6.2: Setting Goals
To become successful, you must know what you want, set goals, and work toward those goals. Success can only be determined personally. What is success for one person may not be success for another.
Your definition of success is determined by your values and beliefs. Once you know what you want from life, there is a common set of skills that can be applied to reach those goals whether you wish to become a member of the national culinary team, own your own restaurant, or teach cooking in a developing country.
Once you have completed your apprenticeship, there are many career paths available to you. You may wish to open your own restaurant, which may mean saving money to purchase and develop the property. You will also have to acquire skills in business management. You may choose to work in large hotels, working your way up through a variety of positions and properties to become an executive chef. You may aspire to be an educator, to cater meals in a client’s home or on movie locations, or to work in an institutional setting such as a hospital or ferry. Other individuals are content to work under a well-known chef or in a particular restaurant chain. It all depends on what you want from your job and from life.
Setting goals gives your life direction. Goals give you something to work for and provide a sense of accomplishment. While this books focuses mainly on work-related goals, the same process can be used to set and work toward goals in any area of your life. Of course, once you have set a goal, this does not mean that you have to rigidly follow a set path. Often, opportunities may come up that create a means to shorten your path or change direction. For example, the bankruptcy of the restaurant in which you are working or a job shortage may cause you to create your own job or change your career direction.
Values and Beliefs
What you want in life depends on what you value and believe. The first step in setting goals is to think about what is important to you. If you simply base your goals on what others want or believe to be important, you may not be happy even though you achieve these goals. Your choices and decisions have to be based on what you think, feel, and believe.
Your values and beliefs come from your family and your experience of the world. For example, if you come from a close and loving family where parents and children spend a lot of time together, you are likely to place a strong value on family time. You may also develop this value if you feel that you were lacking in this closeness as a child.
Values and beliefs may shape:
- Where you want to live
- What hours you want to work
- How much money you want to have
- What kind of family life you want
- What kind of job and job responsibilities you want
- What kind of community involvement you choose
- How much leisure time you desire
- How important religion, altruism (generosity to others), and spirituality are to your life
These factors, in turn, will shape what type of job you want. For example, some people are willing to work long, hard hours in a remote mining camp away from friends and family in order to make more money and to spend time in a remote wilderness setting. Notice that there is seldom a way of having it all. You have to set priorities, deciding which values are more important than others. Sometimes these decisions are long term. A person whose long-term goals include making money and spending time hiking and fishing may spend many seasons working in a remote lodge setting.
For others, these goals may be short-term decisions that form a stepping stone to reaching another goal. For example, the attractive wages in an oil drilling camp might allow a person to save enough money to open a bistro or coffee shop. This person may be willing to spend two or three seasons working in a camp while saving as much as possible.
Before proceeding any further, think about your values and beliefs. What are your priorities in life? What is your current situation? What are your current responsibilities?
What Are Goals?
Goals are statements of what you want to achieve, do or be. They should be:
- S pecific
- M easurable
- A chievable
- R ealistic
- T imely
For example, “I want to qualify as a chef de cuisine within the next seven years” is a realistic goal for someone who is completing the Cook Apprenticeship program. At the end of seven years, you would be able to tell whether you had achieved this goal or not. Whether a goal is realistic depends on the your situation. For example, if you have not completed high school or begun a cooking apprenticeship, this goal may not be realistic.
“I want to live in a nice place” is not a measurable goal. You haven’t said when you want to achieve this goal, whether the place is a city or town, or a house or apartment. Does the statement mean that you own the place? You can’t tell from the way it is worded. The more specific you are about your goals, the more likely you are to achieve them.
Factors that prevent people from setting and achieving goals
At first thought, lack of money, education, and time seem to be important factors that prevent people from achieving their goals. However, the success of some people who lack all of these things and have family responsibilities as well suggests that other factors are more important. The most critical factors that prevent people from reaching their goals are fear of failure, lack of self-esteem, a fear of missing other opportunities, and a lack of confidence in their ability to meet their goals.
Keys to successful goals
The key to achieving goals is, first and foremost, to set a goal that you really want: a goal that you are passionate about and willing to work hard toward. You must believe that you can reach your goals. Your goal must be achievable. There is no point in setting an unattainable goal. You need to have timelines for achieving the goals. You must recognize that you need the support of others in reaching the goal. This may include your friends and family. You also need to recognize that some people will not be supportive and find ways to minimize your interaction with them.
Not enough time
Lack of time is a common complaint and a common excuse for not reaching goals. Everyone has just 24 hours a day. Some people have better time management skills. This allows them to get more done in a day than others can accomplish. Everyone finds time for those things that are most important to them. If you find lack of time a problem, consider how you manage your time. Do you waste a lot of time? Do you set priorities for your time? Could you delegate some chores to others? Are there some things you could drop or postpone in order to have time to achieve your goals?
Obviously, some people have more commitments than others. Some people also have lower energy levels or a higher need for sleep than others. This may mean that they must allow more time in order to achieve the same goals, or find other ways of achieving these goals. For example, you may only be able to attend one course per year rather than two or three while working full time if you are also a full-time parent. Perhaps a distance education course might be an option that allows you to achieve your goal.
Taking Stock
Once you have set a goal, you need to take stock of where you are. This means identifying your strengths related to the goal, and the barriers in the way of reaching your goal. Strengths include skills and experience related to the goal, any personal habits that make it easier to achieve success, the support of family and friends, and resources that you have such as access to a car, a special library, or a free babysitter. Barriers are all the things that get in the way of meeting your goals. They may be a lack of something, such as education, money, information, or experience. They may also be an existing financial or personal commitment that gets in the way of easily achieving the goal.
For example, Susan, who wants to own her own restaurant, might identify the strengths and barriers as shown in Table 4.
| Strengths |
|
|---|---|
| Barriers |
|
Once you have assessed your skills, strengths, and barriers, you are ready to start the next step, planning. Planning must take into consideration the strengths and barriers you have identified. To begin, use cards or small pieces of paper to write down ideas about steps you can complete to bring you closer to your goal (Figure 16).
Once you have run out of ideas, arrange the papers or cards in time order. For example, Susan may want to rearrange her budget and move to a smaller apartment so that she can pay off her car loan more quickly and then begin saving money. She might also decide to sell her car and buy an older, used car so that she can pay off her loan right away.
Check to see that you have not missed any steps. Refer to your barriers to see whether you have found ways around each. Look at each card to see if there are any steps you need to complete before you complete this one. For example, in order to register for a distance education course, you may have to request high school transcripts from another province.
Each step should be something that you can complete in a short period of time, usually no more than several months. Each step should bring you a little closer to reaching your goal. Be realistic about the time it will take to complete a step. Make the steps a little smaller if they will take a year or more. The steps you will identify will be different from those for another person with a similar goal because you start with different skills, abilities, and strengths and face different barriers.
Once you think that you have all the necessary steps listed, ask a friend or family member for input. Add any new steps and reorder them if necessary. In Susan’s case, her uncle, who owns a restaurant, could provide valuable assistance. He may also be able to suggest ways in which he could help Susan, perhaps by acting as a mentor.
Finding a Mentor
A mentor is a person who is a trusted advisor, someone you can consult on an ongoing basis concerning your progress and problems. You could approach someone who has already achieved a goal similar to the one you have set for yourself. This could be a former supervisor, a chef you have met through the local chefs’ association, or a restaurant manager you know. You should try to find someone you like and trust, a person who is willing provide you with help and encouragement. This individual should also be prepared to give you constructive criticism when you need it.
A mentor can be very helpful in keeping you focused and working toward your goals. He or she usually has more experience and can help you tackle the problems that arise as you work through your action plan.
Setting a timeline and sticking to it
Next, set a time for completing each step in your plan. Be realistic about the amount of time it will take to complete the step and the amount of time you can devote to the step during a particular time period. Plan to accomplish something each week and month, even if these steps are very small. Promise yourself a small reward for accomplishing a certain number of tasks on time. Share your plan with others who will help keep you motivated and ask them for their continued support. For example, Susan’s uncle might offer to meet with her once a month to review her progress toward her goal.
Enlist the help of family members and friends when appropriate. For example, Susan knows someone who might be willing to share a house and who would be willing to have her four-year-old son (who lives with his father) visit on weekends. By sharing, both Susan and her friend might reduce their living costs.
 Don’t get discouraged if you miss a deadline occasionally. Readjust your timeline to catch up with the steps. If some unexpected problems arise, take stock again, add new steps if necessary, and readjust. For example, Susan had a car accident that caused her to miss two months of work and undergo intensive rehabilitation. During that time, she was unable to complete a course. Once she had recovered, she reviewed her action plan and adjusted her dates as necessary.
Table 5 shows a partial list of the steps Susan identified in order to meet her goal and the timeline she prepared. She prepared this plan in March; you are looking at her progress in early May.
| Step | Planned Completion Date | Actual Completion Date |
|---|---|---|
| Rework personal budget to save $200 per month | March 31 | March 31 |
| Give notice to present landlord | March 31 | March 31 |
| Find new accommodation that fits new budget | April 15 | April 6 |
| Sell car and pay off car loan | April 15 | April 18 |
| Use proceeds to buy older car without loan (brother may have a lead on a good car) | April 22 | April 23 |
| Move into new apartment | May 1 | May 1 |
| Write Cook Red Seal exam | May 15 | |
| Increase monthly savings to $400 as a result of having no car loan | June 1 | |
| Borrow Restaurant Operations Manual from uncle and study legal and legislative requirements section; rework action plan if necessary | June 15 | |
| Register for a bartender’s course to start in September | June 15 |
Note that Susan has not met all of her timelines. However, she is making steady progress toward her goal. With support from her uncle, other family members, and friends, she will achieve success. At the end of June, Susan had met all of her goals so far and gave herself a weekend camping trip as a reward.
