**5. Directorate**

This section describes an iteration of the action research (AR) cycle conducted at Directorate3, one of the human resources department of the public service in Botswana. Directorate had a staff complement of 435, and 8 functional divisions at the start of the iteration. These divisions are spread over four offices throughout the country. Communication between these offices is via traditional means: post, telephone, facsimile and also the application of groupware technology, namely email (Lotus Notes4, and a corporate intranet. The Government Data Network (GDN) supports the groupware application. All four offices were connected via the GDN. All senior officers had computers in their individual offices, which were networked in a campus network, and connected to the GDN. They all had access to the Lotus Notes mail server, and Domino Docs5 database.

Each officer had an email address assigned to him/her, and was able to communicate with each other without any difficulty.

#### **5.1 System requirements and design**

A multi-layer approach was used to ensure that all the requirements of the aforementioned solution are considered. The information system architecture requirements of an integrated knowledge network (i.e. the knowledge network architecture and the knowledge work processes) of CPMS at Directorate were considered first, after which a similar set of requirements was derived for the innovation life cycle [cf. Fig. 5].

Combining these requirement sets provided an information system architecture specification that was used to develop the Information System that serves as a proposed solution for the problem at Directorate. After about two years of development, the system finally achieved an acceptable level of efficiency. It was decided by management to introduce new technologies which would provide greater understanding and knowledge on the core processes. An external consultant was engaged to define these processes. Interviews were conducted to this end. The approach followed is discussed next.

Before decentralisation, Directorate was nearly 100% responsible for keeping the CPMS system up-to-date. Since decentralisation the following is true:

3 The Directorate is the short name for the Directorate of Public Service Management.(DPSM)

4 Lotus Notes Corporation

5 Data Base Management System of Lotus Corporation

14 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

• The Taxonomy module is unparalleled in the CMS landscape and allows for predefined

• The Views module allows for custom views of any content within the content pool

Despite Drupal's steep learning curve, it creates a framework that offers extendibility far beyond most other CMS packages and is supported by a vibrant and helpful community of knowledgeable developers and users. Drupal includes a number of features and extensions (Taxonomy, Organic Groups, Content Construction Kit, Views) that allow developers to create highly customized web-based community platforms. Drupal was therefore chosen as the basis

This section describes an iteration of the action research (AR) cycle conducted at Directorate3, one of the human resources department of the public service in Botswana. Directorate had a staff complement of 435, and 8 functional divisions at the start of the iteration. These divisions are spread over four offices throughout the country. Communication between these offices is via traditional means: post, telephone, facsimile and also the application of groupware technology, namely email (Lotus Notes4, and a corporate intranet. The Government Data Network (GDN) supports the groupware application. All four offices were connected via the GDN. All senior officers had computers in their individual offices, which were networked in a campus network, and connected to the GDN. They all had access to the Lotus Notes mail

Each officer had an email address assigned to him/her, and was able to communicate with

A multi-layer approach was used to ensure that all the requirements of the aforementioned solution are considered. The information system architecture requirements of an integrated knowledge network (i.e. the knowledge network architecture and the knowledge work processes) of CPMS at Directorate were considered first, after which a similar set of

Combining these requirement sets provided an information system architecture specification that was used to develop the Information System that serves as a proposed solution for the problem at Directorate. After about two years of development, the system finally achieved an acceptable level of efficiency. It was decided by management to introduce new technologies which would provide greater understanding and knowledge on the core processes. An external consultant was engaged to define these processes. Interviews were conducted to

Before decentralisation, Directorate was nearly 100% responsible for keeping the CPMS

3 The Directorate is the short name for the Directorate of Public Service Management.(DPSM)

• Dynamic approach to content handling

2. Negative aspects of Drupal:

• Limited availability of themes

of the proposed Information System.

server, and Domino Docs5 database.

**5.1 System requirements and design**

each other without any difficulty.

4 Lotus Notes Corporation

**5. Directorate**

content classification, as well as free tagging

• Steeper learning curve than many other CMS packages

requirements was derived for the innovation life cycle [cf. Fig. 5].

system up-to-date. Since decentralisation the following is true:

this end. The approach followed is discussed next.

5 Data Base Management System of Lotus Corporation

Fig. 5. A multilayer approach for the systems requirement (Gous & Schutte (2009))

	- where the system had one owner, responsible for the usage and ensuring that the information in the system was being kept up-to-date, there were now 18 ministries and independent departments that were responsible;
	- no roles and responsibilities were formally clarified, which created confusion. This confusion forced the project to stop its planned work on the HRM Workflow Management System (WMS), as a WMS needs a very disciplined and focused environment, with every-one concerned knowing exactly what were their roles and areas of responsibility; and
	- system training was not only required at the Directorate level anymore, but at also at ministries' as well. This necessitated the change in scope and focus of the implementation of the CPMS project. For the project team to successfully implement the system at the ministries' level, it was imperative to ensure that the HR processes used by them were integrated with the CPMS. In the process of identifying this requirement, two other issues came to light, namely:
		- **–** whether the ministries had any formalised processes to build on, and
		- **–** ownership of the HR processes (personnel actions). The need that was jointly identified for the project, Directorate and the ministries, was a requirement for a process manual with each HR process defined where the following is clarified:
			- \* what must be done, and
			- \* who is responsible.

This process manual could then be used to compile the operational manual by adding 'how' each step must be done. The key benefit from this manual is that it would enable Directorate, and the identified trainers to teach and train all the ministries in what must be done and

implementation difficulties of the performance management system (PMS), had not been addressed by government in at least three years. The emphasis was on having employees participate in management decisions, rather than in the analysis of how activities were executed and improvements could be attained. Moreover, new ideas for improvement coming from employees covered an overly broad range of subjects, from new designs for promotional material to better wages, leading to a vast amount of contributions coming from staff that had little knowledge about the work of the areas likely to be affected by the ideas. This, and the repetition of ideas, progressively undermined the interest of managers, and consequently

411 The Liberation of Intellectual Capital Through

The researcher will now discuss the experiences observed in implementing a KM system.

