**Carbon Nanotubes for Use in Medicine: Potentials and Limitations**

Wei Shao, Paul Arghya, Mai Yiyong, Laetitia Rodes and Satya Prakash

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51785


**About the Editors**

**David S ´anchez** (Senior Lecturer) gained his Ph.D. in Physics at the Autonomous University of Madrid (2002), and his MA in Hispanic Philology at UNED (2014). He was also a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Geneva (2002–2004). Later he was a Ramon y Cajal fellow (2005–2008). Since 2011, he has been an associate professor at the University of the Balearic Islands, and today he is also a faculty member of the Institute for Cross-Disciplinary Physics and Complex Systems IFISC (UIB-CSIC). He has been a visiting scholar at the universities of Indiana, Texas, California, Stanford and ETH Zurich, has more than a hundred published papers in scientific journals, and ¨ has spoken at more than sixty conferences. His main research areas include nanophysics, quantum thermodynamics and language variation.

**Michael Moskalets** (Leading Research Fellow) gained his Dr. of Science in Theoretical Physics at the Institute for Single Crystals National Academy of Science of Ukraine (2008). He is a leading research fellow at the Department of Metal and Semiconductor Physics, at the National Technical University "Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute", Kharkiv, Ukraine. He has been a visiting scholar at the Geneva University, Aalto University, ENS Lyon, IFISC (UIB-CSIC) Palma de Mallorca, RWTH Aachen University, as well as the National Chiao Tung University of Taiwan. More than 100 of his papers have been published in scientific journals. He is the author of the book "*Scattering Matrix Approach to Non-Stationary Quantum Transport*", Imperial College Press, London, 2011. His main research areas include quantum coherent single-electronics, nanophysics, quantum thermodynamics


*4.2. Reward Function*

For a given output voltage *V*pv, the PV system can generate the corresponding power under the current solar irradiation, temperature, and PSC. In TRL, the higher the quality of the solution is, the larger reward the individual will receive. Based on this rule, the reward function can be designed as [30]:

$$R\_{i,k}^{l,m}(s\_{i,k}^{l,m}, s\_{i,k+1}^{l,m}, a\_{i,k}^{l,m}) = \begin{cases} \max\_{m=1,2,\dots,M} f(V\_{\text{PV}}^{m}), \text{ if } \{s\_{i,k}^{l,m}, a\_{i,k}^{l,m}\} \in \text{SA}\_k^{\text{best}}\\ 0, & \text{otherwise} \end{cases} \tag{12}$$

where *Vm*pv is the obtained solution by the *m*th individual and *SA*best *k* denotes the explored state–action pairs set of the best individual with the maximum power output at the *k*th iteration.


**RECENT ADVANCES IN THE BIOLOGY, THERAPY AND MANAGEMENT OF MELANOMA**

Edited by **Lester M. Davids**

#### **Recent Advances in the Biology, Therapy and Management of Melanoma**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/46052 Edited by Lester M. Davids

#### **Contributors**

Pu Wang, Peipei Guan, Sadako Yamagata, Tatsuya Yamagata, Shawn M. Swavey, John D'Orazio, James Lagrew, Amanda Marsch, Stuart Jarrett, Laura Cleary, Norma E. Herrera, Jianli Dong, Gengming Huang, Rasheen Imtiaz, Fangling Xu, Randy Burd, Erin Mendoza, Nicholas Panayi, Elliot Breshears, Paola Savoia, Paolo Fava, Pietro Quaglino, Maria Grazia Bernengo, Jung-Feng Hsieh, Wen-Tai Li, Hsiang-Wen Tseng, Isabel Pires, Justina Prada, Felisbina Luisa Queiroga, Joana Almeida Gomes, Dinora Pereira, Miriam Jasiulionis, Fabiana Melo, Fernanda Molognoni, Bryan E. Strauss, Eugenia Costanzi-Strauss, Małgorzata Latocha, Aleksandra Zielińska, Magdalena Jurzak, Dariusz Kuśmierz, Jiri Vachtenheim, Brian Wall, Tania Creczynski-Pasa

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#### **Notice**

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in Croatia, 2013 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia

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*4.2.2 Conventional magnetron/balanced magnetron*

In 1986, papers to describe various magnetic field configurations of the substrates were published by Window and Savvides [14] which gave birth to the terms "balanced" and "unbalanced" magnetrons. Shortly thereafter, unbalanced magnetron technology was used to deposit thin films.

