6.2: Brief Biography of Karen Horney
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Karen Clementine Theodore Danielssen was born on September 16 th , 1885, in Hamburg, Germany. Her father was Norwegian by birth, but had become a German national. A successful sailor, he had become the captain of his own ship, and his family accompanied him on a few of his voyages, including trips around Cape Horn, along the west coast of South America, and as far north as San Diego in the United States. Those trips established a life-long interest in travel, foreign customs, and diversity in the young Karen Horney. Although her father was a stern and repressive man, her mother, who was Dutch and 17 years younger than Horney’s father, was a dynamic, intelligent, and beautiful woman who maintained a very happy home for the children (Kelman, 1971; Rubins, 1972, 1978).
From early childhood, Horney enjoyed reading, studying, and going to school. She was particularly interested in the novels of Karl May, who often wrote about the Native Americans, and Horney would play many games in which she pretended to be an Indian (usually, Chief Winnetou, a fictional character from May’s novels). Her father believed that education was only for men, but her mother encouraged Horney’s schooling, and in doing so, set an example of independence that greatly influenced Horney’s life and career. Horney followed the traditional education of the day, covering science, math, French, Latin, English, and the humanities. She also took special classes in speech, and for a time was very interested in dancing, drama, and the theatre. Despite the challenging curriculum, she was an excellent student, and often placed first in her class. After being impressed by a friendly country doctor when she was 12, she decided to pursue a career in medicine. When she began college at the University of Freiburg-in-Breisgau, at the age of 20, her mother came along to get her settled in and care for her. Horney soon became good friends with Ida Grote, who moved in with Horney and her mother to help offset the costs of attending college. In 1906, Horney also met her future husband, Oskar Horney (Kelman, 1971; Rubins, 1972, 1978).
Over the next few years, she began her medical studies at the University of Gottingen, and then transferred to the University of Berlin, where she received her medical degree in 1911. In 1909 she had married Oskar Horney, who was described as a tall, slim, handsome man, a brilliant thinker, gifted organizer, and possessing great physical and emotional strength. He also attended the University of Berlin, eventually receiving doctorate degrees in Law, Economics, and Political Science! They soon had three daughters, Brigitte, Marianne, and Renate (between 1911 and 1915). Both Karen and Oskar Horney were successful in their careers during the beginning of their marriage. He worked as a lawyer for a munitions company, and did very well financially. She was actively developing her medical career, but had to work that much harder due to continued discrimination against women at the time. Still, the family spent time together on weekends, when her brother’s family often visited, and vacations. Nonetheless, the Horneys grew apart during these years. In 1923, during the turmoil following World War I, Oskar’s investments collapsed, and he eventually went bankrupt. A year later, he was stricken with severe encephalomeningitis, and spent 8 months in critical condition. These events radically altered his personality, as he became a broken and depressed person. In 1926 they separated, and never got back together. It was not, however, until 1939 that Karen Horney legally divorced her husband (Kelman, 1971; Rubins, 1972, 1978).
For Karen Horney’s career, the years in Berlin were important and productive. She entered into psychoanalysis with Karl Abraham, and later she was also analyzed by Hanns Sachs for a brief time. Abraham appointed her as an instructor in the Berlin Psychoanalytic Poliklinik in 1919, and brought her to the attention of Sigmund Freud (with high praise). She came to know many of the candidates for psychoanalytic training, and also became friends with many of them, including Melanie Klein, Wilhelm Reich, and Erich Fromm. She also had many friends outside psychoanalytic circles, including the existential theologian Paul Tillich and the neurologist Kurt Goldstein (who coined the term self-actualization). The psychoanalytic scene in Berlin was active and dynamic, and Horney was very much in the middle of it all, never shy about expressing her own ideas and different opinions. One such issue was that of training lay-analysts (psychologists, as opposed to psychiatrists). She favored allowing the training for the purposes of research, but clearly favored medical training for those who would actually practice therapeutic psychoanalysis. This eventually led to conflict between Horney and her close friend Erich Fromm. Despite the many favorable circumstances in Berlin at the time, in the early 1930s Hitler was elected, and the Nazi regime began. Although Horney was not Jewish, psychoanalysis was considered a “Jewish” science. So, when Franz Alexander, who had been asked to come to Chicago to establish a new psychoanalytic training institute, asked her to be the Associate Director of the newly established Chicago Institute of Psychoanalysis, she accepted (Kelman, 1971; Rubins, 1972, 1978). This dramatic turn in the events of her life did not, however, occur without a bit of chance. Alexander had first asked Helene Deutsch, one of the first women to join Freud’s psychoanalytic group (see Sayers, 1991), but Deutsch was not interested at the time. Thus, Horney was the second choice for the position that brought her to America for the rest of her life (Kelman, 1971; Rubins, 1972, 1978).
Once in Chicago, however, her theoretical differences with Alexander became a clear source of disagreement. Alexander was not willing, as Horney was, to discard significant elements of Freud’s original theories. So, just 2 years later, in 1934, Horney moved to New York City and joined the New York Psychoanalytic Institute. A number of her friends from Berlin had also come to New York, including Erich Fromm and Paul Tillich, and Wilhelm Reich also visited her there. She soon met Harry Stack Sullivan and Clara Thompson, as they were establishing their new training institute in New York. She also began teaching at the New School for Social Research, and the American Institute for Psychoanalysis. Her private practice grew steadily, and Alvin Johnson, the president of the New School (as it is commonly known) introduced her to W. W. Norton, who established a well-known publishing house that produced all of Horney’s books. Her first book was entitled The Neurotic Personality of Our Time (1937), which was followed by perhaps her two most radical books, New Ways in Psychoanalysis (1939) and Self-Analysis (1942). Horney had pursued new techniques in psychoanalysis and self-analysis, in part, because of her dissatisfaction with her own results as both a patient and a psychoanalyst. Later, she published Our Inner Conflicts (1945), Are You Considering Psychoanalysis (1946), and Neurosis and Human Growth: The Struggle Toward Self-Realization (1950). After her death, Harold Kelman (who was both a friend and colleague) brought together a number of her early papers in Feminine Psychology (Kelman, 1967), and, as a special tribute, Douglas Ingram published the transcripts of her final lectures, presented during a class she taught in the fall of 1952 (Ingram, 1987).
During the 1930s and 1940s, Horney’s personal life was a social whirlwind. She entertained frequently, often cooking herself, and when her own home was in disarray she would arrange the party at a friend’s home. She bought and sold vacation homes often, including one where Oskar Horney stayed for a time, and she traveled frequently. She enjoyed playing cards, and wanted to win so much that she would sometimes cheat! When caught, she would freely admit it, laugh, and say that her opponents should have stopped her sooner. Sometimes she would even gather her friends together and loudly sing German songs, in memory of their homeland (Kelman, 1971; Rubins, 1972, 1978).
At work, however, there was constant tension regarding theoretical and political issues in the psychoanalytic societies. In 1941, the New York Psychoanalytic Institute voted to disqualify Horney as a training analyst, due to her seemingly radical ideas on psychoanalytic techniques. Half the society did not vote, however, and they soon left to form a new institute. Immediately following the vote, Horney walked out, and a group of analysts led by Clara Thompson followed her. The very same month, twenty analysts joined Horney in forming the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis, and Horney was asked to become the Dean of their soon to be established American Institute for Psychoanalysis. When Thompson suggested that Sullivan be granted honorary membership, and Horney recommended the same for Fromm, Fromm refused because he was not going to be recognized as a clinical psychoanalyst. The resulting controversy led to a committee review, which voted against Fromm’s membership. Among others, Fromm, Thompson, and Sullivan left the society. There were other political battles as well, and Horney was routinely torn between her professional beliefs, her need to control the direction of the society and institute, and her personal friendships with the individuals involved. Through it all, although she held strong beliefs (such as opposing therapeutic psychoanalysis by lay-analysts like Fromm), she nonetheless encouraged challenging the original theories developed by Freud, as well as her own theories:
I recall being impressed by her response at my first meeting with her, when I indicated my own curiosity and bent for research. She had warmly hoped I would continue this way, since her views needed further work and clarification. Indeed, during an interview in 1952, she stated that she knew her ideas would be changed, if not by herself by someone else. (pg. 37; Rubins, 1972)
By 1950, Horney seemed to be feeling lonely and isolated. Perhaps the political and theoretical battles had taken their toll, perhaps it was her strained relationships with her daughters (they were never really close), or perhaps it was the beginning of the cancer that would eventually take her life. Although Horney would not consult with her physician about the abdominal pains she was experiencing (thus she did not know that she had cancer), she did begin to develop strong spiritual interests. She occasionally attended Tillich’s sermons at St. John the Divine Church, though she seemed more interested in the philosophical and ethical aspects of religion than the spiritual aspects. She kept a copy of Aldous Huxley’s The Perennial Philosophy (1945/2004) by her bedside for over a year, reading daily on Huxley’s interpretations of Eastern and Western mystics. A few years earlier she had met D. T. Suzuki, and she became particularly interested in Zen. She was especially impressed by a book he recommended entitled Zen in the Art of Archery (Herrigel, 1953; based on an article he wrote in 1936). In 1951, Suzuki led Horney on a trip to Japan, where she visited a number of Zen temples and had lengthy discussions with Zen monks. Although she seemed more interested in the practical aspects of being a student of Zen, she nonetheless endeavored to put Zen principles into a context she could understand (such as equating enlightenment with self-realization; Rubins, 1972, 1978). Late in 1952, her cancer became so advanced that she finally sought medical care. However, it was too late. On December 4, 1952, she died peacefully, surrounded by daughters.
Placing Horney in Context: Culture and the Female Psyche
Karen Horney’s career intersected many areas of psychology, relevant both to the past and to the future. One of the first women trained in psychoanalysis, she was the first to challenge Freud’s views on women. She did not, however, attempt to reject his influence, but rather, felt that she honored him by building upon his achievements. The most significant change that she felt needed to be made was a shift away from the biological/medical model of Freud to one in which cultural factors were at least as important. Indeed, she challenged Freud’s fundamental belief that anxiety follows biological impulses, and instead suggested that our behaviors adapt themselves to a fundamental anxiety associated with the simple desire for survival and to cultural determinants of abnormal, anxiety-provoking situations.