Media Attributions
- Steps on Sticky Notes by go2HR. Used with permission


6: Body Paragraphs Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 20632 Athena Kashyap & Erika Dyquisto City College of San Francisco via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative 6.1: Strategies for Developing Paragraphs This page explains strategies to help you develop body paragraphs and provides some expectations about writing explanation and elaboration in college. 6.2: Types of Support This page describes and provides practice on deciding the types of support a writer might use given a certain purpose and audience. 6.3: Working with Sources- Part I This page provides principles and practice for paraphrasing and bringing in sources into your writing. 6.4: Working with Sources- Part II This page explains and gives lots of practice for properly incorporating quotations into your sentences. 6.5: Creating Coherence This page provides instruction and examples about how to create coherent and cohesive paragraphs. 6.6: Key Takeaways


23.3: Bacterial Infections of the Reproductive System
- Identify the most common bacterial pathogens that can cause infections of the reproductive system
- Compare the major characteristics of specific bacterial diseases affecting the reproductive system
In addition to infections of the urinary tract, bacteria commonly infect the reproductive tract. As with the urinary tract, parts of the reproductive system closest to the external environment are the most likely sites of infection. Often, the same microbes are capable of causing urinary tract and reproductive tract infections.
Bacterial Vaginitis and Vaginosis
Inflammation of the vagina is called vaginitis, often caused by a bacterial infection. It is also possible to have an imbalance in the normal vaginal microbiota without inflammation called bacterial vaginosis (BV). Vaginosis may be asymptomatic or may cause mild symptoms such as a thin, white-to-yellow, homogeneous vaginal discharge, burning, odor, and itching. The major causative agent is Gardnerella vaginalis , a gram-variable to gram-negative pleomorphic bacterium. Other causative agents include anaerobic species such as members of the genera Bacteroides and Fusobacterium . Additionally, ureaplasma and mycoplasma may be involved. The disease is usually self-limiting, although antibiotic treatment is recommended if symptoms develop.
G. vaginalis appears to be more virulent than other vaginal bacterial species potentially associated with BV. Like Lactobacillus spp., G. vaginalis is part of the normal vaginal microbiota, but when the population of Lactobacillus spp. decreases and the vaginal pH increases, G. vaginalis flourishes, causing vaginosis by attaching to vaginal epithelial cells and forming a thick protective biofilm. G. vaginalis also produces a cytotoxin called vaginolysin that lyses vaginal epithelial cells and red blood cells.Since G. vaginalis can also be isolated from healthy women, the “gold standard” for the diagnosis of BV is direct examination of vaginal secretions and not the culture of G. vaginalis . Diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis from vaginal secretions can be accurately made in three ways. The first is to use a DNA probe. The second method is to assay for sialidase activity (sialidase is an enzyme produced by G. vaginalis and other bacteria associated with vaginosis, including Bacteroides spp., Prevotella spp., and Mobiluncus spp.). The third method is to assess gram-stained vaginal smears for microscopic morphology and relative numbers and types of bacteria, squamous epithelial cells, and leukocytes. By examining slides prepared from vaginal swabs, it is possible to distinguish lactobacilli (long, gram-positive rods) from other gram-negative species responsible for BV. A shift in predominance from gram-positive bacilli to gram-negative coccobacilli can indicate BV. Additionally, the slide may contain so-called clue cells, which are epithelial cells that appear to have a granular or stippled appearance due to bacterial cells attached to their surface (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
Presumptive diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis can involve an assessment of clinical symptoms and evaluation of vaginal fluids using Amsel’s diagnostic criteria which include 3 out of 4 of the following characteristics:
- white to yellow discharge;
- a fishy odor, most noticeable when 10% KOH is added;
- pH greater than 4.5;
- the presence of clue cells.
Treatment is often unnecessary because the infection often clears on its own. However, in some cases, antibiotics such as topical or oral clindamycin or metronidazole may be prescribed. Alternative treatments include oral tinidazole or clindamycin ovules (vaginal suppositories).
- Explain the difference between vaginosis and vaginitis.
- What organisms are responsible for vaginosis and what organisms typically hold it at bay?
There is no catch-all test for STIs, so several tests, in addition to a physical exam, are necessary to diagnose an infection. Nadia tries to relax in the exam room while she waits for the doctor to return, but she is nervous about the results.
When the doctor finally returns, she has some unexpected news: Nadia is pregnant. Surprised and excited, Nadia wants to know if the pregnancy explains her unusual symptoms. The doctor explains that the irritation that Nadia is experiencing is vaginitis, which can be caused by several types of microorganisms. One possibility is bacterial vaginosis, which develops when there is an imbalance in the bacteria in the vagina, as often occurs during pregnancy. Vaginosis can increase the risk of preterm birth and low birth weight, and a few studies have also shown that it can cause second-trimester miscarriage; however, the condition can be treated. To check for it, the doctor has asked the lab to perform a Gram stain on Nadia’s sample.
- What result would you expect from the Gram stain if Nadia has bacterial vaginosis?
- What is the relationship between pregnancy, estrogen levels, and development of bacterial vaginosis?
Gonorrhea
Also known as the clap, gonorrhea is a common sexually transmitted disease of the reproductive system that is especially prevalent in individuals between the ages of 15 and 24. It is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae , often called gonococcus or GC, which have fimbriae that allow the cells to attach to epithelial cells. It also has a type of lipopolysaccharide endotoxin called lipooligosaccharide as part of the outer membrane structure that enhances its pathogenicity. In addition to causing urethritis, N. gonorrhoeae can infect other body tissues such as the skin, meninges, pharynx, and conjunctiva.
Many infected individuals (both men and women) are asymptomatic carriers of gonorrhea. When symptoms do occur, they manifest differently in males and females. Males may develop pain and burning during urination and discharge from the penis that may be yellow, green, or white (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Less commonly, the testicles may become swollen or tender. Over time, these symptoms can increase and spread. In some cases, chronic infection develops. The disease can also develop in the rectum, causing symptoms such as discharge, soreness, bleeding, itching, and pain (especially in association with bowel movements).
Women may develop pelvic pain, discharge from the vagina, intermenstrual bleeding (i.e., bleeding not associated with normal menstruation), and pain or irritation associated with urination. As with men, the infection can become chronic. In women, however, chronic infection can cause increases in menstrual flow. Rectal infection can also occur, with the symptoms previously described for men. Infections that spread to the endometrium and fallopian tubes can cause pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), characterized by pain in the lower abdominal region, dysuria, vaginal discharge, and fever. PID can also lead to infertility through scarring and blockage of the fallopian tubes (salpingitis); it may also increase the risk of a life-threatening ectopic pregnancy, which occurs when a fertilized egg begins developing somewhere other than the uterus (e.g., in the fallopian tube or ovary).
When a gonorrhea infection disseminates throughout the body, serious complications can develop. The infection may spread through the blood (bacteremia) and affect organs throughout the body, including the heart (gonorrheal endocarditis), joints (gonorrheal arthritis), and meninges encasing the brain (meningitis).
Urethritis caused by N. gonorrhoeae can be difficult to treat due to antibiotic resistance (see Micro Connections below). Some strains have developed resistance to the fluoroquinolones, so cephalosporins are often a first choice for treatment. Because co-infection with C. trachomatis is common, the CDC recommends treating with a combination regimen of ceftriaxone and azithromycin. Treatment of sexual partners is also recommended to avoid reinfection and spread of infection to others. 1
- What are some of the serious consequences of a gonorrhea infection?
- What organism commonly coinfects with N. gonorrhoeae ?
Antibiotic resistance in many pathogens is steadily increasing, causing serious concern throughout the public health community. Increased resistance has been especially notable in some species, such as Neisseria gonorrhoeae . The CDC monitors the spread of antibiotic resistance in N. gonorrhoeae , which it classifies as an urgent threat, and makes recommendations for treatment. So far, N. gonorrhoeae has shown resistance to cefixime (a cephalosporin), ceftriaxone (another cephalosporin), azithromycin, and tetracycline. Resistance to tetracycline is the most common, and was seen in 188,600 cases of gonorrhea in 2011 (out of a total 820,000 cases). In 2011, some 246,000 cases of gonorrhea involved strains of N. gonorrhoeae that were resistant to at least one antibiotic. 2 These resistance genes are spread by plasmids, and a single bacterium may be resistant to multiple antibiotics. The CDC currently recommends treatment with two medications, ceftriaxone and azithromycin, to attempt to slow the spread of resistance. If resistance to cephalosporins increases, it will be extremely difficult to control the spread of N. gonorrhoeae .
Chlamydia
Chlamydia trachomatis is the causative agent of the STI chlamydia (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). While many Chlamydia infections are asymptomatic, chlamydia is a major cause of nongonococcal urethritis (NGU) and may also cause epididymitis and orchitis in men. In women, chlamydia infections can cause urethritis, salpingitis, and PID. In addition, chlamydial infections may be associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer.
Because chlamydia is widespread, often asymptomatic, and has the potential to cause substantial complications, routine screening is recommended for sexually active women who are under age 25, at high risk (i.e., not in a monogamous relationship), or beginning prenatal care.
Certain serovars of C. trachomatis can cause an infection of the lymphatic system in the groin known as lymphogranuloma venereum. This condition is commonly found in tropical regions and can also co-occur in conjunction with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. After the microbes invade the lymphatic system, buboes (large lymph nodes, see Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)) form and can burst, releasing pus through the skin. The male genitals can become greatly enlarged and in women the rectum may become narrow.
Urogenital infections caused by C. trachomatis can be treated using azithromycin or doxycycline (the recommended regimen from the CDC). Erythromycin, levofloxacin, and ofloxacin are alternatives.
Compare the signs and symptoms of chlamydia infection in men and women.
