*4.2.3. Subclinical hyperthyroidism and skeletal changes*

Subclinical hyperthyroidism is defined as subnormal serum TSH with normal serum free thyroid hormones without signs or symptoms of thyrotoxicosis. Its prevalence in the U.S. population has been reported 0.7% (Hollowell et al, 2002). By definition, such patients should not have any clinical abnormalities associated with thyrotoxicosis (Biondi et al, 2005). However, a reduced bone mass was reported among postmenopausal patients (Bauer et al 2001). These observations could thus have a broader impact on the healthcare systems, as the subclinical hyperthyroidism is more frequent than overt thyrotoxicosis (Hollowell et al, 2002). Improvement of bone mineral density was shown in postmenopausal women with subclinical hyperthyroidism after normalization of their thyroid function (Faber et al, 1998). These data would justify indications of treatment in the older population. However, the risk/benefit ratio needs to be demonstrated by long-term, randomized studies.

On the other hand, the bone mineral density of the lumbar spine, femoral neck and the midshaft of the radius were not significantly decreased in premenopausal women (Foldes et al, 1993). The impact of subclinical hyperthyroidism in men is less known. A recent work suggests that a serum TSH concentration at the lower end of the reference range may be associated with low BMD in men (Kim et al, 2010).


**Abstract**

This chapter aims to design, construct and test a new and renewable heating system for fulfilling the energy demand and ameliorating the interior environment of poultry farming in the UK. This system consists of a photovoltaic/thermal module attached to the polyethylene heat exchanger integrated with a geothermal copper pipe array and heat pump. The thermal and electrical energy performance of the hybrid renewable heating system is investigated based on a numerical model and experimental test. Moreover, the economic analysis (and environmental assessment are conducted. It is concluded that the electrical energy production from the photovoltaic array could reach 11867 kWh per annum whereas the heat pump thermal output is about 30210 kWh per annum. Meanwhile, the overall gas and electrical cost of the hybrid renewable heating system are £320 and £129, which are much less than that of the gas burners system and could save £763 and £750, respectively, resulting in less than 6-year of payback period. The energy consumption of the hybrid renewable heating system could decrease about 28873 kWh, resulting in a reduction in total CO2 emission of approximately 8.3 tons, in comparison with the gas burners system.

**Keywords:** poultry farming, photovoltaic/thermal array, geothermal copper pipe array, energy efficiency, economic and environmental assessments


**5. Concluding remarks and policy consideration**

This article investigated and analyzed the causes of corruption in Sub-Saharan Africa through the lenses of three major sources such as historical roots, contemporary causes and institutional causes. The crux of the article is an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of anti-corruption strategies in combatting corruption in the subregion by including institutional variables. This method allows nations in the subregion to be evaluated using the same institutional features while concentrating on a slew of subjective and objective variables. By offering contextual information, our study adds to existing cross-country studies on the causes of corruption. This article contributes to the body of knowledge, through the literature and highlighting risk factors in public procurement and also by addressing these flaws in the context of the development of risk mitigation strategies, which can be operationalized in any country's public procurement systems.

The procurement of goods and services is the backbone of each country to provide service to its citizens. Exploring the guidelines and procurement pacts provided by various international organizations can be used as the basis to build a strong legal framework in each country. In this regard, the development and implementation of these guidelines can enhance the legislative framework of countries and strengthen compliance with procurement processes. Operationalization of procurement processes will therefore become less prone to corrupt practices. It can be argued that the effectiveness of the adherence to the procurement legislative framework is also based on the political will and transparency to eradicate procurement corruption.


**1. Introduction**

Historically, the earliest descriptions about the danger of noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) were described in 1713 by the Italian physician Bernardino Ramazzini (1633–1714). In his book "De Morbis Artificum" (Diseases of Workers), he firstly demonstrated the impact of hearing loss together in a relation to prolonged exposure to noise by his observations based on his examinations on coppersmith workers who were constantly exposed to noise and gradually suffered from hearing loss [1].

During the eighteenth century with onset of rapid industrialisation, the incidence of NIHL increased drastically and lead to the first ideas of preventive actions.

Almost 200 years later, the Hungarian biophysicist Georg von Békésy (1899–1972) analysed the travelling wave of sound in the cochlea, for which he received a Nobel Prize in 1961 and simultaneously set the cornerstone for the start of investigations of noise and hearing loss in relation to exposure time [2].

The origin of the noun "noise" is found in Latin language from the term "nausea", which later via detours through French language was introduced as "noise" to the English language [3]. Both words have much more in common than suspected before.

