9.11G: Double-Stranded DNA Viruses - Pox Viruses
- Examine pox viruses for their relevance to human disease and research
The poxviruses are a family of large, complex, enveloped DNA viruses that infect a variety of vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Poxviruses are of significance both medically and scientifically due to their wide distribution, pathogenicity, and cytoplasmic replicative life cycle. Several prominent members, including variola virus (causative agent of smallpox), molluscum contagiosum virus (cause of a common skin infection of young children and immunosuppressed adults) and monkeypox virus (agent of a smallpox-like disease in parts of Africa), are of considerable concern for public health and biodefense.
The most famous of the poxviruses was smallpox. Smallpox was an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning “spotted,” or varus, meaning “pimple. ” The term “smallpox” was first used in Britain in the 15 th century to distinguish variola from the “great pox” (syphilis). The last naturally occurring case of smallpox (Variola minor) was diagnosed on October 26, 1977. After vaccination campaigns throughout the 19 th and 20 th centuries, the World Health Organization (WHO) certified the eradication of smallpox in 1979. Smallpox is one of two infectious diseases to have been eradicated, the other being rinderpest, which was declared eradicated in 2011.
The prototypic and most studied poxvirus, vaccinia virus (VACV), serves as an effective smallpox vaccine, a platform for recombinant vaccines against other pathogens, and an efficient gene expression vector for basic research. Along its approximate 195-kbp double-stranded DNA genome, VACV encodes approximately 200 proteins, ranging in function from viral RNA and DNA synthesis and virion assembly to modulation of host immune defenses.
The most abundant and simplest infectious form of the poxvirus particle, the mature virion (MV), consists of the viral DNA genome encased in a proteinaceous core and an outer lipoprotein membrane with approximately 60 and 25 associated viral proteins, respectively. Following attachment to cell surfaces and fusion with the plasma or endosomal membrane, poxvirus replication is initiated by entry of the viral core into the cytoplasm, where all subsequent steps of the life cycle take place. Poxvirus cores harbor the viral DNA-dependent RNA polymerase and transcription factors necessary for expression of early genes, which constitute nearly half of the viral genome and encode proteins needed for DNA replication and intermediate gene transcription, as well as a large number of immunomodulators.
Poxviruses exhibit a temporally-regulated gene expression program, i.e., expression of early genes encoding DNA replication and intermediate transcription factors triggers the expression of intermediate genes encoding late gene specific transcription factors. Late gene products primarily consist of structural proteins needed for progeny virion assembly, as well as those enzymes destined for incorporation into progeny virions, and used for early gene expression during the next round of infection. Assembly of the MV involves more than 80 viral gene products. In addition, during transit through the cytoplasm, a subset of progeny MVs acquires two additional membrane bilayers, one of which is lost during exocytosis of the particle, to yield the less abundant enveloped virion (EV). Thus, an EV is essentially an MV with an additional membrane in which at least six unique proteins are associated. EVs are antigenically distinct from MVs and are important for efficient virus dissemination in the infected host and protection against immune defenses. In contrast, MVs are released upon cell lysis and may be important for animal-to-animal transmission.
Key Points
- The most famous of the poxviruses was smallpox. Smallpox is one of two infectious diseases to have been eradicated, the other being rinderpest, which was declared eradicated in 2011.
- The most abundant and simplest infectious form of the poxvirus particle, the mature virion, consists of the viral DNA genome encased in a proteinaceous core and an outer lipoprotein membrane.
- Poxviruses exhibit a temporally-regulated gene expression program: early, intermediate, and late genes drive DNA replication followed by expression of structural proteins necessary for progeny virion assembly.
Key Terms
- recombinant : This term refers to something formed by combining existing elements in a new combination. Thus, the phrase recombinant DNA refers to an organism created in the lab by adding DNA from another species.
- lipoprotein : Any of a large group of complexes of protein and lipid with many biochemical functions.


4.3: Solving Linear Inequalities
Linear equations have just one solution. Linear inequalities have infinitely many solutions, requiring intervals to express solutions. Let’s compare:
| Linear Equation | Linear Inequality |
|---|---|
| \(\begin{array} &4b − 3 &= 5 \\ 4b − 3 + 3 &= 5 + 3 \\ 4b &= 8 \\ b &= 2 \end{array}\) | \(\begin{array} &4b − 3 &> 5 \\ 4b − 3 + 3 &> 5 + 3 \\ 4b &> 8 \\ b &> 2 \end{array}\) |
| Solutions set: \(b = \{2\}\) | Solution set: \(\{b| b > 2\}\) or Interval \((2, ∞)\) |
Set-builder Notation: To express solutions using set notation, the curly-brackets are used.
The condition of the set is descriptive. The inequality describes the condition. A number must meet the condition to qualify as a solution.
In this case, all numbers larger than two qualify as solutions, and those numbers belong to the solution set.
Although addition and subtraction properties of inequality are the same for inequalities as they are for equalities, multiplication and division properties differ when multiplying or dividing by a negative. Dividing or multiplying both sides of an inequality by a negative reverses the inequality sign.
Solve the inequality and graph the solution set. State the answer in both set builder notation and in interval notation.