Syphilis
Syphilis is spread through direct physical (generally sexual) contact, and is caused by the gram-negative spirochete Treponema pallidum . T. pallidum has a relatively simple genome and lacks lipopolysaccharide endotoxin characteristic of gram-negative bacteria. However, it does contain lipoproteins that trigger an immune response in the host, causing tissue damage that may enhance the pathogen’s ability to disseminate while evading the host immune system.
After entering the body, T. pallidum moves rapidly into the bloodstream and other tissues. If not treated effectively, syphilis progresses through three distinct stages: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary syphilis appears as a single lesion on the cervix, penis, or anus within 10 to 90 days of transmission. Such lesions contain many T. pallidum cells and are highly infectious. The lesion, called a hard chancre, is initially hard and painless, but it soon develops into an ulcerated sore (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). Localized lymph node swelling may occur as well. In some cases, these symptoms may be relatively mild, and the lesion may heal on its own within two to six weeks. Because the lesions are painless and often occur in hidden locations (e.g., the cervix or anus), infected individuals sometimes do not notice them.
The secondary stage generally develops once the primary chancre has healed or begun to heal. Secondary syphilis is characterized by a rash that affects the skin and mucous membranes of the mouth, vagina, or anus. The rash often begins on the palms or the soles of the feet and spreads to the trunk and the limbs (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). The rash may take many forms, such as macular or papular. On mucous membranes, it may manifest as mucus patches or white, wartlike lesions called condylomata lata. The rash may be accompanied by malaise, fever, and swelling of lymph nodes. Individuals are highly contagious in the secondary stage, which lasts two to six weeks and is recurrent in about 25% of cases.
After the secondary phase, syphilis can enter a latent phase, in which there are no symptoms but microbial levels remain high. Blood tests can still detect the disease during latency. The latent phase can persist for years.
Tertiary syphilis, which may occur 10 to 20 years after infection, produces the most severe symptoms and can be fatal. Granulomatous lesions called gummas may develop in a variety of locations, including mucous membranes, bones, and internal organs (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). Gummas can be large and destructive, potentially causing massive tissue damage. The most deadly lesions are those of the cardiovascular system (cardiovascular syphilis) and the central nervous system (neurosyphilis). Cardiovascular syphilis can result in a fatal aortic aneurysm (rupture of the aorta) or coronary stenosis (a blockage of the coronary artery). Damage to the central nervous system can cause dementia, personality changes, seizures, general paralysis, speech impairment, loss of vision and hearing, and loss of bowel and bladder control.
The recommended methods for diagnosing early syphilis are darkfield or brightfield (silver stain) microscopy of tissue or exudate from lesions to detect T. pallidum (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). If these methods are not available, two types of serologic tests (treponemal and nontreponemal) can be used for a presumptive diagnosis once the spirochete has spread in the body. Nontreponemal serologic tests include the Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) and rapid plasma reagin(RPR) tests. These are similar screening tests that detect nonspecific antibodies (those for lipid antigens produced during infection) rather than those produced against the spirochete. Treponemal serologic tests measure antibodies directed against T. pallidum antigens using particle agglutination ( T. pallidum passive particle agglutination or TP-PA), immunofluorescence (the fluorescent T. pallidum antibody absorption or FTA-ABS), various enzyme reactions (enzyme immunoassays or EIAs) and chemiluminescence immunoassays (CIA). Confirmatory testing, rather than screening, must be done using treponemal rather than nontreponemal tests because only the former tests for antibodies to spirochete antigens. Both treponemal and nontreponemal tests should be used (as opposed to just one) since both tests have limitations than can result in false positives or false negatives.
Neurosyphilis cannot be diagnosed using a single test. With or without clinical signs, it is generally necessary to assess a variety of factors, including reactive serologic test results, cerebrospinal fluid cell count abnormalities, cerebrospinal fluid protein abnormalities, or reactive VDRL-CSF (the VDRL test of cerebrospinal fluid). The VDRL-CSF is highly specific, but not sufficiently sensitive for conclusive diagnosis.
The recommended treatment for syphilis is parenteral penicillin G (especially long-acting benzathine penicillin, although the exact choice depends on the stage of disease). Other options include tetracycline and doxycycline.
Congenital Syphilis
Congenital syphilis is passed by mother to fetus when untreated primary or secondary syphilis is present. In many cases, infection may lead to miscarriage or stillbirth. Children born with congenital syphilis show symptoms of secondary syphilis and may develop mucus patches that deform the nose. In infants, gummas can cause significant tissue damage to organs and teeth. Many other complications may develop, such as osteochondritis, anemia, blindness, bone deformations, neurosyphilis, and cardiovascular lesions. Because congenital syphilis poses such a risk to the fetus, expectant mothers are screened for syphilis infection during the first trimester of pregnancy as part of the TORCH panel of prenatal tests.
- What aspect of tertiary syphilis can lead to death?
- How do treponemal serologic tests detect an infection?
Chancroid
The sexually transmitted infection chancroid is caused by the gram-negative rod Haemophilus ducreyi .  Unlike the hard chancres associated with syphilis, soft chancres develop into painful, open sores that may bleed or produce fluid that is highly contagious. In addition to causing chancres, the bacteria can invade the lymph nodes, potentially leading to pus discharge through the skin from lymph nodes in the groin. Like other genital lesions, soft chancres are of particular concern because they compromise the protective barriers of the skin or mucous membranes, making individuals more susceptible to HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases.
Several virulence factors have been associated with H. ducreyi , including lipooligosaccharides, protective outer membrane proteins, antiphagocytic proteins, secretory proteins, and collagen-specific adhesin NcaA. The collagen-specific adhesion NcaA plays an important role in initial cellular attachment and colonization. Outer membrane proteins DsrA and DltA have been shown to provide protection from serum-mediated killing by antibodies and complement.
H. ducreyi is difficult to culture; thus, diagnosis is generally based on clinical observation of genital ulcers and tests that rule out other diseases with similar ulcers, such as syphilis and genital herpes. PCR tests for H. ducreyi have been developed in some laboratories, but as of 2015 none had been cleared by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 3 Recommended treatments for chancroid include antibiotics such as azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin and ceftriaxone. Resistance to ciprofloxacin and erythromycin has been reported. 4
- What is the key difference between chancroid lesions and those associated with syphilis?
- Why is it difficult to definitively diagnose chancroid?
Many bacterial infections affecting the reproductive system are transmitted through sexual contact, but some can be transmitted by other means. In the United States, gonorrhea and chlamydia are common illnesses with incidences of about 350,000 and 1.44 million, respectively, in 2014. Syphilis is a rarer disease with an incidence of 20,000 in 2014. Chancroid is exceedingly rare in the United States with only six cases in 2014 and a median of 10 cases per year for the years 2010–2014. 5 Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\) summarizes bacterial infections of the reproductive tract.
Key Concepts and Summary
- Bacterial vaginosis is caused by an imbalance in the vaginal microbiota, with a decrease in lactobacilli and an increase in vaginal pH. G. vaginalis is the most common cause of bacterial vaginosis, which is associated with vaginal discharge, odor, burning, and itching.
- Gonorrhea is caused by N. gonorrhoeae , which can cause infection of the reproductive and urinary tracts and is associated with symptoms of urethritis. If left untreated, it can progress to epididymitis, salpingitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease and enter the bloodstream to infect other sites in the body.
- Chlamydia is the most commonly reported STI and is caused by C. trachomatis . Most infections are asymptomatic, and infections that are not treated can spread to involve the epididymis of men and cause salpingitis and pelvic inflammatory disease in women.
- Syphilis is caused by T. pallidum and has three stages, primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary syphilis is associated with a painless hard chancre lesion on genitalia. Secondary syphilis is associated with skin and mucous membrane lesions. Tertiary syphilis is the most serious and life-threatening, and can involve serious nervous system damage.
- Chancroid is an infection of the reproductive tract caused by H. ducreyi that results in the development of characteristic soft chancres .
Footnotes
- 1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “2015 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines: Gonococcal Infections,” 2015. http://www.cdc.gov/std/tg2015/gonorrhea.htm .
- 2 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Antibiotic Resistance Threats in the United States, 2013,” 2013. http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/pd...s-2013-508.pdf .
- 3 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “2015 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines: Chancroid,” 2015. http://www.cdc.gov/std/tg2015/chancroid.htm .
- 4 Ibid.
- 5 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “2014 Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance,” 2015. http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats14/default.htm .


10.12: Interpolation Illustrated
Interpolation may be useful in order to estimate future (and present-) values when one does not wish, or have the ability, to calculate more precise measures. The reason for the error has to do with the curvilinear relationship between (discount- and) compound interest rates and their related multipliers. This is best seen by illustration.
One may readily see that, by connecting the asterisks, the interpolated value of 2.4806 resides on a straight line between the correctly calculated future value multipliers for 9% and 10% respectively.
However, the time value of money is not linear. Any time an exponent is involved, you will not get a linear relationship, but a curvilinear outcome of some sort. Hence, the correct multiplier for 9.5% is 2.4782, which is lower than the interpolated arithmetic average of 2.4806. If one joins the asterisks for 9% and 10% to the mathematically calculated middle value of 2.4782 (represented by “#”), one readily observes the curvilinear relationship between compound interest rates and their respective multipliers. In short, as rates increase, future values increase in non-linear fashion. Correspondingly, present values would decrease non-linearly. The non-linear nature of these curves will soon be discussed in greater depth when we get to “Volatility.” Basic mathematical examples will be presented.


2.8: Official American English is Best
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- Last updated
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- Cheryl E. Ball & Drew M. Loewe ed.