Horney was also significant in the development of psychodynamic theory and psychoanalysis in America. She helped to establish psychoanalytic societies and training institutes in Chicago and New York. She was a friend and colleague to many influential psychoanalysts, including Harry Stack Sullivan and Erich Fromm. She encouraged cross-cultural research and practice through her own example, not only citing the work of anthropologists and sociologists, but also through her personal interest and support for the study of Zen Buddhism.
Although Horney herself abandoned the study of feminine psychology, suggesting instead that it represented the cultural effect of women being an oppressed minority group, her subsequent emphasis on the importance of relationships and interpersonal psychodynamic processes laid the foundation for later theories on the psychology of women (such as the relational-cultural model). Thus, her influence is still being felt quite strongly today.


4.7: References
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Algaze, G. 2008. Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7208/chicago/97...13787.001.0001
Baines, J., Bennet, J. and Houston, S. D. 2008. The Disappearance of Writing Systems: Perspectives on literacy and communication . London: Equinox.
Bryce, T. 2002.
Life and Society in the Hittite World
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Cartwright, C. and Taylor J. 2011. Investigating Technological and Environmental Evidence from Plant Remains and Molluscs in Cuneiform Tablets.
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5: 67–72
Charpin, D. 2010. Writing, Law, and Kingship in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7208/chicago/97...01590.001.0001 Chrisomalis, S. 2010. Numerical Notation: A comparative history . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511676062
Collins, B. J. 2007. The Hittites and Their World . Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. D’Agostino, F., Pomponio, F. and Laurito, R. 2004. Neo-Sumerian Texts from Ur in the British Museum . Messina: Grafica Cristal.
Ehrenreich, B. 2011. The Death of the Book. Los Angeles Review of Books. 18 April. http://lareviewofbooks.org/essay/the...th-of-the-book [accessed 7 November 2013]
Englund, R. K. 1998. Texts from the Late Uruk Period. In Bauer, J., Englund, R. K. and Krebernik, M. (eds), Mesopotamien: Späturuk-Zeit und Frühdynastische Zeit (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 160/1). Freiburg: University of Freiburg, 13–233.
Frame, G. and George, A. R. 2005. The Royal Libraries of Nineveh: New evidence for king Ashurbanipal’s tablet collecting. Iraq 67: 265–284.
Goren, Y., Finkelstein, I. and Na’aman, N. 2004. Inscribed in Clay: Provenance study of the Amarna Letters and other ancient Near Eastern texts . Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University.
Goren, Y., Mommsen, H. and Klinger, J. 2011. Non-Destructive Provenance Study of Cuneiform Tablets Using Portable X-Ray Fluorescence (pXRF). Journal of Archaeological Science 38(3):684–696. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2010.10.020
Houston, S., Baines, J. and Cooper, J. 2003. Last Writing: Script obsolescence in Egypt, Mesopota- mia, and Mesoamerica. Comparative Studies in Society and History 45: 430–479. DOI: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0010417503000227
Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. 2003. To Write or Not to Write. In Potts, T., Roaf, M. and Stein, D. (eds), Culture through Objects: Ancient Near Eastern studies in honour of P. R. S. Moorey . Oxford: Griffith Institute, 59–75.
Lévi-Strauss, C. 1964. Tristes Tropiques . New York: Atheneum.
Lion, B. 2011. Literacy and Gender. In Radner, K. and Robson, E. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 90–112. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9...57301.013.0005
Liverani, M. 1999. History and Archaeology in the Ancient Near East: 150 years of a difficult relationship. In Kühne, H., Bernbeck, R. and Bartl, K. (eds), Fluchtpunkt Uruk: Archäologis- che Einheit aus Methodischer Viefalt. Schriften für Hans Jörg Nissen . Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf, 1–11.
Liverani, M. 2006. Uruk: The First City . London: Equinox.
Matthews, R. 2003. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: Theories and approaches . London: Routledge.
Matthews, R. 2013. The Power of Writing: Administrative activity at Godin Tepe, central Zagros, in the later 4th millennium bc. In Petrie, C. A. (ed.), Ancient Iran and Its Neighbours . Oxford: Oxbow Books, 327–341.
Ostler, N. 2005. Empires of the Word: A language history of the world . London: Harper Collins. Otten, H. 1988. Die Bronzetafel aus Boğazköy: ein Staatsvertrag Tuthalijas IV . Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Payton, R. 1991. The Ulu Burun Writing-Board Set. Anatolian Studies 41: 99–106. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3642932
Pedersén, O. 1998. Archives and Libraries in the Ancient Near East, 1500–300 bc . Bethesda: CDL Press.
Radner, K. 1995. The Relation Between Format and Content of Neo-Assyrian Texts. In Mattila, R. (ed.), Nineveh 612 bc: The glory and fall of the Assyrian Empire . Helsinki: University of Helsinki Press, 63–77.
Radner, K. and Robson, E. (eds) 2011. The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture . Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9...57301.001.0001
Russell, J. 1999. The Writing on the Wall: Studies in the architectural context of Late Assyrian palace inscriptions. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.
Stone, P. G. and Farchakh Bajjaly, J. 2008. The Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Iraq . Wood-bridge: Boydell and Brewer.
Taylor, J. 2011. Tablets as Artefacts, Scribes as Artisans. In Radner, K. and Robson, E. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 5–31. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9...57301.013.0001 van de Mieroop, M. 1999. Cuneiform Texts and the Writing of History . London: Routledge. van de Mieroop, M. 2004. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 bc . Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Veldhuis, N. 2011. Levels of Literacy. In Radner, K. and Robson, E. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 68–89. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9...57301.013.0004
Westenholz, A. 2002. The Sumerian City-State. In Hansen, M. H. (ed.), A Comparative Study of Six City-State Cultures . Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzels, 23–42.Wiseman, D. J. 1955. Assyrian Writing-Boards. Iraq 17: 3–13.
Zimansky, P. 2005. Archaeology and Texts in the Ancient Near East. In Pollock, S. and Bernbeck, R. (eds), Archaeologies of the Middle East: Critical perspectives . Oxford: Blackwell, 308–326.


1.1: Scientific Investigation
What is science and how do we “do” science?
Science is how we gain knowledge about the natural world. Typically, it pertains only to what we can investigate or observe using our senses – or instruments that extend the ability of our senses. As a science, biology concerns itself with understanding the unity and diversity of living things – the 2,300,00, or so, described (and millions of undescribed) species with which we share planet earth.
Ideally , the SCIENTIFIC METHOD is a process that describes how scientists perform investigations to provide a systematic and rational approach to answer questions about the natural world. One goal is to eliminate bias – and be as objective as possible in what we study. That being said, bias cannot ever be fully removed, but the goal is to recognize and minimize it as much as possible. Ideas that can’t be tested, directly observed, or measured in some way should not be subjected to the scientific method. There are certainly other ways to obtain knowledge (cultural, emotional, etc) they usually do not qualify as science because they do not follow the axioms of science. An axiom in a general sense, is a truth that is accepted without proof. It might seem that science does not assume anything but there are many assumptions that are often ignored such as the relationship between cause and effect, and that our senses and measurements accurately represent reality.
The goal of today’s lab is to familiarize you with the idealized steps of the scientific method but it's important to recognize that science rarely proceeds so linearly.
You will use these steps to determine the effects of caffeine and ethanol on the heart rate of a small aquatic organism known by the Latin name Daphnia magna ( common name : “water flea”; Fig. 1).
This is an ideal model organism because its body is transparent, allowing its internal organs to be viewed with the help of a dissecting microscope (Fig. 2).
Model organisms are non-human species used in research to investigate biological processes. Information learned in studies of model organisms can often be applied to other species, including humans. We use model organisms to learn about many different processes, including genetics, cellular mechanisms, and growth and development. There are certain characteristics that make a species an ideal model organism. For example, it must be easy to manipulate for study, inexpensive and easy to cultivate, and produce lots of offspring. Some commonly used model organisms include Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly), Caenorhabditis elegans ( C. elegans , roundworm), and Escherichia coli ( E. coli , bacteria). The best model organism to use for a study depends upon the question being investigated. In this study, Daphnia magna is a good model organism because of its transparent body, which allows for ease of measuring heart rate and gathering data on the effects of caffeine and ethanol.
Steps of the Scientific Method
The scientific method consists of the following steps:
- Making an observation
- Asking a question based on that observation
- Forming a logical AND testable answer to that question (stated in terms of a hypothesis )
- Designing a controlled experiment to see if the hypothesis is supported or rejected
- Collecting , analyzing , and interpreting the data generated by the experiment
If the conclusion of an experiment is such that a hypothesis is not supported, then another hypothesis must be developed along with another experiment designed to test it. Ultimately, the results of experimentation are often published in peer-reviewed journals (along with detailed methods used to obtain them) so that other researchers can verify or replicate the experiment, and build on that work.
An idealized version of the scientific method is demonstrated in Figure 3. It is considered “idealized” because it is important to note that chance plays an important role in science. Often, the initial observations that result in important discoveries are stumbled upon by accident rather than sought out. Also remember that the scientific method does not apply to observational or discovery science, which is descriptive in nature.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials and Supplies:
- Daphnia magna specimens
- Compound light microscope
- Concavity slides
- Disposable transfer pipettes
- Test solutions (water and caffeine and ethanol in varying concentrations)
- Paper towels / Kimwipes
- Stopwatch / clock (with second hand)
- Scissors
- Sharpie and plain paper
- Dissecting probe
- Diagram of Daphnia magna anatomy
PROCEDURE
Step 1: Making an Observation
Making and recording observations (often referred to as DESCRIPTIVE SCIENCE ) is the first step in the scientific method. Start by making general observations of the Daphnia in a watch glass.