\(−6x − 5 ≥ 13\)
Solution
\(\begin{array} &&-6x-5 \geq 13 &\text{Add \(5\) to each side} \\ &-6x \geq 18 &\\ &\dfrac{-6x}{-6} \leq \dfrac{18}{-6}&\text{Dividing by a negative reverses the inequality} \\ &x \leq -3& \end{array}\)
Answers:
Set Builder Notation: \(\{x| x ≤ −3\}\)
Interval Notation: \((−∞, −3]\)
Graph:
Solve the inequality and graph the solution set. State the answer in both set builder notation and in interval notation.
\(10 − (2y + 1) ≤ −4(3y + 2) − 3\)
Solution
Stay vigilant for any step in the solution where you multiply both sides by a negative or divide both sides by a negative. Otherwise, solve the inequality in the same manner you solve equalities.
\(\begin{array} & &10 − 2y − 1 ≤ −12y − 8 − 3 &\text{Simplify each side by clearing parentheses.}\\ & −2y+ 9 ≤ −12y − 11 &\text{Simplify each side by combining like terms.}\\ & −2y + 12y + 9 ≤ −12y + 12y + (−11)&\text{Add \(12y\) to both sides. }\\ &10y + 9 ≤ −11 &\text{Simplify by combining like terms.}\\ &10y + 9 − 9 ≤ −11 − 9 &\text{Subtract \(9\) to both sides.}\\ &10y ≤ −20 &\text{Simplify}\\ &\left. \begin{array}{ll} \dfrac{10y}{10} \leq -\dfrac{20}{10}\\ \;\;y \leq -2 \end{array} \right\} \text{ Dividing by a positive} &\text{The inequality is not reversed.} \end{array}\)
Answers:
Set Builder Notation: \(\{y| y ≤ −2\}\)
Interval Notation: \((−∞, −2]\)
Graph:
Taking Different Steps Should Lead to the Same Answer
In many cases, arriving at an answer can come from different paths! No matter the path, if the math performed along the way is sound, the answer should be the same.
Solve the inequality for \(w\): \(6w − 7 < 9w + 5\)
Solution
\(\begin{array} &&\text{Method #}1 && \text{Method #}2 \\ &6w − 7 < 9w + 5 && 6w − 7 < 9w + 5 \\
&6w − 6q − 7 < 9q − 6q + 5 &\textcolor{red}{\longleftarrow\text{Compare these steps!}\longrightarrow} & 6w − 9w − 7 < 9w − 9w + 5 \\ &−7 < 3w + 5 && −3w − 7 < 5 \\ &−7 − 5 < 3w + 5 − 5 && −3w − 7 + 7 < 5 + 7 \\ &−12 < 3w && −3w < 12 \\ &\dfrac{-12}{3} < \dfrac{3w}{3} &\textcolor{red}{\longleftarrow\text{Compare these steps!}\longrightarrow}& \dfrac{-3w}{-3} > \dfrac{12}{-3} \\ &−4 < w &\;\;\text{The answers are the same!} & w > −4 \end{array}\)
Try It! (Exercises)
For each of the exercises #1-20,
- Solve the inequality for the variable indicated.
- Express the solution set in both set-builder notation and in interval notation.
- Graph the solution set.
- \(−2p < 10\)
- \(−9 < 3y\)
- \(16 ≤ 5t + 1\)
- \(−14 ≥ 4x + 2\)
- \(6y − 10 > 4y\)
- \(8b + 3 < 7b − 1\)
- \(−2a − 3 ≤ 4a + 3\)
- \(9 − u ≤ 11 + u\)
- \(7 − 5p ≥ 8 − 10p\)
- \(5(v + 1) > 3(y − 1)\)
- \(2(11 − 3t) < 4(t − 2)\)
- \(6(4y − 3) ≤ −3(6 − 7y)\)
- \(8a − (6 + 2a) ≥ 3(4a − 6)\)
- \(10 − 2(7 + x) > 7 − 3(3x − 1)\)
- \(3 + 5(3 − 2d) ≤ 18 − 6(4d − 7)\)
- \(7p− (10 − 25p) > 4p − 9(4p − 6)\)
- \(\dfrac{1}{2}x − \dfrac{3}{4} < x + \dfrac{1}{4}\)
- \(\dfrac{3}{5} (y + 5) > \dfrac{2}{5} (y − 10)\)
- \(\dfrac{1}{6} (q − 2) ≤ \dfrac{1}{3} (q + 2)\)
- \(1 − \dfrac{1}{4} (2t − 1) ≥ \dfrac{3}{4} + \dfrac{1}{2} (t + 1)\)


7.26A: Mapping Protein-Protein Interactions
- Compare techniques used for mapping protein-protein interactions
In living organisms most of the biological functions are mediated by complex multi-component protein machineries and network activities. The protein complexes formed could be stable (proteins interact for a prolonged period of time) or transient (proteins interact for a brief period of time). Molecular studies are necessary to dissect the constituents of these protein complexes and identify the domains through which a protein interacts with another. Understanding how proteins are physically connected reveals clues about their structure and function and makes them an ideal target for drug therapy. Several methodologies exist to study the interaction of proteins in vivo . The most widely employed tools are the yeast two-hybrid system and affinity purification coupled to mass spectrometry. Datasets obtained from such tools are further analyzed using computational methods to draw a map of protein connectivity and achieve system level understanding of a microorganism. The complete map of protein interactions that can occur in a living organism is called the interactome.