In a balanced magnetron (**Figure 12**), all lines of magnetic force originate from one pole and are closed by the other pole of the target. The magnetic flux strengths via the pole faces of the outer and inner magnets are equal or comparable. As the magnetic field controls the plasma transmission path, the balanced magnetron's plasma is restricted or trapped at the cathode, which is advantageous for high rate cathode sputtering, but resulting production efficiency is relatively low and also prevents the large amount of bias current from reaching the substrate [15].

#### *4.2.3 Unbalanced magnetron*

The balanced magnetron can be unbalanced if the outer or inner set of magnets is strengthened or weakened. As the ion bombardment of growing films supports in

**Figure 12.** *Balanced magnetron.*

the formation of thin films with better characteristics. The technology of unbalanced magnetron sputtering allows to get thin films with such improved properties. Fraser and Cook [16] initially highlighted the possibilities of this technology in 1977. It's been utilized to deposition and ion-bombard films at the same time.

By allowing some of the confined lines of magnetic field, which are parallel to the surface of cathode in balanced magnetron, to become perpendicular to the cathode surface in the unbalanced magnetron, the plasma purposely leaks and collide with the substrate. As a result, some of the electrons discharged from the cathode surface are allowed to exit the cathode region along those normal field lines, causing electrostatic forces to pull ions along with them. This produces a plasma beam that is focused towards the substrate surface, bombarding it as well as the forming film surfaces with ions from the sputtering gas.

As the mobility of electrons is significantly more than ions and their mean free path is also longer, so the surface of an insulating or isolated substrate submerged in this high density plasma will attain a negative charge and potential with respect to the plasma until the electron and ion fluxes become equal. The ions will collide with substrate under the effect of this floating potential [15].

#### *4.2.4 Types of unbalanced magnetron*

Savvides and Window [17] also introduced types of unbalanced magnetron, type I and type II as in **Figure 13**. Magnetic flux is important in both type I and type II.

The inner set magnetic flux in type I is greater than the outer set magnetic flux, whereas the inner set magnetic flux in type II is lower than the outer set magnetic flux. To put it another way, in type I, all field lines originate from the inner set of

**Figure 13.** *Types of unbalanced magnetron.*

**Figure 14.** *DC sputter deposition.*

magnets, with only a few reaching the outer set, whereas in type II, field lines comes out from the outer set of magnets, with only a few reaching the inner set.

#### **4.3 DC and RF sputtering deposition**

The power source in DC sputtering is direct current. Positively charged sputtering gas is propelled towards the target in this approach. As a result, atoms are ejected and deposited on the surface of substrate. Schematic diagram of DC is shown in **Figure 14**.

A cathode (the target) and an anode are connected in series with the blocking capacitor in RF sputtering as shown in **Figure 15**. The capacitor detects that power from the RF source is transferred to a plasma discharge. There are two stages of RF sputtering. The target material is negatively charged in the first cycle. Atoms get polarized as a result of this. The atoms of sputtering gas are drawn to the source that knock away source atoms. Here, the polarization of the target leaves source atoms and ionized gas ions on the surface of the target. The target is positively charged in the second cycle. This causes gas ions and source atoms to be emitted by depolarization. These are propelled towards the substrate, causing deposition [18].


*3.9. Ocular Compatibility*

*3.9. Ocular Compatibility* Eye irritation score from individual rabbits was added to obtain the total irritation score, which was subsequently divided by the total number of eyes used for the ocular irritancy test to obtain the final eye irritation score. The calculated eye irritation score in Eye irritation score from individual rabbits was added to obtain the total irritation score, which was subsequently divided by the total number of eyes used for the ocular irritancy test to obtain the final eye irritation score. The calculated eye irritation score in CL10 was 0.50, while it was 0.17 in the reference. The irritation score observed in CL10 was relatively low and could be classified as practically non-irritant [57]. Further, instillation of CL10 did not cause redness, swelling, or excessive lachrymation in the eye. Overall, the data signified that CL10 is safe and non-irritant for ocular administration.


