complement of proteins. Protein synthesis begins with genes. A gene is a functional segment of DNA that provides the genetic information necessary to build a protein. Each particular gene provides the code necessary to construct a particular protein. Gene expression , which transforms the information coded in a gene to a final gene product, ultimately dictates the structure and function of a cell by determining which proteins are made.
The interpretation of genes works in the following way. Recall that proteins are polymers, or chains, of many amino acid building blocks. The sequence of bases in a gene (that is, its sequence of A, T, C, G nucleotides) translates to an amino acid sequence. A triplet is a section of three DNA bases in a row that codes for a specific amino acid. Similar to the way in which the three-letter code d-o-g signals the image of a dog, the three-letter DNA base code signals the use of a particular amino acid. For example, the DNA triplet CAC (cytosine, adenine, and cytosine) specifies the amino acid valine. Therefore, a gene, which is composed of multiple triplets in a unique sequence, provides the code to build an entire protein, with multiple amino acids in the proper sequence (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). The mechanism by which cells turn the DNA code into a protein product is a two-step process, with an RNA molecule as the intermediate.
From DNA to RNA: Transcription
DNA is housed within the nucleus, and protein synthesis takes place in the cytoplasm, thus there must be some sort of intermediate messenger that leaves the nucleus and manages protein synthesis. This intermediate messenger is messenger RNA (mRNA) , a single-stranded nucleic acid that carries a copy of the genetic code for a single gene out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm where it is used to produce proteins.
There are several different types of RNA, each having different functions in the cell. The structure of RNA is similar to DNA with a few small exceptions. For one thing, unlike DNA, most types of RNA, including mRNA, are single-stranded and contain no complementary strand. Second, the ribose sugar in RNA contains an additional oxygen atom compared with DNA. Finally, instead of the base thymine, RNA contains the base uracil. This means that adenine will always pair up with uracil during the protein synthesis process.
Gene expression begins with the process called transcription , which is the synthesis of a strand of mRNA that is complementary to the gene of interest. This process is called transcription because the mRNA is like a transcript, or copy, of the gene’s DNA code. Transcription begins in a fashion somewhat like DNA replication, in that a region of DNA unwinds and the two strands separate, however, only that small portion of the DNA will be split apart. The triplets within the gene on this section of the DNA molecule are used as the template to transcribe the complementary strand of RNA (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). A codon is a three-base sequence of mRNA, so-called because they directly encode amino acids. Like DNA replication, there are three stages to transcription: initiation, elongation, and termination.
Stage 1: Initiation. A region at the beginning of the gene called a promoter —a particular sequence of nucleotides—triggers the start of transcription.
Stage 2: Elongation. Transcription starts when RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA segment. One strand, referred to as the coding strand, becomes the template with the genes to be coded. The polymerase then aligns the correct nucleic acid (A, C, G, or U) with its complementary base on the coding strand of DNA. RNA polymerase is an enzyme that adds new nucleotides to a growing strand of RNA. This process builds a strand of mRNA.
Stage 3: Termination. At the end of the gene, a sequence of nucleotides called the terminator sequence causes the new RNA to fold up on itself. This fold causes the RNA to separate from the gene and from RNA polymerase, ending transcription.
Before the mRNA molecule leaves the nucleus and proceeds to protein synthesis, it is modified in a number of ways. For this reason, it is often called a pre-mRNA at this stage. For example, your DNA, and thus complementary mRNA, contains long regions called non-coding regions that do not code for amino acids. Their function is still a mystery, but the process called splicing removes these non-coding regions from the pre-mRNA transcript (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). A spliceosome —a structure composed of various proteins and other molecules—attaches to the mRNA and “splices” or cuts out the non-coding regions. The removed segment of the transcript is called an intron . The remaining exons are pasted together. An exon is a segment of RNA that remains after splicing. Interestingly, some introns that are removed from mRNA are not always non-coding. When different coding regions of mRNA are spliced out, different variations of the protein will eventually result, with differences in structure and function. This process results in a much larger variety of possible proteins and protein functions. When the mRNA transcript is ready, it travels out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm.
From RNA to Protein: Translation
Like translating a book from one language into another, the codons on a strand of mRNA must be translated into the amino acid alphabet of proteins. Translation is the process of synthesizing a chain of amino acids called a polypeptide . Translation requires two major aids: first, a “translator,” the molecule that will conduct the translation, and second, a substrate on which the mRNA strand is translated into a new protein, like the translator’s “desk.” Both of these requirements are fulfilled by other types of RNA. The substrate on which translation takes place is the ribosome.
Remember that many of a cell’s ribosomes are found associated with the rough ER, and carry out the synthesis of proteins destined for the Golgi apparatus. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of RNA that, together with proteins, composes the structure of the ribosome. Ribosomes exist in the cytoplasm as two distinct components, a small and a large subunit. When an mRNA molecule is ready to be translated, the two subunits come together and attach to the mRNA. The ribosome provides a substrate for translation, bringing together and aligning the mRNA molecule with the molecular “translators” that must decipher its code.
The other major requirement for protein synthesis is the translator molecules that physically “read” the mRNA codons. Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a type of RNA that ferries the appropriate corresponding amino acids to the ribosome, and attaches each new amino acid to the last, building the polypeptide chain one-by-one. Thus tRNA transfers specific amino acids from the cytoplasm to a growing polypeptide. The tRNA molecules must be able to recognize the codons on mRNA and match them with the correct amino acid. The tRNA is modified for this function. On one end of its structure is a binding site for a specific amino acid. On the other end is a base sequence that matches the codon specifying its particular amino acid. This sequence of three bases on the tRNA molecule is called an anticodon . For example, a tRNA responsible for shuttling the amino acid glycine contains a binding site for glycine on one end. On the other end it contains an anticodon that complements the glycine codon (GGA is a codon for glycine, and so the tRNAs anticodon would read CCU). Equipped with its particular cargo and matching anticodon, a tRNA molecule can read its recognized mRNA codon and bring the corresponding amino acid to the growing chain (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).
Much like the processes of DNA replication and transcription, translation consists of three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation takes place with the binding of a ribosome to an mRNA transcript. The elongation stage involves the recognition of a tRNA anticodon with the next mRNA codon in the sequence. Once the anticodon and codon sequences are bound (remember, they are complementary base pairs), the tRNA presents its amino acid cargo and the growing polypeptide strand is attached to this next amino acid. This attachment takes place with the assistance of various enzymes and requires energy. The tRNA molecule then releases the mRNA strand, the mRNA strand shifts one codon over in the ribosome, and the next appropriate tRNA arrives with its matching anticodon. This process continues until the final codon on the mRNA is reached which provides a “stop” message that signals termination of translation and triggers the release of the complete, newly synthesized protein. Thus, a gene within the DNA molecule is transcribed into mRNA, which is then translated into a protein product (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).