The Yeast Two-hybrid System
The yeast two-hybrid screening system is an effective and quick tool for the in vivo study of protein–protein interaction both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The method consists of splitting a yeast transcription factor into its binding domain and activation domain, fusing the binding domain to one protein of interest (the bait) and the activation domain to another protein of interest (the prey), and reconstituting the activity of the transcription factor by bringing the two domains back into physical proximity. In the absence of an interaction the domains remain distant, preventing a detectable output. If the two proteins do interact the bait recruits the prey to a specific cellular location where it can stimulate a detectable output (e.g., gene activation). This experimental approach measures direct physical interaction between proteins and is called a binary method.
Affinity Purification Coupled to Mass Spectrometry
Affinity purification of protein complexes coupled to mass spectrometry is carried out as follows: a specific protein (the bait) is manipulated to express an affinity tag. The tag serves as a tool to purify the bait protein and associated proteins by affinity chromatography. Purified protein complexes are then resolved on native gels and discrete protein bands are excised and digested into small peptide fragments by trypsin.
Peptides are identified using mass spectrometry methods. The identity of the protein associated with a given bait protein is determined by comparing its peptide fingerprint against available databases. This method allows for the identification and quantification of direct binding partners and secondary interacting proteins, and assigns them into protein networks. This experimental approach measures physical interactions between groups of proteins without distinguishing whether they are direct or indirect and is termed co-complex method. Results collected from binary and co-complex experiments are documented into a database. There are many databases accessible online that allow for protein clustering by function and nature of interaction and provide a rich framework for biomedical research.
Key Points
- A key question about a protein, in addition to when and where it is expressed, is with which other proteins does it interact?
- Interaction partners are an immediate lead into biological function and can potentially be exploited for therapeutic purposes.
- Creation of a protein–protein interaction map of the cell would be of immense value to understanding the biology of the cell.
- The most common approaches used to identify protein-protein interactions are the yeast two-hybrid system and affinity purification coupled to mass spectrometry.
Key Terms
- Affinity chromatography : Method of separating a biochemical mixture based on highly specific interactions.
- mass spectrometry : Analytical method that allows ionizing molecules and sorting them according to their mass and charge.


2.3: Communicating with Instructors
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So far we’ve been looking at class participation and general interaction with both instructors and other students in class. In addition to this, students gain very specific benefits from communicating directly with their instructors. Learn best practices for communicating with your instructors during office hours and through e-mail.
Additional Benefits of Talking with Your Instructors
College students are sometimes surprised to discover that instructors like students and enjoy getting to know them. After all, they want to feel they’re doing something more meaningful than talking to an empty room.  Most instructors are happy to see you during their office hours or to talk a few minutes after class.
This chapter has repeatedly emphasized how active participation in learning is a key to student success. In addition, talking with your instructors often leads to benefits beyond simply doing well in that class.
- Talking with instructors helps you feel more comfortable in college and more connected to the campus. Students who talk to their instructors are less likely to become disillusioned and drop out.
- Talking with instructors is a valuable way to learn about an academic field or a career. Don’t know for sure what you want to major in, or what people with a degree in your chosen major actually do after college? Most instructors will share information and insights with you.
- You may need a reference or letter of recommendation for a job or internship application. Getting to know some of your instructors puts you in an ideal position to ask for a letter of recommendation or a reference in the future when you need one.
- Because instructors are often well connected within their field, they may know of a job, internship, or research possibility you otherwise may not learn about.  Networking is very important for future job searches and other opportunities. In fact, most jobs are found through networking, not through classified ads or online job postings.
- Think about what it truly means to be “educated”: how one thinks, understands society and the world, and responds to problems and new situations. Much of this learning occurs outside the classroom. Talking with your highly educated instructors can be among your most meaningful experiences in college.
Guidelines for Communicating with Instructors
Getting along with instructors and communicating well begins with attitude. As experts in their field, they deserve your respect. Remember that a college education is a collaborative process that works best when students and instructors communicate freely in an exchange of ideas, information, and perspectives. So while you should respect your instructors, you shouldn’t fear them. As you get to know them better, you’ll learn their personalities and find appropriate ways to communicate. Here are some guidelines for getting along with and communicating with your instructors:
- Prepare before going to the instructor’s office. Go over your notes on readings and lectures and write down your specific questions. You’ll feel more comfortable, and the instructor will appreciate your being organized.
- Don’t forget to introduce yourself. Especially near the beginning of the term, don’t assume your instructor has learned everyone’s names yet and don’t make him or her have to ask you. Unless the instructor has already asked you to address him or her as “Dr. ____,” “Ms. _____” or Mr. _______,” or something similar, it’s appropriate to say “Professor _______.”
- Respect the instructor’s time. In addition to teaching, college instructors sit on committees, do research and other professional work, and have personal lives. Don’t show up two minutes before the end of an office hour and expect the instructor to stay late to talk with you.
- Realize that the instructor will recognize you from class—even in a large lecture hall. If you spent a lecture class joking around with friends in the back row, don’t think you can show up during office hours to find out what you missed while you weren’t paying attention.