Substantially, there is no difference between sound and noise. But enlightening the differences more closely, sound refers to the sense of perception that usually occurs on voluntary basis and delights the listener as it is for example by listening to music. On the other hand, noise is defined as an unwanted sound that may cause displeasure, annoyance and pain or, referring back to its word origins, nausea.

Investigations have shown that continuous noise exposure has an enormous damaging impact not only on hearing but also on the general health status of the population.

Although preventable, NIHL is one of the most widespread irreversible occupational diseases worldwide and thus was declared as a serious occupational hazard [4].

Several studies gave evidence that noise creates physical and psychological stress, commonly presented as reduced assessment, sleep disturbances, cardiovascular dysfunction and mental health alteration [5, 6].

The protection of health and safety from hazards at work should be our all interest. Therefore, our research is aimed at evaluating the impact of occupational noise on hearing, general security of health, quality of life and productivity of those working in stressful environments shown at the example of emergency service working personnel, who give constantly their best to protect and save our health during emergency.


3.4.3. Standards Employed

Calibration curves of three polyphenolic standards (kaempferol-3-glucoside, apigenin, rosmarinic acid) were employed for the quantification of the polyphenolic content in sample extracts. Each analysis was performed in 6 repetitions. Data acquisition was performed by Shimadzu LabSolution software ver. 5.99. Kaempferol-3-glucoside (1, 10, 20, 50, 150) ppm; y = 13848x + 2354.1; R2 = 0.9995; LoD = 0.090; LoQ = 0.274. Apigenin (1, 10, 25, 50, 100) ppm; y = 25625x + 608.11; R2 = 0.9997; LoD = 0.0263; LoQ = 0.0798. Rosmarinic acid (5, 10, 25, 50, 100) ppm; y = 7150.6x + 9821.3; R2 = 0.9993; LoD = 0.14; LoQ = 0.43.


*2.1. Climate Change and the Energy-Environment-Growth Nexus*

According to the vast majority of literature now available, the energy-environmentgrowth nexus studies which use the simultaneous equation model have not considered that

climate affects energy and the environment in many ways, although extreme temperature changes could distinctly affect energy consumption, and thus GHGs. For example, Considine [36] evaluated the driving factors of GHGs, and the results of the linear logit model indicated the impact of weather changes on GHGs is considerable. That is, the hot summer increases the demand for air conditioning and electricity, which in turn increases energy consumption. While cold winter increases the demand for heating fuel, such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Studies have shown that the consumption of traditional energy sources in both OECD and non-OECD countries will inevitably lead to an increase in greenhouse gases and thus affect economic growth [37].

The environment affects the economy and energy in many ways, and there is heterogeneity in the impact of the environment on economic growth and energy efficiency in OECD and non-OECD countries [38,39]. At the same time, the abnormal temperature will affect the economy in many aspects, causing damage to green economic growth [40,41]. The emergence of extreme temperatures hinders short-term and long-term economic development and affects indicators such as employment and profitability [42,43]. However, the impact of climate change on green economic growth has not been widely studied in the existing literature.

#### *2.2. Innovation Input and the Energy-Environment-Growth Nexus*

On the role of innovation input in economic growth, a large amount of literature gives almost the same conclusion. In contrast, there are fewer studies on the impact of innovation input on GHGs and energy consumption, especially the impact of innovation input on the energy-environment-growth nexus. Chen and Lei [44] suggested that technological innovation has played an important role in improving energy efficiency and reducing energy consumption. But technological innovation has a greater impact on countries with higher GHGs than on countries with lower GHGs. Zakari et al. studied the factors influencing green innovation in OECD and non-OECD countries respectively [45]. And Khan et al. [26] examined that technological innovation can reduce GHGs and boost economic growth in BRICS countries. The improvement of innovation input is helpful to develop renewable energy and improve energy efficiency, to ensure energy security and achieve green economic growth.

## 2.2.1. Innovation Input and Economic Growth

A large number of existing literature believed that innovation input is the pillar of economic growth, a key factor to promote green economic growth, and even the power and source of human social development [46,47]. From the perspective of neoclassical economics, Thompson [48] elaborated his point of view: with the development of an innovation economy, social capital will grow internally with the increase of monopolistic competitors' profits and production. In other words, innovation input and economic growth can promote each other and develop together. Adak [49] cites structural changes in Turkey's economy over the past 35 years as evidence of the impact of technological progress and innovation input on economic growth. In this model, innovation input has become a key endogenous variable of the total production function, and innovation input has brought high productivity and rapid positive growth to the economy.