Commonly, an mRNA transcription will be translated simultaneously by several adjacent ribosomes. This increases the efficiency of protein synthesis. A single ribosome might translate an mRNA molecule in approximately one minute; so multiple ribosomes aboard a single transcript could produce multiple times the number of the same protein in the same minute. A polyribosome is a string of ribosomes translating a single mRNA strand.
Interactive Link
Watch this video to learn about ribosomes. The ribosome binds to the mRNA molecule to start translation of its code into a protein. What happens to the small and large ribosomal subunits at the end of translation?


3.3: Mural, Painting on Masonite
|
Mural, Painting on Masonite
Norwegian-American Olaf Colberson, 1928 Masonite, paint Little Norway Collection, Gift of Scott & Jennifer Winner MHAHS 2016.040.0001 |
Norwegian-trained painter Olaf “Ole” Colberson immigrated to Black Earth, Wisconsin. At one point in his life, he was committed to the Wisconsin Hospital for the Insane. He was later released by petitions from his Norwegian community of devoted friends. They provided him a new home and began purchasing his artwork. His talent was later recognized by Isaak Dahle who commissioned Colberson to adorn one of Little Norway’s buildings with a series of murals. Each mural depicts a quiet rural scene in the Norway home region of Dahle’s grandfather.
For a complete essay on this object, click here.
Olaf Colberson was a trained painter, who learned his trade in Norway before moving to the Midwest. “—not only a house painter, but an artist who created beautiful pictures.”[1] He is remembered best for his paintings that decorated the halls of Little Norway. Most of what can learned about Colberson comes from his funeral and wake, where his closest friends spoke about who he was as a person, his talents, and his family. Anne Sinley,[2] displayed the majority of what we can infer about his personal life in a touching eulogy. She provides information about his family, his time in Mendota mental hospital, information about his training, and his influence within the community.
She starts her letter by detailing how she came to meet the Colberson family, they were neighbors in Black Earth, Wisconsin, and because of their shared immigration experiences the families became friends. It was sometime after this move that Colberson’s life took an interesting turn.


8.8: Glossary
Abortion (ă-BOR-shŏn) (AB): The termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it is viable. (Chapter 8.4)
Amniocentesis (am-nē-ō-sen-TĒ-sĭs): A procedure that removes and tests amniotic fluid for fetal abnormalities. (Chapter 8.6)
Apgar score (AP-gar skōr): A quick test performed on a newborn baby at 1 and 5 minutes after birth to assess the baby’s heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, skin color, and reflexes. (Chapter 8.4)
Biophysical profile (BĪ-ō-FĬZ-ĭ-kăl PRO-fīl): Fetal well-being assessment combining nonstress test results and ultrasound findings. (Chapter 8.6)
Braxton-Hicks (BRAX-tŏn HIKS): Irregular, often painless contractions that occur throughout pregnancy, also known as false labor. (Chapter 8.4)
Breech (brēch): A fetal position where the buttocks or feet are positioned to be delivered first rather than the head. (Chapter 8.4)
Cephalic presentation (sĕ-FAL-ĭk prē-zen-TĀ-shŏn): The common childbirth position where the baby’s head comes out first. (Chapter 8.4)
Cephalic version (sĕ-FAL-ĭk VĔR-zhŏn): A procedure used to turn a fetus from a breech position or side-lying position into a head-down (cephalic) position before labor begins. (Chapter 8.4)
Cerclage (sĕr-KLĂZH): A procedure in which the cervix is stitched shut to prevent dilation and premature delivery. (Chapter 8.5)
Certified nurse-midwife (SĔR-tĭ-fīd NŬRS mĭd-wīf) (CNM): An advanced practice registered nurse who provides prenatal, delivery, postpartum and gynecological care. (Chapter 8.6)
Cesarean section (si-ZAR-ē-ăn SEK-shŏn) (C section): A surgical procedure in which one or more incisions are made through a mother’s abdomen (laparotomy) and uterus (hysterotomy) to deliver one or more babies. (Chapter 8.4)
Colostrum (kŏ-LOS-trŭm): A form of milk produced by the mammary glands of mammals in late pregnancy and the few days after giving birth. (Chapter 8.4)
Conception (kŏn-SEP-shŏn): The moment when a sperm cell successfully fertilizes an ovum, leading to the beginning of a pregnancy. (Chapter 8.4)
Congenital anomaly (kŏn-JĔN-ĭ-tăl ă-NOM-ă-lē): A structural, functional, or metabolic abnormality present at birth that can lead to physical or mental disabilities. (Chapter 8.5)
Contraction stress test (kŏn-TRAK-shŏn STRĒS test): A test that monitors the fetal heart rate in response to induced contractions. (Chapter 8.6)
Crowning (KROWN-ĭng): The appearance of the baby’s head at the vaginal opening during childbirth. (Chapter 8.4)
Deep vein thrombosis (dēp vān throm-BOH-sĭs) (DVT): The formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, predominantly in the legs, which can be a risk in pregnancy due to increased blood clotting. (Chapter 8.5)
Eclampsia (ĕ-KLAMP-sē-ă): A severe complication of preeclampsia, involving seizures or coma in the pregnant woman. (Chapter 8.5)
Ectopic pregnancy (ek-TOP-ik PREG-năn-sē): A pregnancy in which the fertilized egg implants outside the uterus, often in the Fallopian tube. (Chapter 8.4)
Egg retrieval (Ĕg rĭ-TREE-vəl): A minor surgery to collect mature eggs from the ovaries. (Chapter 8.6)
Embryo (EM-brē-ō): An organism in early stages of development, specifically from day 16 through week 8 of human pregnancy. (Chapter 8.4)
Embryo culture (ĔM-brē-ō Kŭl-chər): Maintaining and monitoring embryos until ready for transfer in IVF. (Chapter 8.6)
Embryo transfer (ĔM-brē-ō TRĂNS-fər): Placing embryos into the uterus in IVF. (Chapter 8.6)
Endometrium (en-dō-MĒ-trē-ŭm): The mucous membrane lining the uterus, which thickens during the menstrual cycle in preparation for possible implantation of an embryo. (Chapter 8.4)