**1. Introduction**

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), also known as human herpesvirus 5, is a member of the *Betaherpesvirinae,* a subfamily of the *Herpesviridae.* Infectious HCMV particles are composed of a polymorphic lipid envelope containing viral glycoproteins, a tegument layer consisting mainly of viral phosphoproteins and an icosahedral protein capsid encasing the viral genome [1,2]. The HCMV genome comprises roughly 235,000 base pairs of double-stranded DNA in a single chromosome. By harnessing cellular RNA polymerase II, the viral genome gives rise to a highly complex transcriptome encompassing both mRNAs with more than 700 translated open reading frames as well as non-coding RNAs [3–9]. Upon infection of permissive cells, the HCMV genome is expressed and replicated in three sequential steps referred to as immediate-early (IE), early and late. The viral major IE gene, expressed within hours of infection, and the corresponding IE proteins will be at the center of this review. Major IE proteins inhibit intrinsic and innate host cell responses and initiate transcription from viral early genes [10–15]. Early gene products regulate host cell functions to facilitate virus replication and contribute to late events including viral DNA replication and packaging. Typical early viral proteins include the DNA polymerase (pUL54), phosphotransferase (pUL97) and components of the terminase (pUL51, pUL52, pUL56, pUL77, pUL89, pUL93, pUL104), which are all targets of approved anti-HCMV drugs [16–18]. Finally, late genes are expressed after viral DNA replication has commenced

and encode mostly structural proteins of the capsid, tegument or envelope required for the assembly and egress of progeny virions [19–21]. HCMV replicates in a wide variety of differentiated cell types, and targets select types of poorly differentiated cells including myeloid progenitors for latent infection with limited viral gene expression [22–26]. Viral reactivation from latency is brought about by cellular differentiation and/or stimulation and contributes greatly to pathogenesis in vulnerable hosts [27–29].

HCMV is the cause of an ongoing "silent pandemic" affecting 40% to 100% of people in populations around the world. Co-evolution over millions of years has resulted in latent or low-level productive HCMV infection that persists for the life of the host in the absence of major disease symptoms. This type of persistence is due to a fine-tuned balance between our intrinsic, innate and adaptive immune responses and manifold viral countermeasures. Developmental or acquired immune system defects disrupt the delicate balance between virus and host and can result in severe disease outcomes. HCMV infection is the most common congenital (present at birth) infection worldwide, with an estimated incidence in developed countries between 0.6% and 0.7% of all live births. This incidence results in approximately 60,000 neonates born every year with congenital HCMV infection in the United States and the European Union combined [30–33]. Since congenital HCMV infection parallels maternal seroprevalence, the estimated incidence in developing countries is even higher, between 1% and 5% of all live births [34,35]. More than 10% of congenitally infected children will suffer neurodevelopmental damage and other disorders present at birth or long-term sequelae including hearing loss. Consequently, HCMV has been recognized as a leading cause of birth defects. HCMV reactivation from latency or primary infection also remain a major source of morbidity and mortality in immunosuppressed individuals including recipients of solid organ and haematopoietic stem cell allografts, people with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and other critically ill patients. For example, HCMV infections are diagnosed in roughly 50% of all allograft recipients [36–38]. Cytomegaloviruses are highly species-specific, but certain aspects of HCMV infection and pathogenesis are replicated in animal models including mice infected with murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) [39,40].

HCMV is spread through various routes including sexual contact, organ and stem cell transplantation, breast milk and from mother to baby (transplacental) during pregnancy. Women can reduce HCMV transmission through practicing appropriate hygiene behaviors [41–44]. In seropositive pregnant women HCMV hyperimmunoglobulin is applied as passive immunization to improve the adaptive immune response and reduce the risk of congenital infection. However, the value of this treatment is controversial with limited data supporting improved clinical outcomes [45–49]. The development of active immunization for HCMV is a major public health priority, and a number of candidate vaccines have been evaluated in clinical trials as well as preclinical models. However, no effective vaccine for HCMV is currently available [50–56].