Directorate decentralised its portfolio responsibilities to the human resources (HR) divisions of client ministries in 1998. The new role of Directorate was now one of policy formulation, etc. Directorate is one of the leaders in facilitating the nation's Vision 2016, and it has a number of reform initiatives currently being implemented. However as the public sector has grown, problems have arisen in the effective managementof the human resources management (HRM). Directorate gets its authority from the Public Service Act, (1998). Several unstructured interviews conducted at this stage revealed symptoms of the computerised personnel management system (CPMS), and a number of suggestions were provided as to how Directorate may alleviate them. The system had a number of problems at the onset. This was because the model of Directorate and the clients it serves were not properly specified. The Management of Directorate relied on the services of the commercial brokers to advise them on the choice of the HRM solution to purchase. All this was done before a proper system operations and user requirements documents was completed and proved by the senior management of Directorate. Additionally, systems personnel and developers for both the administrative and technical areas required for staffing the new infrastructure were not implemented. There was a major concern about the budgeting requirements for the different

The system was designed to support the integrated work carried out by the personnel administration and recruitment and placement divisions. Internal users of the system were intended to be able to store up-to-date information about public officers in ministries and keep track of policy development provided by Directorate through the online Policy Database.

After about two years of development, the system finally achieved an acceptable level of efficiency. It was decided by management to introduce new technologies which would provide greater understanding and knowledge on the core processes. An external consultant, was engaged to define these processes. Interviews were conducted to this end. The approach followed is discussed next. Before decentralisation, Directorate was nearly 100% responsible

• The Recruitment, Personnel Administration, and Training Divisions, which were the major

• The Manpower Planning Division owns the responsibility to create and change positions

for keeping the CPMS system up-to-date. Since decentralisation the following is true:

These processes are listed in paragraph 5.3 [cf. List of core processes].

players using the system, have now become occasional users;

employees' motivation to generate new improvement ideas.

the Natural Evolution of Knowledge Management Systems

**5.2 Diagnosing**

phases of the project.

**5.3 List of core processes**

in the Establishment Register; and

how it should be done, using the computer system, in order to ensure that the system is kept up-to-date. For the CPMS to succeed in the Public Service, it requires that each ministry must keep their information in the system up-to-date. If the ministries fail to comply, the money already spent on the implementation phase of the project would go to waste, and the data would become outdated and useless. The only way, it was felt, to ensure that the system is updated, and is available, is by ensuring that no personnel action can be executed without the use of the computer system in the process. For example, public officer should not be able to:

Several unstructured interviews conducted at this stage revealed symptoms of an organisation in which the process of learning involved in adapting to a fast changing business environment was the sole responsibility of its top management. Permanent Secretaries of ministries were unhappy with the current system. Government expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of service delivery of the system. A major reengineering of the system was required. Employees were unmotivated, reporting as the most important reason for their lack of motivation was the excessive centralisation of decisions by the divisional managers. Employees showed no interest in either improving business processes, or learning new methods and techniques. It was noted by one manager that: *"What keeps [the employees] working are their monthly pay cheques and the prospects of overseas per diems, travel, seminars and training at international colleges and universities."*

The inability to motivate officers at the Directorate called for changes in the management approach. Some techniques for enhancing the level of employee participation in decisions were tested; among these techniques were brainstorming sessions, suggestion boxes, and campaigns for new ideas to solve specific problems.

None of these techniques generated the expected gains, due to two reasons. Firstly, they were strictly based on the assumption that front-line workers should have an active role in management and solution of problems, which is one of the several facets of process improvement. For example, employees were called to participate in routine strategic decisions [Campbell (2005)]. However, this proved to be a counter-productive strategy, supporting the assumption that group decisions may not be better than individual decisions. Strategic decisions to form new partnerships or sign a large government contract, for example, were found to be better made only by managers as usual.

Directorate experience suggested that sharing the responsibility of taking some types of decisions with large groups of employees not directly involved with decision making on a daily basis simply delayed what could not be delayed, undermining both the employee' and management's confidence in participatory management principles. There were a number of problems experienced during this phase. These were exacerbated due to a lack of ownership on the part of management. They include such issues as budgeting and funding concerns, the rigid structure of the ministry management, massive staff turnover, poor project ownership, and the absence of a proper system protocol, and data availability regime. Secondly, the analysis and redesign of the human resource processes received a low priority status in the public sector's reform initiatives, and national development plans.

For example, by the time this research iteration had begun, the whole set of interrelated activities involved in reviewing the pay structures and performance incentives, from consultants engaged to study the relationships between private sector and public sector remuneration, and the Presidential Commission on salary structures coupled with the implementation difficulties of the performance management system (PMS), had not been addressed by government in at least three years. The emphasis was on having employees participate in management decisions, rather than in the analysis of how activities were executed and improvements could be attained. Moreover, new ideas for improvement coming from employees covered an overly broad range of subjects, from new designs for promotional material to better wages, leading to a vast amount of contributions coming from staff that had little knowledge about the work of the areas likely to be affected by the ideas. This, and the repetition of ideas, progressively undermined the interest of managers, and consequently employees' motivation to generate new improvement ideas.

The researcher will now discuss the experiences observed in implementing a KM system.

#### **5.2 Diagnosing**

16 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

how it should be done, using the computer system, in order to ensure that the system is kept up-to-date. For the CPMS to succeed in the Public Service, it requires that each ministry must keep their information in the system up-to-date. If the ministries fail to comply, the money already spent on the implementation phase of the project would go to waste, and the data would become outdated and useless. The only way, it was felt, to ensure that the system is updated, and is available, is by ensuring that no personnel action can be executed without the use of the computer system in the process. For example, public officer should not be able to:

Several unstructured interviews conducted at this stage revealed symptoms of an organisation in which the process of learning involved in adapting to a fast changing business environment was the sole responsibility of its top management. Permanent Secretaries of ministries were unhappy with the current system. Government expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of service delivery of the system. A major reengineering of the system was required. Employees were unmotivated, reporting as the most important reason for their lack of motivation was the excessive centralisation of decisions by the divisional managers. Employees showed no interest in either improving business processes, or learning new methods and techniques. It was noted by one manager that: *"What keeps [the employees] working are their monthly pay cheques and the prospects of overseas per diems, travel, seminars and training at international colleges*