- Don’t try to fool an instructor. Insincere praise or making excuses for not doing an assignment won’t make it in college. Nor is it a good idea to show you’re “too cool” to take all this seriously—another attitude sure to turn off an instructor. To earn your instructor’s respect, come to class prepared, do the work, participate genuinely in class, and show respect—and the instructor will be happy to see you when you come to office hours or need some extra help.
- Try to see things from the instructor’s point of view. Imagine that you spent a couple hours making PowerPoint slides and preparing a class lecture on something you find very stimulating and exciting.  And then a student after class asks, “Is this going to be on the test?” How would you feel?
- Be professional when talking to an instructor. You can be cordial and friendly, but keep it professional and on an adult level. Come to office hours prepared with your questions—not just to chat or joke around. (Don’t wear sunglasses or earphones in the office or check your cell phone for messages.) Be prepared to accept criticism in a professional way, without taking it personally or complaining.
- Use your best communication skills. In future chapters you’ll learn the difference between assertive communication and passive or aggressive communication.
Part-Time and Returning Students
Students who are working and who have their own families and other responsibilities may have special issues interacting with instructors. Sometimes an older student feels a little out of place and may even feel “the system” is designed for younger students; this attitude can lead to a hesitation to participate in class or see an instructor during office hours.
But participation and communication with instructors is very important for all students—and may be even more important for “nontraditional” students. Getting to know your instructors is particularly crucial for feeling at home in college. Instructors enjoy talking with older and other nontraditional students—even when, as sometimes happens, a student is older than the instructor. Nontraditional students are often highly motivated and eager to learn. If you can’t make the instructor’s office hours because of your work schedule, ask for an appointment at a different time—your needs will be respected.
Part-time students, especially in community colleges where they may be taking evening courses, often have greater difficulty meeting with instructors. In addition, many part-time students taking evening and weekend classes are taught by part-time faculty who, like them, may be on campus only small amounts of time. Yet it is just as critical for part-time students to engage in the learning process and have a sense of belonging on campus. With effort, you can usually find a way to talk with your instructors. Don’t hesitate to ask for an appointment at another time or to meet with your instructor over a cup of coffee after class before driving home.  Avoid the temptation to give up or feel defeated; talk with your instructor to arrange a time to meet, and make the most of your time interacting together. Use e-mail to communicate when you need to and contact your instructor when you have any question you can’t raise in person.
E-mail Best Practices
Just as e-mail has become a primary form of communication in business and society, e-mail has a growing role in education and has become an important and valuable means of communicating with instructors. Virtually all younger college students have grown up using e-mail and have a computer or computer access in college, although some have developed poor habits from using e-mail principally with friends in the past. Some older college students may not yet understand the importance of e-mail and other computer skills in college; if you are not now using e-mail, it’s time to learn how (see “Getting Started with E-mail”). Especially when it is difficult to see an instructor in person during office hours, e-mail can be an effective form of communication and interaction with instructors. E-mail is also an increasingly effective way to collaborate with other students on group projects or while studying with other students.
Getting Started with E-mail
- If you don’t have your own computer, find out where on-campus computers are available for student use, such as at the library or student center.
- You can set up a free Web-based e-mail account at Google, Yahoo! or other sites. These allow you to send and receive e-mail from any computer that is connected to the Internet.
- If you don’t have enough computer experience to know how to do this, ask a friend for help getting started or check at your library or student services office for a publication explaining how e-mail works.
- Once you have your account set up, give your e-mail address to instructors who request it and to other students with whom you study or maintain contact. E-mail is a good way to contact another student if you miss a class.
- Once you begin using e-mail, remember to check it regularly for messages. Most people view e-mail like a telephone message and expect you to respond fairly soon.
- Be sure to use good e-mail etiquette when writing to instructors.
If your instructor gives you his or her e-mail addresses, use e-mail rather than the telephone for nonurgent matters. Using e-mail respects other people’s time, allowing them to answer at a time of their choosing, rather than being interrupted by a telephone call.
But e-mail is a written form of communication that is different from telephone voice messages and text messages. Students who text with friends have often adopted shortcuts, such as not spelling out full words, ignoring capitalization and punctuation, and not bothering with grammar or full sentence constructions. This is inappropriate in an e-mail message to an instructor, who expects a more professional quality of writing. Most instructors expect your communications to be in full sentences with correctly spelled words and reasonable grammar. Follow these guidelines:
- Use a professional e-mail name. If you have a funny name you use with friends, create a different account with a professional name you use with instructors, work supervisors, and others.
- Use the subject line to label your message effectively at a glance. “May I make an appointment?” says something; “In your office?” doesn’t.
- Address e-mail messages as you do a letter, beginning “Dear Professor ____.” Include your full name if it’s not easily recognizable in your e-mail account.
- Get to your point quickly and concisely. Don’t make the reader scroll down a long e-mail to see what it is you want to say.
- Because e-mail is a written communication, it does not express emotion the way a voice message does. Don’t attempt to be funny, ironic, or sarcastic, Write as you would in a paper for class.
- Don’t use capital letters to emphasize. All caps look like SHOUTING.
- Avoid abbreviations, nonstandard spelling, slang, and emoticons like smiley faces. These do not convey a professional tone.
- Don’t make demands or state expectations such as “I’ll expect to hear from you soon” or “If I haven’t heard by 4 p.m., I’ll assume you’ll accept my paper late.”