- Remove a compound light scope from the storage cabinet as instructed and plug it in.
- Obtain a concavity slide.
- Obtain a transfer pipette. Cut off the tip with a pair of scissors. This will prevent the Daphnia from being crushed when forced through a tip that is too narrow.
- Use the transfer pipette to remove the Daphnia , and some of the water it is in, from the specimen jar and place it on the concavity slide. Make sure that the Daphnia is totally covered by water.
- Take the Daphnia specimen back to your lab bench and place the slide on the stage of your microscope. Make sure that the 4X objective lens is over the stage.
- Use the dissecting probe to gently maneuver the Daphnia onto its side so that you can clearly view its heart.
- View your Daphnia under the microscope. Refer to the anatomy chart and identify the animal’s various parts.
- Make a sketch of the Daphnia in the circle below. Label the following parts:
- head region
- antennae
- compound eye
- heart
- digestive tract (midgut)
- thoracic appendages (leg-like structures that function as gills)
- shell spine
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Answer the following questions.
- Which body parts are moving?
- Do you see any eggs or young?
- Once you have found and observed your Daphnia’s heart, count the number of heart beats in one minute. The heartbeat of a healthy specimen is about 2 to 5 beats per second. Because it is so fast, count the heartbeat for 15 seconds and then multiply that number by 4. If necessary, you can keep track of the heart beats by tapping a marker onto a blank sheet of paper and then counting up the number of tap marks.
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Record the following information:
- Heart beats per 15 seconds: ____________________________
- Heart beats per one minute: _____________________________
Steps 2 and 3: Formulating a Question and Stating a Hypothesis
In science, observations often lead to the formulation of questions that generate hypotheses – and associated predictions that are testable. In today’s lab, we are considering the following question: “ What is the effect of commonly consumed chemicals on Daphnia heart rate ”?
A hypothesis is a testable explanation of a set of observations based on available data. It is a tentative answer to the question you are asking based on knowledge about what you're observing and asking. This knowledge can be pre-existing or information from a published resource. For these reasons, it is NOT correct to say that a hypothesis is an educated guess.
In this lab, you need to formulate several hypotheses about how you believe various test solutions will affect the heart rate of a Daphnia based on your prior knowledge of how these solutions affect humans. After you formulate the hypotheses, you will test predictions based on these hypotheses. Hypotheses can be rephrased as predictions and can be written as “ If …., then ….”statements.
For example : “ If I put Daphnia in ice water, then their heart rates will decrease since decreasing temperatures slow down the movement of molecules.”
It’s important to note that the “If…, then…” statement is not the hypothesis, it is a prediction made about the hypothesis.
Formulate a hypothesis to describe what you predict will happen to the Daphnia in each of the following test solutions .
- Water (from the Daphnia culture jar):
- Ethyl alcohol (in increasing concentrations: 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%):
- Caffeine (in increasing concentrations: 1%, 2%, and 3%):
Step 4: Designing a Controlled Experiment
The next step in the scientific method is to test the predictions based on your hypotheses by designing one or more experiments that allow you to collect the best data to answer your question.
Before doing this, it is necessary to determine the factors (or variables ) you are interested in testing. There are several variables to consider when designing an experiment.
- An independent variable is the condition or event under study. It is the predetermined condition the investigator sets (and can vary) . Only one independent variable is tested at a time, so that an observed response is attributable to just that variable.
- A dependent variable is the condition or event that occurs (the data collected) in response to the specified, predetermined, independent variables that are set.
- Controlled variables are any conditions or events that could potentially affect the outcome of an experiment. Consequently, they must be held constant (controlled) and never varied . In the case of our Daphnia experiment, an example of a controlled variable would be the temperature of the water in which the Daphnia are tested. This variable needs to be controlled because Daphnia hearts beat faster in warm water than they do in cold water.
In the spaces below, define the variables that will be considered in your experiment today:
- What will be the independent variables in the Daphnia experiments? List all of them.
- What will be the dependent variables in the Daphnia experiments? Be specific with your answers.
- Apart from water temperature, what other variables should be controlled ? List at least 3 controlled variables.
Importance of a Control Group
Most well-planned experiments contain a control group in addition to an experimental group . The experimental group is the group whose experience is manipulated – usually by only one variable at a time. The control group is the group used for a comparison; it serves as a baseline against which the effects of a treatment can be evaluated. A control group should be as much like the experimental group as possible. It should be treated in every way like the experimental group except for one manipulated factor (the independent variable).
Performing the Experiment
-
Your group will test the effects of:
- plain water (from the Daphnia culture jar)
and
- JUST ONE of the test solutions (at all concentrations listed): Either -
- Ethyl alcohol (2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%)
or
- Caffeine (1%, 2%, 3%, 4%)
- To test a solution, you will need to remove most of the existing water covering the Daphnia in your concavity slide. “Wick it away” with a Kimwipe at the same time you add your test solution with a transfer pipette. Determine the volume of water needed to fill the concavity slide and cover the Daphnia . Use this same volume of water for each treatment. Make sure to keep the Daphnia submerged in fluid! If your Daphnia dies at any point, you need to re-start the experiment with a new specimen from the culture jar .
- You will subject the Daphnia to water for a replicate of 8 treatments. Add the first treatment (water from the Daphnia culture jar), wait 1 minute, and count the heartbeats for 15 seconds. Record your data in Table 1 ( Step 5 ) and calculate the number of beats per minute.
- Add the second treatment (more water from the Daphnia culture jar) by wicking the previous water sample away as described above. Wait 1 minute, then count the heartbeats for 15 seconds. Record your data in Table 1 and calculate the number of beats per minute.
- Repeat these steps 6 more times. Use your data to calculate an average value for the effects of water on the heart rate of your Daphnia . This part of the experiment is the control for your experiment. It serves as the baseline against which you can compare the results from the Daphnia you subject to the ethyl alcohol or caffeine.
- Next, test all the other solutions your group has been assigned (either ethyl alcohol or caffeine). Start with the lowest concentration of the test solution and progress to the highest concentration.
- Note : Be sure to keep all the steps of your experimental protocols exactly the same (add the same volume of test solution, equivalent to the volume of water added in the control treatments). Always wait one minute before counting, and record the heartbeats for 15 seconds (just as performed in the control experiment). Due to time constraints, do only one run (treatment) for each test solution . Record your data in Table 2 (Step 5).
- When your tests have been completed, use a pipe test to transfer your Daphnia to the recovery beaker (as indicated by the instructor).
- Wash and dry all the glassware you used and put it back where you found it. Dispose of the used pipettes in the trash. Make sure the lids are placed back on all of your solution bottles. Clean up any mess you may have made and wipe down the lab benches with the paper towels.
- Compile your class data as directed by the instructor.
Step 5: Collecting, Analyzing, and Interpreting the Data
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Water Treatment # |
Beats per 15 seconds |
Beats per 1 minute |
|---|---|---|
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Treatment #1 |
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Treatment #2 |
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Treatment #3 |
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Treatment #4 |
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Treatment #5 |
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Treatment #6 |
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Treatment #7 |
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Treatment #8 |
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Average of 8 treatments |
Substance tested by your group: ______________________________________
* Start with the lowest concentration of the test solution, followed by the next higher concentration (lowest to highest concentrations).
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Substance Concentration |
Beats per 15 seconds |
Beats per 1 minute |
|---|---|---|
|
Drug Concentration |
Group #1 |
Group #2 |
Group #3 |
Group #4 |
Group #5 |
Group #6 |
Class Average |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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2% Alcohol |
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4% Alcohol |
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6% Alcohol |
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8% Alcohol |
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1% Caffeine |
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2% Caffeine |
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3% Caffeine |
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4% Caffeine |
Experimental data and results must be displayed in a clear logical manner. Tables, charts , and graphs are usually the most effective tools to provide a concise summary of the type of numerical data you collected today.
A graph is a diagram showing the relationship between independent and dependent variables .
When making graphs, the following rules should be observed:
- The independent variable is usually plotted on the X-axis (horizontal axis) and the dependent variable is plotted on the Y-axis (vertical axis).
- Each axis should be labeled properly with the name of the variable and the units of measurement.
- Data intervals must be evenly spaced across the axes, usually beginning with zero and increasing in consistent even increments.
- All graphs should have a title or caption to describe the information presented. Capitalize the first word in the title and place a period at the end.
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Choose a graph that best represents the type of data you collected:
- Line graphs show changes in the quantity of the chosen variable and emphasize the rise and fall of the values over their range.
- Bar graphs are used for data that represent separate or discontinuous groups or non-numerical categories, thus emphasizing the discrete differences between the groups.
*Refer to the Graphing Grading Rubric at the end of this lab.
Graph Your Results:
Discuss with your group how to design the graph so it best represents your data and ultimately the conclusions you draw.
Use the grid below to graph your group’s results:
Title :
Interpret Your Results:
Once you have collected your data and summarized it as a graph, the last step is to analyze and interpret your results. Ultimately, you have reached the stage in the scientific method process where you need to determine whether the hypothesis you initially generated has been supported or refuted (not supported).
Questions for Review
- What is the difference between a control group and a controlled variable?
- What are some types of questions science can’t answer?
- Where would you find an independent variable on a line graph?
- What are ‘levels of treatment’?
- Much like citing your sources, making a graph usually follows format guidelines. What is the correct way to format a graph in APA style?
Practical Challenge
- Give an example of a well written hypothesis and a prediction based on this hypothesis.
- What kind of data would be appropriate to use for a bar graph?
- Did the results of your experiments support or refute your hypothesis?


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19: Measuring Output and Income
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19.1: Measuring Output Using GDP
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Gross domestic product is the market value of all final goods and services produced within the national borders of a country for a given period of time.
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19.2: Other Measures of Output
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A variety of measures of national income and output are used in economics to estimate total economic activity in a country or region.