The inability to motivate officers at the Directorate called for changes in the management approach. Some techniques for enhancing the level of employee participation in decisions were tested; among these techniques were brainstorming sessions, suggestion boxes, and

None of these techniques generated the expected gains, due to two reasons. Firstly, they were strictly based on the assumption that front-line workers should have an active role in management and solution of problems, which is one of the several facets of process improvement. For example, employees were called to participate in routine strategic decisions [Campbell (2005)]. However, this proved to be a counter-productive strategy, supporting the assumption that group decisions may not be better than individual decisions. Strategic decisions to form new partnerships or sign a large government contract, for example, were

Directorate experience suggested that sharing the responsibility of taking some types of decisions with large groups of employees not directly involved with decision making on a daily basis simply delayed what could not be delayed, undermining both the employee' and management's confidence in participatory management principles. There were a number of problems experienced during this phase. These were exacerbated due to a lack of ownership on the part of management. They include such issues as budgeting and funding concerns, the rigid structure of the ministry management, massive staff turnover, poor project ownership, and the absence of a proper system protocol, and data availability regime. Secondly, the analysis and redesign of the human resource processes received a low priority status in the

For example, by the time this research iteration had begun, the whole set of interrelated activities involved in reviewing the pay structures and performance incentives, from consultants engaged to study the relationships between private sector and public sector remuneration, and the Presidential Commission on salary structures coupled with the

• hire without using the CPMS;

*and universities."*

• promote someone without using the CPMS, and • send someone for training without using the CPMS.

campaigns for new ideas to solve specific problems.

found to be better made only by managers as usual.

public sector's reform initiatives, and national development plans.

Directorate decentralised its portfolio responsibilities to the human resources (HR) divisions of client ministries in 1998. The new role of Directorate was now one of policy formulation, etc. Directorate is one of the leaders in facilitating the nation's Vision 2016, and it has a number of reform initiatives currently being implemented. However as the public sector has grown, problems have arisen in the effective managementof the human resources management (HRM). Directorate gets its authority from the Public Service Act, (1998). Several unstructured interviews conducted at this stage revealed symptoms of the computerised personnel management system (CPMS), and a number of suggestions were provided as to how Directorate may alleviate them. The system had a number of problems at the onset. This was because the model of Directorate and the clients it serves were not properly specified. The Management of Directorate relied on the services of the commercial brokers to advise them on the choice of the HRM solution to purchase. All this was done before a proper system operations and user requirements documents was completed and proved by the senior management of Directorate. Additionally, systems personnel and developers for both the administrative and technical areas required for staffing the new infrastructure were not implemented. There was a major concern about the budgeting requirements for the different phases of the project.

The system was designed to support the integrated work carried out by the personnel administration and recruitment and placement divisions. Internal users of the system were intended to be able to store up-to-date information about public officers in ministries and keep track of policy development provided by Directorate through the online Policy Database. These processes are listed in paragraph 5.3 [cf. List of core processes].

#### **5.3 List of core processes**

After about two years of development, the system finally achieved an acceptable level of efficiency. It was decided by management to introduce new technologies which would provide greater understanding and knowledge on the core processes. An external consultant, was engaged to define these processes. Interviews were conducted to this end. The approach followed is discussed next. Before decentralisation, Directorate was nearly 100% responsible for keeping the CPMS system up-to-date. Since decentralisation the following is true:

**5.4 The high-level enterprise model**

the Natural Evolution of Knowledge Management Systems

process in organisational management].

Fig. 6. HRM policy-making framework

processes and the links between them.

research and development, etc; and

situated:

can see);

function);

the HRM function.

HRM in the Botswana Government can be illustrated as set out in the policy-making framework, on people management, of Figure **??**. Furthermore, in theory, any successful organisation and department needs four different types of groups of processes to function effectively. These groups types are presented in Figure **??** [cf. Figure **??** Different groups of

413 The Liberation of Intellectual Capital Through

Based on the researcher's knowledge of HRM, as well as the theory regarding processes and process groupings, the HR processes can now be broken down into these four groups. This is set out in Table 1 [cf. Table 1 List of processes]. Each process performed by the HRM function should be able to fit into one of these four groupings. If there are, for example, no processes in the Governing Processes group, it means that there is currently no control function and policymaking in terms of HRM. The study uses this information, to compile an enterprise model for the HRM function in the Botswana Government. An enterprise model is a holistic picture of the HRM function within the Botswana Government, which shows all the high level

The enterprise model has the same form as the physical building in which the ministries are

• Roof: The customer interfacing processes (the part of one organisation that the customer

• Walls: The enabling and governing processes (the barriers in between, in which one has to

• Floor: The processes, which assist one in delivering a first-class service,. For example,

• Living area: The main reason for having the house, that is, the value-adding processes of

• The Industrial Class Division, which is already decentralized only needs the system for enquiries.

For the ministries, however, there was a big increase in usage and responsibility to keep the computer system up-to-date. The ministries now have complete ownership of the system except for the creation and changing of positions which still belongs to the Manpower Planning Division. The effect that decentralisation has had on the CPMS is three-fold:

To enable the project to successfully implement the system at the ministries, it was imperative to ensure that the HR processes used by the ministries are integrated with the CPMS. In identifying this requirement, two other issues came to light, namely:

	- **–** what must be done, and
	- **–** who is responsible.

This manual could then be used to compile the operational manual by adding 'how' each step must be done. The key benefit from this manual is that it would enable Directorate, and the identified trainers to teach and train all the ministries in what must be done and how it should be done, using the computer system, in order to ensure that the system is kept up-to-date. For the CPMS to succeed in the Government, it requires that each ministry must keep their information in the system up-to-date. If the ministries fail to comply, the amount already spent on the implementation phase of the project would go to waste, and the data would become outdated and useless. The only way, it was felt, to ensure that the system is updated, and is available, is by ensuring that no personnel action can be executed without the use of the computer system in the process. For example, and officer should not be able to:

The following is the models used in developing the processes in the process manual. The core processes included in the manual, which show officers the process to follow, in terms of the identified personnel actions are also set out. The process manual when completed is expected to be used in conjunction with the system's Procedure Manual, where the process shows an activity to be done by the CPMS.