Episiotomy (ĕp-ĭ-zē-OT-ŏ-mē): A surgical incision of the vulva to widen the vaginal opening to prevent ripping or tearing of the perineum during delivery. (Chapter 8.4)
Fertilization (fĕr-tĭ-lī-ZĀ-shŏn): The union of a male sperm cell and a female egg cell to form a zygote, initiating the development of a new individual. (Chapter 8.4, Chapter 8.6)
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FĒ-tăl AL-kŏ-hŏl SPEK-trŭm dĭs-ŎR-dĕrz) (FASD): The effects caused by maternal alcohol intake during pregnancy, ranging from physical, mental, and behavioral disabilities. (Chapter 8.5)
Fetal heart monitoring (FĒ-tăl HÄRT MON-ĭt-or-ing): Tracking the fetal heart rate during pregnancy and labor. (Chapter 8.6)
Fetus (FĒ-tŭs): A developing human from roughly the end of the eighth week after conception to the moment of birth. (Chapter 8.4)
Gestation (jĕs-TĀ-shŏn): The period of development of the fetus in the mother’s uterus, typically lasting from conception to birth. (Chapter 8.4)
Gestational diabetes (jĕs-TĀ-shŏn-ăl dī-ă-BĒ-tĭs): A form of diabetes that occurs only during pregnancy and usually resolves after delivery. (Chapter 8.5)
Gravida (GRĂV-ĭ-dă): A pregnant woman; often used in medical contexts to specify a woman’s number of pregnancies. (Chapter 8.4)
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hū-MĂN kor-ē-ON-ĭk gō-năd-ō-TRO-pin): A hormone produced during pregnancy by cells that will eventually form the placenta. (Chapter 8.4)
Hyperemesis gravidarum (HĪ-pĕr-ĕm-Ē-sĭs GRAV-ĭ-dar-ŭm): A severe form of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy that can lead to dehydration and weight loss. (Chapter 8.5)
Hypovolemia (hī-pō-vō-LĒ-mē-ă): A decrease in the volume of blood plasma, which can be a critical condition following postpartum hemorrhage. (Chapter 8.5)
In vitro fertilization (in VĪ-trō FĔR-tĭ-lĭ-ZĀ-shŏn) (IVF): An assisted reproductive technology in which eggs are fertilized outside the body and transferred to the uterus. (Chapter 8.6)
Induction (in-DŬK-shŏn): The process of artificially initiating childbirth by stimulating uterine contractions. (Chapter 8.4, Chapter 8.6)
Insemination (in-sem-ĭ-NĀ-shŏn): Mixing eggs with sperm in IVF. (Chapter 8.6)
Intrauterine fetal demise (ĬN-tră-YŪ-tə-rīn FĒT-ăl dĕ-MĪZ): Fetal death that occurs after 20 weeks of pregnancy. (Chapter 8.5)
Lactation (lăk-TĀ-shŏn): The secretion of milk by the mammary glands. (Chapter 8.4)
Lanugo (lă-NOO-gō): Fine, soft hair, especially that which covers the body and limbs of a human fetus or newborn. (Chapter 8.4)
Last menstrual period (last MEN-strū-ăl PĒ-rē-ŏd) (LMP): The first day of a woman’s last menstrual cycle, used as a marker to estimate the date of conception. (Chapter 8.4)
Lochia (LŌ-kē-ă): Vaginal discharge after giving birth (puerperium), containing blood, mucus, and uterine tissue. (Chapter 8.4)
Meconium (mē-KŌ-nē-ŭm): The first stool of a newborn. (Chapter 8.4)
Meconium aspiration (mĕ-KŌ-nē-ŭm AS-pĭ-RĀ-shŏn): A medical condition affecting newborns in which meconium is ingested into their lungs in utero. (Chapter 8.4)
Midwife (MĬD-wīf): An individual who practices midwifery. (Chapter 8.6)
Midwifery (mĭd-WIF-ĕr-ē): The practice of assisting women in childbirth. (Chapter 8.6)
Miscarriage (MĬS-kăr-ĭj): Loss of a fetus before the 20th week of pregnancy. (Chapter 8.5)
Mitosis (mī-TŌ-sĭs): A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus. (Chapter 8.4)
Multigravida (mŭl-tĭ-GRĂV-ĭ-dă): A woman who has been pregnant more than once. (Chapter 8.4)
Multipara (mŭl-TĬP-ă-ră): A woman who has given birth to more than one child. (Chapter 8.4)
Neonate (NĒ-ō-nāt): A newborn child, specifically within the first four weeks after birth. (Chapter 8.4)
Neonatologists (nē-ō-nă-TOL-ŏ-jĭsts): Physicians who specialize in the medical care of newborns. (Chapter 8.6)
Noninvasive prenatal testing (nŏn-ĭn-VĀ-sĭv prē-NĀ-tăl TĔS-tĭng): A blood test of the mother to determine risk of fetal genetic abnormalities. (Chapter 8.6)
Nonstress test (NŎN-strĕs tĕst): A test that monitors the fetal heart rate in response to fetal movement. (Chapter 8.6)
Nulligravida (nŭl-ĭ-GRĂV-ĭ-dă): A woman who has never been pregnant. (Chapter 8.4)
Obstetrician (ob-stĕ-TRISH-ăn): A physician who specializes in obstetrics (OB) and gynecology (GYN). (Chapter 8.6)
Obstetrics (ŏb-STE-triks) (OB): A medical specialty concerning care of the mother and fetus during pregnancy, childbirth, and immediately after childbirth. (Chapter 8.1, Chapter 8.6)
Oligohydramnios (ŏl-ĭg-ō-hī-DRĂM-nē-ōs): A condition in pregnancy characterized by a deficiency in amniotic fluid, which can compromise the fetus’s development. (Chapter 8.4)
Oogenesis (ō-ŏ-JEN-ĕ-sĭs): The process in female reproduction where ova (egg cells) are produced in the ovaries. (Chapter 8.4)
Oxytocin (ŏk-sē-TŌ-sĭn): A hormone that causes the uterus to contract during labor and stimulates the mammary glands to release milk. (Chapter 8.4)
Para (PĂR-ă): A term used in obstetrics to indicate the number of live births a woman has had. (Chapter 8.4)
Parturition (păr-tū-RĬSH-ŭn): The act of giving birth; the process of childbirth. (Chapter 8.4)
Pediatrician (pēd-ē-ă-TRISH-ăn): A doctor who focuses on the health of infants, children, and adolescents. (Chapter 8.6)
Pelvic sonography (PEL-vik sō-NOG-ră-fē): An ultrasound of the pelvic region, used during pregnancy to evaluate fetal growth and well-being. (Chapter 8.6)
Perineum (pĕr-ĭ-NĒ-ŭm): The area between the anus and the vulva in females, and between the anus and the scrotum in males. (Chapter 8.4)
Peripartum depression (pĕr-ĭ-PÄR-tŭm di-PRESH-ŭn): Depression that occurs during pregnancy or within four weeks of childbirth. (Chapter 8.4)
Placenta (plă-SEN-tă): An organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy, providing oxygen and nutrients to the growing baby and removing waste products. (Chapter 8.4)
Placenta abruptio (plă-SENT-ā ă-BRŬP-shē-ō): A condition in which the placenta separates from the wall of the uterus prematurely during pregnancy. (Chapter 8.4)