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19.3: Comparing Real and Nominal GDP
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Real GDP growth is the value of all goods produced in a given year; nominal GDP is value of all the goods taking price changes into account.
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19.4: Cost of Living
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Inflation is a persistent increase in the general price level, and has three varieties: demand-pull, cost-push, and built-in.


7.2.1: Introduction (2017)
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- Robin DeRosa, Abby Goode et al.
- Plymouth State University/
Washington Irving’s “Rip Van Winkle” follows the tale of a man named Rip Van Winkle who lives at the base of the Kaatskill mountains. The story is based off of a Dutch folk tale, and is set in the English colony of New York, when the settlers considered themselves to be English citizens loyal to King George.
Washington Irving is considered by many to be the first true American author. He was born in 1783 in New York City, and was named after George Washington. Irving was the youngest of eleven children, and was the son of Scottish-English immigrants. He toured Europe as a young man, and studied to become a lawyer in 1806. He preferred to pursue more creative outputs, and wrote several satirical essays that earned him critical acclaim. He went on to become the editor for the Anelectic Magazine.
In 1815, Irving travelled to England to assist his brother in his failing business, and wrote a collection of short stories and essays when that endeavor failed. The collection was known as the Sketch Book, and it contained two of Irving’s most famous works: “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” These works gave him international acclaim. He would go on to write other short stories and essays, including the biography, The Life of George Washington . Later in his life he would attempt to nurture other American writers, and he also pushed for stronger copyright laws to protect their works.
There are several themes throughout “Rip Van Winkle.” The two most prevalent are mysticism and stasis versus change. Mysticism can be found throughout the short story. In the very first paragraph, Irving sets up the story with a description of the Kaatskill mountains. He talks about how they appear magical and how they seem to change colors with the weather. He even describes them as “fairy mountains’ which sets up the notion that something otherworldly is taking place on these mountains (8). The mysticism of the story is brought up again when Rip Van Winkle ventures into the woods of the mountains and meets the traveling man who does not appear normal dressed and is very short. It can be inferred by the description that this person is like an elf or perhaps a dwarf of the forest. The theme continues as the man leads Rip back to a clearing where more short, strange looking men are. They drink, and Rip falls asleep for twenty years, something that would not be possible outside fiction. The last mention of mysticism is when Rip is trying to convince the town that he fell asleep for twenty years and the oldest man in the village who recognizes him defends him saying, “the Kaatskill mountains had always been haunted by strange beings. That it was affirmed that the great Hendrick Hudson, the first discoverer of the river and country, kept a kind of vigil there every twenty years, with his crew of the Half-moon; being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of his enterprise, and keep a guardian eye upon the river, and the great city called by his name” (22-23). The theme of mysticism plays an important role in moving the story forward and to help resolve the story.
The theme of stasis versus change appears both in the main character Rip and within the village where the story takes place. Rip begins in the story as a lazy man who does not wish to take care of or work on his own farm. His attitude towards life bothers his wife and she constantly nags him. Despite this he continues to waste his days fishing, hunting squirrels and helping his neighbors with their work. Rip wishes to just live life like this. His wish is ultimately fulfilled when he wakes up twenty years later as an old man. After he is re-integrated into the town he goes back to his way of life. However, his wife can no longer nag him because she had died and because he is an old man, no one question his laziness and laid back lifestyle. His is the ultimate example of stasis in this story. The change in this story comes from the town, and the country as a whole. The town was a small town of Dutch descent that was under British rule. When Rip wakes up the town has grown quite a bit and is now post revolutionary war. The town is now part of a different country and a new form of government. While the country has gone through a great upheaval in the years Rip was asleep, aside from the town growing larger and the poster changing from King George to George Washington, the everyday lives of the townspeople hasn’t changed. Many of the people Rip knew had died or went off to fight. His children were grown and he even had a grandchild. While Rip stayed the same, his whole world around him moved forward. This is mostly likely the main message of the story. If you don’t progress you get lost in time.
Is it canonical?:
“Rip Van Winkle” is canonical because it is a story that has never-ending popularity. This story is referenced in other literary works and by other major literary authors. This text has been taught in English classes for years, and is still taught in English classes today. Since it is taught so much in English classes, most people know what others are referring to when they talk about themes and events that happened in “Rip Van Winkle.” Irving was the quintessential American author, and all of his works qualify as major works in American literature. “Rip Van Winkle” should be in the American literary canon because its themes are still relevant today, and they are still written about, which makes the story canon. If the themes were fleeting themes, and if they were not still relevant today, then the story would not be canonical.
Works Cited:
Irving, Washington. “Rip Van Winkle.” Ed. Geo P. Webster and Thomas Nast. N.p.: Applewood , of America’s Living past, 2012. Print.
“Washington Irving.” Biography.com. A&E Networks Television, 20 Oct. 2015. Web.


4.3: Mendel’s Experiments
- Describe the different laws of genetics developed by Mendel.
- Utilize Punnett square to perform and follow a monohybrid cross.
- Explain how pedigree trees are constructed and how to use them to study genetic diseases.
Mendel’s Crosses
Mendel’s seminal work was accomplished using the garden pea, Pisum sativum , to study inheritance. This species naturally self-fertilizes, meaning that pollen encounters ova within the same flower. The flower petals remain sealed tightly until pollination is completed to prevent the pollination of other plants. The result is highly inbred, or “ true-breeding ,” pea plants. These are plants that always produce offspring that look like the parent. By experimenting with true-breeding pea plants, Mendel avoided the appearance of unexpected traits in offspring that might occur if the plants were not true breeding. The garden pea also grows to maturity within one season, meaning that several generations could be evaluated over a relatively short time. Finally, large quantities of garden peas could be cultivated simultaneously, allowing Mendel to conclude that his results did not come about simply by chance.
Monohybrid Crosses
Mendel performed hybridizations , which involve mating two true-breeding individuals that have different traits. In the pea, which is naturally self-pollinating, this is done by manually transferring pollen from the anther of a mature pea plant of one variety to the stigma of a separate mature pea plant of the second variety.
Plants used in first-generation crosses were called P , or parental generation , plants (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Mendel collected the seeds produced by the P plants that resulted from each cross and grew them the following season. These offspring were called the F 1 , or the first filial (filial = daughter or son), generation. Once Mendel examined the characteristics in the F 1 generation of plants, he allowed them to self-fertilize naturally. He then collected and grew the seeds from the F 1 plants to produce the F 2 , or second filial , generation. Mendel’s experiments extended beyond the F 2 generation to the F 3 generation, F 4 generation, and so on, but it was the ratio of characteristics in the P, F 1 , and F 2 generations that were the most intriguing and became the basis of Mendel’s postulates.
A monohybrid cross is one in which both parents are heterozygous (or a hybrid) for a single (mono) trait. The figure above shows the trait petal colour.
The ideal gas law is easy to remember and apply in solving problems, as long as you get the proper values a
Add example text here.
Solution
Add example text here.
F1 : first filial generation in a cross; the offspring of the parental generation.
F2 : second filial generation produced when F 1 individuals are self-crossed or fertilized with each other.
Hybridization : process of mating two individuals that differ with the goal of achieving a certain characteristic in their offspring.
Monohybrid : result of a cross between two true-breeding parents that express different traits for only one characteristic.
P or P0 : parental generation in a cross.
Contributors and Attributions
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Samantha Fowler (Clayton State University), Rebecca Roush (Sandhills Community College), James Wise (Hampton University). Original content by OpenStax (CC BY 4.0; Access for free at https://cnx.org/contents/b3c1e1d2-83...4-e119a8aafbdd ).
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Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)


14.1: Administering Eye Medications
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify different forms of eye medications
- Recognize the purpose of performing eye irrigation
- Describe procedural steps for eye medication administration
Eye ( ophthalmic ) medications are used to treat a variety of common conditions, such as allergies, dry eyes, viral or bacterial infections, and glaucoma . It is important for the nurse to be aware of the various types of eye instillation medications, understand how to perform eye irrigation, and demonstrate appropriate administration of eye medications. Following proper procedures will ensure patients receive the maximum effect of the eye medication, reduce waste, and ensure safe administration of the medication.
Forms of Eye Instillations
Medications administered via the eye come prepared in a variety of forms, including drops, ointments, and medication disks. Generally, eye instillations should be used within thirty days of opening, unless otherwise indicated by the manufacturer. Expired eye instillations should never be used because they can become less effective or contaminated over time.
Eye Drops
Liquid solutions commonly used to treat conditions such as dry eyes, conjunctivitis (pink eye), glaucoma, red eyes, or itchiness are known as eye drops (Figure 14.2). They may be ordered as a prescription or found over the counter, depending on the symptoms and complexity of the condition. Examples of prescription eye drops include neomycin , bimatoprost , cyclosporine , and xalatan. Examples of over-the-counter eye drops include Refresh, Systane, Clear Eyes, and Visine. The medication bottle should always be assessed before use to ensure the medication is indicated for ophthalmic use.
Eye Ointments
Greasy, semisolids that use body warmth to melt into tiny drops that rest between the eyeball and eyelid (Figure 14.3) are known as eye ointments . Typically, eye ointments are thicker than eye drops and will stay in the eye longer. Examples of eye ointments include bacitracin ophthalmic ointment (Ocu-Tracin), erythromycin ophthalmic ointment (Eyemycin), and over-the-counter lubricant eye ointments.
Eye ointments are known to cause blurred vision. It is important to instruct the patient that blurred vision may occur and will go away within a few minutes. Patients should be educated that they might be unable to drive, operate machinery, or engage in tasks that require the use of their vision until the medication dissipates. Some providers may order eye ointments to be administered at bedtime because of the blurred vision. Eyelashes and eyelids may be sticky after ointments are applied because of the thickness of the ointment. A warm, wet compress or washcloth may be applied to the eye after administration to remove any excess ointment that is excreted from the eye.