Since cell-mediated adaptive immunity is believed to be key in counteracting HCMV infection, adoptive transfer of virus-specific T cells holds promise for antiviral therapy [57–59]. In addition, a multitude of antiviral agents from a wide diversity of chemical classes are known to be active against HCMV. The exact mechanism of action is unknown for most of these antivirals, and only a small subset has been tested in clinical trials. Seven anti-HCMV drugs have received approval for various indications: Ganciclovir (GCV), Valganciclovir, Acyclovir, Foscarnet, Cidofovir, Letermovir and Fomivirsen [60–63]. Fomivirsen is an antisense oligonucleotide targeting expression of a major IE protein and will be discussed in Section 5.1. GCV, an acyclic analogue of deoxyguanosine, was the first drug approved for the prevention and treatment of HCMV disease. The prodrug Valganciclovir is an orally applicable valine ester that is rapidly metabolized to GCV. Inside cells, GCV is converted to the active triphosphate via initial phosphorylation by the HCMV phosphotransferase (pUL97) and subsequent phosphorylation steps by cellular kinases. GCV inhibits the HCMV DNA polymerase (pUL54) by competing with deoxyguanosine triphosphate for the enzyme's active site, thus preventing nucleotide incorporation into the elongating viral DNA [60,64]. A closely related nucleoside analogue, Acyclovir, is potent against members of the *Alphaherpesvirinae* but exhibits very modest antiviral activity for HCMV [60,65]. Thus, GCV and Valganciclovir have been the first line choice for prevention and

treatment of HCMV disease. However, GCV is associated with serious toxicity including neutropenia, thrombocytopenia or anaemia [66,67]. In addition, the development of GCV-resistant HCMV strains associated with prolonged exposure, severe immunosuppression, suboptimal GCV doses and high viral loads poses a serious challenge. In 90% of all cases, resistance to GCV arises from mutations in conserved regions of either pUL97 or pUL54 [67,68]. In such cases, Foscarnet or Cidofovir are the usual alternative treatments. The two drugs do not require phosphorylation by pUL97 for activation and exhibit broad spectrum antiviral activity against DNA viruses. Foscarnet, a pyrophosphate analogue, directly inhibits pUL54 by blocking the enzyme's pyrophosphate binding site via a non-competitive mechanism. By this mechanism, Foscarnet interferes with cleavage of the pyrophosphate moiety from the nucleotide triphosphate substrate during incorporation into the nascent DNA chain. Cidofovir is an acyclic nucleoside phosphonate and an analogue of deoxycytidine monophosphate. After phosphorylation to the active diphosphate (a deoxycytidine triphosphate analogue) by cellular kinases, competitive incorporation into the elongating DNA chain by pUL54 inhibits viral genome replication. Resistance to Foscarnet and Cidofovir occurs with rates similar to GCV, and the two drugs can select for mutations conferring cross-resistance to GCV. Moreover, lack of oral bioavailability as well as serious side effects including nephrotoxicity have limited their clinical use [66,67]. Brincidofovir is a lipid ester prodrug of cidofovir with improved oral bioavailability and reduced toxicity that demonstrated promising results in clinical trials with allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients seropositive for HCMV [67,69]. Likewise, the benzimidazole L-riboside Maribavir, a highly specific inhibitor of pUL97, has been successfully tested in clinical trials with a similar group of patients [67,69]. Recently, a number of molecules have been discovered that inhibit the packaging of viral DNA into preformed capsids by the HCMV terminase complex. Letermovir is the first of this class to be approved and reduced the levels of HCMV DNA in stem cell transplant patients in the absence of myelotoxic effects [18,70]. Although successful in immunosuppressed patients, none of the anti-HCMV drugs described above have been approved for use during pregnancy because of their teratogenic or embryotoxic effects in animal studies [60,71].

Due to the medical importance of HCMV, the absence of effective ways to prevent infection and the shortcomings of existing therapeutic drugs, it is imperative to develop novel antiviral strategies involving new molecular targets and mechanisms of action. All approved drugs currently available to prevent or treat HCMV disease target viral enzymes expressed in the early phase and critical for late processes in the infection cycle. In contrast, molecular events before the onset of HCMV DNA replication have been largely neglected with respect to antiviral approaches. This review will outline our current understanding of the regulation at the HCMV major IE gene and the functional characteristics of IE proteins derived from this gene. We will further highlight past, present and future antiviral strategies aimed at IE gene expression and protein function for improved intervention with HCMV infection and disease.