Placenta previa (plă-SENT-ā PRĒ-vē-ă): A condition in which the placenta covers the cervix, often leading to severe bleeding before or during delivery. (Chapter 8.4)
Postpartum (pōst-PÄR-tŭm): The period after childbirth when the mother’s body, including hormone levels and uterus size, returns to a pre-pregnancy state. (Chapter 8.4)
Postpartum hemorrhage (pōst-PÄR-tŭm HEM-ŏr-ij): Heavy bleeding after giving birth, which can be a serious complication. (Chapter 8.5)
Preeclampsia (prē-ĕ-KLAMP-sē-ă): A pregnancy complication characterized by high blood pressure and signs of damage to another organ system, often the kidneys. (Chapter 8.5)
Pregnancy-related death (PRĔG-năn-sē ri-LĀ-tĭd dĕth): The death of a woman during pregnancy, childbirth, or shortly after, due to complications from the pregnancy. (Chapter 8.5)
Premature infant (prē-mă-CHŪR IN-fănt): An infant born before completing 37 weeks of gestation. (Chapter 8.5)
Premature preterm rupture of membranes (prē-mă-CHŪR prē-tûrm RŬP-chĕr ŏv MEM-brānz) (PPROM): Rupture of the amniotic sac before 37 weeks of pregnancy. (Chapter 8.5)
Prenatal (prē-NĀT-ăl): Pertaining to the period before birth, during pregnancy. (Chapter 8.4)
Preterm labor (PRĒ-tûrm LĀ-bŏr): Labor occurring between 20 and 37 weeks of gestation. (Chapter 8.5)
Puerperium (pū-ĕr-PĒ-rē-ŭm): The period from delivery until the reproductive organs return to normal, approximately six weeks. (Chapter 8.6)
Quickening (KWĬK-ĕn-ĭng): The first feeling of movement of the fetus in utero, typically experienced by the mother around 16 to 20 weeks of pregnancy. (Chapter 8.4)
Stillbirth (STĬL-bûrth): Loss of a fetus after 20 weeks’ gestation, also called intrauterine fetal demise. (Chapter 8.5)
Stillborn (STIL-bōrn): The birth of a fetus that has died in the uterus, typically after surviving at least the first 28 weeks of pregnancy. (Chapter 8.4)
Stimulation (STĬM-yū-LĀ-shŏn): Also called superovulation, this therapy refers to administering fertility medication to boost egg production. (Chapter 8.6)
Teratogens (tĕr-AT-ŏ-jĕnz): Agents that cause malformations in a developing embryo, including alcohol, drugs, diseases, chemicals, and environmental exposures. (Chapter 8.4, Chapter 8.5)
Trimesters (TRĪ-mĕs-tĕrz): Three periods of approximately three months each, into which a typical pregnancy is divided for medical purposes. (Chapter 8.4)
Umbilical cord (ŭm-BĬL-ĭ-kăl kŏrd): A flexible cord-like structure containing blood vessels, connecting the fetus to the placenta. (Chapter 8.4)
Vernix (VĔR-nĭks): A greasy deposit covering the skin of a baby at birth. (Chapter 8.4)
Zygote (ZĪ-gōt): The initial cell formed when a sperm cell fertilizes an ovum, representing the earliest developmental stage of the embryo. (Chapter 8.4)


7.4: Roles and Responsibililites of Health Care Professionals
The second IPEC competency relates to the roles and responsibilities of health care professionals and states, “Use the knowledge of one’s own role and those of other professions to appropriately assess and address the health care needs of patients and to promote and advance the health of populations.” [1]
See the following box for the components of this competency. It is important to understand the roles and responsibilities of the other health care team members; recognize one’s limitations in skills, knowledge, and abilities; and ask for assistance when needed to provide quality, patient-centered care.
Components of IPEC’s Roles/Responsibilities Competency [2]
- Communicate one’s roles and responsibilities clearly to patients, families, community members, and other professionals.
- Recognize one’s limitations in skills, knowledge, and abilities.
- Engage with diverse professionals who complement one’s own professional expertise, as well as associated resources, to develop strategies to meet specific health and health care needs of patients and populations.
- Explain the roles and responsibilities of other providers and the manner in which the team works together to provide care, promote health, and prevent disease.
- Use the full scope of knowledge, skills, and abilities of professionals from health and other fields to provide care that is safe, timely, efficient, effective, and equitable.
- Communicate with team members to clarify each member’s responsibility in executing components of a treatment plan or public health intervention.
- Forge interdependent relationships with other professions within and outside of the health system to improve care and advance learning.
- Engage in continuous professional and interprofessional development to enhance team performance and collaboration.
- Use unique and complementary abilities of all members of the team to optimize health and patient care.
- Describe how professionals in health and other fields can collaborate and integrate clinical care and public health interventions to optimize population health.
Nurses communicate with several individuals during a typical shift. For example, during inpatient care, nurses may communicate with patients and their family members; pharmacists and pharmacy technicians; providers from different specialties; physical, speech, and occupational therapists; dietary aides; respiratory therapists; chaplains; social workers; case managers; nursing supervisors, charge nurses, and other staff nurses; assistive personnel; nursing students; nursing instructors; security guards; laboratory personnel; radiology and ultrasound technicians; and surgical team members. Providing holistic, quality, safe, and effective care means every team member taking care of patients must work collaboratively and understand the knowledge, skills, and scope of practice of the other team members. Table 7.4 provides examples of the roles and responsibilities of common health care team members that nurses frequently work with when providing patient care. To fully understand the roles and responsibilities of the multiple members of the complex health care delivery system, it is beneficial to spend time shadowing those within these roles.
