**Chen-Yu Qian 1,2, Wen-Xuan Quan 2, Zhang-Min Xiang 1,\* and Chao-Chan Li 2,\***

Academic Editor: Igor Jerkovi´c

Received: 14 August 2019; Accepted: 11 September 2019; Published: 12 September 2019

**Abstract:** Volatile compounds in flowers of *Rhododendron delavayi*, *R. agastum*, *R. annae*, and *R. irroratum* were analyzed using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC×GC) coupled with high-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (QTOFMS). A significantly increased number of compounds was separated by GC×GC compared to conventional one-dimensional GC (1DGC), allowing more comprehensive understanding of the volatile composition of *Rhododendron* flowers. In total, 129 volatile compounds were detected and quantified. Among them, hexanal, limonene, benzeneacetaldehyde, 2-nonen-1-ol, phenylethyl alcohol, citronellal, isopulegol, 3,5-dimethoxytoluene, and pyridine are the main compounds with different content levels in all flower samples. 1,2,3-trimethoxy-5-methyl-benzene exhibits significantly higher content in *R. irroratum* compared to in the other three species, while isopulegol is only found in *R. irroratum* and *R. agastum*.

**Keywords:** *Rhododendron* flowers; volatile compounds; comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry; odor description


2. Prediction of the risk of ground and surface water contamination with pesticides and its danger to human health in areas with irrigation farming

The prediction of migration opportunities in groundwater of pesticides in different soil and climatic conditions could be carried out by a number of indices.

For example, leaching potential index [groundwater ubiquity score (GUS)] [4] is calculated using the below formula:

$$GUS = \log \tau\_{50} \times [4 - \log K\_{\rm oc}],$$

where τ50—half-life in soil, days; and

Кос—sorption coefficient of organic carbon.

For the assessment of GUS values, we have used net approach: probability of pesticide leaching into groundwater is present (GUS > 2,8); probability of pesticide leaching into groundwater is possible (GUS < 1,8); pesticides possibly not leached into groundwater (GUS = 1,8–2,8) [5].

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed SCI-GROW screening method for the determination of maximum pesticide concentration in groundwater [6], and this model is widely used. SCI-GROW index counts the substance's half-life period in soil, organic carbon sorption coefficient, and pesticide application rate and frequency. The calculation gives the highest possible groundwater concentration of substance in mg/l.

Unfortunately, GUS index has disadvantages. For example, not all significant parameters that can influence the behavior of pesticide in the system "groundwater" are taking into account; run-off to surface water cannot be assessed using this value.

LЕАСН index is better. It determines also the possibility of river contamination and takes into account the maximum number of parameters that can influence the transition of pesticides from soil into other mediums.

The index of potential contamination of groundwater and river water LEACH was calculated according to the below formula [7]:

$$LEACH\_{\text{mod.}} = \frac{\mathcal{S}\_w \times DT\_{\text{\\$0\\$ field}}}{K\_{\alpha\text{\\$}}},$$

where Sw—water solubility, mg/l;

DT50 field—half-life period substances in the soil in natural conditions, day; and Koc—organic carbon (o.c.) sorption coefficient, ml/g o.c.

Evaluation of the index: 0,0–1,0-low risk of pollution (3 class), 1,1–2,0-average (moderate) risk (2 class), and >2,0-high risk (1 class).

But all the above listed indices characterize only the potential of pesticide penetration into groundwater and surface water without the possibility of evaluation of risk for human organism while consumption of contaminated water.

So, method of comprehensive assessment of pesticides leaching into the water possible adverse effects on humans developed by us has been used for the SCI-GROW evaluation [8]. The principle of complex hygienic regulation takes into account the possibility of pesticide intake through inhalation, with drinking water and food and its safe levels, is in the base of this method. Pesticide acceptable daily intake with water (PADIW) compares with pesticide maximum possible daily intake with water (PMDIW), which ways of calculations in 3 steps is given below (Figure 1).

Development of a Method for Prediction of Risk of Surface and Groundwater Contamination… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83600

#### Figure 1.

A method for assessing the risk of adverse effects of pesticides on human health when consuming contaminated water. Notes: SCI-GROW—screening concentrations of pesticides in groundwater, μg/l; V—daily intake of water by human, l (3 l—in temperate climate, 5–10 l—in hot climate); ADI—acceptable daily intake of pesticide, mg/kg; М—average weight of person (60 kg); 1000—factor for conversion in micrograms.

Initially, one needs to calculate the SCI-GROW using computer program from EPA official Website. This indicator is based on the actual results of field studies; therefore, it gives the most realistic values. In order to obtain the maximum possible value of pesticide intake with water (PMDIW) by humans, SCI-GROW index is multiplied by the average daily consumption of water (for persons living in temperate climate-3 L, for those living in hot climate-5 to 10 L).

To evaluate the obtained indicator, it is necessary to calculate the permissible level of pesticide intake with water (PADIW). For this, firstly, the allowable daily dose (ADI) must be multiplied by the average weight of a person (M) (60 kg for nonprofessional contingents and 70 kg for professionals). Based on the principles of complex hygienic regulation, the amount of pesticide that entered the human body with water should not exceed 20% of the permissible daily intake. Therefore, the indicator obtained earlier is multiplied by 0.2.

Finally, the values of PMDIW and PADIW should be compared (R). If the R value is ≤1, risk is considered to be acceptable; and if R > 1, risk is not acceptable.

Also, we recommend integrated assessment of the potential hazard of pesticide exposure on the human organism when consuming contaminated drinking water to use the scale with four gradations (Figure 2). The scale includes three indices: LEACН, τ50 in water, and acceptable daily intake (ADI) [9, 10].