*Edited by Daniel Almeida Marinho and Henrique Pereira Neiva*

The development and implementation of new technology devices to help professionals, athletes, and non-athletes improve their physical fitness, performance, health, and well-being have emerged in the last few years. This book briefly overviews the current state of the art in technology applied to sports, providing examples, literature syntheses, and recent applications to sports, focused on the most important evidencedbased developments in this area. Attention is drawn to issues and unusual matters that may arise when it comes to technological innovation applied to sport. For the reader, this could be a different perspective on technological progress in physical activity.

ISBN 978-1-78984-482-5

The Use of Technology in Sport – Emerging Challenges

Published in London, UK © 2018 IntechOpen © tescha555 / iStock

## The Use of Technology in Sport Emerging Challenges

*Edited by Daniel Almeida Marinho and Henrique Pereira Neiva*

**THE USE OF**

**TECHNOLOGY IN SPORT –**

**EMERGING CHALLENGES**

Edited by **Daniel Almeida Marinho**

and **Henrique Pereira Neiva**


**Abstract**

Accidents are associated with airway complications. Tracheobronchial injury, pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, atelectasis, and subcutaneous emphysema can be observed. Therefore airway management in emergency medicine requires skills and equipment. Rapid-sequence intubation, effective preoxygenation, apneic oxygenation, manual inline stabilization technique should be used properly. Rapidsequence intubation consists of sedation, analgesia, and muscle paralysis components. Videolaryngoscopes, supraglottic and extraglottic airway devices, bougie and surgical airway tools are among training materials. A range of training materials have been described to improve providers' understanding and knowledge of patient safety. In conclusion providing oxygenation, minimizing the risk of complications and choosing the appropriate devices constitute the airway management's pearls.

**Keywords:** airway management, emergency medicine, accident


*4.2. Nonlinear Techniques*

• Kernel PCA (KPCA) [28]: is an improved method of PCA, which uses kernel method techniques. KPCA computes the Eigenfaces or the Eigenvectors of the kernel matrix, while PCA computes the covariance matrix. In addition, KPCA is a representation of the PCA technique on the high-dimensional feature space mapped by the associated kernel function. Three significant steps of the KPCA algorithm are used to calculates the function of the kernel matrix K of distribution consisting of n data points xi ∈ Rd, after which the data points are mapped into a high-dimensional feature space F, as shown in Algorithm 2.

The performance of the KPCA technique depends on the choice of the kernel matrix K. The Gaussian or polynomial kernel are linear typically-used kernels. KPCA has been successfully used for novelty detection [72] or for speech recognition [62].

• Kernel linear discriminant analysis (KDA) [73]: the KLDA technique is a kernel extension of the linear LDA technique, in the same kernel extension of PCA. Arashloo et al. [73] proposed a nonlinear binary class-specific kernel discriminant analysis classifier (CS-KDA) based on the spectral regression kernel discriminant analysis. Other nonlinear techniques have also been used in the context of facial recognition:


Combinatorial method originally developed for drug discovery has been introduced into the catalyst discovery field in the last decade to accelerate the catalyst screening process. By using this high-throughput approach, large and diverse libraries of inorganic materials can be prepared, processed, and tested simultaneously under the same reaction conditions for quickly obtaining potential candidates with desirable catalytic performance, which is beneficial for significant reduction of time and money spent on catalyst development [161, 162]. However, the relatively complicated algorithms for testing matrix determination, expensive testing instrument, and representability of the screening results should be better handled before it can be widely accepted as a standard catalyst development strategy.

The influence of external field (e.g., electric and magnetic field) on catalytic performance during BESR could be another interesting area to study. Because any chemical reaction involves electron transfer and rearrangement facilitated by the addition of catalyst, the application of external field which can exert impact on electron movement is expected to have influence on catalytic reactivity. Such effect has been recently evidenced by L. Yuan, et al. that hydrogen yield and selectivity were significantly enhanced when an AC current passed through Ni/Al2O3 catalyst [163].