| Member | Role/Responsibilities |
|---|---|
| Assistive Personnel (e.g., certified nursing assistants [CNA], patient-care technicians [PCT], certified medical assistants [CMA], certified medication aides, and home health aides) | Work under the direct supervision of the RN. (Read more about Assistive Personnel (AP) in the “ Delegation and Supervision ” chapter.) |
| Licensed Practical/Vocational Nurses (LPN/VN) | Assist the RN by performing routine, basic nursing care with predictable outcomes. (Read more details in the “ Delegation and Supervision ” chapter.) |
| Registered Nurses (RN) | Use the nursing process to assess, diagnose, identify expected outcomes, plan and implement interventions, and evaluate care according to the Nurse Practice Act of the state they are employed. |
| Charge Nurses or Nursing Supervisors | Supervise members of the nursing team and overall patient care on the unit (or organization) to ensure quality, safe care is delivered. |
| Directors of Nursing (DON), Chief Nursing Officer (CNO), or Vice President of Patient Services | Ensure federal and state regulations and standards are being followed and are accountable for all aspects of patient care. |
| Clinical Nurse Specialist (CNS) | Practice in a variety of health care environments and participate in mentoring other nurses, case management, research, designing and conducting quality improvement programs, and serving as educators and consultants. |
| Nurse Practitioners (NP) or Advanced Practice Registered Nurses (APRN) | Work in a variety of settings and complete physical examinations, diagnose and treat common acute illness, manage chronic illness, order laboratory and diagnostic tests, prescribe medications and other therapies, provide health teaching and supportive counseling with an emphasis on prevention of illness and health maintenance, and refer clients to other health professionals and specialists as needed. NPs have advanced knowledge with a graduate degree and national certification. |
| Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetists (CRNA) | Administer anesthesia and related care before, during, and after surgical, therapeutic, diagnostic, and obstetrical procedures, as well as provide airway management during medical emergencies. |
| Certified Nurse Midwives (CNM) | Provide gynecological exams, family planning guidance, prenatal care, management of low-risk labor and delivery, and neonatal care. |
| Medical Doctors (MD) | Licensed providers who diagnose, treat, and direct medical care. There are many types of physician specialists such as surgeons, pulmonologists, neurologists, cardiologists, nephrologists, pediatricians, and ophthalmologists. |
| Physician Assistants (PA) | Work under the direct supervision of a medical doctor as licensed and certified professionals following protocols based on the state in which they practice. |
| Doctors of Osteopathy (DO) | Licensed providers similar to medical physicians but with different educational preparation and licensing exams. They provide care, prescribe, and can perform surgeries. |
| Dieticians | Assess, plan, implement, and evaluate interventions related to specific dietary needs of clients, including regular or therapeutic diets. Formulate diets for clients with dysphagia or other physical disorders and provide dietary education such as diabetes education. |
| Physical Therapists (PT) | Develop and implement a plan of care as a licensed professional for clients with dysfunctional physical abilities, including joints, strength, mobility, gait, balance, and coordination. |
| Occupational Therapists (OT) | Plan, provide, and evaluate care for clients with dysfunction affecting their independence and ability to complete activities of daily living (ADLs). Assist clients in using adaptive devices to reach optimal levels of functioning and provide home safety assessments. |
| Speech Therapists (ST) | Develop and initiate a plan of care for clients diagnosed with communication and swallowing disorders. |
| Respiratory Therapists (RT) | Specialize in treating clients with respiratory disorders or conditions in collaboration with providers. Provide treatments such as CPAP, BiPAP, respiratory treatments and medications like aerosol nebulizers, chest physiotherapy, and postural drainage. They also intubate clients, assist with bronchoscopies, manage mechanical ventilation, and perform pulmonary function tests. |
| Social Workers (SW) | Provide a liaison between the community and the health care setting to ensure continuity of care after discharge. Assist clients with establishing community resources, health insurance, and advance directives. |
| Psychologists and Psychiatrists | Provide mental health services to clients in both acute and long-term settings. As physician specialists, psychiatrists prescribe medications and perform other medical treatments for mental health disorders. Psychologists focus on counseling. |
| Nurse Case Managers or Discharge Planners | Ensure clients are provided with effective and efficient medical care and services, during inpatient care and post-discharge, while also managing the cost of these services. |
The coordination and delivery of safe, quality patient care demands reliable teamwork and collaboration across the organizational and community boundaries. Clients often have multiple visits across multiple providers working in different organizations. Communication failures between health care settings, departments, and team members is the leading cause of patient harm. [3] The health care system is becoming increasingly complex requiring collaboration among diverse health care team members.
The goal of good interprofessional collaboration is improved patient outcomes, as well as increased job satisfaction of health care team professionals. Patients receiving care with poor teamwork are almost five times as likely to experience complications or death. Hospitals in which staff report higher levels of teamwork have lower rates of workplace injuries and illness, fewer incidents of workplace harassment and violence, and lower turnover. [4]
Valuing and understanding the roles of team members are important steps toward establishing good interprofessional teamwork. Another step is learning how to effectively communicate with interprofessional team members.
- Interprofessional Education Collaborative. IPEC core competencies. https://www.ipecollaborative.org/ipec-core-competencies ↵
- Interprofessional Education Collaborative. IPEC core competencies. https://www.ipecollaborative.org/ipec-core-competencies ↵
- Rosen, M. A., DiazGranados, D., Dietz, A. S., Benishek, L. E., Thompson, D., Pronovost, P. J., & Weaver, S. J. (2018). Teamwork in healthcare: Key discoveries enabling safer, high-quality care. The American Psychologist, 73 (4), 433-450. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000298 ↵
- Rosen, M. A., DiazGranados, D., Dietz, A. S., Benishek, L. E., Thompson, D., Pronovost, P. J., & Weaver, S. J. (2018). Teamwork in healthcare: Key discoveries enabling safer, high-quality care. The American Psychologist, 73 (4), 433-450. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000298 ↵


3.1: Why It Matters- Rocks and the Rock Cycle
Identify processes of the rock cycle and the different rock types associated with each step.
Introduction
In this section we will learn about the rock cycle and the different types of rocks. Please watch this short video for an introduction:
As you can see, the rock cycle is never ending. The video explained how rocks change from one rock type to another, and—just as important—it showed the processes that cause those changes.
Learning the rock cycle and understanding the processes involved helps all of us. For example, you saw in the video how all rocks are eroded into fine particles. This is how soil forms, through the breakdown of rocks. We need soil to survive—imagine trying to grow vegetables without it. This is an immediate connection to the food chain. The rock cycle also gives scientists and engineers an idea on where energy sources (mainly fossil fuels, which are found only in sedimentary rock) and building materials such as marble or granite may be located. We will see throughout the course how this cycle plays into just about every aspect of geology.
Here’s a visual representation of the rock cycle:
As you continue through the module, refer back to this image. Remember that all the processes of the rock cycle are interconnected.
Learning Outcomes
- Identify igneous rocks and the steps of the rock cycle related to their formation.
- Identify sedimentary rocks and the steps of the rock cycle related to their formation.