Eye Medication Disks
Small, flexible disks that can release medication in the eye for up to one week are known as eye medication disks (Figure 14.4). The disk is placed in the conjunctival sac horizontally and will naturally adhere to the eye. Instruct the patient to blink several times after placing the disk in the conjunctival sac. If the disk is still visible after blinking, pull the lower eye lid out and over the disk again until it remains below the eye lid when blinking.
Medication disks should float between the eyelid and sclera . They may be repositioned by pressing a finger against a closed eye lid; however, the patient should be instructed not to rub the eye, which may cause the disk to move across the cornea . Medication disks can be used regardless of contact lenses, sleeping, or physical activities. To remove the disk, turn the lower eye lid outward and use your forefinger to slide the disk into the lid and out of the eye. Patients receiving medication via an eye medication disk may complain of feeling like there is something in their eye, mild tearing, redness, increased discharge, and itchiness. Typically, these symptoms resolve within the first several weeks of usage; however, patients should be instructed to report persistent or severe symptoms.
Purpose of Performing Eye Irrigation
Washing out the eye with a continuous flow of liquid or medication, known as eye irrigation , may be warranted to flush secretions, chemicals, and foreign bodies from the eye. It may also be used to administer medications to treat certain disorders affecting the cornea or conjunctiva . Chemical injuries to the eye are considered an emergency and must be treated by irrigation immediately to prevent long-term vision loss. The amount of solution and duration of the irrigation depends on the contaminant.
Eye Irrigation Solutions and Procedure
Typically, normal saline is used to perform eye irrigation ; however, water may be used in emergent situations, according to agency policy. The provider will order local anesthetic eye drops to be placed in the affected eye(s) before instilling the irrigation. The patient should be instructed to keep their eyes closed until the irrigation begins to retain the anesthetic in the eye. Assist the patient to lie down and place a towel over their neck and shoulders. Place a bowl or kidney dish against the patient’s cheek, on the affected side, with the head tilted sideways toward it. After performing hand hygiene and donning gloves, fill the syringe with the irrigant and test the temperature on your hand. To prevent discomfort for the patient, the irrigant should be room temperature. Open the eyelid and ask the patient to fix their gaze ahead. Inject the irrigant slowly and steadily, from no more than 2 in (5 cm) away, onto the front surface of the eye, inside the lower eyelid, and under the upper eyelid (Figure 14.5). Ask the patient to move their eye in all directions while the irrigation is being performed. The provider should ensure the syringe remains sterile at all times and does not touch the surface of the eye or eyelid or any other object. A minute or two of irrigation should be sufficient for foreign body removal, whereas at least fifteen to thirty minutes may be required for chemical burns. Assess and document the patient’s visual acuity and tolerance of the procedure when the procedure is complete.
See the competency checklist for Irrigating a Patient’s Eye. You can find the checklists on the Student resources tab of your book page on openstax.org.
Eye Medication Administration
When administering eye medications , it is important to confirm the rights of medication administration, including the number of drops to be administered (right dose) and the eye in which the drops should be placed (right route). Abbreviations used for eye instillations include right eye (OD), left eye (OS), and both eyes (OU). Ensure the medication is labeled for ophthalmic use and check the expiration date.
Nurse:
John, RN
Clinical setting:
Local hospital
Years in practice:
Less than one year
Facility location:
Orlando, Florida
I was a new graduate nurse and had been working at a local hospital for two to three months. I was caring for a 78-year-old female who was prescribed latanoprost (Xalatan) OD. I couldn’t remember what the “D” was an abbreviation for, so I ended up asking another nurse on the unit for assistance. The nurse told me the “D” meant to administer the medication on the right side only. I collected the medication bottle and went into the patient’s room to administer the drop. After entering the room I told the patient I was going to administer an ear drop. The patient was quite puzzled and asked to see the medication bottle. The patient recognized the name of the medication and informed me it was the eye drop she took for glaucoma . I quickly realized my mistake in thinking the “O” meant otic instead of ophthalmic . I still share this story today to reiterate the importance of knowing what medication is being given, how it should be given, and why it is being given before entering the patient’s room.
Before administering eye medications, wash your hands and don gloves to prevent contamination. Assess the patient’s eyes, noting any new or unusual redness or drainage. If discharge, dirt, or debris is present, gently cleanse the eyelid by dampening a gauze or washcloth with warm water or normal saline . Wipe the eye from the inner canthus (corner of the eye nearest the nose where the upper and lower eyelids meet) of the eye to the outer canthus (corner of the eye nearest the ear where the upper and lower eyelids meet) to avoid introducing dirt and debris into the lacrimal duct s, which could cause infection. Use a new gauze or corner of the washcloth with each stroke. Remove dirty gloves, wash hands, and don new gloves before administering the eye medication.
Shake the bottle, if indicated on the medication label. If the medication has been refrigerated, warm the bottle between your hands until it comes to room temperature.  Remove the medication cap and place it on a clean surface, without contaminating the inside of the cap or the dropper tip. Using the thumb and/or index finger, gently pinch the eyelid and pull downward to form a pocket. Turn the medication container upside down and gently squeeze the eye medication into the pouch formed in the lower lid (i.e., conjunctival sac ), not directly into the eye (Figure 14.6). If another drop of eye medication is needed in the same eye, wait at least five to ten minutes before administering the second drop so the first drop will not be washed out of the eye.
If an eye ointment is used, place a ¼ to ½ in (0.5 to 1 cm) line of ointment into the lower lid pouch, starting at the inner canthus and moving outward (Figure 14.7). Press one finger against the inner canthus of the eye for a few seconds, when appropriate, to keep the medication from going into the tear duct. A systemic reaction to the medication may result if the medication enters the tear duct. Instruct the patient to keep their eye closed for one minute, or as instructed by the provider, to allow the medication to be absorbed. If an eye drop and eye ointment are ordered for the same eye at the same time, administer the eye drop first, followed by the ointment. Perform hand hygiene and document administration of the medication as well as the patient’s tolerance of the medication and procedure.
Incorrect use of eye drops is a common problem. When eye drops are not administered properly, the full benefit of the medication may not occur. For example, if the drop does not enter the eye, the medication will spill down the cheek and the medication will be wasted. If the patient wears contact lenses, the contacts should be removed before administering eye instillations, unless otherwise indicated by the provider. It is also important to ensure that the dropper or ointment tube does not touch the eye or your fingers, which may contaminate the medication. Always recap the medication container immediately after use. Do not wipe or rinse the tip of the container. Eye medications are for single-patient use only and should never be shared with other patients because of the risk of contamination.
See the competency checklist for Instilling Eye Medication. You can find the checklists on the Student resources tab of your book page on openstax.org.


1.3: Experimental Design
The section is an introduction to experimental design. This is how to actually design an experiment or a survey so that they are statistical sound. Experimental design is a very involved process, so this is just a small introduction.
Guidelines for planning a statistical study
- . Identify the individuals that you are interested in. Realize that you can only make conclusions for these individuals. As an example, if you use a fertilizer on a certain genus of plant, you can’t say how the fertilizer will work on any other types of plants. However, if you diversify too much, then you may not be able to tell if there really is an improvement since you have too many factors to consider.
- Specify the variable. You want to make sure this is something that you can measure, and make sure that you control for all other factors too. As an example, if you are trying to determine if a fertilizer works by measuring the height of the plants on a particular day, you need to make sure you can control how much fertilizer you put on the plants (which would be your treatment), and make sure that all the plants receive the same amount of sunlight, water, and temperature.
- Specify the population. This is important in order for you know what conclusions you can make and what individuals you are making the conclusions about.
- Specify the method for taking measurements or making observations.
- Determine if you are taking a census or sample. If taking a sample, decide on the sampling method.
- Collect the data.
- Use appropriate descriptive statistics methods and make decisions using appropriate inferential statistics methods.
- Note any concerns you might have about your data collection methods and list any recommendations for future.
There are two types of studies:
Definition \(\PageIndex{1}\)
An observational study is when the investigator collects data merely by watching or asking questions. He doesn’t change anything.
Definition \(\PageIndex{2}\)
An experiment is when the investigator changes a variable or imposes a treatment to determine its effect.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\) observational study or experiment
State if the following is an observational study or an experiment.
- Poll students to see if they favor increasing tuition.
- Give some students a tutor to see if grades improve.
Solution
- This is an observational study. You are only asking a question.
- This is an experiment. The tutor is the treatment.
Many observational studies involve surveys. A survey uses questions to collect the data and needs to be written so that there is no bias.
In an experiment, there are different options.
Randomized Two-Treatment Experiment:
In this experiment, there are two treatments, and individuals are randomly placed into the two groups. Either both groups get a treatment, or one group gets a treatment and the other gets either nothing or a placebo. The group getting either no treatment or the placebo is called the control group. The group getting the treatment is called the treatment group. The idea of the placebo is that a person thinks they are receiving a treatment, but in reality they are receiving a sugar pill or fake treatment. Doing this helps to account for the placebo effect, which is where a person’s mind makes their body respond to a treatment because they think they are taking the treatment when they are not really taking the treatment. Note, not every experiment needs a placebo, such when using animals or plants. Also, you can’t always use a placebo or no treatment.
Randomized Block Design:
A block is a group of subjects that are similar, but the blocks differ from each other. Then randomly assign treatments to subjects inside each block. An example would be separating students into full-time versus part-time, and then randomly picking a certain number full-time students to get the treatment and a certain number part-time students to get the treatment. This way some of each type of student gets the treatment and some do not.
Rigorously Controlled Design:
Carefully assign subjects to different treatment groups, so that those given each treatment are similar in ways that are important to the experiment. An example would be if you want to have a full-time student who is male, takes only night classes, has a full-time job, and has children in one treatment group, then you need to have the same type of student getting the other treatment. This type of design is hard to implement since you don’t know how many differentiations you would use, and should be avoided.
Matched Pairs Design :
The treatments are given to two groups that can be matched up with each other in some ways. One example would be to measure the effectiveness of a muscle relaxer cream on the right arm and the left arm of individuals, and then for each individual you can match up their right arm measurement with their left arm. Another example of this would be before and after experiments, such as weight before and weight after a diet.