**1. Introduction**

Galicia is an autonomous region of Spain that produces more than 8 million cubic metres (m3) of timber, with the Galician forestry sector currently providing 12% of industrial employment in the region (Monte Industria, 2010a). However, Galicia's potential as a forest product producer can be considered to be under-developed since both the amount and unit value of forest production could be greatly increased (Xunta de Galicia, 2001). Given that the Galician agriculture and fishery sectors (traditional bases for economic activity, especially in rural communities) are declining, a healthy forestry sector can be seen as an engine for regional and rural economic development.

One of the primary causes for forest sector under-development is the high degree of private forest ownership in small, scattered holdings. According to Ambrosio et al. (2003), private forests comprise approximately 97% of Galician forestlands, with about two thirds of those in holdings of less than 2 hectares (often in several non-contiguous parcels). Approximately 30% of private forests are owned by communities, but even these average only several hundred hectares in size. About half of the community forest area is managed by an agency of the regional government as a result of agreements signed in the second half of the twentieth century.

This fragmented ownership pattern has made it difficult to promote sustainable forest management (SFM) and the development of the sector. Only a small portion of the forested land is managed in a patently sustainable manner, which does not bode well for the future of industrial forestry given the pressure for certified SFM from governments, the general public and the forest product marketplace. This makes it difficult to justify public and private investment in forestry, which in turn impedes investment in forest industry modernization. If the industry is not modernized, the degree of "value-added" processing will remain low, with most raw production sent to other regions for processing.

Given the situation, the government department primarily responsible for forest management (Dirección Xeral de Montes, or DXM, of the Galician Rural Development Ministry) recognized that it was necessary to formulate new strategies, policies and processes aimed at the development of the forestry sector based upon the principles of SFM.

Sustainable Forest Management in Galicia (Spain): Lessons Learned 223

3. **Development of the criteria and indicators of sustainability**. Forest management processes in Galicia should be developed that are consistent with regional criteria and indicators of sustainability, which will be, in turn, based upon those affirmed in the 3rd

4. **Establishment of an accurate and reliable system of forestry information**. Good information is essential for forest management planning, monitoring and control, and to

5. **Promote increased research into forest sustainability**. Forest management should be based upon scientific knowledge, and research directed by management needs. 6. **Foster public forestry education to facilitate understanding and participation**. Informed participation of the public and the forestry sector of Galicia are critical to the

7. **Foster and support the economic development of the forest sector of Galicia**. Priorities include promoting timber and non-timber forest products as renewable resources, enhancing the role of the forestry sector in rural development, and

The DXM believed that a new integrated process should be a critical component of the new strategy. The following sections of this paper focus on the new SFM process and supporting

While many actions and programs would be required to implement the new strategy as envisaged, a key component would involve the implementation of a new forest management process. This new process, which is illustrated schematically in Figure 1, would be aimed at integrating and coordinating forest management at the regional, district and forest ownership levels while at the same time fostering the active participation of

The following are brief descriptions of the three major sub-processes of the proposed new SFM process for Galicia, followed by a description of how they are to interact (Fig. 1.)

The first major goal of Regional Management would be to develop a revision to the current Plan Forestal de Galicia – PFG (Xunta de Galicia, 1992) based upon principles of sustainability, input from the public and the forest sector, and the best current forestry knowledge. A Regional Committee for Sustainable Forestry representing all regional stakeholders would endorse a Declaration of Regional Principles of Sustainability based

1 Galicia is divided into 19 Forest Districts that have common physical, biological, economic and social characteristics. It can be argued that it is only at the level of the Forest District that it is possible to

manage for critical landscape, territorial and community objectives and constraints.

supporting cooperation amongst forest owners and forest owners associations. 8. **Promotion of forest certification**. Forest certification initiatives that lend credibility and transparency to the forest management process should be fostered, especially those that

evaluate and document actions and results in relation to accepted criteria.

decision processes.

success of the Strategy.

MCPFE in Lisbon (MCPFE, 1998).

enable certification by small forest owners.

information infrastructure proposed by the DXM.

**4. The proposed SFM process in Galicia**

forestry stakeholders and Galician society at all levels.

**4.1 Regional management sub-process**

control structures would be implemented at the regional, district1 and forest management unit levels to ensure the continuity of strategic, tactical and operational

The goal of this chapter is to describe the Galician SFM strategy framework as initially envisaged, assess its evolution and implementation to date, describe important initiatives that have been undertaken by the private sector itself, and conclude with a summary of what we believe that should be learned from the entire process.