These three indicators mostly reflect the danger of a pesticide, when ingested with water. LЕАСН displays the maximum possible risk of contamination of water supply sources, both underground and surface, taking into account, the physical properties of the main pesticide and stability in soil. τ50 displays the possibility and duration of the presence of the pesticide in the potentially drinking water. ADI, the main and integral pesticide toxicity index, shows the possibility of the realization of the toxic effects of a substance, when it is present in water for a long period.

#### Figure 2.

Method of hazard prediction of contaminated water by pesticide water effect on human body. Note. Evaluation of the LЕАСН index: 0,0–1,0—low risk of pollution (3 class), 1,1–2,0—average (moderate) risk (2 class), and >2,0—high risk (1 class).

For testing proposed by us, methods of risk assessment of pesticidecontaminated drinking water, we have studied widely used in agriculture representatives of the most perspective chemical classes of herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides (Tables 1–3). The main physical and chemical properties of studied compounds are given in Table 1–3.

The conditions of studied pesticides application and stability are given in Table 4.

International IUPAC classification [15] was used to assess the literature data about the stability and mobility of substances in the soil. The first includes three classes: 1-highly persistent (with DT50 more than 100 days), 2-moderately persistent (30–100 days), and 3-low persistent (less than 30 days).

According to IUPAC classification [15], most of fungicides and insecticides by persistence in soil may be attributed to moderately persistent (2 class); all herbicides, to low persistent (3 class). Exceptions are highly persistent insecticides, imidacloprid and chlorantraniliprole; fungicides, sedaxane, boscalid, fluxapyroxad, and azoxystrobin; and moderately persistent herbicides, triasulfurone and imazethapyr (Table 3). It should be noted that these literature data are very average. For example, in the soil and climatic conditions of the southern and southeastern European countries, including Ukraine, the transformation of the studied substances occurs much faster due to microbiological degradation (typical for these regions, black soils are rich in microflora) [8].

Development of a Method for Prediction of Risk of Surface and Groundwater Contamination… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83600

#### Table 1.

Physical and chemical properties of the studied fungicides [11, 12].

#### Table 2.

Physical and chemical properties of the studied insecticides [11].

Development of a Method for Prediction of Risk of Surface and Groundwater Contamination… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83600

Bispyribac- Sodium 2.6-bis(4.6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yloxy) ˜1.03 64,000 302

Diflufenzopyr 2-{(EZ)-1-[4-(3.5-difluorophenyl)semicarbazono] 1.09 5850 87

ethyl}nicotinic acid

Table 3.

Semicarbazone

Physical and chemical properties of the studied herbicides [11].

sodium benzoate

Half of the studied herbicides and insecticides are resistant or highly resistant in water, as they are poorly decomposed by photolysis and hydrolysis. Fungicides are much less resistant (Table 3).

It was found that according to GUS index, there is no risk of leaching into groundwater for most of the studied herbicides; for the rest, it is low. Only for one fungicide (topramezone) and most of insecticides, the risk of groundwater leaching is high (Table 5). It could be explained by their high toxicity (very low ADI values) and relatively high persistency in soil and water (Table 4).

The calculated maximum possible concentrations of the studied fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides SCI-GROW in groundwater indicate that the risk to humans when consuming such water is acceptable (Table 5). SCI-GROW values exceed 1 μg/l only for triasulfurone, imazamox, imazethapyr, and chlorantraniliprole. But the high risk will not be realized as shown in Table 5; IGHI values for these pesticides are 7, 6, 6, and 7, respectively.

According to IGCHI index, fungicides, penconazole and azoxystrobin; herbicides, dimetachlor, propizochlor, s-metolachlor, foramsulfurone, glyphosate, and rimsulfuron are less hazardous for human organism in case of consuming contaminated water. Fungicides, difenoconazole, pyraclostrobin, trifloxystrobin, metiram, mancozeb, fludioxonil, valifenale, fluxapyroxad, isopyrazam, penthiopyrad, and boscalid; herbicides, metazachlor, thiencarbazone-methyl, isoxaflutole, iodsulfuron methyl-sodium, metsulfuron-methyl, nicosulfuron, chlorimuron-ethyl, imazapyr, imazamox, imazethapyr, and diflufenzopyr; insecticides, thiamethoxam and imidacloprid are moderately hazardous (Table 5). Only insecticides, chlorpyrifos, bifenthrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, and tebufenpyrad are highly and extremely hazardous because of their high toxicity and water pollution possibility. Rest of the studied compounds is hazardous (2 class) to human organism.

Development of a Method for Prediction of Risk of Surface and Groundwater Contamination… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83600

Note. PDI: permissible daily intake of pesticide.

\*\*The table gives the initial data for the evaluation and shows the results of calculations of the index proposed by us (testing the method).

#### Table 4.

The conditions of studied pesticides' application and stability [9–11, 13, 14].

Development of a Method for Prediction of Risk of Surface and Groundwater Contamination… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83600

#### Groundwater - Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects

#### Table 5.

Ground and surface water migration parameters of studied pesticides [8–10, 13, 14].

The estimate presented is approximate. In each particular case, it is necessary to assess the risk of a pesticide when it enters the human body with water separately, taking into account the soil and climatic conditions of the application area, the norms of application, the groundwater depth, and other background factors.


**7. Clinical manifestations**

Patients with acute pancreatitis who are not treated within seven days or those whose symptoms reappear after a transient improvement period should be suspected of pancreatic pseudocysts. The clinical manifestations are strictly associated with the local mass effect. The symptoms and the signs are summarized in **Table 2**.

**Table 2.**

*Signs and symptoms of pancreatic pseudocysts.*