No matter which experiment type you conduct, you should also consider the following:
Replication :
Repetition of an experiment on more than one subject so you can make sure that the sample is large enough to distinguish true effects from random effects. It is also the ability for someone else to duplicate the results of the experiment.
Blind Study :
Blind study is where the individual does not know which treatment they are getting or if they are getting the treatment or a placebo.
Double-Blind Study:
Double-blind study is where neither the individual nor the researcher knows who is getting which treatment or who is getting the treatment and who is getting the placebo. This is important so that there can be no bias created by either the individual or the researcher.
One last consideration is the time period that you are collecting the data over. There are three types of time periods that you can consider.
Cross-Sectional Study:
Data observed, measured, or collected at one point in time.
Retrospective (or Case-Control) Study:
Data collected from the past using records, interviews, and other similar artifacts.
Prospective (or Longitudinal or Cohort) Study:
Data collected in the future from groups sharing common factors.
Homework
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
- You want to determine if cinnamon reduces a person’s insulin sensitivity. You give patients who are insulin sensitive a certain amount of cinnamon and then measure their glucose levels. Is this an observation or an experiment? Why?
- You want to determine if eating more fruits reduces a person’s chance of developing cancer.  You then record who develops cancer. Is this an observation or an experiment? Why?
- A researcher wants to evaluate whether countries with lower fertility rates have a higher life expectancy. They collect the fertility rates and the life expectancies of countries around the world. Is this an observation or an experiment? Why?
- To evaluate whether a new fertilizer improves plant growth more than the old fertilizer, the fertilizer developer gives some plants the new fertilizer and others the old fertilizer. Is this an observation or an experiment? Why?
- A researcher designs an experiment to determine if a new drug lowers the blood pressure of patients with high blood pressure. The patients are randomly selected to be in the study and they randomly pick which group to be in. Is this a randomized experiment? Why or why not?
- Doctors trying to see if a new stint works longer for kidney patients, asks patients if they are willing to have one of two different stints put in. During the procedure the doctor decides which stent to put in based on which one is on hand at the time. Is this a randomized experiment? Why or why not?
- A researcher wants to determine if diet and exercise together helps people lose weight over just exercising. The researcher solicits volunteers to be part of the study, randomly picks which volunteers are in the study, and then lets each volunteer decide if they want to be in the diet and exercise group or the exercise only group. Is this a randomized experiment? Why or why not?
- To determine if lack of exercise reduces flexibility in the knee joint, physical therapists ask for volunteers to join their trials. They then randomly select the volunteers to be in the group that exercises and to be in the group that doesn’t exercise. Is this a randomized experiment? Why or why not?
- You collect the weights of tagged fish in a tank. You then put an extra protein fish food in water for the fish and then measure their weight a month later. Are the two samples matched pairs or not? Why or why not?
- A mathematics instructor wants to see if a computer homework system improves the scores of the students in the class. The instructor teaches two different sections of the same course. One section utilizes the computer homework system and the other section completes homework with paper and pencil. Are the two samples matched pairs or not? Why or why not?
- A business manager wants to see if a new procedure improves the processing time for a task. The manager measures the processing time of the employees then trains the employees using the new procedure. Then each employee performs the task again and the processing time is measured again. Are the two samples matched pairs or not? Why or why not?
- The prices of generic items are compared to the prices of the equivalent named brand items. Are the two samples matched pairs or not? Why or why not?
- A doctor gives some of the patients a new drug for treating acne and the rest of the patients receive the old drug. Neither the patient nor the doctor knows who is getting which drug. Is this a blind experiment, double blind experiment, or neither? Why?
- One group is told to exercise and one group is told to not exercise. Is this a blind experiment, double blind experiment, or neither? Why?
- The researchers at a hospital want to see if a new surgery procedure has a better recovery time than the old procedure. The patients are not told which procedure that was used on them, but the surgeons obviously did know. Is this a blind experiment, double blind experiment, or neither? Why?
- To determine if a new medication reduces headache pain, some patients are given the new medication and others are given a placebo. Neither the researchers nor the patients know who is taking the real medication and who is taking the placebo. Is this a blind experiment, double blind experiment, or neither? Why?
- A new study is underway to track the eating and exercise patterns of people at different time periods in the future, and see who is afflicted with cancer later in life. Is this a cross-sectional study, a retrospective study, or a prospective study? Why?
- To determine if a new medication reduces headache pain, some patients are given the new medication and others are given a placebo. The pain levels of a patient are then recorded. Is this a cross-sectional study, a retrospective study, or a prospective study? Why?
- To see if there is a link between smoking and bladder cancer, patients with bladder cancer are asked if they currently smoke or if they smoked in the past. Is this a cross-sectional study, a retrospective study, or a prospective study? Why?
- The Nurses Health Survey was a survey where nurses were asked to record their eating habits over a period of time, and their general health was recorded. Is this a cross-sectional study, a retrospective study, or a prospective study? Why?
- Consider a question that you would like to answer. Describe how you would design your own experiment. Make sure you state the question you would like to answer, then determine if an experiment or an observation is to be done, decide if the question needs one or two samples, if two samples are the samples matched, if this is a randomized experiment, if there is any blinding, and if this is a cross-sectional, retrospective, or prospective study.
- Answer
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1. Experiment
3. Observation
5. No, see solutions
7. No, see solutions
9. Yes, see solutions
11. Yes, see solutions
13. Double blind, see solutions
15. Blind, see solutions
17. Prospective, see solutions
19. Retrospective, see solutions
21. See solutions


36.8: Alpha Blockers and 5-Alpha-Reductase Inhibitors
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- 36.8.1 Identify the characteristics of alpha blockers and 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor drugs used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
- 36.8.2 Explain the indications, actions, adverse reactions, and interactions of alpha blockers and 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor drugs used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
- 36.8.3 Describe nursing implications of alpha blockers and 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor drugs used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
- 36.8.4 Explain the client education related to alpha blockers and 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor drugs used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is the nonmalignant enlargement of the prostate gland. This condition usually begins in mid-life and increases in prevalence as male individuals age. Studies have reported that about 8% of males in the fourth decade of life have BPH. That number increases significantly to about 50% in the sixth decade of life and 80% in the ninth decade of life (GBD 2019 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Collaborators, 2022; Ng & Barahdi, 2022). Two primary classes of medications used to treat BPH are alpha blockers and 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors .
BPH is also associated with complications such as urinary tract infection, acute urinary retention, urolithiasis, and acute renal failure as well as impacting other aspects of life, such as sleep quality, mood, social and sexual well-being, and safety related to increased falls (GBD 2019 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Collaborators, 2022).
Alpha Blockers
Alpha blockers are indicated to treat BPH. They work by relaxing the smooth muscle of the bladder neck and prostate to allow for an easier flow of urine. Alpha blockers include alfuzosin, doxazosin, tamsulosin, silodosin, and terazosin. Clients with smaller prostates often experience results more quickly.
Alpha blockers should be taken daily at the same meal, either breakfast or dinner (evening meal).
Table 36.26 lists common alpha blockers and typical routes and dosing for adult clients.
| Drug | Routes and Dosage Ranges |
|---|---|
|
Tamsulosin
( Flomax ) |
0.4 mg orally once daily. May be increased to 0.8 mg once daily after 2–4 weeks if needed. |
|
Doxazosin
( Cardura ) |
1 mg given once daily either in the morning or evening. May be increased at 1- to 2-week intervals to 2 mg, 4 mg, and 8 mg daily (maximum dose). |
|
Alfuzosin
( Uroxatral ) |
10 mg extended-release tablet orally once daily. |
|
Silodosin
( Rapaflo ) |
8 mg orally once daily. |
|
Terazosin
( Prostera ) |
1 mg orally once daily at bedtime. May increase to 2 mg, 5 mg, and 7.5 mg gradually once daily. |
Adverse Effects and Contraindications
Adverse effects might include dizziness and hypotension, especially when combined with other drugs that lower blood pressure. Retrograde ejaculation may occur, a harmless condition in which semen goes back into the bladder instead of out the tip of the penis. Other adverse effects include priapism, somnolence, dry mouth, dyspnea, fatigue, palpitations, headache, upper respiratory infections, abdominal pain, dyspepsia, constipation, nausea, and impotence.
Since clients with BPH could have coexisting erectile dysfunction, they may also take PDE5 inhibitors. Concomitant use of alpha blockers and PDE5 inhibitors can cause a severe drop in blood pressure. Additionally, signs and symptoms of prostate cancer and BPH are similar. Thus, ruling out cancer as the underlying issue is a priority before initiating alpha blockers.
Table 36.27 is a drug prototype table for alpha blockers featuring tamsulosin. It lists drug class, mechanism of action, adult dosage, indications, therapeutic effects, drug and food interactions, adverse effects, and contraindications.
|
Drug Class
Alpha blocker Mechanism of Action Relaxes the smooth muscle of the bladder neck and prostate |
Drug Dosage
0.4 mg orally once daily. May be increased to 0.8 mg once daily after 2–4 weeks if needed. |
|
Indications
Treatment of the signs and symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia Therapeutic Effects Allows easier flow of urine through the ureter |
Drug Interactions
Ketoconazole and similar drugs Erythromycin Cimetidine PDE5 inhibitors Food Interactions Grapefruit and grapefruit juice |
|
Adverse Effects
Dizziness, vertigo Retrograde ejaculation Postural hypotension Priapism |
Contraindications
Hypersensitivity |
5-Alpha-Reductase Inhibitors
The 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors such as finasteride and dutasteride block conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, resulting in shrinkage of the prostate gland. Improvement is not seen until the client has been on the medication for several weeks. Maximum results should occur about 6 months after the start of treatment. The prostate-specific antigen (PSA) can be decreased about 50%, and the prostate volume may be reduced by as much as 25% (Ng & Baradhi, 2022; Salisbury & Tadi, 2023).