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Author: Steven Alvarez, English, St. John’s University
The debate in favor of English as the official language of the United States focuses on narrowing national unity amid linguistic diversity for the sake of communicative clarity and the betterment of the country. Generally speaking, arguments for English as the national language boil down to assimilating immigrants to the United States. English-only supporters reason that if immigrants come to the United States, they must learn to speak, read, and write English. And more, U.S. citizens should not have to be burdened to speak, read, or write official business in languages that are not English—U.S. citizens should not be inconvenienced with para español, marque número dos when calling their banks or for footing the bill to translate driver’s license applications or signs at the Division of Motor Vehicles into different languages, let alone filling out an application in another language.
Thirty-one states have some form of English-only legislation, most recently Oklahoma in 2010. For over three decades, the political think tank known as U.S. English has been central for shaping legal policies advocating for the unifying role of an official language in the United States. U.S. English has lobbied to enact Englishonly legislation across the United States, or what the organization calls Official English. According to U.S. English, recognizing English as the official language of the nation benefits the government and its citizens by fostering a common means of communication among its 325 spoken languages. Official English urges that official government business at all levels be conducted solely in English, including signs, applications, public documents, records, official ceremonies, and meetings. U.S. English argues that making Official English the law of the land would “encourage immigrants to learn English in order to use government services and participate in the democratic process.” Immigrants in the Official English movement must be forcefully encouraged to read, write, and speak English, because if they live in America, they better learn English, and learn quickly if they want to catch up with everyone else. Implicit in the argument is that immigrants don’t want to learn English, that immigrants don’t exercise their democratic rights, and that immigrants don’t integrate with the mainstream.
These huge misconceptions are at the root of U.S. English’s arguments dismissing bilingual education, literacy learning, and immigrant involvement for a mythologized monolingual United States, which are bad ideas for all writers in a democratic society. Rather than approach the diversity of our voices in the United States as gaps to be overcome toward learning English, we should look to all of our nation’s languages as gifts. The question of Official English unifying difference is a smokescreen for nationalist conceptions about immigrant integration and assimilation. Indeed, the argument for Official English swirls into a dichotomy between us and them , focusing specifically on how becoming American for immigrants means being encouraged to lose a central component of their identity to participate in the democratic process. This way of thinking about plurilingual burdens hurts how the United States thinks of its many linguistic gifts, however. The worst part of this plurilingual benign neglect is the unfair blame individuals and groups receive for their supposed English language lacks, deficits, and gaps. I propose instead that we learn how our writing repertoires move beyond and between languages. Instead of standardized monolingual writing in Official English terms, we can instead turn to how writing grounded in social justice and democratic pluralism connects local, national, and global struggles that challenge language nationalism.
The Myth of an English-Only United States
The English-only myth assigns deficits and gaps to anyone with home languages that are not English. English-only policies make prescriptions about official languages, and such debates also make prescriptions about who can be a citizen or pass as one. Among immigrant families across the nation there is a strong desire to learn English. Immigrants on one level believe in more economic opportunities with English, but also the power of English to be able to defend themselves. In fact, immigrant parents learning
English often blame themselves for not assimilating their children’s language identities, and in cases of home language loss, blame themselves for that as well. What the English-only argument misses is the human struggles of immigrants, of individual and collective community struggles for bilingual education. For English-only advocates, immigrants are faceless statistics connected to cost analysis and alleged drains on public systems, such as printing public signs and materials in languages that are not English.
English as the official language of the United States has roots that go back to the founding of the United States. Benjamin Franklin, for example, was notorious for desiring to rid the nation of German-language schools. English-only was one of the Founding Father’s major concerns for preserving and conserving the emerging American identity. This is ironic enough considering the English language’s Germanic heritage, but nevertheless the sense of linguistic assimilation amid pluralism has deep sediment within the American monolingual psyche. Native Americans and immigrants from around the world have had their languages forcefully removed in the United States since its beginning and have continually suffered assimilative pressures in schools for generations.
It was not until the 1980s, however, that federal proposals for a constitutional amendment declaring English the official language of the nation became increasingly vocal. In 1981, U.S. Senator Samuel Ichiye Hayakawa, one of U.S. English’s founders, introduced the amendment in the Senate, and though the amendment did not progress, the arguments awakened multiple lobbying groups to expand the efforts at the state level, succeeding in some 30 states to date. The U.S. English lobbyists made their biggest strides in California, the home state of Senator Hayakawa. In 1998, California voters passed Proposition 227, mandating that California Limited English Proficient (LEP) students be taught literacy overwhelmingly in English-only immersion programs not normally expected to exceed one year rather than provide any funding for bilingual education. After one year, students were encouraged to sink or swim in mainstream classes. As a result, California removed all bilingual classes and assessed thousands of emergent bilingual students as limited in their academic English proficiency. At the time, roughly a quarter of California’s students classified as limited.
The arguments for national unity linked to English and assimilation compel bizarre patriotic themes that convince some Americans who would find discrimination on any other spaces shameful. Through the guise of language, however, targeting immigrants turns discrimination into euphemisms about citizenship, belonging, and the public good. The limited in the LEP designation carries the stigma of deficiency, applied to students’ languaging abilities and assuming potential and, as a result, opportunities. The children affected by the legislation are not researchers for think tanks or lobbyists, let alone against learning English or their home languages. The real limit for all students is mainstreaming policy that cuts away at the plurilingual gifts of our nation. All Americans stand to gain by learning to speak, read, and write many languages.
Embracing All the Languages of the United States as Gifts
The truth is that immigrants to the United States learn English faster today than at any point in history. Historically, immigrants to the U.S. transitioned from home languages to English within three generations. Today, this timeframe has been compressed for some immigrant groups to a single generation, as linguistic scholars Rubén Rumbaut and Douglas Massey explain. The problem, therefore, is not learning English but rather remaining bilingual.
In addition, the assumptions of Official English that students learning English find little support from their families or that students’ home languages have no place in learning both fall flat. Official English assumes that there is no value to fluencies in languages not English and that monolingual English is sufficient for the global language. The narrow-minded view that Englishonly is the only model for literacy learning should be put to rest. English-only does not contribute to meaningful education on any grounds. Decades of research into bilingual learning strongly advocates for all students’ plurilingual learning.
Plurilingual writers have extensive vocabularies beyond English and excellent abilities to translate and interpret across and between languages. Bilingual individuals have also proven to develop complex meta-cognitive skills for translating and communicating among diverse audiences. This movement between people and writing makes for complex imaginative and critical writing. Consider this plurilingual gift of writing as a way to move away from the misconceptions about English-only ideologies. In a global economy, the power of English is undeniable, yet the power of bilinguals to communicate beyond and across languages and cultures is invaluable. Further, we can and must appreciate plurilingualism as a gift, a gift that some students bring to our schools from their homes and communities. When we try, we can learn to appreciate that all the languages of our nation are gifts, and those gifts shape our identities as unique individuals in communities who speak to one another between and across languages and differences, even in spaces imagined to be monolingual.
Writing Across and Between Languages
Ultimately, schools bear the responsibility for producing conscientious citizens; hence, the intolerant impetus behind Proposition 227 and efforts to standardize students and their languages do not follow the democratic tradition of U.S. schooling. English-only initiatives at the state level have not produced any evidence to back their arguments about increasing proficiency among emergent bilingual students or for aiding public communication. This lack of evidence is not surprising because in reality there are no language gaps, aside from those that policy makers create out of air. If you catch yourself using ideas of language gaps , limited , or playing catch up to arrive at English literacy, don’t play into the game. There are no gaps or limits when it comes to languages; there are only gifts. So-called language gaps are bad for writing in all languages—not just English—and bad for democracy.
On a practical level, I write this from the level of students who don’t lobby Congress but who must learn to value the dignity of all languages, most importantly the languages of all our nation’s communities and families. Rather than mark emergent bilingual students by their limits, we should instead imagine students by their potential and by the strengths they gain from their communities that they carry with them into classrooms. Rather than assume students are limited writers or at fault in their individualized efforts, we must acknowledge that emerging bilingual students are not limited in their community contexts and instead look to the diverse repertoires they perform. Writing that is truly democratic values all languages and identities as they exist across the nation and not as imagined as English-only.
This type of writing means embracing all languages of communities, following the movements in diverse activities, performances, and genres, including across generations and social classes. For English-only purists, this view will remain contrary to their ideology, but a realistic orientation acknowledges that all American communities are plurilingual and that the language hybridity of everyday practices happen in contexts that range from the boroughs of New York City to the Appalachian regions of the South, from Alaska to Hawaii to Puerto Rico. The reading of the word to re-read the world and the opportunity to re-write is where this hybridity can offer the liberating potential to envision social justice across languages.
Further Reading
For more information about linguistic diversity, see Rubén Rumbaut and Douglas S. Massey’s article “Immigration and Language Diversity in the United States.” Camille Ryan offers census data about American language use in Language Use in the United States: 2011: American Community Survey . U.S. English, Inc.’s website offers information about its efforts to make English the official language of the United States.
In 2003, Richard Gonzales reports on National Public Radio about kid translators in the context of California Assembly Bill 292, legislation that would have prohibited the practice of using children as translators for their immigrant parents in business transactions. The short film Immersion (2009) narrates the predicament of a creative emergent bilingual student coping with language differences at school. Accompanying lesson plan materials are available on the film’s official website. Finally, the City University of New York–New York State Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals offers an online guide with practical assistance on how to help facilitate learning content for emergent bilingual students.
Keywords
English-only myths, immigrant communities, literacy, national language, Official English, plurilingual writing
Author Bio
Steven Alvarez is a writing researcher of English at St. John’s University. He has studied literacy and bilingual learning among Mexican immigrant communities across the country for over a decade. Read more of his research and writing at www.stevenpaulalvarez.com and follow him on Twitter @chastitellez and Instagram @stevenpaulalvarez.