According to LeChatelier's Principle, referring to Reaction (1), continuous removal CO2 from product stream can shift the reaction equilibrium toward products side, leading to the improvement of hydrogen production. Based on literature review, there are mainly two methods for CO2 in-situ removal: addition of CO2 sorbent and CO2 selective membrane. The CO2 sorbent used for this purpose has to be regenerated at temperature higher than reaction temperature for reuse. For doing so, the high temperature CO2 sorbent has to be circulated between reactor and regenerator [164]. The CO2 sorbent is usually regenerated under the hot air environment and has good resistance to high temperature and attrition. According to literature reporting, CaO and lithium silicate are among the most commonly used CO2 sorbents for hydrogen production. For CO2 selective membrane, CO2 is either

Catalytic Hydrogen Production from Bioethanol 277

[1] A National Vision of America's Transition to A Hydrogen Economy – To 2030 and

[2] Idriss, H. (2004). Ethanol Reactions over the Surfaces of Noble Metal/Cerium Oxide

[3] Das, D., Veziroğlu, T.N. (2001). Hydrogen Production by Biological Processes: A Survey

[4] Nath, K., Das, D. (2004). Improvement of Fermentative Hydrogen Production: Various

[5] Hallenbeck, P.C., Benemann, J.R. (2002). Biological Hydrogen Production; Fundamentals

[6] Hwang, M.H., Jang, N.J., Hyun, S.H., Kim, I.S. (2004). Anaerobic Bio-Hydrogen

[7] Maness, P.C., Weaver, P.F. (1999). Biological H2 from Fuel Gases and from H2O.

[8] Nada, A.A., Barakat, M.H., Hamed, H.A., Mohamed, N.R., Veziroglu, T.N. (2005).

[9] Vorontsov, A.V., Dubovitskaya, V.P. (2004). Selectivity of Photocatalytic Oxidation of

[10] Yu, Z., Chuang, S. (2007). In-situ IR Study of Adsorbed Species and Photogenerated

[11] Kasata, T., Kawai, T. (1981). Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Production of Hydrogen and

[12] Bamwenda, G.R., Tsubota, S., Nakamura, T., Haruta, M. (1995). Photoassisted

[13] Klosek, S., Raftery, D. (2001). Visible Light Driven V-Doped TiO2 Photocatalyst and Its

[14] Yang, Y.Z., Chang, C.H., Idriss, H. (2006). Photo-Catalytic Production of Hydrogen

*Environmental*, Vol.67, No.3-4, (October 2006), pp. 217-222, ISSN 0926-3373

(November-December 2002), pp. 1185-1193, ISSN 0360-3199

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*Proceedings of the 1999 US DOE Hydrogen Program Review*

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of Literature. *International Journal of Hydrogen Energy*, Vol.26, No.1, (January 2001),

Approaches. *Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology*, Vol.65, No.5, (July 2004), pp.

and limiting processes. *International Journal of Hydrogen Energy*, Vol.27, No.11-12,

Production from Ethanol Fermentation: the Role of pH. *Journal of Biotechnology*,

Studies on the Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production Using Suspended Modified TiO2 Photocatalysts. *International Journal of Hydrogen Energy*, Vol.30, No.7, (July

Gaseous Ethanol over Pure and Modified TiO2. *Journal of Catalysis*, Vol.221, No.1,

Electrons During Photocatalytic Oxidation of Ethanol on TiO2. *Journal of Catalysis*,

Methane from Ethanol and Water. *Chemical Physics Letters*, Vol.80, No.2, (June

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rejected by the membrane and stays in the retentate side, or diffuses through the membrane and swept out as permeate. In order to in-situ remove CO2 or perform hydrogen purification within the reformer, various types of membrane reactors have been developed in recent years to obtain hydrogen rich gas stream. Moreover, catalytic membrane reactor has also been invented to perform water-gas shift (WGS) and separation simultaneously through applying certain catalyst onto the membrane surface, among which Pdimpregnated membrane is the most reported one for getting purfied hydrogen product [165, 166]. Nevertheless, many technical problems including cost reduction, selectivity and permeation efficiency improvement, and rigidity enhancement have to be solved before it becomes economically attractive.