Indications for 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors are BPH and male pattern baldness, but this section focuses only on BPH. Table 36.28 lists common 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors and typical routes and dosing for adult clients.
| Drug | Routes and Dosage Ranges |
|---|---|
|
Finasteride
( Proscar , Propecia ) |
5 mg orally once daily. |
|
Dutasteride
( Avodart ) |
0.5 mg orally once daily. |
Adverse Effects and Contraindications
Adverse effects related to 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors include erectile dysfunction, decreased ejaculatory volume, decreased libido, gynecomastia, orthostatic hypotension, dizziness, and weakness. Dutasteride may be combined with an alpha blocker to enhance the treatment of BPH. If so, the client has a greater chance of experiencing orthostatic hypotension, dizziness, and weakness.
Table 36.29 is a drug prototype table for 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors featuring finasteride. It lists drug class, mechanism of action, adult dosage, indications, therapeutic effects, drug and food interactions, adverse effects, and contraindications.
|
Drug Class
5 alpha-reductase inhibitor Mechanism of Action Shrinks the size of the prostate gland |
Drug Dosage
5 mg orally once daily. |
|
Indications
BPH Male pattern baldness Therapeutic Effects Improves urine flow in males |
Drug Interactions
Drugs that cause hypotension and dizziness may increase the risk of these side effects Food Interactions No significant interactions |
|
Adverse Effects
Hypotension Dizziness Increase in high-grade prostate cancer Breast changes including neoplasm Erectile dysfunction Libido, ejaculation, and orgasm disorders Male infertility |
Contraindications
Hypersensitivity Pregnancy |
Nursing Implications
The nurse should do the following for clients using alpha blockers or 5-alpha reductase inhibitors:
- Conduct history and physical to determine any underlying condition, such as prostate cancer, that should be treated first. Also determine other medical conditions that may be impacting urological health (diabetes, cardiovascular, obesity, etc.).
- Obtain medication history, noting any medications that may interact with alpha blockers or alpha reductase inhibitors (drugs that may cause hypotension or dizziness).
- Obtain necessary laboratory and diagnostic testing.
- Assess smoking and alcohol use.
- Assess balance and alertness because hypotension and dizziness are side effects of both alpha blockers and alpha reductase inhibitors. Somnolence is a side effect of alpha blockers.
- Provide emotional support and resources for client.
- Provide client teaching regarding the drug and when to call the health care provider. See below for client teaching guidelines.
Client Teaching Guidelines
The client taking an alpha blocker or a 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor should:
- Understand the medication’s purpose, side effects, contraindications, and precautions. Take alpha blocker medications ½ hour following the same meal each day (either breakfast or dinner/evening meal).
- Understand the risks to females, especially pregnant females, of handling crushed or broken tablets (5-alpha-reductase inhibitors).
- Monitor any signs and symptoms of adverse effects and report them to the health care provider.
- Know how to manage the side effects of specific 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor therapy, especially related to safety (risk of falls).
- Know how to manage the side effects of specific alpha blocker therapy (dizziness, priapism, hypotension).
- Verbalize the importance of follow-up appointments to manage the medication regimen and to observe for adverse effects.
- Understand drug, food, and/or herbal interactions that could be harmful.
- Use caution when driving, operating machinery, or performing other tasks requiring alertness when taking alpha blockers.
The client taking an alpha blocker or a 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor should not:
- Change position quickly when taking alpha blockers to minimize the risk of postural hypotension, especially when taking other medications that lower blood pressure.
- Not allow females of childbearing age to handle 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors, especially if the tablets are crushed or broken.


6.2: Introduction
The nurse is the health care professional who will administer medication. This chapter describes responsibilities related to nurses in the administration of all medications except parenteral (see Chapter 7). Medications can be administered by a variety of routes or methods, each determined by the different preparations of drugs that influence the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (pharmacokinetics) in the body. It is imperative that the appropriate form of a drug be administered.
Every medication has the potential to harm a patient. Nurses must be aware that:
- No medication is completely safe and absolutely free of nontherapeutic effects.
- Medication interactions are common in individuals taking many medications.
- When one medication modifies the action of another, a medication interaction occurs (Perry, Potter, & Ostendorf, 2014).
The nurse administering medication is responsible for ensuring full understanding of medication administration and its implications for patient safety.
Learning Objectives
- Discuss steps for ensuring safe medication administration
- Discuss factors that contribute to medication errors
- List and discuss the seven rights of medication administration
-
Outline procedures for administering medication safely via the following routes:
- Mouth and gastric tube
- Rectally and vaginally
- Eyes, ears, and nose
- Inhalation and topically
- Outline steps for teaching patient self-administration of medication


13: The Plot to Privatize Common Knowledge (Bollier)
By David Bollier
#reportinginformation #descriptive #sharedvalues #currentevents #research #pathos #logos #kairos #cognitivebias #artsandculture #intellectualproperty
Over the past three decades, modern culture has become infatuated with the idea that knowledge should be owned like real estate or stock shares. The original idea, of course, is that copyrights, trademarks and patents reward people for their creative labors and thereby boosts the common good.
But this line of thinking has come to resemble a kind of Market Fundamentalism: copyrights, trademarks and patents are the only morally legitimate and practical method for managing creations of the mind. There is no middle ground. You either believe in intellectual property rights, or you support “theft” and “piracy.
This fundamentalist approach shuts down a broader discussion about how knowledge ought to circulate in our culture. To avoid any confusion, let me just say straight-up that I believe in copyrights and patents. In some cases, they provide significant and necessary incentives to invest in new works. But today, copyrights and patents are going far beyond their intended goals—such as the U.S. Constitution provision to “promote progress in science and the useful arts”-- to become ends in themselves. Instead of carefully balancing private interests and public needs, copyrights and patents are becoming crude, anti-social instruments of control and avarice.
This is the conclusion that I came to in my book Brand Name Bullies , which is filled with dozens of stories of copyright and trademark owners bullying citizens, artists, scholars and others with ridiculous legal threats.
Silent Campfires
One of my favorite stories about the alarming expansion of copyright law involves ASCAP, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers, the organization that collects performance licensing fees from public establishments where recorded music is played.
ASCAP decided that their domain should be extended to summer camps. Why shouldn’t boys and girls singing around the campfire be considered a “public performance” that should pay royalties? A while back ASCAP approached the American Camping Association and said it wanted blanket performance licenses from hundreds of summer camps – something on the order of $300 to $1,400 per season per camp.
This caused quite a ruckus. When it was discovered that ASCAP wanted money for the Girl Scouts to sing “This Land Is Your Land” and “Puff, the Magic Dragon”, the press went nuts. There were stories about camps resorting to non-copyrighted songs like “The Bow-Legged Chicken.” An ASCAP official heartlessly told a reporter: “They [camps] buy paper, twine and glue for their crafts – they can pay for the music too.” Eventually, after a huge public outcry, ASCAP backed down. But its claim to legal authority in charging summer camps for their “public performances” of copyrighted songs remains intact.
Lawsuit Barbie
The issue in so many of these battles is: Who shall control the “public meaning” of familiar images? Mattel is legendary in trying to protect the cultural “meaning” of Barbie. It has gone after any unauthorized uses of Barbie. It went after a series of photographs by Mark Napier called Distorted Barbie, which dared to depict Barbie as fat or as having Down’s Syndrome. Even highly distorted images of Barbie that were essentially unrecognizable were deemed unacceptable by Mattel.
Mattel went after a magazine that caters to adult collectors of Barbie dolls. Mattel even pressured the Seattle publisher of a book, Adios, Barbie: Young Women Write About Body Image and Identity, to change the title. The book was reprinted as Body Outlaws. This extreme clampdown on free expression spurred culture-jammers, such as the self-styled Barbie Liberation Organization, which substituted voice boxes of GI Joe with those in Barbie, so that GI Joe would say, “Let’s plan our dream wedding,” and Barbie would yell, “Vengeance is mine!”
I am happy to report, a federal circuit court in the United States put a damper on Mattel’s bullying litigation. The case involved Utah photographer Tom Forsythe, who made a series of 78 photos of Barbie for his Food Chain Barbie exhibit. It featured Barbie in enchiladas, stuffed into a blender and in other kitchen poses. Only a few of Forsythe’s photos sold. He spent about $5,000 to mount the exhibit, and lost money.No matter; Mattel wanted to send a message that you can’t mess with Barbie. It spent years litigating the case, requiring Forsythe to find pro bono legal counsel, which spent nearly $2 million defending him. Forsythe prevailed in the circuit court, which delivered a stinging rebuke to Mattel for bringing a “groundless and unreasonable” trademark dilution claim.
Watch Your Words
The privatization of words—language is one of the most basic form of commons— is another disturbing trend. The Japanese corporation that owns the “Godzilla” trademark has a habit of threatening all sorts of people who use the phoneme “zilla,” including a website called “Davezilla” that featured a lizard-like cartoon character.
The corporate obsession with owning words is really quite extensive. McDonald’s claims to own 131 words and phrases. The San Diego-based McDonald’s actually claims to own the Irish prefix “Mc.” It has successfully prevented restaurant from naming their businesses McVegan, McSushi and McMunchies.
Ralph Lauren, the clothing line, went after Polo magazine, run by an equestrian organization, claiming it was a trademark infringement for the U.S. Polo Association to use the word “polo” on its line of clothing! MasterCard went after Ralph Nader for using “priceless” in his campaign ads when running for President in 2000. (Nader’s free speech rights ultimately prevailed.) But the gay athletes who wanted to host a series of athletic competitions in San Francisco could not use the phrase “Gay Olympics” because that phrase is owned by the U.S. Olympic Committee, who gets to decide who can use it. “Special Olympics” for disabled kids is OK, but not “Gay Olympics.”