2.7.6: The Rectangular Coordinate Systems and Graphs
- Plot ordered pairs in a Cartesian coordinate system.
- Graph equations by plotting points.
- Graph equations with a graphing utility.
- Find \(x\)-intercepts and \(y\)-intercepts.
- Use the distance formula.
- Use the midpoint formula.
Plotting Ordered Pairs in the Cartesian Coordinate System
The Cartesian coordinate system, also called the rectangular coordinate system , is based on a two-dimensional plane consisting of the \(x\)-axis and the \(y\)-axis. Perpendicular to each other, the axes divide the plane into four sections. Each section is called a quadrant; the quadrants are numbered counterclockwise as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).
The center of the plane is the point at which the two axes cross. It is known as the origin, or point \((0,0)\). From the origin, each axis is further divided into equal units: increasing, positive numbers to the right on the \(x\)-axis and up the \(y\)-axis; decreasing, negative numbers to the left on the \(x\)-axis and down the \(y\)-axis. The axes extend to positive and negative infinity as shown by the arrowheads in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\).
Each point in the plane is identified by its \(x\)-coordinate, or horizontal displacement from the origin, and its \(y\)-coordinate, or vertical displacement from the origin. Together, we write them as an ordered pair indicating the combined distance from the origin in the form \((x,y)\). An ordered pair is also known as a coordinate pair because it consists of \(x\)- and \(y\)-coordinates. For example, we can represent the point \((3,−1)\) in the plane by moving three units to the right of the origin in the horizontal direction, and one unit down in the vertical direction. See Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\).
When dividing the axes into equally spaced increments, note that the \(x\)-axis may be considered separately from the \(y\)-axis. In other words, while the \(x\)-axis may be divided and labeled according to consecutive integers, the \(y\)-axis may be divided and labeled by increments of \(2\), or \(10\), or \(100\). In fact, the axes may represent other units, such as years against the balance in a savings account, or quantity against cost, and so on. Consider the rectangular coordinate system primarily as a method for showing the relationship between two quantities.
A two-dimensional plane where the
- \(x\)-axis is the horizontal axis
- \(y\)-axis is the vertical axis
A point in the plane is defined as an ordered pair, \((x,y)\), such that \(x\) is determined by its horizontal distance from the origin and \(y\) is determined by its vertical distance from the origin.
Plot the points \((−2,4)\), \((3,3)\), and \((0,−3)\) in the plane.
- Solution
-
To plot the point \((−2,4)\), begin at the origin. The \(x\)-coordinate is \(–2\), so move two units to the left. The \(y\)-coordinate is \(4\), so then move four units up in the positive \(y\) direction.
To plot the point \((3,3)\), begin again at the origin. The \(x\)-coordinate is \(3\), so move three units to the right. The \(y\)-coordinate is also \(3\), so move three units up in the positive \(y\) direction.
To plot the point \((0,−3)\), begin again at the origin. The \(x\)-coordinate is \(0\). This tells us not to move in either direction along the \(x\)-axis. The \(y\)-coordinate is \(–3\), so move three units down in the negative \(y\) direction. See the graph in Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\).
AnalysisNote that when either coordinate is zero, the point must be on an axis. If the \(x\)-coordinate is zero, the point is on the \(y\)-axis. If the \(y\)-coordinate is zero, the point is on the \(x\)-axis.
Graphing Equations by Plotting Points
We can plot a set of points to represent an equation. When such an equation contains both an \(x\) variable and a \(y\) variable, it is called an equation in two variables . Its graph is called a graph in two variables . Any graph on a two-dimensional plane is a graph in two variables.
Suppose we want to graph the equation \(y=2x−1\). We can begin by substituting a value for \(x\) into the equation and determining the resulting value of \(y\). Each pair of \(x\)- and \(y\)-values is an ordered pair that can be plotted. Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) lists values of \(x\) from \(–3\) to \(3\) and the resulting values for \(y\).
| \(x\) | \(y=2x−1\) | \((x,y)\) |
|---|---|---|
| \(−3\) | \(y=2(−3)−1=−7\) | \((−3,−7)\) |
| \(−2\) | \(y=2(−2)−1=−5\) | \((−2,−5)\) |
| \(−1\) | \(y=2(−1)−1=−3\) | \((−1,−3)\) |
| \(0\) | \(y=2(0)−1=−1\) | \((0,−1)\) |
| \(1\) | \(y=2(1)−1=1\) | \((1,1)\) |
| \(2\) | \(y=2(2)−1=3\) | \((2,3)\) |
| \(3\) | \(y=2(3)−1=5\) | \((3,5)\) |
We can plot the points in the table. The points for this particular equation form a line, so we can connect them (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)). This is not true for all equations.
Note that the \(x\)-values chosen are arbitrary, regardless of the type of equation we are graphing. Of course, some situations may require particular values of \(x\) to be plotted in order to see a particular result. Otherwise, it is logical to choose values that can be calculated easily, and it is always a good idea to choose values that are both negative and positive. There is no rule dictating how many points to plot, although we need at least two to graph a line. Keep in mind, however, that the more points we plot, the more accurately we can sketch the graph.
- Make a table with one column labeled \(x\), a second column labeled with the equation, and a third column listing the resulting ordered pairs.
- Enter \(x\)-values down the first column using positive and negative values. Selecting the \(x\)-values in numerical order will make the graphing simpler.
- Select \(x\)-values that will yield \(y\)-values with little effort, preferably ones that can be calculated mentally.
- Plot the ordered pairs.
- Connect the points if they form a line.
Graph the equation \(y=−x+2\) by plotting points.
- Solution
-
First, we construct a table similar to Table \(\PageIndex{2}\). Choose \(x\) values and calculate \(y\).
Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) \(x\) \(y=−x+2\) \((x,y)\) \(−5\) \(y=−(−5)+2=7\) \((−5,7)\) \(−3\) \(y=−(−3)+2=5\) \((−3,5)\) \(−1\) \(y=−(−1)+2=3\) \((−1,3)\) \(0\) \(y=−(0)+2=2\) \((0,2)\) \(1\) \(y=−(1)+2=1\) \((1,1)\) \(3\) \(y=−(3)+2=−1\) \((3,−1)\) \(5\) \(y=−(5)+2=−3\) \((5,−3)\) Now, plot the points. Connect them if they form a line. See Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\).
Finding \(x\)- intercepts and \(y\)- intercepts
The intercepts of a graph are points at which the graph crosses the axes. The \(x\)-intercept is the point at which the graph crosses the \( x\)-axis. At this point, the \(y\)-coordinate is zero. The \(y\)-intercept is the point at which the graph crosses the \(y\)-axis. At this point, the \(x\)-coordinate is zero.
To determine the \(x\)-intercept, we set \(y\) equal to zero and solve for \(x\). Similarly, to determine the \(y\)-intercept, we set \(x\) equal to zero and solve for \(y\). For example, lets find the intercepts of the equation \(y=3x−1\).
To find the \(x\)-intercept, set \(y=0\).
\[\begin{align*} y &= 3x - 1\\ 0 &= 3x - 1\\ 1 &= 3x\\ \dfrac{1}{3}&= x \end{align*}\]
\(x\)−intercept: \(\left(\dfrac{1}{3},0\right)\)
To find the \(y\)-intercept, set \(x=0\).
\[\begin{align*} y &= 3x - 1\\ y &= 3(0) - 1\\ y &= -1 \end{align*}\]
\(y\) −intercept: \((0,−1)\)
We can confirm that our results make sense by observing a graph of the equation as in Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\). Notice that the graph crosses the axes where we predicted it would.
- Find the \(x\)-intercept by setting \(y=0\) and solving for \(x\).
- Find the \(y\)-intercept by setting \(x=0\) and solving for \(y\).
Find the intercepts of the equation \(y=−3x−4\). Then sketch the graph using only the intercepts.
- Solution
-
Set \(y=0\) to find the \(x\)-intercept.
\[\begin{align*} y &= -3x - 4\\ 0 &= -3x - 4\\ 4 &= -3x\\ \dfrac{4}{3}&= x \end{align*}\]
\(x\)−intercept: \(\left(−\dfrac{4}{3},0\right)\)
Set \(x=0\) to find the \(y\)-intercept.
\[\begin{align*} y &= -3x - 4\\ y &= -3(0) - 4\\ y &= -4 \end{align*}\]
\(y\) −intercept: \((0,−4)\)
Plot both points, and draw a line passing through them as in Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\).
Using the Distance Formula
Derived from the Pythagorean Theorem , the distance formula is used to find the distance between two points in the plane. The Pythagorean Theorem, \(a^2+b^2=c^2\), is based on a right triangle where \(a\) and \(b\) are the lengths of the legs adjacent to the right angle, and \(c\) is the length of the hypotenuse. See Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\).
The relationship of sides \(|x_2−x_1|\) and \(|y_2−y_1|\) to side \(d\) is the same as that of sides \(a\) and \(b\) to side \(c\). We use the absolute value symbol to indicate that the length is a positive number because the absolute value of any number is positive. (For example, \(|-3|=3\). ) The symbols \(|x_2−x_1|\) and \(|y_2−y_1|\) indicate that the lengths of the sides of the triangle are positive. To find the length \(c\), take the square root of both sides of the Pythagorean Theorem.
\[c^2=a^2+b^2\rightarrow c=\sqrt{a^2+b^2}\]
It follows that the distance formula is given as
\[d^2={(x_2−x_1)}^2+{(y_2−y_1)}^2\rightarrow d=\sqrt{{(x_2−x_1)}^2+{(y_2−y_1)}^2}\]
We do not have to use the absolute value symbols in this definition because any number squared is positive.