#### **5.4 The high-level enterprise model**

18 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

• The Industrial Class Division, which is already decentralized only needs the system for

For the ministries, however, there was a big increase in usage and responsibility to keep the computer system up-to-date. The ministries now have complete ownership of the system except for the creation and changing of positions which still belongs to the Manpower

• where the system had one owner responsible for the usage and ensuring that the information in the system was being kept up-to-date, there are now 18 ministries and

• no roles and responsibilities were formally clarified, which created confusion. This confusion forced the project to stop its planned work on the HRM Workflow Management System (WMS), as a WMS needs a very disciplined and focused environment, with everyone concerned knowing exactly what are their roles and areas of responsibility; and • system training was not only required at the Directorate level anymore, but at ministries as well. This necessitated the change in scope and focus of the implementation of the CPMS

To enable the project to successfully implement the system at the ministries, it was imperative to ensure that the HR processes used by the ministries are integrated with the CPMS. In

• ownership of the HR processes (personnel actions). The need that was jointly identified for the project, Directorate and the ministries, was a requirement for a process manual with

This manual could then be used to compile the operational manual by adding 'how' each step must be done. The key benefit from this manual is that it would enable Directorate, and the identified trainers to teach and train all the ministries in what must be done and how it should be done, using the computer system, in order to ensure that the system is kept up-to-date. For the CPMS to succeed in the Government, it requires that each ministry must keep their information in the system up-to-date. If the ministries fail to comply, the amount already spent on the implementation phase of the project would go to waste, and the data would become outdated and useless. The only way, it was felt, to ensure that the system is updated, and is available, is by ensuring that no personnel action can be executed without the use of the computer system in the process. For example, and officer should not be able to:

The following is the models used in developing the processes in the process manual. The core processes included in the manual, which show officers the process to follow, in terms of the identified personnel actions are also set out. The process manual when completed is expected to be used in conjunction with the system's Procedure Manual, where the process shows an

identifying this requirement, two other issues came to light, namely: • whether the ministries had any formalised processes to build on, and

each HR process defined where the following is clarified:

Planning Division. The effect that decentralisation has had on the CPMS is three-fold:

independent departments that are responsible;

enquiries.

project.

**–** what must be done, and **–** who is responsible.

• hire without using the CPMS;

activity to be done by the CPMS.

• promote someone without using the CPMS, and • send someone for training without using the CPMS. HRM in the Botswana Government can be illustrated as set out in the policy-making framework, on people management, of Figure **??**. Furthermore, in theory, any successful organisation and department needs four different types of groups of processes to function effectively. These groups types are presented in Figure **??** [cf. Figure **??** Different groups of process in organisational management].

Fig. 6. HRM policy-making framework

Based on the researcher's knowledge of HRM, as well as the theory regarding processes and process groupings, the HR processes can now be broken down into these four groups. This is set out in Table 1 [cf. Table 1 List of processes]. Each process performed by the HRM function should be able to fit into one of these four groupings. If there are, for example, no processes in the Governing Processes group, it means that there is currently no control function and policymaking in terms of HRM. The study uses this information, to compile an enterprise model for the HRM function in the Botswana Government. An enterprise model is a holistic picture of the HRM function within the Botswana Government, which shows all the high level processes and the links between them.

The enterprise model has the same form as the physical building in which the ministries are situated:

Fig. 8. Conceptual model of the HR function Source: Government of Botswana, 2000

• It provides a non-traditional perspective that stimulates other non-traditional ideas;

• It's an articulation of the personnel action's strategic intent;

• It tells the story of how HR faces its "customers";

the Natural Evolution of Knowledge Management Systems

• It's irrelevant whether it is the "As is" or the "To be"

• It's a description of what the business is all about, and

• It's how we pick our targets for re-engineering.

• Shows the interfaces with the customer processes;

• Has clearly definable and measurable results;

• It provides a context for integration;

• It tells us what we do, not how we do it;

Characteristics of a good enterprise model:

• Contains a logical flow;

• Is action oriented;

• Has only a few clear processes;

There are a number of reasons, for having an enterprise model, in an organisation. The following reasons were used in Botswana, for building the enterprise model for this project:

415 The Liberation of Intellectual Capital Through

Fig. 7. Different groups of process in organisational management

Table 1. List of processes

20 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

Fig. 7. Different groups of process in organisational management

• Analyse jobs • Plan manpower

• Recruit • Administer • Terminate

• Align with Vision 2016 • Align with National Development Plan • Determine Budgets • Formulate Policy • Monitor Policy • Evaluate Policy

Table 1. List of processes

**Governing Value-creating Asset-creating Enabling processes processes processes processes**

> • HR Research • HR System

• Knowledge System

• Financial management • Records keeping • Advertising • Public Relations

• Employee Relations

• Operations (Ministries & Parastatals) • IT Operations

(Law)

Fig. 8. Conceptual model of the HR function Source: Government of Botswana, 2000

There are a number of reasons, for having an enterprise model, in an organisation. The following reasons were used in Botswana, for building the enterprise model for this project:

Characteristics of a good enterprise model:

The High-level Enterprise Model, for the HRM function of the Government of Botswana, may then be modelled in the following process:

Several unstructured interviews conducted at this stage revealed symptoms of an organisation in which the process of learning involved in adapting to a fast changing business environment was the sole responsibility of its top management. Permanent Secretaries of ministries were unhappy with the current system. Government expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of service delivery of the system. A major reengineering of the system was required. Employees were unmotivated, reporting as the most important reason for their lack of motivation was the excessive centralisation of decisions by the divisional managers. Employees showed no interest in either improving business processes, or learning new methods and techniques. It was noted by one manager that: "What keeps [the employees] working are their monthly pay cheques and the prospects of overseas per diems, travel, seminars and training at international colleges and universities". The inability to motivate officers at the Directorate called for changes in the management approach. Some techniques for enhancing the level of employee participation in decisions were tested; among these techniques were brainstorming sessions, suggestion boxes, and campaigns for new ideas to solve specific problems.