The TV demagogue Bill O’Reilly reportedly went ballistic when he learned that the comedian (and now senator) Al Franken was using the words “fair and balanced” as a subtitle in his book that mocked various right-wing pundit, including him. The federal court laughed Fox News’ case out of court, and Franken won. But pity the people who can’t afford to hire Floyd Abrams, a prominent First Amendment attorney, to represent them. A woman from Los Angeles dared to name her neighborhood newspaper the Beechwood Voice. She was threatened with legal action by the Village Voice, which claimed that use of the word “voice” as a newspaper name diluted its trademark.
These stories illustrate just how far Market Fundamentalism is willing to go in order to enforce its vision of the world. It wants to commodify all of culture as private property, and require people to obtain permission (and to make royalties) before embarking on any modestly derivative new creativity. This approach, not coincidentally, favors the Disneys, Time Warners and Rupert Murdochs because it protects the market value of large inventories of copyrighted and trademarked works. It directly stifles expression that is local, amateur, small-scale or non-commercial in nature— the kind of expression that almost anyone outside a powerful corporation would engage in. This amounts to a wholesale privatization of our cultural commons.
Patents Privatize Taxpayer-Funded Research
The Market Fundamentalist worldview is even more infuriating, if that is possible, when applied to patents arising out of publicly funded research. Until 35 years ago, there had been a broad consensus that the intellectual property rights of federal research should stay in the public domain, or at least be licensed on a nonexclusive basis. That way, taxpayers could reap the full measure of value from their collective investments. In the late 1970s, however, large pharmaceutical, electronics and chemical companies mounted a bold lobbying campaign to reverse the public ownership of federal research. Since enactment of Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, authorizing universities to patent the fruits of federally funded research, we have seen a land rush to sell academic research that was once freely available to all.
Between 1980 and 2000, the number of patents secured by universities grew ten-fold, bringing in more than $1 billion in royalties and licensing fees – a windfall enjoyed mostly by a dozen top research universities. This, in reality, is a privatization of the public’s investments. Even though the public pays for the lion’s share of risky basic research for new drugs, the long-term equity returns tend to go to drug companies and a handful of top research universities. In the United States, we have seen this with the cancer drug Taxol; the antidepressant Prozac; the hypertension drug Capoten; and a number of HIV and AIDS therapies.
The upshot is that citizens often have to pay twice for pharmaceuticals and other medical treatments – first, as taxpayers who finance the research, and second, as consumers who pay monopoly prices for drugs. This is a pure giveaway because it’s not even clear that companies need exclusive patent rights as an incentive to commercialize new drug research.
Corporations Loot Indigenous People’s Knowledge
Multinational corporations are no longer content to simply claim ownership of commons knowledge at home. Now they scour the developing world-- in a practice known as biopiracy-- to claim patents on the botanical and ecological knowledge acquired by indigenous people through the centuries. They move into Madagascar, Brazil, Guatemala and other poor countries to find plants and microorganisms that might be used in making new medicines and genetically engineered crops. But as Seth Shulman writes in his book Owning the Future, “Who, if anyone, should be able to claim ownership rights to the globe’s genetic and cultural inheritance?”
Sir John Sulston answers this question eloquently in his book, The Common Thread , which chronicles the race to decode the human genome. A private startup company, Celera, was aggressively trying to put genomic sequences in one big privatized database. That way, it would have a monopoly over future use of the genomic data by licensing access to its database. Fortunately, a coalition of public-sector scientists published the data first, which is why the human genome is now in the public domain. Sulston answers, quite rightly, that the human genome must be treated as the “common heritage of humankind.”
Life Itself Can Now Be Owned
We dodged a bullet there when the publicly funded scientists won the race to decode human genome. Yet the threat of private ownership of essential knowledge for the sake of profits is not by any means over. Further attempts will by the logical culmination of a path first opened by the U.S. Supreme Court’s Diamond v. Chakrabarty ruling in 1980, which authorized the patenting of live, genetically altered microorganisms. The patenting of living organisms opened the way for an ecologically and ethically dubious future in which the life forms that are part of the sacred web of life can be owned and treated as commodities. Knowledge is treated as private property, not as a public good.
One inevitable result of all these new ownership claims is the rise of new barriers to open sharing, collaboration and discovery among researchers and scholars. Patents are increasingly being granted for “upstream” research, which means that basic knowledge that everyone else must use for the field to advance, is becoming proprietary. Harvard, MIT and the Whitehead Institute, for example, have a patent on all drugs that inhibit something known as NF-kB cell signaling. Since this physiological process is believed to have something to do with many diseases such as cancer and osteoporosis, the patent deters anyone else from pursuing their own scientific investigations in this area.
Things were not always this way concerning valuable knowledge. Contrast these stories with Jonas Salk, the inventor of the polio vaccine. When journalist Edward R. Murrow asked him, “Who owns the patent on this vaccine?” Salk replied, “Well, the people, I would say. There is no patent. Could you patent the sun?” This story helps us remember that current notions about ownership of knowledge are not inevitable and universal; they are the result of mounting market pressures to make our scientific and cultural commons into private property.
The privatization of knowledge has only intensified as the courts – in the United States, at least – have lowered the standards for obtaining patents while broadening the scope of what is patentable. It is now possible to own mathematical algorithms embedded in software programs. The very tools needed to conduct scientific research are now private property, available only for a steep fee.
Imagine what might have happened to biotechnology and computer science if contemporary patent rules had been in place in the 1950s and 1960s. Neither the biotech nor the computer revolution would have occurred in the first place. Too much fundamental knowledge would have been off limits due to patents.
Problem of the Anti-Commons
The over-patenting of knowledge sometimes results in what is called an “anti-commons” problem, in which property rights for a given field of research are so numerous and fragmented that it becomes very difficult to conduct research. The transaction costs for obtaining rights are simply too numerous and costly. For example, there are thirty-four “patent families” for a single malarial antigen, and those rights, applying to different pieces of the research agenda, are owned by different parties in many different countries. One reason that a malaria vaccine has been so elusive is because the patent rights are so complicated and expensive to secure.
It is worth noting that openness, sharing and the public domain do not harm the market. Quite the contrary. They invigorate it. In 2005, I co-hosted a conference called Ready to Share: Fashion and the Ownership of Creativity. It explored the power of openness in apparel design. Precisely because no one can own the creative design of clothes – they can only own the company name and logo, as trademarks – everyone can participate in the design commons. The result is a more robust, innovative and competitive marketplace. This is exactly the effect that Linux, the open-source computer operating system, had on the software sector. It has opened up new opportunities for value-added innovation and competition in a marketplace until then dominated by the Microsoft monopoly.
Yale Professor Yochai Benkler argues in his magisterial book, The Wealth of Networks , that a great deal of knowledge production is more effectively pursued through a commons than through markets. Questions of ethics aside, why doesn’t money succeed at simply “buying” the knowledge it needs? Because money tends to subvert the social dynamics that make the knowledge commons work. It can sabotage self-directed inquiry. It undermines the social trust, candor and ethics that are essential to creativity and good research.
____________________
David Bollier is an author, activist, blogger and consultant. He is the founding editor of On the Commons in which this essay first appeared. His 2014 book, Think Like a Commoner: A Short Introduction to the Commons describes his thinking about the commons.
The Plot to Privatize Common Knowledge by David Bollier is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .


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cold dark matter
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slow-moving massive particles, not yet identified, that don’t absorb, emit, or reflect light or other electromagnetic radiation
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cosmological principle
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the assumption that, on the large scale, the universe at any given time is the same everywhere—isotropic and homogeneous
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dark energy
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an energy that is causing the expansion of the universe to accelerate; the source of this energy is not yet understood
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evolution (of galaxies)
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changes in individual galaxies over cosmic time, inferred by observing snapshots of many different galaxies at different times in their lives
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galactic cannibalism
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a process by which a larger galaxy strips material from or completely swallows a smaller one
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homogeneous
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having a consistent and even distribution of matter that is the same everywhere
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hot dark matter
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massive particles, not yet identified, that don’t absorb, emit, or reflect light or other electromagnetic radiation; hot dark matter is faster-moving material than cold dark matter
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isotropic
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the same in all directions
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Local Group
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a small cluster of galaxies to which our Galaxy belongs
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merger
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a collision between galaxies (of roughly comparable size) that combine to form a single new structure
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starburst
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a galaxy or merger of multiple galaxies that turns gas into stars much faster than usual
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supercluster
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a large region of space (more than 100 million light-years across) where groups and clusters of galaxies are more concentrated; a cluster of clusters of galaxies
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void
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a region between clusters and superclusters of galaxies that appears relatively empty of galaxies


1.6: Group Scenario- Jake
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Jake is a 30 year old biracial male who was assessed after receiving a DUI and placed in intensive outpatient treatment. During check-ins Jake states this is his first DUI and he is here because he is court ordered but doesn’t have a big problem with drinking and can quit if he wants. Jake is the youngest of four children. His siblings range in age from 35-39. He is the baby at 30 years old. His parents are divorced due to his father’s drinking. He has always lived with his mother but she recently kicked him out because he would not get a job or stop using. He is currently homeless and living between friend’s homes or in his car. At his first group he cried while talking about his mother and how he is a disappointment to her. He states he wants to do better and not be a disappointment but he lost his job because his boss didn’t like him and he felt targeted. He shared that he is in a lot of pain all the time. His back and neck hurt constantly and he sometimes gets headaches. He knows he should get a job but now with the DUI he doesn’t know how he can do that. The group was supportive and caring. A month in to the group process Jake is still getting advice from group members on what he needs to do to get housing, a job, and medical care for his constant pain. Jake is likeable and always thankful for the advice but the group is becoming agitated with his responses except for Jake who always comes to his defense. He makes excuses for why nothing will work. “Yes, but I have the DUI to deal with and can’t commit to a work schedule.” “I don’t have any money so I can’t go to the clinic.” “My siblings are angry with me so they won’t help.” “Yes, I would ask my mom or a friend to give me a ride to the free clinic but it is 20 miles away and I don’t have any money for gas.” “I can’t stand being such a disappointment and always asking for things.”