3.1.1. Nutritional Composition

The results obtained for the nutritional composition of haskap fruits are presented in Table 1. The fresh fruit presented 82.9 ± 0.1 g/100 g fw of water (17.1 ± 0.1 g/100 g of dry matter), and carbohydrates as major macronutrients (15.87±0.06 g/100 g fw). It also presented 0.87 ± 0.04 g/100 g fw of protein, 0.38 ± 0.02 g/100 g fw of fat, and 0.00127 ± 0.00008 g/100 g fw of ash, which led to 70.37 ± 0.09 kcal/100 g fw of energetic contribution. In a previous study performed by Palíková et al. [19], haskap revealed a similar water content (82.7 g/100 g fw), but significantly higher concentrations of protein and ash (1.6 and 0.5 g/100 g fw, respectively), thus also presenting a higher energy (330 Kcal/100 g fw) [19]. Also, in a work performed with three cultivars of haskap, *Borealis* and *Indigo Gem* cultivars revealed similar contents of dry matter (17.7 ± 0.6 and 15.91 ± 0.04 g/100 g fw, respectively) and carbohydrates (15.6 ± 0.7 and 14.30 ± 0.08 g/100 g fw, respectively), whereas the *Tundra* cultivar showed lower concentrations of both (12.4 ± 0.2 and 10.19 ± 0.2 g/100 g fw of water and carbohydrates, respectively), thus presenting higher levels of protein, fat, and ash [20]. Other cultivars were previously assessed, namely, *Czelabinka, Duet*, *Jolanta*, and *Wojtek* (focused on in the present study), and presented similar dry matter amounts (16.1 ± 1, 17 ± 1, 15 ± 1, and 14 ± 2 g/100 g fw, respectively), and higher concentrations of ash (0.096 ± 0.003, 0.095 ± 0.007, 0.09 ± 0.02, and 0.067 ± 0.001 g/100 g fw, respectively) [21]. On the other hand, in a study performed with the *Kamtschatica* variety from Khabarovsk (Russia), lower amounts of fat and carbohydrates were found (0.01 ± 0.01 and 0.9 ± 0.1 g/100 g fw), but the sample revealed higher quantities of water, protein, and ash (88 ± 4, 2.1 ± 0.2, and 0.5 ± 0.1 g/100 g fw) [6]. The differences could be explained by several possible factors, such as soil and cultivation conditions, given the different origin of the samples, or the maturation state, which clearly influences fruits composition [1,22], among many others.

**Table 1.** Nutritional value and free sugars, organic acids, and tocopherols composition of haskap fruits.


*Article Aedes aegypti* **Piwi4 Structural Features Are Necessary for RNA Binding and Nuclear Localization**

**Adeline E. Williams 1,2 , Gaurav Shrivastava 1 , Apostolos G. Gittis 1 , Sundar Ganesan 1 , Ines Martin-Martin 1 , Paola Carolina Valenzuela Leon 1 , Ken E. Olson 2,\* and Eric Calvo 1,\***

**Abstract:** The PIWI-interacting RNA (piRNA) pathway provides an RNA interference (RNAi) mechanism known from *Drosophila* studies to maintain the integrity of the germline genome by silencing transposable elements (TE). *Aedes aegypti* mosquitoes, which are the key vectors of several arthropodborne viruses, exhibit an expanded repertoire of Piwi proteins involved in the piRNA pathway, suggesting functional divergence. Here, we investigate RNA-binding dynamics and subcellular localization of *A. aegypti* Piwi4 (AePiwi4), a Piwi protein involved in antiviral immunity and embryonic development, to better understand its function. We found that AePiwi4 PAZ (Piwi/Argonaute/Zwille), the domain that binds the 30 ends of piRNAs, bound to mature (30 2 0 O-methylated) and unmethylated RNAs with similar micromolar affinities (KD = 1.7 ± 0.8 µM and KD of 5.0 ± 2.2 µM, respectively; *p* = 0.05) in a sequence independent manner. Through site-directed mutagenesis studies, we identified highly conserved residues involved in RNA binding and found that subtle changes in the amino acids flanking the binding pocket across PAZ proteins have significant impacts on binding behaviors, likely by impacting the protein secondary structure. We also analyzed AePiwi4 subcellular localization in mosquito tissues. We found that the protein is both cytoplasmic and nuclear, and we identified an AePiwi4 nuclear localization signal (NLS) in the N-terminal region of the protein. Taken together, these studies provide insights on the dynamic role of AePiwi4 in RNAi and pave the way for future studies aimed at understanding Piwi interactions with diverse RNA populations.

**Keywords:** Piwi4; *Aedes aegypti*; piRNA; RNA interference; RNAi; Piwi; NLS; arbovirus; mosquito