- Identify metamorphic rocks and the steps of the rock cycle related to their formation.
Contributors and Attributions
- Authored by : Kimberly Schulte and Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- 4.1: Types of Rocks. Provided by : CK-12. Located at : http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Earth-Science-For-High-School/section/4.1/ . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
- Rocks. Authored by : sciencemadefun. Located at : https://youtu.be/G7AWGhQynTY . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License


5.3: Ballads
The term ballad has been around for a long time, but it has meant different things in different times and places. The term comes from the French word meaning “to dance,” for medieval French ballads were in fact dance songs. Today, we think of a ballad as being a slow, romantic song. That meaning of the term, however, dates only from the late 19th century. For most of history, a ballad has been some variety of lengthy song that tells a story. Ballad traditions of this sort are found across Europe and in North Africa, the United States, and Australia.
Here, we will examine three disparate musical examples that all, nonetheless, qualify as ballads in this sense. Our first example will be the most traditional, insofar as it has been passed down by means of oral tradition for many generations and exists in various versions on either side of the Atlantic. Our second example will be an adaptation of the folk ballad tradition by a 19th century European composer, and our third will be a recent ballad composed by an American singer. All three of these ballads tell stories, but each uses music in a different way.


5.8: Discussion
Over coffee, today's conversation was enthusiastic and heated at times. Zori got things off with a blast “I don't think graphs are of any use at all…” but she wasn't even able to finish the sentence before Yolanda uncharacteristically interrupted her with “You're off base on this one. I see lots of ways graphs can be used to model real world problems. The professor actually showed us examples back in our first class. But now that we're talking in more depth about graphs, things are even clearer.” Bob added, “These eulerian and hamiltonian cycle problems are certain to have applications in network routing problems.” Xing reinforced Bob with “Absolutely. There are important questions in network integrity and information exchange that are very much the same as these basic problems.” Alice piled on “Even the notion of chromatic number clearly has practical applications.” By this time, Zori realized her position was indefensible but she was reluctant to admit it. She offered only a “Whatever.”
Things quieted down a bit and Dave said “Finding a hamiltonian cycle can't be all that hard, if someone guarantees that there is one. This extra information must be of value in the search.” Xing added “Maybe so. It seems natural that it should be easier to find something if you know it's there.” Alice asked “Does the same thing hold for chromatic number?” Bob didn't understand her question “Huh?” Alice continued, this time being careful not to even look Bob's way “I mean if someone tells you that a graph is 3-colorable, does that help you to find a coloring using only three colors?” Dave said “Seems reasonable to me.”
After a brief pause, Carlos offered “I don't think this extra knowledge is of any help. I think these problems are pretty hard, regardless.” They went back and forth for a while, but in the end, the only thing that was completely clear is that graphs and their properties had captured their attention, at least for now.


2.3: Model Organisms Facilitate Genetic Advances
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
- Princess Gilbert
- Monterey Peninsula College
Model organisms
Many of the great advances in genetics were made using species that are not especially important from a medical, economic, or even ecological perspective. Geneticists, from Mendel onwards, have sought the best organisms for their experiments. Today, a small number of species are widely used as model organisms in genetics (Fig 1.17). All of these species have specific characteristics that make large number of them easy to grow and analyze in laboratories: (1) they are small, (2) fast growing with a short generation time, (3) produce lots of progeny from matings that can be easily controlled, (4) have small genomes (small C-value), and (5) are diploid (i.e. chromosomes are present in pairs).
The most commonly used model organism are:
- The prokaryote bacterium, Escherichia coli, is the simplest genetic model organism and is often used to clone DNA sequences from other model species.
- Yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) is a good general model for the basic functions of eukaryotic cells.
- The roundworm, Caenorhabditis elegans is a useful model for the development of multicellular organisms, in part because it is transparent throughout its life cycle, and its cells undergo a well-characterized series of divisions to produce the adult body.
- The fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster ) has been studied longer, and probably in more detail, than any of the other genetic model organisms still in use, and is a useful model for studying development as well as physiology and even behavior.
- The mouse ( Mus musculus ) is the model organism most closely related to humans, however there are some practical difficulties working with mice, such as cost, slow reproductive time, and ethical considerations.
- The zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) has more recently been developed by researchers as a genetic model for vertebrates.Unlike mice, zebrafish embryos develop quickly and externally to their mothers, and are transparent, making it easier to study the development of internal structures and organs.
- Finally, a small weed, Arabidopsis thaliana , is the most widely studied plant genetic model organism. This provides knowledge that can be applied to other plant species, such as wheat, rice, and corn.


1.2: Water Chemistry and Standards
Learning Objectives
After reading the chapter the student should be able to identify:
- Matter, elements, and compounds
- Public water systems: community and non-community
- Primary and secondary standards
- Water treatment violations
- Volume math problems
Water treatment is a complex process that involves parts that the human eye cannot see. In this chapter, you will learn about the basic scientific principals related to the water treatment. We will also discuss drinking water standards in the United States and different community standards.
Matter, Elements, and Compounds
Matter
The smallest parts of an element are comprised of particles known as atoms. Even though they are so small, atoms still retain the characteristics of the element. Even with technological advancements, microscopes are still unable to capture atoms. The multiple arrangements of atoms make each element unique. The atom ever so small, is comprised of three particles known as the proton, neutron, and electron. Each particle is associated by different charges.
- Proton-positive
- Neutron-no charge
- Electron- Negative charge
The defining characteristic of an atom is identified by the proton. The proton, located in the nucleus, has a distinctive number. For example, carbon has six protons located in the nucleus. No other element has six protons in the nucleus. The number of protons is represented as the atomic number. The atomic weight is the number of protons and neutrons. The number of protons that exist for a given element is always the same, but the number of neutrons can vary. When there is a varying number of neutrons of a given element, it is known as an isotope. When an atom has a difference in electrons, it is called an ion. When the charges of the atom are not balanced, they become unstable. An atom that has more protons than neutrons is called a cation. An atom that has more electrons than protons is called an anion.