The high cost of ethanol feedstock for steam reforming mainly comes from the downstream distillation and purification steps of the crude ethanol obtained from fermentation. If the crude ethanol can be directly used as the feedstock for hydrogen production from BESR, the large amount of energy wasted during distillation for water and other impurities removal can be eliminated, leading to the significant cost reduction of ethanol feedstock and in turn hydrogen produced from BESR. In addition, other oxygenated hydrocarbons contained in the fermentation broth can also be steam reformed to generate extra 7% hydrogen if crude ethanol is employed compared to steam reforming of pure ethanol. Although this approach sounds promising for final commercialization of BESR technique, the challenge still remains at the catalyst's tolerance to the impurities present in the crude ethanol solution. According to related publications, several researchers have conducted such study to evaluate the impact of impurities on catalytic performance toward hydrogen production. A. Akande and his coworkers investigated the influence of crude ethanol simulated through adding small amount of lactic acid, glycerol, and maltose to ethanol aqueous solution on the catalytic performance of Ni/Al2O3 [128, 167]. Initial catalyst deactivation was observed followed by stable run within 12 hours test. Similar study has also been performed by our group over Co/CeO2. ~90% hydrogen yield is achieved and well maintained within 100 hours run. A more systematic research has been recently implemented by A. Valant, et al. over Rh/MgAl2O4 [168]. More oxygenated hydrocarbons including esters, aldehydes, amine, acetic acid, methanol, and linear or branched alchols have been tested for its influences on catalytic performance of BESR. Catalyst deactivation is observed for certain impurity additions. Through catalyst modification, much better stability has been achieved using Rh-Ni/Y-Al2O3.

Although high pressure operation will result in inhibition of hydrogen production, as predicted thermodynamically referring to Section 2.7, it is still worth investigating, because high pressure operation will significantly lower down the hydrogen compression cost for storage and transporation. In order to compensate the hydrogen production loss, hydrogen selective membrane reactor has been recently proposed in combination with high pressure operation by Argonne National Laboratory [169]. By doing so, the formed hydrogen can be continuously removed leading to the thermodynamic equilibrium shift toward hydrogen production.

#### **9. Acknowledgment**

We gratefully acknowledge funding from the U.S. Department of Energy through grant DE-FG36-05GO15033. The Ohio Supercomputer Center (OSC) is also acknowledged for generous computational support of this research.

#### **10. References**

276 Bioethanol

rejected by the membrane and stays in the retentate side, or diffuses through the membrane and swept out as permeate. In order to in-situ remove CO2 or perform hydrogen purification within the reformer, various types of membrane reactors have been developed in recent years to obtain hydrogen rich gas stream. Moreover, catalytic membrane reactor has also been invented to perform water-gas shift (WGS) and separation simultaneously through applying certain catalyst onto the membrane surface, among which Pdimpregnated membrane is the most reported one for getting purfied hydrogen product [165, 166]. Nevertheless, many technical problems including cost reduction, selectivity and permeation efficiency improvement, and rigidity enhancement have to be solved before it

The high cost of ethanol feedstock for steam reforming mainly comes from the downstream distillation and purification steps of the crude ethanol obtained from fermentation. If the crude ethanol can be directly used as the feedstock for hydrogen production from BESR, the large amount of energy wasted during distillation for water and other impurities removal can be eliminated, leading to the significant cost reduction of ethanol feedstock and in turn hydrogen produced from BESR. In addition, other oxygenated hydrocarbons contained in the fermentation broth can also be steam reformed to generate extra 7% hydrogen if crude ethanol is employed compared to steam reforming of pure ethanol. Although this approach sounds promising for final commercialization of BESR technique, the challenge still remains at the catalyst's tolerance to the impurities present in the crude ethanol solution. According to related publications, several researchers have conducted such study to evaluate the impact of impurities on catalytic performance toward hydrogen production. A. Akande and his coworkers investigated the influence of crude ethanol simulated through adding small amount of lactic acid, glycerol, and maltose to ethanol aqueous solution on the catalytic performance of Ni/Al2O3 [128, 167]. Initial catalyst deactivation was observed followed by stable run within 12 hours test. Similar study has also been performed by our group over Co/CeO2. ~90% hydrogen yield is achieved and well maintained within 100 hours run. A more systematic research has been recently implemented by A. Valant, et al. over Rh/MgAl2O4 [168]. More oxygenated hydrocarbons including esters, aldehydes, amine, acetic acid, methanol, and linear or branched alchols have been tested for its influences on catalytic performance of BESR. Catalyst deactivation is observed for certain impurity additions. Through catalyst modification, much better stability has been achieved using Rh-