None of these techniques generated the expected gains, due to two reasons. Firstly, they were strictly based on the assumption that front-line workers should have an active role in management and solution of problems, which is one of the several facets of process improvement. For example, employees were called to participate in routine strategic decisions. However, this proved to be a counterproductive strategy, supporting the

Fig. 9. The high-level Enterprise Model for the HR function (Source: Government of

417 The Liberation of Intellectual Capital Through

the Natural Evolution of Knowledge Management Systems

Botswana, 2000)

22 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

The High-level Enterprise Model, for the HRM function of the Government of Botswana, may

(iv) Transfer process v. Personnel Updates – Where the Employee requests an update (e.g.

(v) Personnel Updates – Where the Line Manager requests an update (e.g. Confirmation);

Several unstructured interviews conducted at this stage revealed symptoms of an organisation in which the process of learning involved in adapting to a fast changing business environment was the sole responsibility of its top management. Permanent Secretaries of ministries were unhappy with the current system. Government expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of service delivery of the system. A major reengineering of the system was required. Employees were unmotivated, reporting as the most important reason for their lack of motivation was the excessive centralisation of decisions by the divisional managers. Employees showed no interest in either improving business processes, or learning new methods and techniques. It was noted by one manager that: "What keeps [the employees] working are their monthly pay cheques and the prospects of overseas per diems, travel, seminars and training at international colleges and universities". The inability to motivate officers at the Directorate called for changes in the management approach. Some techniques for enhancing the level of employee participation in decisions were tested; among these techniques were brainstorming sessions,

None of these techniques generated the expected gains, due to two reasons. Firstly, they were strictly based on the assumption that front-line workers should have an active role in management and solution of problems, which is one of the several facets of process improvement. For example, employees were called to participate in routine strategic decisions. However, this proved to be a counterproductive strategy, supporting the

suggestion boxes, and campaigns for new ideas to solve specific problems.

• Not generic;

• Centres on value-adding processes;

then be modelled in the following process:

• Uses pictures, not words.

(i) Recruitment process; (ii) Promotion process; (iii) Upgrading process;

Personal Information);

(vi) Termination – Retirement; (vii) Termination – Resignation; (viii) Termination – Dismissal; (ix) Termination – Death; (x) Termination – Probation; (xi) Training – Planning; (xii) Training – Budgeting; (xiii) Training – Administration; (xiv) Manpower Planning; and

(xv) Industrial Class.

• Describes everything that occurs in the organisation;

Fig. 9. The high-level Enterprise Model for the HR function (Source: Government of Botswana, 2000)

in which officers would receive formal hands-on training on HRM techniques based on a

419 The Liberation of Intellectual Capital Through

The training sessions were planned so as to include practical HRM exercises, to be done in groups, comprising ten members each. Participating officers from ministries and independent departments were expected to replicate these exercises with real organisational processes after the sessions, using the infinium's (the Human Resources Management Information Systems

• When a vacancy is declared by the Line Manager, a template in Lotus Notes should be e-mailed, to the Directorate and the Ministry; advising them about the vacancy.

• The Ministry and the Directorate are required to acknowledge the existence of the vacancy to the Line Manager, which should ideally be a response template of Recommendation; • Directorate and the Line Manager should be notified via Lotus Notes when the vacancy

• If there are recommendations from within the system - all the applicable officers should be

• All the job descriptions and advertisements should be kept in a Lotus Notes database and

• The Appointing Board should be notified via Lotus Notes from the system of interview

• A database should be set up with rejection letters that are automatically generated from

• The same database in Lotus Notes, should generate the letters of invitation inviting an

• Casualty Return should be triggered by the CPMS, and filled in, in a softcopy format. This should then trigger an e-mail (asynchronously), to be sent to the appropriate parties; and • Once the employee has actually started his/her duties, the Ministry should be formally

The researcher and the project team, in diagnosing the problem and the service delivery requirements of the decentralised personnel system, decided to develop an interactive WMS using Lotus Workflow release 3.0. This application was selected because the Directorate was using 'Lotus Notes' and 'Domino Doc', already. Lotus Workflow 3 is one of the product group from the Lotus Corporation groupware solution suite. This KM group was expected to complete the analysis and redesign of each HRM business processes within four to six weeks. After that, a proposal should be generated and implemented, under the coordination of the

group leader, who would then prepare a report for approval by Government.

• The Appointment Board should notify and verify interview times via Lotus Notes;

• Notify the Appointment Board that an offer letter has been sent out to the applicant; • Once the start date is confirmed a form is generated (Casualty Return) and send to the relevant Departments (Accountant General, Directorate, Auditor General, HRM

methodology developed by the researcher and the IBM Consulting team.

the Natural Evolution of Knowledge Management Systems

(HRMIS), personnel actions along with the user manual, of the HRMIS.

The group noted and recommended the following workflow points:

taken from there for electronic approval by the HR ministries;

**6.1 Recommended workflow points**

has been actually created in the CPMS;

notified via Lotus Notes of the vacancy;

applicant to come to an interview;

notified via e-mail (Lotus Notes).

times and dates;

the system;

ministries);

assumption that group decisions may not be better than individual decisions. Strategic decisions to form new partnerships or sign a large government contract, for example, were found to be better made only by managers as usual. Directorate experience suggested that sharing the responsibility of taking some types of decisions with large groups of employees not directly involved with decision making on a daily basis simply delayed what could not be delayed, undermining both the employees and management's confidence in participatory management.

There were a number of problems experienced during this phase. These were exacerbated due to a lack of ownership on the part of management. They include such issues as budgeting and funding concerns, the rigid structure of the ministry management, massive staff turnover, poor project ownership, and the absence of a proper system protocol and data availability regime.

Secondly, the analysis and redesign of the human resource processes received a low priority status in the public sector's reform initiatives, and national development plans. For example, by the time this research iteration had begun, the whole set of interrelated activities involved in reviewing the pay structures and performance incentives, from consultants engaged to study the relationships between private sector and public sector remuneration, and the Presidential Commission on salary structures coupled with the implementation difficulties of the performance management system (PMS), had not been addressed by government in at least three years.