- When you reply to a message, leave the original message within yours. Your reader may need to recall what he or she said in the original message.
- Be polite. End the message with a “Thank you” or something similar.
- Proofread your message before sending it.
- With any important message to a work supervisor or instructor, it’s a good idea to wait and review the message later before sending it. You may have expressed an emotion or thought that you will think better about later. Many problems have resulted when people sent messages too quickly without thinking.
Resolving a Problem with an Instructor
The most common issue students feel with an instructor involves receiving a grade lower than they think they deserve—especially new students not yet used to the higher standards of college. It’s depressing to get a low grade, but it’s not the end of the world. Don’t be too hard on yourself—or on the instructor. Take a good look at what happened on the test or paper and make sure you know what to do better next time. Review the chapters on studying habits, time management, and taking tests.
If you genuinely believe you deserved a higher grade, you can talk with your instructor. How you communicate in that conversation, however, is very important. Instructors are used to hearing students complain about grades and patiently explaining their standards for grading. Most instructors seldom change grades. Yet it can still be worthwhile to talk with the instructor because of what you will learn from the experience.
Follow these guidelines to talk about a grade or resolve any other problem or disagreement with an instructor:
- First go over the requirements for the paper or test and the instructor’s comments. Be sure you actually have a reason for discussing the grade—not just that you didn’t do well. Be prepared with specific points you want to go over.
- Make an appointment with your instructor during office hours or another time. Don’t try to talk about this before or after class or with e-mail or the telephone.
- Begin by politely explaining that you thought you did better on the assignment or test (not simply that you think you deserve a better grade) and that you’d like to go over it to better understand the result.
- Allow the instructor to explain his or her comments on the assignment or grading of the test. Don’t complain or whine; instead, show your appreciation for the explanation. Raise any specific questions or make comments at this time. For example, you might say, “I really thought I was being clear here when I wrote.…”
- Use good listening skills. Whatever you do, don’t argue!
- Ask what you can do to improve grade, if possible. Can you rewrite the paper or do any extra-credit work to help make up for a test score? While you are showing that you would like to earn a higher grade in the course, also make it clear that you’re willing to put in the effort and that you want to learn more , not just get the higher grade.
- If there is no opportunity to improve on this specific project, ask the instructor for advice on what you might do on the next assignment or when preparing for the next test. You may be offered some individual help or receive good study advice, and your instructor will respect your willingness to make the effort as long as it’s clear that you’re more interested in learning than simply getting the grade.
Tips for Success: Talking with Instructors
- When you have a question, ask it sooner rather than later.
- Be prepared and plan your questions and comments in advance.
- Be respectful but personable and communicate professionally.
- Be open minded and ready to learn. Avoid whining and complaining.
- There is no such thing as a “stupid question.”
Controlling Anger over Grades
If you’re going to talk with an instructor about your grade or any other problem, control any anger you may be feeling. The GPS LifePlan project of the Minnesota State Colleges and Universities System offers some insights into this process:
- Being upset about a grade is good because it shows you care and that you have passion about your education. But anger prevents clear thinking, so rein it in first.
- Since anger involves bodily reactions, physical actions can help you control anger: try some deep breathing first.
- Try putting yourself in your instructor’s shoes and seeing the situation from their point of view. Try to understand how grading is not a personal issue of “liking” you—that they are really doing something for your educational benefit.
- It’s not your life that’s being graded. Things outside your control can result in not doing well on a test or assignment, but the instructor can grade only on what you actually did on that test or assignment—not what you could have done or are capable of doing . Understanding this can help you accept what happened and not take a grade personally 1 .
Finding a Mentor
A mentor is someone who is usually older and more experienced than you who becomes your trusted guide, advisor, and role model. A mentor is someone you may want to be like in your future career or profession—someone you look up to and whose advice and guidance you respect.
Finding a mentor can be one of the most fulfilling aspects of college. As a student, you think about many things and make many decisions, large and small, almost daily: What do you want to do in the future? How can you best balance your studies with your job? What should you major in? Should you take this course or that one? What should you do if you feel like you’re failing a course? Where should you put your priorities as you prepare for a future career? How can you be a better student? The questions go on and on. We talk about things like this with our friends and often family members, but often they don’t have the same experience or background to help us as a mentor can.
Most important, a mentor is someone who is willing to help you, to talk with you about decisions you face, to support you when things become difficult, and to guide you when you’re feeling lost. A mentor can become a valuable part of your future network but also can help you in the here and now.
Many different people can become mentors: other students, family members, people you know through work, your boss. As a college student, however, your best mentor likely is someone involved in education: your advisor, a more experienced student, or an instructor. Finding a mentor is another reason to develop good relationships with your instructors, starting with class participation and communication outside of class.
A mentor is not like a good friend, exactly—you’re not going to invite your instructor to a movie—but it does involve a form of friendship.  The mentor relationship is more informal and develops slowly, often without actively looking for a mentor. Here’s an example of how one student “found” a mentor:
As a freshman taking several classes, Miguel particularly liked and admired one of his instructors, Professor Canton. Miguel spoke up more in Canton’s class and talked with him sometimes during office hours. When it was time to register for the next term, Miguel saw that Canton was teaching another course he was interested in, so he asked him about that course one day during office hours. Miguel was pleased when Professor Canton said he’d like to have him in his class next term.