Given endpoints \((x_1,y_1)\) and \((x_2,y_2)\), the distance between two points is given by
\[d=\sqrt{{(x_2−x_1)}^2+{(y_2−y_1)}^2}\]
Find the distance between the points \((−3,−1)\) and \((2,3)\).
- Solution
-
Let us first look at the graph of the two points. Connect the points to form a right triangle as in Figure \(\PageIndex{16}\)
Then, calculate the length of \(d\) using the distance formula.
\[\begin{align*} d&= \sqrt{{(x_2 - x_1)}^2+{(y_2 - y_1)}^2}\\ &= \sqrt{{(2-(-3))}^2+{(3-(-1))}^2}\\ &= \sqrt{{(5)}^2+{(4)}^2}\\ &= \sqrt{25+16}\\ &= \sqrt{41} \end{align*}\]
Using the Midpoint Formula
When the endpoints of a line segment are known, we can find the point midway between them. This point is known as the midpoint and the formula is known as the midpoint formula . Given the endpoints of a line segment, \((x_1,y_1)\) and \((x_2,y_2)\), the midpoint formula states how to find the coordinates of the midpoint M.
\[M=\left (\dfrac{x_1+x_2}{2}, \dfrac{y_1+y_2}{2} \right )\]
A graphical view of a midpoint is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{18}\). Notice that the line segments on either side of the midpoint are congruent.
Find the midpoint of the line segment with the endpoints \((7,−2)\) and \((9,5)\).
- Solution
-
Use the formula to find the midpoint of the line segment.
\[\begin{align*} \left (\dfrac{x_1+x_2}{2},\dfrac{y_1+y_2}{2} \right )&= \left (\dfrac{7+9}{2},\dfrac{-2+5}{2} \right )\\ &= \left (8,\dfrac{3}{2} \right ) \end{align*}\]
The diameter of a circle has endpoints \((−1,−4)\) and \((5,−4)\). Find the center of the circle.
- Solution
-
The center of a circle is the center, or midpoint, of its diameter. Thus, the midpoint formula will yield the center point.
\[\begin{align*} \left (\dfrac{x_1+x_2}{2},\dfrac{y_1+y_2}{2} \right )&= \left (\dfrac{-1+5}{2},\dfrac{-4-4}{2}) \right )\\ &= \left (\dfrac{4}{2},-\dfrac{8}{2} \right )\\ &= (2,4) \end{align*}\]
Key Concepts
- We can locate, or plot, points in the Cartesian coordinate system using ordered pairs, which are defined as displacement from the \(x\) - axis and displacement from the \(y\) - axis. See Example .
- An equation can be graphed in the plane by creating a table of values and plotting points. See Example .
- Using a graphing calculator or a computer program makes graphing equations faster and more accurate. Equations usually have to be entered in the form \(y=\)_____. See Example .
- Finding the \(x\)- and \(y\) - intercepts can define the graph of a line. These are the points where the graph crosses the axes. See Example .
- The distance formula is derived from the Pythagorean Theorem and is used to find the length of a line segment. See Example and Example .
- The midpoint formula provides a method of finding the coordinates of the midpoint dividing the sum of the \(x\)-coordinates and the sum of the \(y\)-coordinates of the endpoints by \(2\). See Example and Example .


4.3.6: Error Intervals
Lesson
Let's solve more problems about percent error.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\): A Lot of Iron Ore
An industrial scale is guaranteed by the manufacturer to have a percent error of no more than 1%. What is a possible reading on the scale if you put 500 kilograms of iron ore on it?
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\): Saw Mill
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A saw mill cuts boards that are 16 ft long. After they are cut, the boards are inspected and rejected if the length has a percent error of 1.5% or more.
- List some board lengths that should be accepted.
- List some board lengths that should be rejected.
- The saw mill also cuts boards that are 10, 12, and 14 feet long. An inspector rejects a board that was 2.3 inches too long. What was the intended length of the board?
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\): Info Gap: Quality Control
Your teacher will give you either a problem card or a data card . Do not show or read your card to your partner.
If your teacher gives you the problem card :
- Silently read your card and think about what information you need to be able to answer the question.
- Ask your partner for the specific information that you need.
-
Explain how you are using the information to solve the problem.
Continue to ask questions until you have enough information to solve the problem. - Share the problem card and solve the problem independently.
- Read the data card and discuss your reasoning.
If your teacher gives you the data card :
- Silently read your card.
-
Ask your partner
“What specific information do you need?”
and wait for them to
ask
for information.
If your partner asks for information that is not on the card, do not do the calculations for them. Tell them you don’t have that information. - Before sharing the information, ask “ Why do you need that information? ” Listen to your partner’s reasoning and ask clarifying questions.
- Read the problem card and solve the problem independently.
- Share the data card and discuss your reasoning.
Pause here so your teacher can review your work. Ask your teacher for a new set of cards and repeat the activity, trading roles with your partner.
Summary
Percent error is often used to express a range of possible values. For example, if a box of cereal is guaranteed to have 750 grams of cereal, with a margin of error of less than 5%, what are possible values for the actual number of grams of cereal in the box? The error could be as large as \((0.05)\cdot 750=37.5\) and could be either above or below than the correct amount.
Therefore, the box can have anywhere between 712.5 and 787.5 grams of cereal in it, but it should not have 700 grams or 800 grams, because both of those are more than 37.5 grams away from 750 grams.
Glossary Entries
Definition: Measurement Error
Measurement error is the positive difference between a measured amount and the actual amount.
For example, Diego measures a line segment and gets 5.3 cm. The actual length of the segment is really 5.32 cm. The measurement error is 0.02 cm, because \(5.32-5.3=0.02\).
Definition: Percent Error
Percent error is a way to describe error, expressed as a percentage of the actual amount.
For example, a box is supposed to have 150 folders in it. Clare counts only 147 folders in the box. This is an error of 3 folders. The percent error is 2%, because 3 is 2% of 150.
Practice
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
Jada measured the height of a plant in a science experiment and finds that, to the nearest \(\frac{1}{4}\) of an inch, it is \(4\frac{3}{4}\) inches.
- What is the largest the actual height of the plant could be?
- What is the smallest the actual height of the plant could be?
- How large could the percent error in Jada’s measurement be?
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
The reading on a car’s speedometer has 1.6% maximum error. The speed limit on a road is 65 miles per hour.
- The speedometer reads 64 miles per hour. Is it possible that the car is going over the speed limit?
- The speedometer reads 66 miles per hour. Is the car definitely going over the speed limit?
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
Water is running into a bathtub at a constant rate. After 2 minutes, the tub is filled with 2.5 gallons of water. Write two equations for this proportional relationship. Use \(w\) for the amount of water (gallons) and \(t\) for time (minutes). In each case, what does the constant of proportionality tell you about the situation?
(From Unit 2.2.2)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
Noah picked 3 kg of cherries. Jada picked half as many cherries as Noah. How many total kg of cherries did Jada and Noah pick?
- \(3+0.5\)
- \(3-0.5\)
- \((1+0.5)\cdot 3\)
- \(1+0.5\cdot 3\)
(From Unit 4.1.5)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)
Here is a shape with some measurements in cm.
-
Complete the table showing the area of different scaled copies of the triangle.
scale factor area (cm 2 ) \(1\) \(2\) \(5\) \(s\) Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) - Is the relationship between the scale factor and the area of the scaled copy proportionally?
(From Unit 3.2.2)


4.7: Nutrition
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Nutritional needs change with age. Let’s examine how caregivers should nourish children during the first years of life and some risks to nutrition that they should be aware of.
Breastfeeding
Breast milk is considered the ideal diet for newborns. Colostrum , the first breast milk produced during pregnancy and just after birth has been described as “liquid gold” (United States Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS), 2011). It is very rich in nutrients and antibodies. Breast milk changes by the third to fifth day after birth, becoming much thinner, but containing just the right amount of fat, sugar, water, and proteins to support overall physical and neurological development. For most babies, breast milk is also easier to digest than formula. Formula fed infants experience more diarrhea and upset stomachs. The absence of antibodies in formula often results in a higher rate of ear infections and respiratory infections. Children who are breastfed have lower rates of childhood leukemia, asthma, obesity, type 1 and 2 diabetes, and a lower risk of SIDS. The USDHHS recommends that mothers breastfeed their infants until at least 6 months of age and that breast milk be used in the diet throughout the first year or two.
Maternal Benefits of Breastfeeding
Several recent studies have reported that it is not just babies that benefit from breastfeeding. Breastfeeding stimulates contractions in the mother’s uterus to help it regain its normal size, and women who breastfeed are more likely to space their pregnancies further apart. Mothers who breastfeed are at lower risk of developing breast cancer (Islami et al., 2015), especially among higher risk racial and ethnic groups (Islami et al., 2015; Redondo et al., 2012). Women who breastfeed have lower rates of ovarian cancer (Titus-Ernstoff, Rees, Terry, & Cramer, 2010), reduced risk for developing Type 2 diabetes (Schwarz et al., 2010; Gunderson, et al., 2015), and rheumatoid arthritis (Karlson, Mandl, Hankinson, & Grodstein, 2004). In most studies these benefits have been seen in women who breastfeed longer than 6 months.
Challenges to Breastfeeding
However, most mothers who breastfeed in the United States stop breastfeeding at about 6-8 weeks, often in order to return to work outside the home (USDHHS, 2011). Mothers can certainly continue to provide breast milk to their babies by expressing and freezing the milk to be bottle-fed at a later time or by being available to their infants at feeding time. However, some mothers find that after the initial encouragement they receive in the hospital to breastfeed, the outside world is less supportive of such efforts. Some workplaces support breastfeeding mothers by providing flexible schedules and welcoming infants, but many do not. In addition, not all women may be able to breastfeed. Women with HIV are routinely discouraged from breastfeeding as the infection may pass to the infant. Similarly, women who are taking certain medications or undergoing radiation treatment may be told not to breastfeed (USDHHS, 2011).