The emphasis was on having employees participate in management decisions, rather than in the analysis of how activities were executed and improvements could be attained. Moreover, new ideas for improvement coming from employees covered an overly broad range of subjects, from new designs for promotional material to better wages, leading to a vast amount of contributions coming from staff that had little knowledge about the work of the areas likely to be affected by the ideas. This, and the repetition of ideas, progressively undermined the interest of managers, and consequently employees' motivation to generate new improvement ideas.

#### **6. Action planning**

The researcher was a consultant with the Management Services' Division (MSD), of the Directorate. MSD is the internal management consultancy arm of government. The researcher was assigned the responsibility of re-engineering the remaining 6 processes, which were not done by the IBM consultants. The project team was expected to tackle a number of problems, both at the local level in the Directorate, and at the level of the human resource departments of client ministries. The researcher was also expected to help coordinate the use of information technology (IT) as an enabler in the implementation of the workflow proposals which came as a result of the human resource process re-engineering. The research iteration was expected to last approximately one year, for the duration of the Directorate's annual performance plan (APP). The researcher and the process owners (Heads of Divisions – Senior Assistant Directors of Directorate, participated in this training exercises and became project champions for the role-out of the CPMS to ministries.

Directorate is a super Department of the ministry of State President. The Directorate is headed by a permanent secretary level Director. The executive management team of the Directorate comprised the Director, two Deputy Directors, and eight Senior Assistant Directors, who are the functional heads of the Divisions of the Department.) They decided that the iteration would begin with a number of training sessions, involving line managers of client ministries, in which officers would receive formal hands-on training on HRM techniques based on a methodology developed by the researcher and the IBM Consulting team.

The training sessions were planned so as to include practical HRM exercises, to be done in groups, comprising ten members each. Participating officers from ministries and independent departments were expected to replicate these exercises with real organisational processes after the sessions, using the infinium's (the Human Resources Management Information Systems (HRMIS), personnel actions along with the user manual, of the HRMIS.

#### **6.1 Recommended workflow points**

24 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

assumption that group decisions may not be better than individual decisions. Strategic decisions to form new partnerships or sign a large government contract, for example, were found to be better made only by managers as usual. Directorate experience suggested that sharing the responsibility of taking some types of decisions with large groups of employees not directly involved with decision making on a daily basis simply delayed what could not be delayed, undermining both the employees and management's confidence in participatory

There were a number of problems experienced during this phase. These were exacerbated due to a lack of ownership on the part of management. They include such issues as budgeting and funding concerns, the rigid structure of the ministry management, massive staff turnover, poor project ownership, and the absence of a proper system protocol and data availability

Secondly, the analysis and redesign of the human resource processes received a low priority status in the public sector's reform initiatives, and national development plans. For example, by the time this research iteration had begun, the whole set of interrelated activities involved in reviewing the pay structures and performance incentives, from consultants engaged to study the relationships between private sector and public sector remuneration, and the Presidential Commission on salary structures coupled with the implementation difficulties of the performance management system (PMS), had not been addressed by government in at

The emphasis was on having employees participate in management decisions, rather than in the analysis of how activities were executed and improvements could be attained. Moreover, new ideas for improvement coming from employees covered an overly broad range of subjects, from new designs for promotional material to better wages, leading to a vast amount of contributions coming from staff that had little knowledge about the work of the areas likely to be affected by the ideas. This, and the repetition of ideas, progressively undermined the interest of managers, and consequently employees' motivation to generate new improvement

The researcher was a consultant with the Management Services' Division (MSD), of the Directorate. MSD is the internal management consultancy arm of government. The researcher was assigned the responsibility of re-engineering the remaining 6 processes, which were not done by the IBM consultants. The project team was expected to tackle a number of problems, both at the local level in the Directorate, and at the level of the human resource departments of client ministries. The researcher was also expected to help coordinate the use of information technology (IT) as an enabler in the implementation of the workflow proposals which came as a result of the human resource process re-engineering. The research iteration was expected to last approximately one year, for the duration of the Directorate's annual performance plan (APP). The researcher and the process owners (Heads of Divisions – Senior Assistant Directors of Directorate, participated in this training exercises and became project champions for the

Directorate is a super Department of the ministry of State President. The Directorate is headed by a permanent secretary level Director. The executive management team of the Directorate comprised the Director, two Deputy Directors, and eight Senior Assistant Directors, who are the functional heads of the Divisions of the Department.) They decided that the iteration would begin with a number of training sessions, involving line managers of client ministries,

management.

least three years.

**6. Action planning**

role-out of the CPMS to ministries.

regime.

ideas.

The group noted and recommended the following workflow points:

The researcher and the project team, in diagnosing the problem and the service delivery requirements of the decentralised personnel system, decided to develop an interactive WMS using Lotus Workflow release 3.0. This application was selected because the Directorate was using 'Lotus Notes' and 'Domino Doc', already. Lotus Workflow 3 is one of the product group from the Lotus Corporation groupware solution suite. This KM group was expected to complete the analysis and redesign of each HRM business processes within four to six weeks. After that, a proposal should be generated and implemented, under the coordination of the group leader, who would then prepare a report for approval by Government.

**7.2 Local KM groups**

termination, etc.).

groups were led by management as well as line staff.

the Natural Evolution of Knowledge Management Systems

The researcher recommended the use of ministry specific KM groups, using the principles of WITS to target processes cutting across only a few departments within the Ministry. This was the reason for calling them "local" KM groups. One of the rationales for these groups was to improve the ownership of the changes, which were introduced in the processes. These groups had very short-term projects. Some of them lasted only for a few weeks to a month; while others only for a few days. The researcher found that this short-term group duration were particularly linked to a narrow target process scope. Also, that the shortest groups being those targeting very localised processes at the departmental and divisional level. Local WITS

421 The Liberation of Intellectual Capital Through

In the case of Directorate, which was the agency responsible for implementing the PMS in the Public Service, local KM groups abound. There was a long tradition of WITS projects and usage within this agency. So, there was no resistance to the setting up of local KM groups – teams. About seven months after the research iteration had begun four KM groups had completed their work. These groups met exclusively face-to-face, as the ES was unavailable at that stage. As the Directorate had 50 management level staff working in a campus environment, and considering that, a group would last on average of 4 weeks, the Directorate's maximum WITS group capacity was approximately of 4 five-member groups at a time. Some of the groups recommend very impressive alternatives to some of the Directorate processes, while others concentrate on short-term problems. This apparent tendency of some groups to focus on problems rather than on underlying processes has also been pointed out by previous research on both gradual and radical KM groups/community of practice interaction,