Although high pressure operation will result in inhibition of hydrogen production, as predicted thermodynamically referring to Section 2.7, it is still worth investigating, because high pressure operation will significantly lower down the hydrogen compression cost for storage and transporation. In order to compensate the hydrogen production loss, hydrogen selective membrane reactor has been recently proposed in combination with high pressure operation by Argonne National Laboratory [169]. By doing so, the formed hydrogen can be continuously removed leading to the thermodynamic equilibrium shift toward hydrogen

We gratefully acknowledge funding from the U.S. Department of Energy through grant DE-FG36-05GO15033. The Ohio Supercomputer Center (OSC) is also acknowledged for

becomes economically attractive.

Ni/Y-Al2O3.

production.

**9. Acknowledgment**

generous computational support of this research.

Catalytic Hydrogen Production from Bioethanol 279

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### *Edited by Marco Aurelio Pinheiro Lima and Alexandra Pardo Policastro Natalense*

Recent studies have shown strong evidence of human activity impact on the climate of the planet. Higher temperatures and intensification of extreme weather events such as hurricanes are among the consequences. This scenario opens up several possibilities for what is now called "green" or low carbon economy. We are talking about creating new businesses and industries geared to develop products and services with low consumption of natural resources and reduced greenhouse gases emission. Within this category of business, biofuels is a highlight and the central theme of this book. The first section presents some research results for first generation ethanol production from starch and sugar raw materials. Chapters in the second section present results on some efforts around the world to develop an efficient technology for producing secondgeneration ethanol from different types of lignocellulosic materials. While these production technologies are being developed, different uses for ethanol could also be studied. The chapter in the third section points to the use of hydrogen in fuel cells, where this hydrogen could be produced from ethanol.

Bioethanol

Bioethanol

*Edited by Marco Aurelio Pinheiro Lima*

*and Alexandra Pardo Policastro Natalense*

Photo by Toa55 / iStock


**4.4 Neurological effects**

Exposure to heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury) and dioxins have been corelated with several neurological effects in humans. Lead exposure occurs through inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption. Conditions such as neurological damage (mimics Ca and disrupts Ca homeostasis), lower IQ and attention impairment of hand-eye co-ordination and encephalopathy has been associated with chronic exposure of lead [40]. It is well recognised teratogen can easily pass through placenta and can cross blood–brain barrier. Therefore, it can cause more harm to the foetus. Mercury (methyl mercury) is another heavy metal that effects the nervous system. Organic mercury is fat soluble and can be distributed in the central nervous system where it is oxidised to Hg2+ and causes neurological damage. Symptoms include

**Figure 5.** *Mechanism of toxicity of PM bound heavy metals.*

memory loss, narrowing of vision, loss of muscle coordination and emotional instability [46].


**Author details**

**Figure 14.** SERS spectra of white spirit without and with PCBs.

**Figure 15.** SERS spectra of Melamine and trace Melamine in milk.

In the year 2009, milk produced by Sanlu Co. (China) was found to contain amounts of Mel‐ amine in much higher concentrations than usual. Milk with Melamine seems to contain more protein when detecting nitrogen concentration, but it is poisonous to children. With the SERS method with silver nanorods as substrates, we detected Melamine in milk. Figs 15

(a) and (b) show the SERS spectra of pure Melamine and milk with Melamine.

**4.3. Detection of Melamine in milk**

50 Organic Pollutants - Monitoring, Risk and Treatment

Zhengjun Zhang1 , Qin Zhou1,2 and Xian Zhang1

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
1 Advanced Materials Laboratory, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tsing‐ hua University, Beijing, P. R. China

2 Institute of nuclear and new energy technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, P. R. China