Most common elements in the water treatment profession:
- Aluminum (Al)
- Antimony (Sb)
- Arsenic (As)
- Barium (Ba)
- Beryllium (Be)
- Boron (B)
- Bromine (Br)
- Cadmium (Cd)
- Calcium (Ca)
- Carbon (C)
- Chlorine (Cl)
- Chromium (Cr)
- Copper (Cu)
- Fluorine (F)
- Hydrogen (H)
- Iodine (I)
- Iron (I)
- Lead (Pb)
- Magnesium (Mg)
- Manganese (Mn)
- Mercury (Mn)
- Nickel (Ni)
- Nitrogen (N)
- Oxygen (O)
- Phosphorus (P)
- Potassium (K)
- Radium (Ra)
- Selenium (Se)
- Silicon (Si)
- Silver (Ag)
- Sodium (Na)
- Strontium (Sr)
- Sulfur (S)
- Thallium (Tl)
There are elements that are pure in form, such as oxygen. Since elements are unstable, they often combine with other elements to form compounds. Water (H 2 O), for example, is a compound. It is a combination of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. A compound is two or more elements that are bonded together due to their attraction by reverse charges. The combining elements form a molecule. When two chemicals are mixed together without a chemical reaction it is called a mixture. The difference between a mixture and a compound is bonded together by a chemical reaction. A good example of a mixture is saltwater. The salt can be removed from the water through distillation. Water chemistry will be covered in greater detail in the Water Quality text and course.
Drinking Water Standards
The first drinking water standards created in the United States occurred in 1974 and were called the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). The US EPA sets drinking Water Standards that all Water Municipalities must adhere to. Although States are able to come up with their own Standards, they must meet the minimum requirements set forth by the federal EPA. In California, drinking water standards are much more stringent than the federal requirements and therefore have primacy. As of 2014, the State regulatory group responsible for drinking water is the State Water Resources Control Board. Revisions to the safe drinking water act include approval techniques for treatment plants, specifying criteria for filtration of public water supplies, distinguishing different treatment techniques for surface and groundwater, and prohibiting lead products in drinking water systems. There are two sets of drinking water Standards identified as primary standards and secondary standards. Primary Standards affect human health and are mandated with Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL). The MCL is the official safe level at which a human can consume the given contaminant without adverse health effects. Secondary Standards do not affect human health and are controlled with Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLG). When a contaminant is reported, there is no such thing as zero. Levels are set to protect human health but are also set based on the best available technology. As technology improves MCL’s may be reexamined. Instrumentation to measure contaminant levels are not always capable of reading to absolute zero. Because of this, a Detection level for reporting is required.
Public Water Systems
There are three different categories of public water systems:
- Community Public Water System: A community public water system has 15 or more service connections and serves at least 25 or more people year-round. These would include municipalities, mobile home parks, condos, and apartment buildings.
- Nontransient, NonCommunity System: A nontransient, NonCommunity public water system owns its own system and serves an average of 25 people for at least six months. Schools, hospitals, and office buildings are included in this category.
- Transient, NonCommunity System: A transient, NonCommunity public water system owns their own water system and serves an average of 25 people per day. In this category people consume the water for a short period of time. This category includes churches, parks, restaurants, and motels.
Primary Drinking Water Standards are split into five categories. The categories include Inorganics, Organics, Turbidity, Microbiological, and Radiological.
- Inorganics: Metals, Nitrate, and Fluoride
- Organics: Pesticides, solvents, and Disinfectant byproducts (DBP’s)—The combination of Chlorine and natural organic material. This topic will be discussed in greater detail later in the text.
- Turbidity: The cloudiness of the water. Turbidity has the ability to shield microbiological material.
- Microbiological: Coliform testing (This will be covered in greater detail later in the text. Water operators do not test for specific microbiological agents. We test for the indicator organism coliform. They colonize in greater numbers so if a sample comes back positive there is a greater likelihood of fecal contamination.)
- Radiological: Gross alpha, beta, and radon
Secondary drinking water standards are solely based on the aesthetic quality of drinking water. The main focus of secondary standards is taste, odor, and color. A glass of water that smells like fish and is orange in color may be “safe” to drink but wouldn’t be well received or readily consumed. California, as well as some other states, has endorsable secondary standards.
|
Contaminant/characteristic |
Recommended level |
|---|---|
|
Aluminum |
0.05 to 0.2 mg/L |
|
Chloride |
250 mg/L |
|
Color |
15 color units |
|
Copper |
1 mg/L |
|
Corrosivity |
Non-corrosive |
|
Fluoride |
2 mg/L |
|
Foaming agents |
0.5 mg/L |
|
Iron |
0.3 mg/L |
|
Manganese |
0.05 mg/L |
|
Odor |
3 threshold odor number |
|
pH |
6.5 to 8.5 |
|
Silver |
0.10 mg/L |
|
Sulfate |
250 mg/L |
|
Total dissolved solids |
500 mg/L |
|
Zinc |
5 mg/L |
Source: Graph by the EPA is in the public domain
Public Notification
In the event that a treatment plant does not meet requirements of the SDWA, the public must be notified. There are three different tiers of notification with tier I being the worst of violations and tier III being the least. The EPA provides very specific language for public notifications in the event of a violation. Violating a SDWA compliance is bad enough, but failing to report violations brings even stiffer penalties and fines. In 2014 in Flint Michigan 15 people were criminally charged due to their negligence in the water treatment profession. It all started when the city of Flint changed their source water without properly testing. Officials knew the water was not safe to drink and numerous violations had been made. The public was not properly informed of these violations which resulted in 10 deaths and 77 others becoming severely ill. It is something that is rarely discussed because people in industrialized countries never really worry about the quality of their drinking water. The most important thing you can do as an operator is say something if there appears to be a problem with the quality of the drinking water. Otherwise, you may end up in jail. Notification options include radio or television announcements, newspapers, hand delivery, posting in public places, loudspeakers, texting, and reverse 911. The notification will vary based on the severity of the violation.
Violations
Tier I
- Any positive fecal coliform positive test and failure to sample after an initial positive test
- Nitrate or Nitrite violation
- Chlorine Dioxide Maximum residual disinfection limit
- Exceed treatment plants allowable turbidity level. Can be a tier II if the primacy agency does not elevate violation.
- Waterborne emergency or outbreak of waterborne illness
Tier II
- MCL, MRDL and, Treatment Technique (TT) violations if treatment plant does not perform corrective actions to fix issues in treatment plant or fails to inform public.
- Water quality monitoring violation—not taking required water quality samples. Can also be a tier III violation but can be elevated for gross negligence
- Noncompliance of a variance or an exemption
Tier III
- Water testing and monitoring violation
- Any time the treatment system is running under a variance or exception. Primacy agency may give a treatment plant a variance or exemption for a short period of time. The public notification is to inform the public that a water agency is not running in accordance with an approved treatment technique. It doesn’t mean the water is unsafe to drink, but the operating manuals are very specific.
Water Quality monitoring
Continuous monitoring of drinking water ensures quality; reliable drinking water is being delivered to the public. The number of samples taken, frequency of sampling, sampling location, testing procedures, and requirements for record-keeping are all specified by state and federal requirements. If sampling requirements are not met, it can lead to public notification. The tier violation is based on the contaminant and whether or not the contaminant causes acute health effects.