By the end of his first year of college, Miguel seemed to know Canton better than any of his other instructors and felt very comfortable talking with him outside of class. One day after talking about a reading assignment, Miguel said he was enjoying this class so much that he was thinking about majoring in this subject and asked Professor Canton what he thought about it. Canton suggested that he take a few more classes before making a decision, and he invited Miguel to sit in on a seminar of upper-level students he was holding.
In his second year, Miguel’s interests turned in another direction as he began to think about his future job possibilities, but by then he felt comfortable enough talking with Canton that he occasionally he stopped by the professor’s office even though he was not taking a class with him. Sometimes he was surprised how much Professor Canton knew about other departments and other faculty, and Canton often shared insights about other courses he might be interested in that his advisor had not directed him to. When Miguel learned about a summer internship in his field and was considering applying, Canton not only volunteered to write him a letter of recommendation but even offered to help Miguel with the essay part of the application if he wanted.
Some colleges have more formal mentoring programs, and you should become involved in one if you have this opportunity, but often a mentoring relationship occurs informally as you get to know an instructor or another person over time. In your first year, you don’t go searching frantically for a mentor, but you should begin interacting with your instructors and other students in ways that may lead, over time, to developing that kind of relationship.
Similarly, your academic advisor or a college counselor might become a mentor for you if you share interests and you look up to that person as a role model and trusted guide. Your advisor is so important for your college success that if you feel you are not getting along well, you should ask the advising department to switch you to a different advisor. Take the time to build a good relationship with your advisor, the same as with instructors—following the same guidelines in this chapter for communication and interaction.
Relating to an Instructor of an Online Course
Online courses have grown tremendously in recent years, and most colleges now have at least some online courses. While online learning once focused on students at a distance from campus, now many students enrolled in regular classes also take some courses online. Online courses have a number of practical benefits but also pose special issues, primarily related to how students interact with other students and the instructor.
Some online courses do involve “face time” or live audio connections with the instructor and other students, via Webcasts or Webinars, but many are self-paced and asynchronous, meaning that you experience the course on your own time and communicate with others via messages back and forth rather than communicating in real time. All online courses include opportunities for interacting with the instructor, typically through e-mail or a bulletin board where you may see comments and questions from other students as well.
Many educators argue that online courses can involve more interaction between students and the instructor than in a large lecture class, not less. But two important differences affect how that interaction occurs and how successful it is for engaging students in learning. Most communication is written, with no or limited opportunity to ask questions face to face or during office hours, and students must take the initiative to interact beyond the requirements of online assignments.
Many students enjoy online courses, in part for the practical benefit of scheduling your own time. Some students who are reluctant to speak in class communicate more easily in writing. But other students may have less confidence in their writing skills or may never initiate interaction at all and end up feeling lost. Depending on your learning style, an online course may feel natural to you (if you learn well independently and through language skills) or more difficult (if you are a more visual or kinesthetic learner). Online courses have higher drop-out and failure rates due to some students feeling isolated and unmotivated.
Success in an online course requires commitment and motivation. Follow these guidelines:
- Make sure you have the technology. If you’re not comfortable reading and writing on a computer, don’t rush into an online course. If you have limited access to a computer or high-speed Internet connection, or have to arrange your schedule to use a computer elsewhere, you may have difficulty with the course.
- Accept that you’ll have to motivate yourself and take responsibility for your learning. It’s actually harder for some people to sit down at the computer on their own than to show up at a set time. Be sure you have enough time in your week for all course activities and try to schedule regular times online and for assignments. Evaluate the course requirements carefully before signing up.
- Work on your writing skills. If you are not comfortable writing, you may want to defer taking online courses until you have had more experience with college-level writing. When communicating with the instructor of an online course, follow the guidelines for effective e-mail outlined earlier.
- Use critical thinking skills. Most online courses involve assignments requiring problem solving and critical thinking. It’s not as simple as watching video lectures and taking multiple-choice tests. You need to actively engage with the course material.
- Take the initiative to ask questions and seek help. Remember, your instructor can’t see you to know if you’re confused or feeling frustrated understanding a lecture or reading. You must take the first step to communicate your questions.
- Be patient. When you ask a question or seek help with an assignment, you have to wait for a reply from your instructor. You may need to continue with a reading or writing assignment before you receive a reply. If the instructor is online at scheduled times for direct contact, take advantage of those times for immediate feedback and answers.
- Use any opportunity to interact with other students in the course. If you can interact with other students online, do it. Ask questions of other students and monitor their communications. If you know another person taking the same course, try to synchronize your schedules so that you can study together and talk over assignments. Students who feel they are part of a learning community always do better than those who feel isolated and on their own.
Key Takeaways
- Additional benefits of getting to know and networking with instructors include receiving references and academic advice.
- Interacting with college instructors contributes to the growth and intellectual maturity that are part of what it means to be “educated.”
- Prepare in advance before meeting with an instructor and communicate respectfully, honestly, and sincerely. Your efforts will be repaid.
- It is especially important for part-time and nontraditional students to make the effort to interact with instructors.
- Follow accepted guidelines for professional use of e-mail with instructors.