Cost of Breastfeeding
In addition to the nutritional benefits of breastfeeding, breast milk does not have to be purchased. Anyone who has priced formula recently can appreciate this added incentive to breastfeeding. Prices for a year’s worth of formula and feeding supplies can cost well over $1,500 (USDHHS, 2011).
But there are also those who challenge the belief that breast milk is free. For breastmilk to be completely beneficial for infants the mother's life choices will ultimately affect the quality of the nutrition an infant will receive. Let's consider the nutritional intake of the mother. Breastfeeding will both limit some food and drink choices as well as necessitate an increased intake of healthier options. A simple trip down the supermarket aisles will show you that nutritious and healthier options can be more expensive than some of the cheaper more processed options.  Additionally, it is also encouraged for breastfeeding mothers to take vitamins regularly. That raises the question of how free breastfeeding truly is.
A Historic Look at Breastfeeding
The use of wet nurses, or lactating women hired to nurse others' infants, during the middle ages eventually declined and mothers increasingly breastfed their own infants in the late 1800s. In the early part of the 20th century, breastfeeding began to go through another decline. By the 1950s, it was practiced less frequently as formula began to be viewed as superior to breast milk.
In the late 1960s and 1970s, greater emphasis began to be placed on natural childbirth and breastfeeding and the benefits of breastfeeding were more widely publicized. Gradually rates of breastfeeding began to climb, particularly among middle-class educated mothers who received the strongest messages to breastfeed.
Today, women receive consultation from lactation specialists before being discharged from the hospital to ensure that they are informed of the benefits of breastfeeding and given support and encouragement to get their infants to get used to taking the breast. This does not always happen immediately and first time mothers, especially, can become upset or discouraged. In this case, lactation specialists and nursing staff can encourage the mother to keep trying until baby and mother are comfortable with the feeding. 33
Alternatives to Breastfeeding
There are many reasons that mothers struggle to breastfeed or should not breastfeed, including: low milk supply, previous breast surgeries, illicit drug use, medications, infectious disease, and inverted nipples. Other mothers choose not to breastfeed. Some reasons for this include: lack of personal comfort with nursing, the time commitment of nursing, inadequate or unhealthy diet, and wanting more convenience and flexibility with who and when an infant can be fed. For these mothers and infants, formula is available. Besides breast milk, infant formula is the only other milk product that the medical community considers nutritionally acceptable for infants under the age of one year (as opposed to cow's milk, goat's milk, or follow-on formula). It can be used in addition to breastfeeding (supplementing) or as an alternative to breastmilk.
The most commonly used infant formulas contain purified cow's milk whey and casein as a protein source, a blend of vegetable oils as a fat source, lactose as a carbohydrate source, a vitamin-mineral mix, and other ingredients depending on the manufacturer. In addition, there are infant formulas which use soybeans as a protein source in place of cow's milk (mostly in the United States and Great Britain) and formulas which use protein hydrolysed into its component amino acids for infants who are allergic to other proteins34.
One early argument given to promote the practice of breastfeeding was that it promoted bonding and healthy emotional development for infants. However, this does not seem to be the case. Breastfed and bottle-fed infants adjust equally well emotionally (Ferguson & Woodward, 1999). This is good news for mothers who may be unable to breastfeed for a variety of reasons and for fathers who might feel left out.
When, What, and How to Introduce Solid Foods
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends children be introduced to foods other than breast milk or infant formula when they are about 6 months old. Every child is different. Here are some signs that show that an infant is ready for foods other than breast milk or infant formula:
- Child can sit with little or no support.
- Child has good head control.
- Child opens his or her mouth and leans forward when food is offered.
How Should Foods Be Introduced?
The American Academy of Pediatrics says that for most children, foods do not need to be given in a certain order. Children can begin eating solid foods at about 6 months old. By the time they are 7 or 8 months old, children can eat a variety of foods from different food groups. These foods include infant cereals, meat or other proteins, fruits, vegetables, grains, yogurts and cheeses, and more.
If feeding infant cereals, it is important to offer a variety of fortified infant cereals such as oat, barley, and multi-grain instead of only rice cereal. The Food and Drug Administration does not recommend only providing infant rice cereal because there is a risk for children to be exposed to arsenic.
Children should be allowed to try one food at a time at first and there should be 3 to 5 days before another food is introduced. This helps caregivers see if the child has any problems with that food, such as food allergies.
The eight most common allergenic foods are milk, eggs, fish, shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, and soybeans. It is no longer recommended that caregivers delay introducing these foods to all children, but if there is a family history of food allergies, the child’s doctor or nurse should be consulted. 37
It may take numerous attempts before a child gains a taste for it. So caregivers should not give up if a food is refused on the first offering.
USDA Infant Meal Patterns
The United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service provides the following guidance for the day time feeding of infants and toddlers.
| Meal | 0-5 months | 6-11 months |
|---|---|---|
| Breakfast | 4-6 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula | 6-8 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula 0-4 tablespoons infant cereal, meat, fish, poultry, whole eggs, cooked dry beans or peas; or 0-2 ounces cheese; or 0-4 ounces (volume) cottage cheese; or 0-4 ounces yogurt; or a combination* 0-2 tablespoons vegetable, fruit, or both* |
| Lunch or Supper | 4-6 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula | 6-8 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula 0-4 tablespoons infant cereal, meat, fish, poultry, whole eggs, cooked dry beans or peas; or 0-2 ounces cheese; or 0-4 ounces (volume) cottage cheese; or 0-4 ounces yogurt; or a combination* 0-2 tablespoons vegetable, fruit, or both* |
| Snack | 4-6 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula | 2-4 fluid ounces breastmilk or formula 0-1⁄2 bread slice; or 0-2 crackers; or 0-4 tablespoons infant cereal or ready-to-eat cereal* 0-2 tablespoons vegetable, fruit, or both* |
*Required when infant is developmentally ready. All serving sizes are minimum quantities of the food components that are required to be served.
| Meal | Ages 1-2 |
|---|---|
| Breakfast | 1⁄2 cup milk 1⁄4 cup vegetables, fruit, or both 1⁄2 ounce equivalent grains |
| Lunch or Supper | 1⁄2 cup milk 1-ounce meat or meat alternative 1/8 cup vegetables 1/8 cup fruits 1⁄2 ounce equivalent of grains |
| Snack | Select two of the following: 1⁄2 cup of milk 1⁄2 ounce meat or meat alternative 1⁄2 cup vegetables 1⁄2 cup fruit 1⁄2 ounce equivalent of grains |
Note: All serving sizes are minimum quantities of the food components that are required to be served.
Child Malnutrition
There can be serious effects for children when there are deficiencies in their nutrition. Let’s explore a few types of nutritional concerns.
Wasting
Children in developing countries and countries experiencing the harsh conditions of war are at risk for two major types of malnutrition, also referred to as wasting. Infantile marasmus refers to starvation due to a lack of calories and protein. Children who do not receive adequate nutrition lose fat and muscle until their bodies can no longer function. Babies who are breastfed are much less at risk of malnutrition than those who are bottle-fed.
After weaning, children who have diets deficient in protein may experience kwashiorkor or the “disease of the displaced child,” often occurring after another child has been born and taken over breastfeeding. This results in a loss of appetite and swelling of the abdomen as the body begins to break down the vital organs as a source of protein.
Around the world the rates of wasting have been dropping. However, according to the World Health Organization and UNICEF, in 2014 there were 50 million children under the age of five that experienced these forms of wasting, and 16 million were severely wasted (UNICEF, 2015). Worldwide, these figures indicate that nearly 1 child in every 13 suffers from some form of wasting. The majority of these children live in Asia (34.3 million) and Africa (13.9 million). Wasting can occur as a result of severe food shortages, regional diets that lack certain proteins and vitamins, or infectious diseases that inhibit appetite (Latham, 1997).
The consequences of wasting depend on how late in the progression of the disease parents and guardians seek medical treatment for their children. Unfortunately, in some cultures families do not seek treatment early, and as a result by the time a child is hospitalized the child often dies within the first three days after admission (Latham, 1997). Several studies have reported long-term cognitive effects of early malnutrition (Galler & Ramsey, 1989; Galler, Ramsey, Salt & Archer, 1987; Richardson, 1980), even when home environments were controlled (Galler, Ramsey, Morley, Archer & Salt, 1990). Lower IQ scores (Galler et al., 1987), poor attention (Galler & Ramsey, 1989), and behavioral issues in the classroom (Galler et al., 1990) have been reported in children with a history of serious malnutrition in the first few years of life. 41
Milk Anemia
Milk Anemia in the United States: About 9 million children in the United States are malnourished (Children’s Welfare, 1998). More still suffer from milk anemia, a condition in which milk consumption leads to a lack of iron in the diet. This can be due to the practice of giving toddlers milk as a pacifier-when resting, when riding, when waking, and so on. Appetite declines somewhat during toddlerhood and a small amount of milk (especially with added chocolate syrup) can easily satisfy a child’s appetite for many hours. The calcium in milk interferes with the absorption of iron in the diet as well. Many preschools and daycare centers give toddlers a drink after they have finished their meal in order to prevent spoiling their appetites. 42
Failure to Thrive
Failure to thrive (FTT) occurs in children whose nutritional intake is insufficient for supporting normal growth and weight gain. FTT typically presents before two years of age, when growth rates are highest. Parents may express concern about picky eating habits, poor weight gain, or smaller size compared relative to peers of similar age. Physicians often identify FTT during routine office visits, when a child's growth parameters are not tracking appropriately on growth curves.