The type of monitoring is based on the source of the water, the treatment technique, and the size of the system. Reporting and record keeping is based on the primacy agency’s regulations. The state regulations must meet federal requirements at a minimum but may be more stringent as is the case in California.
Record Keeping
Below is a list of records that must be kept and the amount of time the records must be retained on file.
- Bacteriological and Turbidity—5 years
- Chemical analysis—10 years
- Corrective actions from violations—3 years
- Sanitary surveys—10 years
- Exemptions—5 years after expiration
Variances and Exemptions
In the event a water system is unable to meet a MCL because of the source water, a primacy agency can grant a variance or exemption. The variance is only given when the agency has incorporated the best available technology and there is zero risk to public health. In the case of Flint Michigan, the new source water was not properly tested before it was used in the system. Flint Water plant was unable to properly treat the source water which had elevated levels of lead and the City was not using the best available technology. Even if the City of Flint would have applied for a variance or exemption, it would not have been granted because the lead levels in the water create a significant risk to public health.
In future chapters of the text, we will examine regulations added to the SDWA. Several changes and enhancements have been made since the exception of the original legislation. We will discuss in greater detail the Total Coliform Rule, Surface Treatment Water Rule, Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, Lead and Copper Rule, Ground Water Rule, and Stage 1 &2 Disinfectant Bi-Product Rule.
Volume
Volume calculations will become very common for water treatment operators. Operators use volume calculations to solve math questions with circles, triangles, and rectangles. If you look around a water treatment facility, it is full of geometric shapes. Tanks can be cylindrical or rectangular in nature. Settling ponds may have a triangular nature to them. The basic volume questions will become more involved later on in the text as you may have to solve a volume question first, and then solve a flow-related question.
|
Cylinder
|
Volume = 0.785 × D2 × H |
|
Rectangle
|
Volume = L × W × H |
|
Trapezoid
|
Volume = × H × L |
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
What is the volume of a cubed tank that is 10 feet high? (Remember cubes have the same unit of length on all three sides. This is the easiest problem to solve.)
|
|
Volume = Length × Width × Height Volume (ft 3 ) = 10ft × 10ft × 10ft Answer is 1,000 ft 3 |
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
What is the volume of a rectangular tank that is 20 ft. high, 10 ft wide, and 7ft in length?
|
|
Volume= Length × Width × Height Volume= 7ft × 10ft × 20ft Answer is 1,400ft 3 |
There are two different ways to solve cylindrical math problems. The easiest formula to use is volume= .785 d 2 H. This formula is easiest because in water math we are generally looking at the diameter of a cylindrical shape and not the radius. The radius of a circle is half the diameter. It is a straight line measured from the center of the circle to the edge of the circle. The diameter is a straight line that passes through the center of the circle with endpoints on the circle.
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)
What is the volume of a storage tank that measures 40 ft. in diameter and is 20 ft. deep?
|
|
Volume= .785 × d 2 × H Volume= .785× 40ft × 40ft × 20ft Answer is 25,120ft 3 |
Often the water math word problems will require multiple steps to solve. Typically, we want to know how many gallons a given tank will hold. Once we find the volume of the tank in cubic feet, we will then convert the cubic feet into gallons.
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Convert the answer from Example \(\PageIndex{3}\) into gallons.
25,120 ft³ x 17.48 gal x 1 ft³ = 187,898 gal x 1
Answer: 187,898 gallons
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\)
A rectangular water tank is full. The dimensions are 30ft high 12ft wide and a length of 10 ft. Convert to gallons.
|
|
Volume= 10ft x 12ft x 30 ft Volume= 3,600ft 3 3,600 ft³ x 17.48 gal x 1 ft³ = 26,928 gal x 1 Answer: 26,928 gallons |
Example \(\PageIndex{5}\)
A cylindrical storage tank has a diameter of 50ft and a height of 30ft. The tank is half full. How many gallons are in the tank?
|
|
Volume= .785 x 50ft x 50ft x 15ft Volume= 29,437.5 rounded to 29,438ft 3 29,438 ft³ x 17.48 gal x 1 ft³ = 220,196 gal x 1 Answer: 220,196 gallons |
Chapter Review
-
The smallest part of an element is known as ___________.
- Proton
- Neutron
- Atom
- Nucleus
-
The atomic weight is comprised of ___________.
- Neutrons and electrons
- Protons and neutrons
- Nucleus and neutrons
- Atom and nucleus
-
An atom with a negative charge is known as ___________.
- Proton
- Neutron
- Nucleus
- Electron
-
What does the symbol mg/L stand for?
- Micrograms per liter
- Milligrams per/L
- parts per million
- Both 2 and 3
-
What does the acronym MCL stand for?
- Minimum contaminant level
- Micron contaminant level
- Maximum contaminant Level
- Milligrams counted last
-
How long do sanitary surveys have to be retained for records?
- 3 years
- 5 years
- 7 years
- 10 years
-
The most severe water system violation that requires the fastest public notification is ___________.
- Tier I
- Tier II
- Tier III
- Tier IV
-
The primacy agency may grant a variance or exemption as long as ___________.
- The agency is using the Best Available Technology
- There is no threat to public health
- There is never a scenario for a variance or exemption
- Both 1 and 2
-
A public water system that serves at least 25 people six months out of the year is known as ___________.
- Nontransient noncommunity
- Transient noncommunity
- Community public water system
- None of the above
-
Regulations based on the aesthetic quality of drinking water are known as ___________.
- Primary Standards
- Secondary Standards
- Microbiological Standards
- Radiological Standards
-
The lowest reportable limit for a water sample is ___________.
- 0.5 mg/L
- Zero
- Public health goal
- Detection Level for reporting
-
Primary Standards are based on ___________
- Color and Taste
- Aesthetic quality
- Public Health
- Odor
-
A circular clearwell is 150 feet in diameter and 40 feet tall. The Clearwell has an overflow at 35 feet. What is the maximum amount of water the clearwell can hold in Million gallons rounded to the nearest hundredth?
- MG
- 4.62 MG
- 18.50 MG
- 7.50 MG
-
A sedimentation basin is 400 feet length, 50 feet in width, and 15 feet deep. What is the volume expressed in cubic feet?
- 100,000 ft³
- 200,000 ft³
- 300,000 ft³
- 400,000 ft³
-
A clearwell holds 314,000 ft³ of water. It is 100 ft in diameter. What is the height of the clearwell?
- 25 ft
- 30 ft
- 35 ft
- 40 ft