Some of the Directorate's employees who did not take part in any of the KM groups, reported as one of the reasons for non-participation as being the inability to attend KM group meetings because they were engaged in external activities (e.g. meeting with a client) during scheduled group meetings. Since all the Directorate staff had access to the intranet – the GDN, this problem called for the introduction of the ES prototype developed by the researcher as a tool to allow KM group members to interact from their own computers at different times. This prototype was built on the Lotus Notes infrastructure. Each KM group was assigned a group mailbox upon its creation. KM group mailbox topics were suggestive of the business process under consideration, and held postings from group members' related to different stages of the KM methodology (i.e. process definition, analysis, and redesign). Some KM group mailboxes allowed public access within the organisation to group postings so other public officers could participate in the ongoing discussions. However, some of the KM group mailboxes had restricted access to group members, whenever the discussion was perceived as addressing confidential issues (e.g. possible dismissals as a result of process changes, terminal benefits,

In addition, a number of public mailboxes were created and gradually populated with information regarding the core business processes of the HRM policies and regulations. This information was previously held in the conventional paper-based "General Orders," and other policy document, such as "savingram"6. These mailboxes also contained some regularly updated postings with information about efficiency, PMS outcomes, and service delivery, and ministries and clients complaints for each business process. Employees were instructed

6 SAVINGRAM – A circular/memorandum document, which provides information on policy/regulation

issues that subsequently, becomes part of the "General Order".

and occurred in spite of the one-day training sessions previously mentioned.


**2. Limits and enhancements of the light-extraction efficiency of GaN LEDs**

No single semiconductor material alone is capable of emitting white light. A white light LED typically consists of an appropriate mixture of (a) red, blue, and green LEDs, or (b) blue

Improving the Light-Emitting Efficiency of GaN LEDs Using Nanoimprint Lithography 175

For instance, the refraction index of GaN at room temperature is 2.4, corresponding to a critical angle of 24.6o. When the angle of incidence (regarding air) of the point light sources in the active region of the GaN LED is smaller than 24.6o, all emitted photons can be

In 3D space, the point light sources emit photons isotropically in spherical directions. The radiation area is the area of the sphere 4πr2, where r is the distance from the wavefront to the point light source. When the spherical wavefront reaches the GaN/air interface, only the photons within the conical region (using the critical angle as the solid angle) can escape the

2 sin 2 (1 cos ) *c*

2 (1 cos ) (1 cos ) 4 2

>

semiconductor (Figure1- Right). The radiation area of the escaping cone is:

2

*sourse*

high order terms in the above equation can be neglected, leading to the following:

*P P*

*c*

*escape*

*sourse*

*P*

*r P P P*

*P P*

*sourse*

*P P*

the surface of the active region to the air is only 4.61%.

*escape*

*P*

**2.2 Methods to improve the light extraction efficiency**

*source*

area of the emission sphere of the point source:

. - 2 0

*A dA r rd r c*

The emitted optical power per unit area of the escaping cone is equal to the power per unit

2

*r*

By expanding the cosine term into power series, the following equation can be derived:

*c c escape source source*

*escape c*

2 4 1 1 1 2 2! 4! *escape c c*

For semiconductors with high refraction indices, the critical angle is small. Therefore, the

Using GaN as an example once more, the light extraction efficiency (calculated below) from

Numerous methods have been proposed to circumvent the poor light extraction efficiency imposed by the TIR effect. Modifying the geometry of the LED chip is one such method [1-3]. By shaping the sides of the LED chip into trapezoidal (or up-side-down trapezoidal)

(1 cos ) 2

> 1 2 4

1 1 24.6 2 2 ( ) 4.61% 4 4 180

*c*

 *r r*

.

delivered to the free space.

and yellow lights, where the blue LED stimulating yellow phosphor produces the yellow light. In either case, the blue LED is the main constituent of a white light LED. Most blue LEDs are made from GaN, the compound discussed in this paper.

#### **2.1 Analysis of the light extraction efficiency**

Excluding the substrate, a typical LED structure is only a few micrometers thick. The region capable of emitting light is called the active region, composed of multiple quantum wells (MQWs) of less than 1 μm in thickness. The active region can be regarded as a thin film containing a large number of point light sources radiating photons in all directions. The ratio of the number of these emitted photons to the number of electrons injected to excite the quantum wells constitutes an essential figure(also known as internal quantum efficiency) for judging the performance of an LED. Another significant figure of value concerns the number of photons out of the active region that can be extracted to the free space. This is called the light extraction efficiency, *extraction* , defined as follows:

$$
\eta\_{\text{extraction}} = \frac{\text{\# of photons emitted into free space per second}}{\text{\# of photons emitted from active region per second}}
$$

The extraction efficiency is definitely not 100%. In practice, reflection at the interface between two materials with different refraction indices is unavoidable. This reflection can be considered as a loss (also known as Fresnel loss) mechanism in the LED. However, the main loss channel in the LED is caused by the total internal reflection (TIR). TIR is an optical phenomenon that occurs when the light enters from an optically dense medium to a less optically dense medium, such as when the light exits from GaN and enters the air. As the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, no light can be transmitted at the interface and all light is reflected. Snell's law is used to determine the critical angle:

$$n\_s \sin \theta\_1 = n\_{air} \sin \theta\_2$$

where ns and nair are the refractive indices of GaN and air, respectively. θ1 is the angle of incidence and θ2 is the refraction angle. When the refraction angle is greater than 90°, which forbids photons from being transmitted at the interface, the corresponding angle of incidence is the critical angle, -1 sin ( ) *air c s n n* , as shown in Figure 1- Left.