FTT can be caused by physical or mental issues within the child (such as errors of metabolism, acid reflux, anemia, diarrhea, Cystic fibrosis, Crohn’s disease, celiac disease, cleft palate, tongue tie, milk allergies, hyperthyroidism, congenital heart disease, etc.) It can also be caused by caregiver’s actions (environmental), including inability to produce enough breastmilk, inadequate food supply, providing an insufficient number of feedings, and neglect. These causes may also co-exist. For instance, a child who is not getting sufficient nutrition may act content so that caregivers do not offer feedings of sufficient frequency or volume, and a child with severe acid reflux who appears to be in pain while eating may make a caregiver hesitant to offer sufficient feedings.43
Contributors and Attributions
33. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
34. Infant Formula by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
37. When, What, and How to Introduce Solid Foods by the CDC is in the public domain
41. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
42. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
43. Failure to Thrive by Wikipedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0


28.1A: The Process and Purpose of Gene Expression Regulation
Gene expression is a highly complex, regulated process that begins with DNA transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein.
- Discuss how the genome and proteome contribute to the specialization of a cell
Key Points
- Every cell within an organism shares the same genome (with exceptions, i.e. mature red blood cells), but has variation between its proteomes.
- Gene expression involves the process of transcribing DNA into RNA and then translating RNA into proteins.
- Gene expression is a highly complex and tightly-regulated process.
Key Terms
- somatic : part of, or relating to the body of an organism
- genome : the cell’s complete genetic information packaged as a double-stranded DNA molecule
- proteome : the complete set of proteins encoded by a particular genome
Each somatic cell in the body generally contains the same DNA. A few exceptions include red blood cells, which contain no DNA in their mature state, and some immune system cells that rearrange their DNA while producing antibodies. In general, however, the genes that determine whether you have green eyes, brown hair, and how fast you metabolize food are the same in the cells in your eyes and your liver, even though these organs function quite differently. If each cell has the same DNA, how is it that cells or organs are different? Why do cells in the eye differ so dramatically from cells in the liver ?
Gene Expression : The genetic content of each somatic cell in an organism is the same, but not all genes are expressed in every cell. The control of which genes are expressed dictates whether a cell is (a) an eye cell or (b) a liver cell. It is the differential gene expression patterns that arise in different cells that give rise to (c) a complete organism.
Whereas each cell shares the same genome and DNA sequence, each cell does not turn on, or express, the same set of genes. Each cell type needs a different set of proteins to perform its function. Therefore, only a small subset of proteins is expressed in a cell that constitutes its proteome. For the proteins to be expressed, the DNA must be transcribed into RNA and the RNA must be translated into protein. In a given cell type, not all genes encoded in the DNA are transcribed into RNA or translated into protein because specific cells in our body have specific functions. Specialized proteins that make up the eye (iris, lens, and cornea) are only expressed in the eye, whereas the specialized proteins in the heart (pacemaker cells, heart muscle, and valves) are only expressed in the heart. At any given time, only a subset of all of the genes encoded by our DNA are expressed and translated into proteins. The expression of specific genes is a highly-regulated process with many levels and stages of control. This complexity ensures the proper expression in the proper cell at the proper time.
In this section, you will learn about the various methods of gene regulation and the mechanisms used to control gene expression, such as: epigenetic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational controls in eukaryotic gene expression, and transcriptional control in prokaryotic gene expression.


9.8: Analyzing Arguments
- Evaluate logical structures in arguments
Analyzing Arguments
Sometimes an argument will have an unstated or suppressed premise , rather than stating something outright. Consider this highly unscientific poll conducted by a TV news station. “Which do you believe politician Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez is most out of touch with: illegal immigration, border security, or the American people?” The pollster is operating as if it is unquestionable that Ocasio-Cortez is out of touch with something . In other words, the question presupposes that she is “out of touch.” However, this unstated premise is debatable once it is brought out into the open. Is she in fact out of touch at all?
A listener or reader who is not alert to such unstated or suppressed premises is, without realizing it, agreeing to debate on the communicator’s terms—when those terms may be unfair. In fact, on more complex or serious issues it is often things people take for granted that may actually deserve the most critical scrutiny. For example, in the argument, “This medication is labeled as totally natural, so it is safe for me to take it,” the suppressed premise—that “natural” guarantees “safe”—is not trivial and can certainly be challenged.
Argument Diagramming
Besides recognizing the use of induction and deduction, you can use diagramming or outlining to develop an understanding of an argument’s overall structure. Remember that an argument as defined here isn’t a “quarrel,” but rather a group of statements, some of which, the premises, are offered in support for another, the conclusion. So the first order of business in analyzing an argument is to recognize what the main claim is—the conclusion—and what other claims are being used to support it—the premises. This is much easier to do when the author is explicit about the steps in the argument, where premise and conclusion “indicator” terms appear in the text as signposts.
Words that introduce or signal an argument conclusion include:
- therefore
- so
- we may conclude / infer
- thus
- consequently
Words that introduce argument premises include:
- it follows that
- implies that
- as a result
- because (non-causal meaning)
- since
- or the reason that
- for
- and (this often signals the introduction of a further premise, as in “You should believe Z because of reason 1 and reason 2.”)
When you are diagramming or outlining an argument, if the “flow” of an argument from premises to conclusion isn’t readily apparent, then remember to use the above indicator terms to help you decide which claim is the conclusion and which claims are the premises. Using the indicator terms is particularly helpful because a conclusion may be stated first, last, or anywhere in between. People do all three when they write or talk in real life, so we cannot tell whether a statement is a conclusion simply by where it is positioned in the argument.
This video reviews the ways you can break apart an argument to find premises and conclusions, then determine if they are logical.
You can view the transcript for “Analyzing the argument- Part 1 of 2” here (opens in new window) .
The Purpose Behind Diagramming an Argument
Diagramming or mapping someone else’s argument serves a double purpose. First, the process helps you clearly see just what the other person is saying. It helps you identify the logical structure of the argument, which is necessary if you are to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the argument in order to know whether or not to accept it. Second, you develop skills of analysis that you will need in order to organize and present arguments in support of a position that you may want to take on some question or issue.
Steps in Diagramming an Argument
Here are the basic moves that are required in order to create a clear diagram or outline of an argument.
- Identify all the claims made by the author. Since a sentence can contain multiple claims, rewrite statements so that you have one claim per sentence. Adopt some sort of numbering or labeling system for the claims.
- Eliminate “fluff.” Ignore repetitions, assurances (assertions not backed by evidence or reasons), and information that is unrelated to the argument.
- Identify which statements are premises and which statement is the main conclusion.
- Recognize that there may be sub-conclusions in addition to a final or main conclusion. You may think of a sub-conclusion as the endpoint of a sub-argument nested inside the larger argument. Although the sub-conclusion is itself the conclusion of a nested argument, supported by premises, it also functions as a premise supporting the final or main conclusion.
- Recognize that some premises are independent and others linked. If you were drawing or mapping the argument, you would be able to draw an arrow from an independent premise directly to the conclusion it supports. Linked premises, however, are multiple statements that must be combined to provide support for a conclusion. If you were drawing or mapping the argument, you would have to find some way to show that the linked premises as a group support the conclusion. You might use color coding, or underlining, or circling, or + signs—some way to connect the linked premises before drawing one arrow from the clustered premises to the conclusion they support.
Using the Argument’s Paragraphing to Evaluate the Premises
An author must organize her material to guide the audience through her argument. One tool available to an author is the paragraph. The sentences clustered together in a paragraph should be tightly connected in terms of content. In the most common form of paragraph, the clustered sentences collectively develop an idea explicitly stated in a topic sentence. The paragraphs themselves should be placed in an order that reflects some overall plan so that the paragraphs reveal the steps or stages of the argument.
The premises may be said to be key steps or stages in the argument. A well-constructed argument therefore may use each premise as a topic sentence for a paragraph. Additionally, a premise may serve as the guiding idea for a group of paragraphs, each developing a subtopic. For example, the premise, reached by induction, that “College students overestimate the amount of binge drinking that is taking place” might introduce a cluster of three paragraphs, each showing that the overestimation varies by subgroup—with member of sororities, member of fraternities, and non-Greek populations arriving at different estimates.
Look to see whether the author has used paragraphing-by-premise to organize their argument and outline its structure for the audience. You should also ask yourself whether any paragraphs are missing. That is, as you consider what premises serve as the foundations of the argument, be alert for the suppressed ones, the premises that the author presupposes. These unacknowledged premises may be ones that the author hopes the audience will not notice or question. In your analysis call her on it by determining where a paragraph on that premise should have appeared in the argument.
Now that you know how to identify premises and conclusions, let’s apply that to looking at arguments in paragraphs. You should ask yourself the following:
- What is the point, or conclusion, of this paragraph?
- Is there sufficient evidence for this conclusion?
- Is the evidence relevant to the conclusion?
You can view the transcript for “Analyzing the Argument- Part 2 of 2” here (opens in new window) .
The Similarity Between Conclusions and Thesis Statements
When we talk about a paper, we usually talk about the paper’s main claim as being its thesis statement. But of course a paper that just makes a claim or states an opinion but offers no supporting reasons or arguments isn’t much of a paper. We would be bothered by reading an editorial in which someone stated a strong opinion on some public issue yet did nothing to justify that opinion.
When an author supports a thesis with reasons, then the thesis statement can be described as the conclusion of an argument, with the supporting reasons being that argument’s premises. The argument now has a structure that can be outlined or diagrammed.
Contributors and Attributions
- The Logical Structure of Arguments. Provided by : Radford University. Located at : lcubbison.pressbooks.com/chapter/core-201-analyzing-arguments/. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Analyzing the Argument. Authored by : Snap Language. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pP8dWURrEF0 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Analyzing the Argument - Part 2 of 2. Authored by : Snap Language. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jVf_iJpSIrM&t=234s . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License