- It is worthwhile speaking with an instructor when you disagree about a grade because of what you will learn in this interaction.
- Finding a mentor can be one of the most fulfilling experiences in college. Getting to know your instructors may be the first step toward find a mentor.
- Online courses involve special issues for effective learning, but you must make the effort to interact with the instructor and other students in a way that encourages your success.
Checkpoint Exercises
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Name three benefits you might gain from talking with an instructor weeks or months after the course has ended.
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What should you do before going to see your instructor during office hours?
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For each of the following statements, circle T for true or F for false:
questions T F The instructor of a large lecture course will recognize you even if you sit in the back and try not to be noticed. T F Instructors appreciate it when you talk to them in the kind of language you use with your best friends. T F Whining and complaining is the best way to convince an instructor to change your grade. T F It is acceptable to ask an instructor if you can rewrite a paper or do extra-credit work to help make up for a poor grade. -
Write an appropriate opening for an e-mail to an instructor.
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Think for a few minutes about all the past instructors you have had. Would you like to get to know any one of them better, perhaps as a mentor? What personality traits does this person have that would make him or her your ideal mentor? (If no instructor you have met so far is your idea of a perfect mentor, write down the traits you hope to find in an instructor in the future.)
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1 Adapted from “How to Communicate and Problem Solve with Your Instructor,” GPSLifePlan.org (accessed December 27, 2009).


<IP_ADDRESS>.1J: Folkways and Mores
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Learning Objectives
- Differentiate between folkways and mores
Societal norms, or rules that are enforced by members of a community, can exist as both formal and informal rules of behavior. Informal norms can be divided into two distinct groups: folkways and mores. Folkways are informal rules and norms that, while not offensive to violate, are expected to be followed. Mores (pronounced more-rays ) are also informal rules that are not written, but, when violated, result in severe punishments and social sanction upon the individuals, such as social and religious exclusions,.
William Graham Sumner, an early U.S. sociologist, recognized that some norms are more important to our lives than others. Sumner coined the term mores to refer to norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance. Mores are often seen as taboos; for example, most societies hold the more that adults not engage in sexual relations with children. Mores emphasize morality through right and wrong, and come with heavy consequences if violated.
Sumner also coined the term folkway to refer to norms for more routine or casual interaction. This includes ideas about appropriate greetings and proper dress in different situations. In comparison to the morality of mores, folkways dictate what could be considered either polite or rude behavior. Their violation does not invite any punishment or sanctions, but may come with reprimands or warnings.
An example to distinguish the two: a man who does not wear a tie to a formal dinner party may raise eyebrows for violating folkways; were he to arrive wearing only a tie, he would violate cultural mores and invite a more serious response.
Key Points
- Societal norms, or rules that are enforced by members of a community, can exist as both formal and informal rules of behavior. Informal norms can be divided into two distinct groups: folkways and mores.
- Both “mores” and “folkways” are terms coined by the American sociologist William Graham Sumner.
- Mores distinguish the difference between right and wrong, while folkways draw a line between right and rude. While folkways may raise an eyebrow if violated, mores dictate morality and come with heavy consequences.
Key Terms
- mores : A set of moral norms or customs derived from generally accepted practices. Mores derive from the established practices of a society rather than its written laws.
- William Graham Sumner : An American academic with numerous books and essays on American history, economic history, political theory, sociology, and anthropology.
- folkway : A custom or belief common to members of a society or culture.
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3.1: Carbohydrates - Carbohydrate Molecules
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Carbohydrates are essential macromolecules that are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
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3.2: Carbohydrates - Importance of Carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates are a major class of biological macromolecules that are an essential part of our diet and provide energy to the body.
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3.3: Lipid Molecules - Introduction
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Fats and oils, which may be saturated or unsaturated, can be unhealthy but also serve important functions for plants and animals.
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3.4: Lipid Molecules - Waxes
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Waxes are nonpolar lipids that plants and animals use for protection and have many functions in society.
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3.5: Lipid Molecules - Phospholipids
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Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules that make up the bilayer of the plasma membrane and keep the membrane fluid.
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3.6: Lipid Molecules - Steroids
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Steroids, like cholesterol, play roles in reproduction, absorption, metabolism regulation, and brain activity.
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3.7: Proteins - Types and Functions of Proteins
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Proteins perform many essential physiological functions, including catalyzing biochemical reactions.
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3.8: Proteins - Amino Acids
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An amino acid contains an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group, and it combines with other amino acids to form polypeptide chains.
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3.9: Proteins - Protein Structure
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Each successive level of protein folding ultimately contributes to its shape and therefore its function.
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3.10: Proteins - Denaturation and Protein Folding
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Denaturation is a process in which proteins lose their shape and, therefore, their function because of changes in pH or temperature.
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3.11: Nucleic Acids - DNA and RNA
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DNA and RNA are nucleic acids that carry out cellular processes, especially the regulation and expression of genes.
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3.12: Nucleic Acids - The DNA Double Helix
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The DNA double helix looks like a twisted staircase, with the sugar and phosphate backbone surrounding complementary nitrogen bases.
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3.13: Nucleic Acids - DNA Packaging
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DNA packaging is an important process in living cells. Without it, a cell is not able to accommodate the large amount of DNA that is stored inside.