Fig. 1. (Left) The critical angle for the total internal reflection (Right) The light emission cone of an LED

and yellow lights, where the blue LED stimulating yellow phosphor produces the yellow light. In either case, the blue LED is the main constituent of a white light LED. Most blue

Excluding the substrate, a typical LED structure is only a few micrometers thick. The region capable of emitting light is called the active region, composed of multiple quantum wells (MQWs) of less than 1 μm in thickness. The active region can be regarded as a thin film containing a large number of point light sources radiating photons in all directions. The ratio of the number of these emitted photons to the number of electrons injected to excite the quantum wells constitutes an essential figure(also known as internal quantum efficiency) for judging the performance of an LED. Another significant figure of value concerns the number of photons out of the active region that can be extracted to the free space. This is

*extraction* , defined as follows:


**About the Special Issue Editors**

**Marcello Di Risio** is the associate professor of Maritime and Hydraulic Structures at the Department of Civil, Construction-Architectural and Environmental Engineering of the University of L'Aquila (Italy). He is the head of the Environmental and Maritime Hydraulic Laboratory (LIam) and leader of the Coastal Research Group. He completed his PhD at the University of "Roma Tre", with a thesis related to the impulse waves generated by landslide. Then, he spent several years at the early stage of his career at the University of Rome "Tor Vergata", before moving to the University of L'Aquila. He carries out research work in collaboration with both Italian and international research groups, by means of theoretical, numerical and experimental approaches in the fields of coastal engineering, harbor engineering and landslide generated tsunami waves. He has a large amount of experience in hydraulic laboratory tests in 2D wave flumes and, partially, in 3D wave tanks. His main research topics may be summarized as follows: the generation and propagation of landslide impulse generated waves, the real time detection of tsunamis, mathematical and experimental modeling of coastal processes, mathematical and experimental modeling of hydraulic and maritime structures, the development of wave energy converters, mathematical modeling of environmental impacts related to marine sediments handling, coastal risk and management, modeling of storm surge.

**Donald F. Hayes** is a Research Environmental Engineer in the Environmental Laboratory of the US Army Corps of Engineers' Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC) in Vicksburg, MS. He earned a PhD in Civil Engineering from Colorado State University with an emphasis in Environmental Engineering and Water Resources Planning and Management. His research interests include environmental impacts associated with dredging and sediment management, particularly contaminated sediment management, wetland restoration, systems applications in water resources management, and water quality modeling. He has published widely and holds multiple patents. Dr. Hayes has extensive consulting and expert witness experience. He is a registered Professional Engineer, Diplomate of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers, Fellow of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Director of the Western Dredging Association, and editor of the Journal of Dredging Engineering.

**Davide Pasquali** is a researcher of Maritime and Hydraulic Structures at the Department of Civil, Construction-Architectural and Environmental Engineering of the University of L'Aquila (Italy). He is part of the Coastal Research Group at the same university. He completed his PhD at the University of L'Aquila, with a thesis related to the hindcasting and forecasting of storm surge. He has a long research experience in Hydraulic Laboratory Tests. His main research topics may be summarized as follows: hindcast and forecast of storm surge, development of wave energy converters, wave resource and availability assessments, mathematical modeling of environmental impacts related to marine sediments handling, mathematical and experimental modeling of coastal processes, and hydraulic and maritime structures.


**3.1 Incorporating microfluidic experiments into SAXS**

After the microfluidic devices are designed, fabricated, tested and fluid control is established, final considerations involve the implementation of the complete setup in an X-ray beam, either in a SAXS lab instrument or at a synchrotron beamline. Depending on SAXS instrument design a number of adjustments and considerations are required to achieve good integration for the measurement. As every synchrotron has slightly different parameters and sample environments, it is recommended to contact the beamline staff if considering a microfluidic-based time-resolved SAXS experiment for specific advice.

## *3.1.1 Device modifications*

SAXS measurements are dependent on the volume and composition of all objects in the X-ray beam. Consideration should therefore be given to not only the material's resistance to radiation damage, but also the relative volumes of device material and sample that are going to be presented over the measurement channel. For example, 2–3 mm of any device-polymer either side of a sample channel of 50


**1. Introduction**

Essential oil (EO) is a secondary metabolite synthesized by medicinal and aromatic plants. It represents less than 5% of the total plant composition. Over 3000 types of EO have been identified, but only 300 were found to be economical [1, 2].

EO is volatile, generally colorless, and liquid at room temperature. It is highly soluble in organic solvents, alcohol, and fixed oils but sparingly soluble in water. It has very high optical activity, a variable refractive index, and sometimes a distinctive taste. In addition, essential oils have a characteristic odor, that is responsible for the fragrance specific to the aromatic plant. Chemically, EO components can be divided into terpene compounds and aromatic compounds. It is a mixture of bi-active chemical components such as terpenoids, terpenes, and phenolic compounds. They are made up of terpene compounds, acids, alcohols, esters, aldehydes, ketone epoxides, sulfides, and amines [3, 4].

They are synthesized by the majority of plant organs, in particular flowers, buds, leaves, seeds, stems, and fruits. These EOs can be stored in epidermal cells, cavities, and the secretory cells of glandular trichomes.

EOs are known for their biological activity, notably their antioxidant, antifungal, antimicrobial, antiviral, antiparasitic, antimycotic, and insecticidal properties [5, 6].

Several extraction techniques are used; Hydrodistillation and steam extraction are the oldest, simplest, and most commonly used methods. Other extraction methods can also be used: cold pressing, especially applied to rose.

The EO extraction method generally depends on the botanical material used. It is one of the main factors determining EO quality. An inappropriate extraction procedure can damage or alter the chemical composition of EO. This results in a loss of bio-activity and natural characteristics. In the most serious cases, this is accompanied by discoloration, an unpleasant odor or flavor, and physical changes such as increased viscosity [7].

The principle of EO extraction is relatively straightforward. However, the process chosen can have a significant effect on the yield and quality of the distillate obtained [8]. Various processes have therefore been developed to obtain maximum yields of EO with a chemical state as close as possible to their native structure.

According to the European Pharmacopeia, an essential oil can be obtained by steam distillation, distillation, or a mechanical process. Other processes include supercritical CO2 extraction, volatile organic solvent extraction, microwave extraction, and ultrasonic extraction. The aim of this chapter is to present an overview of the various extraction methods.