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3.14: Nucleic Acids - Types of RNA
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RNA is the nucleic acid that makes proteins from the code provided by DNA through the processes of transcription and translation.


3.30: Linear Regression (3 of 4)
Learning Objectives
- For a linear relationship, use the least squares regression line to model the pattern in the data and to make predictions.
Let’s quickly revisit the list of our data analysis tools for working with linear relationships:
- Use a scatterplot and r to describe direction and strength of the linear relationship.
- Find the equation of the least-squares regression line to summarize the relationship.
- Use the equation and the graph of the least-squares line to make predictions.
- Avoid extrapolation when making predictions.
Now we focus on the equation of a line in more detail. Our goal is to understand what the numbers in the equation tell us about the relationship between the explanatory variable and the response variable.
Here are some of the equations of lines that we have used in our discussion of linear relationships:
Predicted distance = 576 − 3 * Age
Predicted height = 39 + 2.7 * forearm length
Predicted monthly car insurance premium = 97 − 1.45 * years of driving experience
Notice that the form of the equations is the same. In general, each equation has the form
Predicted y = a + b * x
When we find the least-squares regression line, a and b are determined by the data. The values of a and b do not change, so we refer to them as constants .
In the equation of the line, the constant a is the prediction when x = 0. It is called initial value . In a graph of the line, a is the y -intercept .
In the equation of the line, the constant b is the rate of change, called the slope . In a graph of the least-squares line, b describes how the predictions change when x increases by one unit. More specifically, b describes the average change in the response variable when the explanatory variable increases by one unit.
We can write the equation of the line to reflect the meaning of a and b:
Predicted y = a + b * x
Predicted y -value = (initial value) + (rate of change)* x
Predicted y -value = ( y -intercept) + (slope)* x
The constants a and b are shown in the graph of the line below.
Algebra review
The algebra of a line
The general form for the equation of a line is Y = a + bX. The constants “a” and “b” can be either positive or negative. The constant “a” is the y-intercept where the line crosses the y-axis. The constant “b” is the slope. It describes the steepness of the line. In algebra we describe the slope as “rise over run”. The slope is the amount that Y increases (or decreases) for each 1-unit increase in X.
EXAMPLE
1
Consider the line . The intercept is 1. The slope is 1/3, and the graph of this line is, therefore:
EXAMPLE
2
Consider the line . The intercept is 1. The slope is -1/3, and the graph of this line is, therefore:
The simulation below allows you to see how changing the values of the slope and y-intercept changes the line. The slider on the left controls the y-intercept, a. The slider on the right controls the slope, b.
Use the simulation to draw the following lines:
Y = 3 + 0.67X
Y = 5 – X (which can also be written Y = 5 – 1.0X)
Y = 2X (which can also be written Y = 0 + 2X)
Y = 5 – 2X
Use the following graphs in the next activity to investigate the equation of lines.
Interpreting the Slope and Intercept
The constants in the equation of a line give us important information about the relationship between the predictions and x . In the next examples, we focus on how to interpret the meaning of the constants in the context of data.
Example
Highway Sign Visibility Data
Recall that from a data set of 30 drivers, we see a strong negative linear relationship between the age of a driver ( x ) and the maximum distance (in feet) at which a driver can read a highway sign. The least-squares regression line is
Predicted y -value = (starting value) + (rate of change)* x
Predicted distance = 576 − 3 * Age
Predicted distance = 576 + (−3 * Age)
The value of b is −3. This means that a 1-year increase in age corresponds to a predicted 3-foot decrease in maximum distance at which a driver can read a sign. Another way to say this is that there is an average decrease of 3 feet in predicted sign visibility distance when we compare drivers of age x to drivers of age x + 1.
The 576 is the predicted value when x = 0. Obviously, it does not make sense to predict a maximum sign visibility distance for a driver who is 0 years old. This is an example of extrapolating outside the range of the data. But the starting value is an important part of the least-squares equation for predicting distances based on age.
The equation tells us that to predict the maximum visibility distance for a driver, start with a distance of 576 feet and subtract 3 feet for every year of the driver’s age.
Example
Body Measurements
In the body measurement data collected from 21 female community college students, we found a strong positive correlation between forearm length and height. The least-squares regression line is
Predicted height = 39 + 2.7 * forearm length
The value of b is 2.7. This means that a 1-inch increase in forearm length corresponds to a predicted 2.7-inch increase in height. Another way to say this is that there is an average increase of 2.7-inches in predicted height when we compare women with forearm length of x to women with forearm length of x + 1.
The 39 is the predicted value when x = 0. Obviously, it does not make sense to predict the height of a woman with a 0-inch forearm length. This is another example of extrapolating outside the range of the data. But 39 inches is the starting value in the least-squares equation for predicting height based on forearm length.
The equation tells us that to predict the height of a woman, start with 39 inches and add 2.7 inches for every inch of forearm length.
In the graph below, we see the slope b represented by a triangle. An 8-inch increase in foreman length corresponds to a 21.6-inch increase in predicted height. b = 21.6 / 8 = 2.7. An arrow points to the starting value a = 39. This is the point with x = 0.
Contributors and Attributions
- Concepts in Statistics. Provided by : Open Learning Initiative. Located at : http://oli.cmu.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution