What are the important functions of an EIMS? This study finds that EIMS are needed: for fast and easy retrieval of information, which is very difficult; for extraction and access of in‐ formation for managers and related users; for integrating data from different sources; for re‐ duction of parallel and redundant activities by responding organizations; to decrease cost and time; for assessment and monitoring of plans before and after earthquakes; to identify training and function needs; and to formulate prevention, action and rehabilitation actions. What are the steps taken to create an EIMS? The following steps are usually taken: establish a joint commission of governmental and non-governmental sectors and organizations; deter‐ mine the primary participants in earthquake management; determine and formulate a plan for a system based on general principles and goals; identify the data needed for the system; identify the sources for the system's informatics; identify registration, collection and storage methods of and administrators for the system; determine the retrieval and analytical meth‐ ods of and administrators for the system; establish the information methods and distribute them to the administrators of the system; establish methods of systematic communication among the administrators; create a mechanism to render feedback for system improvement;

and ensure that the system and its plans and functions are dynamic and flexible.

How is an EIMS used to prepare for earthquakes? The first step in preparing for a disaster is estimate and assess its potential impact. These estimations and assessment can provide the basis for developing mitigation policy, developing and testing emergency preparedness and responsing for post-disaster, and reliefing negative outcomes. [16] Reducing earthquake loss begins before the earthquake. Loss estimates provide public and private sector agencies with a basis for planning, zoning, building codes and development regulations, and policy that would reduce the risk posed by violent ground shaking and ground failure. Loss esti‐ mates can also be used to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of alternative approaches to strengthening potentially hazardous structures. Preparing to respond, understanding the scope and complexity of earthquake damage is essential to effective preparedness. The EIMS

**Table 2.** The EIMS characteristics evaluating in selected countries

Earthquake Information= EI; Ratio = weight of each criteria/sum; Score = ratio\*scale

Scales: Positive = 4, moderate = 3, negative = 1, not access = 2

Range of ranks: 1–1.6: Very weak; 1.7–2.2: Weak; 2.3–2.8: Moderate; 2.9–3.4: Good; 3.5–4: Very good

**Table 3.** The EIMS characteristics evaluating in selected countries (continued)

### **5. Results**

**Criteria/country Weight Ratio India Afghanistan Iran**

134 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

1) Information sources are existed 8 0.11 4 0.44 4 0.44 3 0.33 2) Users of EI are specified 6 0.08 4 0.32 3 0.24 3 0.24 3) System has security process 6 0.08 4 0.32 2 0.16 2 0.16

9) EIMS has feedback 9 0.12 4 0.48 4 0.48 3 0.36 10) Accessibility of EI is easy and fast 8 0.11 4 0.44 3 0.33 1 0.11 Sum 73 1 4 3.3 2.32

1) Information sources are exist ed. 8 0.11 4 0.44 4 0.44 3 0.33 2) Users of E.I. are specified. 6 0.08 4 0.33 4 0.33 3 0.25 3) System has security process. 6 0.08 2 0.16 4 0.33 2 0.16

9) EIMS has feedback. 9 0.12 4 0.44 4 0.49 3 0.37 10) Accessibility of E.I. is easy and fast. 8 0.11 4 0.44 4 0.44 1 0.11 Sum 73 1 3.77 4 2.37

Earthquake Information= EI; Ratio = weight of each criteria/sum; Score = ratio\*scale

**Table 3.** The EIMS characteristics evaluating in selected countries (continued)

Range of ranks: 1–1.6: Very weak; 1.7–2.2: Weak; 2.3–2.8: Moderate; 2.9–3.4: Good; 3.5–4: Very good

Scales: Positive = 4, moderate = 3, negative = 1, not access = 2

**Criteria/country Weight Ratio Japan Turkey Iran**

4) EI is recorded and stored

5) EI is retrieved, analyzed and interpreted systematically

6) Administrators are specified in various

7) No parallel and repeated activities by

8) EI is distributed and used in national

**Table 2.** The EIMS characteristics evaluating in selected countries

systematically

functions

various organizations

and international levels

4) E.I. is recorded and stored

5) E.I. is retrieved, analyzed and interpreted systematically.

6) Administrators are specified in various

7) No parallel and repeated activities by

8) E.I. is distributed and used in national

systematically

functions.

various organizations.

& international levels.

**Scale Score Scale Score Scale Score**

**Scale Score Scale Score Scale Score**

7 0.09 4 0.36 4 0.36 1 0.09

9 0.12 4 0.48 2 0.24 3 0.36

9 0.12 4 0.48 4 0.48 3 0.36

5 0.07 4 0.28 4 0.28 1 0.07

6 0.08 4 0.32 4 0.32 3 0.24

7 0.09 4 0.38 4 0.38 1 0.09

9 0.12 4 0.49 4 0.49 3 0.37

9 0.12 4 0.49 4 0.49 3 0.37

5 0.07 4 0.27 4 0.27 1 0.07

6 0.08 4 0.33 4 0.33 3 0.25

The results of the data collection provide answers to the five research questions. Each an‐ swer is described briefly below.

When are EIMS useful? There are four conditions that make EIMS more useful: when infor‐ mation users and addressers are specified; when time, form and the mechanism of informa‐ tion distribution are specified; when the EI is valid and reliable; and when there is fast access to EI. Furthermore, the data received are often not helpful for management decision making because they are incomplete, inaccurate, untimely and unrelated to the priority tasks and functions of crisis management.

What are the essential sub-structures of an EIMS? The information compiled and surveys in‐ dicate that the essential sub-structures that must be addressed or included in an EIMS are the nature of: crisis management, information technology, the geographic information sys‐ tem, the earthquake information system, mass media communication, cell phone communi‐ cation, capital and human resources.

What are the important functions of an EIMS? This study finds that EIMS are needed: for fast and easy retrieval of information, which is very difficult; for extraction and access of in‐ formation for managers and related users; for integrating data from different sources; for re‐ duction of parallel and redundant activities by responding organizations; to decrease cost and time; for assessment and monitoring of plans before and after earthquakes; to identify training and function needs; and to formulate prevention, action and rehabilitation actions.

What are the steps taken to create an EIMS? The following steps are usually taken: establish a joint commission of governmental and non-governmental sectors and organizations; deter‐ mine the primary participants in earthquake management; determine and formulate a plan for a system based on general principles and goals; identify the data needed for the system; identify the sources for the system's informatics; identify registration, collection and storage methods of and administrators for the system; determine the retrieval and analytical meth‐ ods of and administrators for the system; establish the information methods and distribute them to the administrators of the system; establish methods of systematic communication among the administrators; create a mechanism to render feedback for system improvement; and ensure that the system and its plans and functions are dynamic and flexible.

How is an EIMS used to prepare for earthquakes? The first step in preparing for a disaster is estimate and assess its potential impact. These estimations and assessment can provide the basis for developing mitigation policy, developing and testing emergency preparedness and responsing for post-disaster, and reliefing negative outcomes. [16] Reducing earthquake loss begins before the earthquake. Loss estimates provide public and private sector agencies with a basis for planning, zoning, building codes and development regulations, and policy that would reduce the risk posed by violent ground shaking and ground failure. Loss esti‐ mates can also be used to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of alternative approaches to strengthening potentially hazardous structures. Preparing to respond, understanding the scope and complexity of earthquake damage is essential to effective preparedness. The EIMS can forecast damage to buildings, casualties and disruption of utilities. These estimates can serve as the basis for developing emergency response plans and for organizing tests and ex‐ ercises of response capability.

institutions across the world. All the information shared with us is accessible to all, except in cases in which the volunteer has chosen to limit access to the relevant authorities. [17-18]

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137

Our research reinforces the belief that Afghanistan possesses the potential for many natural disasters. Therefore, a DIMS, especially an EIMS, would be particularly helpful. Disaster management is a needs a wide variety of information, needs to track different locations and during different periods, and this information must have a set format in order that key staff can employ the information in decisions. A new project named "Management Information for Natural Disasters" (MIND) in Kabul and Kunduz provinces in Afghanistan has been op‐ erating since the beginning of 2012 and has been doing well for the last 8 months. Its goal was to establish and expand a crisis information management system. It is frequently updat‐ ed and provides information to governments. MIND has increased Afghanistan's crisis management capacity nationally, supporting the training of disaster managers and improv‐ ing city services by building governmental organizations in management information for natural disasters. Natural disaster management in these two provinces is primarily guided by estimates of damages which are used to direct rescue operations. There is currently no system to avoid or decrease disaster damages. Before and after a disaster, management is very weak in these countries and they are therefore dependent on the UN or NGOs for re‐ sponse. Information needed for the EIMS includes the availability and distribution of re‐ sponse personnel and spatial information stored in GIS to determine the areas of greatest destruction and locations of great danger. In this system, satellite data are crucial for identi‐ fication of crisis locations and understanding their distribution. [17,19] To record the infor‐ mation that is acquired, an Information System Unit is trained to input data and information and to manage stations of the informative system. The DIMS for earthquakes has tended to not be useful in many parts of the country primarily because of the lack of timely informa‐

The Japanese DIMS is called "PHOENIX" (Preement Hyogos Emergency Management Network for Disaster Information Exchange). [20] In this system, information about the amount and degree of earthquake damages and on-going developments of conditions in a disaster area are collected and processed. Information is provided by agencies, in‐ volved organizations, individuals (including those from governments, experts, volunteers and others), monitoring stations and other data sources employing several communica‐ tion methods (including the Internet, radio, print, televison and satellite). Recording and collecting earthquake information is centralize by informatics centers of local society of province. Japan's Red Cross, Rescue Team, NGOs, health organizations and others [21] do the estimating, calculating, and publishing of the information that is needed, and they

**7. EIMS in Afghanistan**

tion from disaster areas.

**8. EIMS in Japan**

#### **6. About EIMS**

Beginning in the late 1950s, planners began development and use of computerized models, planning information systems and decision-support systems to improve EI management performance. They have found tools to enhance their analytical and geospatial technologies which may be different from one country to another. The industrialized nations are well adapted to this information technology. They use it in many fields. Governments apply ur‐ ban information systems in all aspects of the planning process, including data collection, storage, data analysis and presentation, planning and policymaking, communication with the public, policy implementation and administration. The United States is the pioneer in this field. They began working with urban information systems in the 1970s. Canada and Australia have developed systems. And European countries like France, Germany and the Netherlands have been successful in applying these technologies. Turkey is a latecomer in this field because of financial constraints, their other priorities, a lack of technical expertise and different administrative mentalities. But today, the urban information system is a popu‐ lar notion among local governments in Turkey. The first initiative of local governments to use urban information systems was in the cities Bursa and Ayden beginning in the mid-1990s. Since then three other metropolitan municipalities, Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir, studied the digitization of maps and plans and began to create inventories of their cities.

In India, findings showed that the Disaster Information Management System (DIMS) was launched by SRISTI. The SRISTI participated in relief and rehabilitation work in Kutch. However, their relief work suffered immensely due to lack of information and proper plan‐ ning. When answers to important questions that were cropping up were needed – for in‐ stance, whether there is a database on the distribution of available resources and expertise with individuals, institutions and corporations – SRISTI discovered the information wasn't available. This revealed the need for a system for disaster mitigation and for documenting the experiences of individuals and organizations, which might provide a knowledge data‐ base that can assist coordination in future disasters. Thus, SRISTI initiated an effort to build a "Disaster Management Information System." Through this initiative, the development of a database-driven information system for Disaster Management Authorities (DMA) in various states, NGOs and other organizations is underway. SRISTI appealed to NGOs, relief work‐ ers, DMAs and individuals to share their experiences and volunteer their services and re‐ sources to the online database maintained on the SRISTI website. The database currently contains information from more than a thousand volunteers who have offered their services and resources in times of emergency. About 700 organizations and institutions are indexed on the site, as are other resources and web links. The DMIS is a voluntary activity run with in kind contributions of time and services by SRISTI volunteers, NGOs and, above all, civil institutions across the world. All the information shared with us is accessible to all, except in cases in which the volunteer has chosen to limit access to the relevant authorities. [17-18]

#### **7. EIMS in Afghanistan**

can forecast damage to buildings, casualties and disruption of utilities. These estimates can serve as the basis for developing emergency response plans and for organizing tests and ex‐

136 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

Beginning in the late 1950s, planners began development and use of computerized models, planning information systems and decision-support systems to improve EI management performance. They have found tools to enhance their analytical and geospatial technologies which may be different from one country to another. The industrialized nations are well adapted to this information technology. They use it in many fields. Governments apply ur‐ ban information systems in all aspects of the planning process, including data collection, storage, data analysis and presentation, planning and policymaking, communication with the public, policy implementation and administration. The United States is the pioneer in this field. They began working with urban information systems in the 1970s. Canada and Australia have developed systems. And European countries like France, Germany and the Netherlands have been successful in applying these technologies. Turkey is a latecomer in this field because of financial constraints, their other priorities, a lack of technical expertise and different administrative mentalities. But today, the urban information system is a popu‐ lar notion among local governments in Turkey. The first initiative of local governments to use urban information systems was in the cities Bursa and Ayden beginning in the mid-1990s. Since then three other metropolitan municipalities, Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir, studied the digitization of maps and plans and began to create inventories of their cities.

In India, findings showed that the Disaster Information Management System (DIMS) was launched by SRISTI. The SRISTI participated in relief and rehabilitation work in Kutch. However, their relief work suffered immensely due to lack of information and proper plan‐ ning. When answers to important questions that were cropping up were needed – for in‐ stance, whether there is a database on the distribution of available resources and expertise with individuals, institutions and corporations – SRISTI discovered the information wasn't available. This revealed the need for a system for disaster mitigation and for documenting the experiences of individuals and organizations, which might provide a knowledge data‐ base that can assist coordination in future disasters. Thus, SRISTI initiated an effort to build a "Disaster Management Information System." Through this initiative, the development of a database-driven information system for Disaster Management Authorities (DMA) in various states, NGOs and other organizations is underway. SRISTI appealed to NGOs, relief work‐ ers, DMAs and individuals to share their experiences and volunteer their services and re‐ sources to the online database maintained on the SRISTI website. The database currently contains information from more than a thousand volunteers who have offered their services and resources in times of emergency. About 700 organizations and institutions are indexed on the site, as are other resources and web links. The DMIS is a voluntary activity run with in kind contributions of time and services by SRISTI volunteers, NGOs and, above all, civil

ercises of response capability.

**6. About EIMS**

Our research reinforces the belief that Afghanistan possesses the potential for many natural disasters. Therefore, a DIMS, especially an EIMS, would be particularly helpful. Disaster management is a needs a wide variety of information, needs to track different locations and during different periods, and this information must have a set format in order that key staff can employ the information in decisions. A new project named "Management Information for Natural Disasters" (MIND) in Kabul and Kunduz provinces in Afghanistan has been op‐ erating since the beginning of 2012 and has been doing well for the last 8 months. Its goal was to establish and expand a crisis information management system. It is frequently updat‐ ed and provides information to governments. MIND has increased Afghanistan's crisis management capacity nationally, supporting the training of disaster managers and improv‐ ing city services by building governmental organizations in management information for natural disasters. Natural disaster management in these two provinces is primarily guided by estimates of damages which are used to direct rescue operations. There is currently no system to avoid or decrease disaster damages. Before and after a disaster, management is very weak in these countries and they are therefore dependent on the UN or NGOs for re‐ sponse. Information needed for the EIMS includes the availability and distribution of re‐ sponse personnel and spatial information stored in GIS to determine the areas of greatest destruction and locations of great danger. In this system, satellite data are crucial for identi‐ fication of crisis locations and understanding their distribution. [17,19] To record the infor‐ mation that is acquired, an Information System Unit is trained to input data and information and to manage stations of the informative system. The DIMS for earthquakes has tended to not be useful in many parts of the country primarily because of the lack of timely informa‐ tion from disaster areas.

#### **8. EIMS in Japan**

The Japanese DIMS is called "PHOENIX" (Preement Hyogos Emergency Management Network for Disaster Information Exchange). [20] In this system, information about the amount and degree of earthquake damages and on-going developments of conditions in a disaster area are collected and processed. Information is provided by agencies, in‐ volved organizations, individuals (including those from governments, experts, volunteers and others), monitoring stations and other data sources employing several communica‐ tion methods (including the Internet, radio, print, televison and satellite). Recording and collecting earthquake information is centralize by informatics centers of local society of province. Japan's Red Cross, Rescue Team, NGOs, health organizations and others [21] do the estimating, calculating, and publishing of the information that is needed, and they send them to the relevant agencies. PHOENIX crisis management is designed for access and use by individuals, local communities and the national government. All satellite, land-based and atmospheric data will be transmitted over the Internet and displayed on local pages for Hyogo people. This system has been established for the entirety of Japan. [20] The Hygo Province crisis management network is directly supervised by the prime minister and his/her ministry. According to their documents, this system has been very successful. So it is expected that after they have completed their analysis, the system will be on-line for local, national and international users. [20]

spread, impacting many more people. [1] Despite the national approach, there is no official department called the "Department of Earthquake Information Management System." There is an EIMS. Information has been recorded by hand or using computers. Management of dis‐ asters has been done through the crisis office of the health ministry. All of the universities of Iran and the health minister are responsible for information management. This system is equipped to communicate information from crisis offices in the country's universities. After an earthquake, these units are prepared to produce up-to-date information (about hospitals, the Red Crescent Society, ambulances, facilities and other important resources) and report it to the crisis-control office. In universities, the crisis rooms are expected to report information as rapidly as possible. The EIMS in Iran tended to be incapable of reporting important infor‐ mation that was needed in advance of, during and after earthquakes. Defective, insufficient and inaccurate registration of data, declaration and publication of different and contradicto‐ ry population data and a lack of reliable information disabled the development of preventa‐ tive systemic planning. To make an EIMS work in Iran, we need to provide support for managers, and to do this, modified model of the EIMS should be designed. [1] The modified model includes information about: the responsible organizations, their functions, and the

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139

We offer a model that shows the relationships between organizations related to the EIMS in Iran (Figure 1). In this model, the responsibility and function of every organization is deter‐ mined. These duties are classified according to registration and collection of earthquake da‐ ta, the storage and processing of these data, and the analysis and distribution of information

The highest sum of scores of the effectiveness of EIMS are found in India and the lowest in Iran (Table 2 and 3). The weaknesses of EIMS are found in that: the EI stores system‐ atically, there are parallel and repeated activities by various organizations, and the access to the EI is not easy and nor fast, particularly in Iran's EIMS. In the range of ranks, Af‐ ghanistan's and India's systems were classified in the very good range and Iran's was in

The use of mass media is imperative for communicating news and information to the public. Responsible journalism can also help to clear up inaccurate rumors and to influence the pub‐ lic's attitude toward preparing for disasters. Moreover, press coverage of old disasters may provide good data to fill the gaps in circumstances where official records do not exist. How‐ ever, this study has revealed that the press has largely failed in terms of guidance toward disaster mitigation and preparedness. It seems that media are more interested in reporting disastrous news than informing the public of ways to avoid disasters. The Turkish media has been more influential in urging both the public and government officials to prepare for

the earthquakes. Television appears to be a more effective tool to achieve this. [23]

**11. Evaluating the effectiveness of EIMS design in each country**

work-flow that were reflected in the Delphi Technique.

and recommendations produced by the EIMS.

the moderate range. [17]

#### **9. EIMS in Turkey**

Our findings reveals that every governmental office in Turkey has begun development of electronic systems to meet their needs. Hence, e-government has become an important tool. As a result, the Turkish government has resolved to provide public services online in ac‐ cordance with EU targets. As a part of this process, the prime ministry of Turkey has chosen Istanbul as a pilot-project area where many complex governmental tasks are carried out. Turkey is situated in an extremely active seismic zone. Since Istanbul has been growing rap‐ idly without proper planning, great precautions should be taken to mitigate and prepare for future disasters. Therefore, Turkey has committed to build a natural disaster management information system immediately and it is called AFAYBIS. AFAYBIS is designed as a minor part of their e-Government system. It was based upon the information acquired in surveyes of government and private-sector data providers. The system will use geographical analysis to identify the regions with the greatest disaster potential. The project is also intended to quickly and effectively create a tool for management of response and relief during and after disasters. After an analysis of the current state of affairs was completed, the data and the data sources were identified. The system is designed as two parts: a database and a commu‐ nication system. The communications component is to constantly update data before disas‐ ters and to provide continuous supply of data. Consequently this disaster information system is designed according to the standards of the Turkish e-government, which is always intended to be up-to-date. The disaster management information system that has been de‐ veloped to solve this problem will result in optimum efficiency during disaster. This system contains the structure that determines its relationships to data and access to its information, disaster management communication, risk mitigation and disaster preparation, and postdisaster coordination of the prime minister, governors and other institutions. The services and duties of the institutions are also developed into the system so as to avoid modification of their existent organizational structures. [22] Earthquake management in Turkey, without exception, is a problem. It is unsystematic, unplanned, static and awareness of it is low.

#### **10. EIMS in Iran**

Disaster management systems are often designed because of the lack local management. Disasters are managed nationally in Iran and such management tends to cause disasters to spread, impacting many more people. [1] Despite the national approach, there is no official department called the "Department of Earthquake Information Management System." There is an EIMS. Information has been recorded by hand or using computers. Management of dis‐ asters has been done through the crisis office of the health ministry. All of the universities of Iran and the health minister are responsible for information management. This system is equipped to communicate information from crisis offices in the country's universities. After an earthquake, these units are prepared to produce up-to-date information (about hospitals, the Red Crescent Society, ambulances, facilities and other important resources) and report it to the crisis-control office. In universities, the crisis rooms are expected to report information as rapidly as possible. The EIMS in Iran tended to be incapable of reporting important infor‐ mation that was needed in advance of, during and after earthquakes. Defective, insufficient and inaccurate registration of data, declaration and publication of different and contradicto‐ ry population data and a lack of reliable information disabled the development of preventa‐ tive systemic planning. To make an EIMS work in Iran, we need to provide support for managers, and to do this, modified model of the EIMS should be designed. [1] The modified model includes information about: the responsible organizations, their functions, and the work-flow that were reflected in the Delphi Technique.

send them to the relevant agencies. PHOENIX crisis management is designed for access and use by individuals, local communities and the national government. All satellite, land-based and atmospheric data will be transmitted over the Internet and displayed on local pages for Hyogo people. This system has been established for the entirety of Japan. [20] The Hygo Province crisis management network is directly supervised by the prime minister and his/her ministry. According to their documents, this system has been very successful. So it is expected that after they have completed their analysis, the system will

138 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

Our findings reveals that every governmental office in Turkey has begun development of electronic systems to meet their needs. Hence, e-government has become an important tool. As a result, the Turkish government has resolved to provide public services online in ac‐ cordance with EU targets. As a part of this process, the prime ministry of Turkey has chosen Istanbul as a pilot-project area where many complex governmental tasks are carried out. Turkey is situated in an extremely active seismic zone. Since Istanbul has been growing rap‐ idly without proper planning, great precautions should be taken to mitigate and prepare for future disasters. Therefore, Turkey has committed to build a natural disaster management information system immediately and it is called AFAYBIS. AFAYBIS is designed as a minor part of their e-Government system. It was based upon the information acquired in surveyes of government and private-sector data providers. The system will use geographical analysis to identify the regions with the greatest disaster potential. The project is also intended to quickly and effectively create a tool for management of response and relief during and after disasters. After an analysis of the current state of affairs was completed, the data and the data sources were identified. The system is designed as two parts: a database and a commu‐ nication system. The communications component is to constantly update data before disas‐ ters and to provide continuous supply of data. Consequently this disaster information system is designed according to the standards of the Turkish e-government, which is always intended to be up-to-date. The disaster management information system that has been de‐ veloped to solve this problem will result in optimum efficiency during disaster. This system contains the structure that determines its relationships to data and access to its information, disaster management communication, risk mitigation and disaster preparation, and postdisaster coordination of the prime minister, governors and other institutions. The services and duties of the institutions are also developed into the system so as to avoid modification of their existent organizational structures. [22] Earthquake management in Turkey, without exception, is a problem. It is unsystematic, unplanned, static and awareness of it is low.

Disaster management systems are often designed because of the lack local management. Disasters are managed nationally in Iran and such management tends to cause disasters to

be on-line for local, national and international users. [20]

**9. EIMS in Turkey**

**10. EIMS in Iran**

We offer a model that shows the relationships between organizations related to the EIMS in Iran (Figure 1). In this model, the responsibility and function of every organization is deter‐ mined. These duties are classified according to registration and collection of earthquake da‐ ta, the storage and processing of these data, and the analysis and distribution of information and recommendations produced by the EIMS.

#### **11. Evaluating the effectiveness of EIMS design in each country**

The highest sum of scores of the effectiveness of EIMS are found in India and the lowest in Iran (Table 2 and 3). The weaknesses of EIMS are found in that: the EI stores system‐ atically, there are parallel and repeated activities by various organizations, and the access to the EI is not easy and nor fast, particularly in Iran's EIMS. In the range of ranks, Af‐ ghanistan's and India's systems were classified in the very good range and Iran's was in the moderate range. [17]

The use of mass media is imperative for communicating news and information to the public. Responsible journalism can also help to clear up inaccurate rumors and to influence the pub‐ lic's attitude toward preparing for disasters. Moreover, press coverage of old disasters may provide good data to fill the gaps in circumstances where official records do not exist. How‐ ever, this study has revealed that the press has largely failed in terms of guidance toward disaster mitigation and preparedness. It seems that media are more interested in reporting disastrous news than informing the public of ways to avoid disasters. The Turkish media has been more influential in urging both the public and government officials to prepare for the earthquakes. Television appears to be a more effective tool to achieve this. [23]

prompt reports of the occurrence of large earthquakes and major seismic intensities caused by earthquakes within about 2 minutes after the earthquake; tsunami forecasts in around 3 minutes; expected arrival times and maximum heights of tsunami waves in around 5 mi‐ nutes; and location of the hypocenter and the magnitude of the earthquake, intensity at each observation station, times of high tides and the expected tsunami arrival times within 5–7 minutes. To issue the above information, JMA has established an advanced nationwide seis‐ mic network with about 180 stations for seismic-wave observation and about 3400 stations for instrumental seismic intensity observation, in addition to the approximately 2800 seismic

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141

The initial effort to systematically collect and analyze data in developing countries should be undertaken by national program managers. Based on our investigation of current earth‐ quake information management in India, Afghanistan and Iran, we can stress the need for further development of EIMS because of: the critical need for the information that must be gathered; a concern about continuous improvement of the data made available; its ability to help manage emergency response and relief in natural disasters (through more rapid availa‐ bility and retrieval in an EI); a need for timely reporting and feedback to managers; the need to analyze information and render reports that define strengths, weaknesses, threats and op‐ portunities; the need for monitoring the status of healthcare services and the needs of such services; the crucial need to coordinate activities between government and non-governmen‐ tal sectors through the EIMS; the need to reduce deaths and establish health priorities and planning to decrease mortality after future earthquakes; the ability to use the outcomes of crisis to determine the causes of earthquake mortalities and other problems in order to pre‐ vent future impacts; and the need to formulate strategies for disease prevention and to re‐

A rapid response to a damaging earthquake will reduce the loss of life, lessen the com‐ plications that stem from injuries and secondary damage, and expedite relief to victims. Reliable and up-to-date information can have an impact on the mitigation of risk and prevention of disaster. Because of the financial and human costs of disasters, the estab‐ lishment of a general, scientific and practical earthquake information management net‐

The author would like to thank Misses Z. Moradi, Mahshid Fattahi and N. Nematolahi for

intensity stations maintained by local governments. [24]

duce preventable deaths in earthquake zones.

work is desperately needed.

helping to fulfill this research.

**Acknowledgment**

**12. Conclusion**

**Figure 1.** The proposed model of EIMS that shows process of relationships between organizations related to EIMS in Iran

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) is responsible for producing EI and tsunami fore‐ casts and they have developed an earthquake notification system in Japan. At present, JMA issues the following kinds of information successively when a large earthquake occurs: prompt reports of the occurrence of large earthquakes and major seismic intensities caused by earthquakes within about 2 minutes after the earthquake; tsunami forecasts in around 3 minutes; expected arrival times and maximum heights of tsunami waves in around 5 mi‐ nutes; and location of the hypocenter and the magnitude of the earthquake, intensity at each observation station, times of high tides and the expected tsunami arrival times within 5–7 minutes. To issue the above information, JMA has established an advanced nationwide seis‐ mic network with about 180 stations for seismic-wave observation and about 3400 stations for instrumental seismic intensity observation, in addition to the approximately 2800 seismic intensity stations maintained by local governments. [24]

### **12. Conclusion**

The initial effort to systematically collect and analyze data in developing countries should be undertaken by national program managers. Based on our investigation of current earth‐ quake information management in India, Afghanistan and Iran, we can stress the need for further development of EIMS because of: the critical need for the information that must be gathered; a concern about continuous improvement of the data made available; its ability to help manage emergency response and relief in natural disasters (through more rapid availa‐ bility and retrieval in an EI); a need for timely reporting and feedback to managers; the need to analyze information and render reports that define strengths, weaknesses, threats and op‐ portunities; the need for monitoring the status of healthcare services and the needs of such services; the crucial need to coordinate activities between government and non-governmen‐ tal sectors through the EIMS; the need to reduce deaths and establish health priorities and planning to decrease mortality after future earthquakes; the ability to use the outcomes of crisis to determine the causes of earthquake mortalities and other problems in order to pre‐ vent future impacts; and the need to formulate strategies for disease prevention and to re‐ duce preventable deaths in earthquake zones.

A rapid response to a damaging earthquake will reduce the loss of life, lessen the com‐ plications that stem from injuries and secondary damage, and expedite relief to victims. Reliable and up-to-date information can have an impact on the mitigation of risk and prevention of disaster. Because of the financial and human costs of disasters, the estab‐ lishment of a general, scientific and practical earthquake information management net‐ work is desperately needed.

#### **Acknowledgment**

**Figure 1.** The proposed model of EIMS that shows process of relationships between organizations related to EIMS in Iran

140 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) is responsible for producing EI and tsunami fore‐ casts and they have developed an earthquake notification system in Japan. At present, JMA issues the following kinds of information successively when a large earthquake occurs:

The author would like to thank Misses Z. Moradi, Mahshid Fattahi and N. Nematolahi for helping to fulfill this research.

#### **Author details**

Sima Ajami

Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Department of Health Information Technology, Health Management and Economics Re‐ search Centre, School of Medical Management and Information Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran

[10] Seeger MW, Sellnow TL, Ulmer RR. Communication and organizational crisis.

The Role of Earthquake Information Management System to Reduce Destruction ...

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53612

143

[11] Kabirzadeh A. Disease control and prevention after natural disaster. In Proceeding of Natural Health and Management of Disaster Meeting, 2003 May 27-29, Tehran, Iran.

[12] Ajami S, Fatahi M, Moradi Z, Nematolahi N. An analysis studies on Earthquake In‐ formation Management Systems (EIMS) in Japan, Afghanistan and Iran and propos‐ ing a suitable model for Iran. In Proceeding of International Disaster Reduction Conference (IDRC), From 27 August to first of September 2006, Switzerland, Davos.

[13] Ajami S, Fatahi M, Moradi Z. Reduce destroys and rule of Earthquake Information Systems the Comparative study in Turkey, Afghanistan and Iran. In Proceeding of International Disaster and Risk Conference IDRC, from August 25 to August 29,

[14] Ajami S, Tavakoli-Moghadam O. A Comparative Study on Health Information Man‐ agement System with Standards in Ayatolah-Kashani Hospital in Isfahan, Iran. Health Information Management; 2006;1(3): 63-7. http://him.mui.ac.ir/

[15] Chang R. Success through Teamwork: A Practical Guide to Interpersonal Team Dy‐ namics (High-Performance Team Series) (Paperback). Homa-ye-Salamat 2006;2:63-5.

[16] Ajami S, Fatahi M. The role of earthquake information management systems (EIMSs) in reducing destruction: A comparative study of Japan, Turkey and Iran. Disaster

[17] Ajami S. A comparative study on Earthquake Information Management Systems (EIMS) in India, Afghanistan and Iran. Journal of Education and Health Promotion

[18] Society for Research & Initiatives for Sustainable Technologies and Institutions Or‐ ganization (SRISTI). Disaster Management Information System' [online]. Available

[19] Afghanistan Information Management Service (AIMS) Project [United Nations De‐ velopment Program (UNDP)]. Information Management for Natural Disasters: Pilot Project for Kabul & Kunduz Province. 2005, Kabul and Kunduz Province. Afghani‐ stan. Available from: http:// www.aims.org.af/services/sectoral/d\_m/

[20] International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. Extract from the final report of the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, 18-22 January

from: http://www.sristi.org/dmis/dmi\_system. (accessed in 2009).

USA:Praeger; (accessed 11 April 2006).

In Persian

2008, Switzerland, Davos.

index.php/him/article/view/47.

Prev Manag 2009; 18(2):150-61.

dmis\_for\_afg\_a\_p\_p.pdf.(accessed in 2005).

2005, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan.

[ in Persian].

2012;1:27.

#### **References**

[10] Seeger MW, Sellnow TL, Ulmer RR. Communication and organizational crisis. USA:Praeger; (accessed 11 April 2006).

**Author details**

Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
dad-n.html/(accessed 11 September 2012).

of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran

24–26, Tehran, Iran.

Department of Health Information Technology, Health Management and Economics Re‐ search Centre, School of Medical Management and Information Sciences, Isfahan University

142 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

[1] Bamdad N. The Role of Community Knowledge in Disaster Management: The Bam Earthquake Lesson in Iran. Institute of Management and Planning Studies, Tehran, Iran. Available from: http://www.engagingcommunities2005.org/abstracts/S93-bam‐

[2] Tavakoli N. Health information management in disaster' proceeding of second na‐ tional health and management disaster meeting, 2004 Nov 24–26, Tehran, Iran.

[3] Rastegari H, Ajami S. An overview of the management of a crisis. Health Information Management 2005;2(3):73-81. http://him.mui.ac.ir/index.php/him/article/view/28/26.

[4] Ajami S. The role of information management in rendering healthcare in disasters. In Proceeding of Second National Health and Management Disaster meeting, 2004 Nov

[5] The U.S. Geological Survey, Earthquake Hazards Program. Disaster Management In‐ formation System, fact sheet 04: Largest and Deadliest Earthquakes by Year 1990 –

[6] Division of International Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemiology Program Office. Public Health Systems Development; Health Information Systems. [online]. United States. Availa‐

[7] Seismological Bureau of Yunnan Province. Improvement of Earthquake disaster re‐ duction and early warning systems. [online]. PR, China. Available from: http://

[8] Lippeveld T, Sauerborn R, Bodart C. Design and implementation of health informa‐

[9] Rock ML. Effective crisis management planning: Creating a collaborative framework

2005'. Available from: http://www.sristi.org/dmis/facts.(accessed in 2009).

ble from: http:// www.cdc.gov/epo/dih/systems.html.(accessed in 2000).

tion systems. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2000.

www.chinaproject.network. (accessed in 2001).

[online]. Educ Treat Child J 2000;23(3):248-64.

Sima Ajami

**References**

[21] International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.Hyogo Declaration. In proceeding of Conference on Disaster Reduction in Japan on 18\_22 January 2005, Extract from the final report of the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, 18-22 January 2005, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan.

**Section 3**

**Crisis Management and Disaster Recovery**

**Crisis Management and Disaster Recovery**

[21] International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.Hyogo Declaration. In proceeding of Conference on Disaster Reduction in Japan on 18\_22 January 2005, Extract from the final report of the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, 18-22 January 2005,

144 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

[22] Eraslan C, Alkis Z, Emem O, Helvac C, Batuk F, Gümüsay U. et al. System Design of Disaster Management Information System in Turkey as a Part of E-Goverment. Istan‐ bul, Turkey: Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry; 2004. http://www.carte‐

[23] Dedeoglu N. Role of the Turkish news media in disaster preparedness. In Proceeding of International Disaster Reduction Conference (IDRC), From August 25 to August

[24] Doi K, Kato T. Real time Earthquake information system in Japan. American Geo‐

[25] Yaliner O. Description of Urban information system and emergency management concepts, examples in Turkey and in the World. In Partial Fulfillment of the Require‐ ments for the Degree of Master of Science in the Department of Geodetic and Geo‐ graphic Information Technologies a Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences of the Middle East Technical University, January 2002.

physical Union, Fall Meeting; 2003. Abstract # S21B-03-12/2003.

Kobe, Hyogo, Japan.

29, 2008. Switzerland, Davos.

sia.org/geodoc/isprs2004/comm2/papers/139.pdf.

**Chapter 7**

**Five Star Crisis Management — Examples of Best Practice**

The *background* for this study is in the complex and fragmented business environment of today when many organisations are interdependent from each other across the globe thus making it harder for companies to insulate themselves against a crisis event [1]. Furthermore, the media of today is ready to inform us of any critical events around the world at a moment's notice [2, 3]. The 'everyone can be a journalist' culture is encouraged by popular media requesting photographs and video footage from individuals currently caught in an unexpected chain of events. Today, words like 'crisis' and 'disaster' are featured in everyday vocabulary to grab attention, thus resulting in a depreciation of the actual meaning of this term. Overall, an

At the same time, there has been a plethora of international crisis demonstrating how fragile the business environment can be. The most cited crises have been caused by nature (e.g. tsunami, hurricanes, bushfires, floods or disease) or by man (e.g. terrorism and the current Economic Tsunami). In this environment, the Hotel Managers' duty of care should also involve planning and preparing for unforeseen events; running 'what if' scenarios, designing action plans for all departments, allocating individual responsibilities; building back-up capacity and training their staff to respond in appropriate manner to security concerns. Therefore, the *aim* of this paper is to highlight good procedures already prac‐ ticed by hotels participating in this study. The study *Methodology* consisted of in-depth interviews with Hotel Managers or Hotel Security Managers located in Hong Kong, London and Finland. Many of these hotels were associated with large multinational chains and the most of the interviewees had managed a variety of crises situation, often in contrasting

> © 2013 Niininen; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 Niininen; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**from the Hotel Industry**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

atmosphere hungry for crisis has been created.

cultural or geographical locations.

Outi Niininen

**1. Introduction**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55209

### **Five Star Crisis Management — Examples of Best Practice from the Hotel Industry**

Outi Niininen

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55209

#### **1. Introduction**

The *background* for this study is in the complex and fragmented business environment of today when many organisations are interdependent from each other across the globe thus making it harder for companies to insulate themselves against a crisis event [1]. Furthermore, the media of today is ready to inform us of any critical events around the world at a moment's notice [2, 3]. The 'everyone can be a journalist' culture is encouraged by popular media requesting photographs and video footage from individuals currently caught in an unexpected chain of events. Today, words like 'crisis' and 'disaster' are featured in everyday vocabulary to grab attention, thus resulting in a depreciation of the actual meaning of this term. Overall, an atmosphere hungry for crisis has been created.

At the same time, there has been a plethora of international crisis demonstrating how fragile the business environment can be. The most cited crises have been caused by nature (e.g. tsunami, hurricanes, bushfires, floods or disease) or by man (e.g. terrorism and the current Economic Tsunami). In this environment, the Hotel Managers' duty of care should also involve planning and preparing for unforeseen events; running 'what if' scenarios, designing action plans for all departments, allocating individual responsibilities; building back-up capacity and training their staff to respond in appropriate manner to security concerns. Therefore, the *aim* of this paper is to highlight good procedures already prac‐ ticed by hotels participating in this study. The study *Methodology* consisted of in-depth interviews with Hotel Managers or Hotel Security Managers located in Hong Kong, London and Finland. Many of these hotels were associated with large multinational chains and the most of the interviewees had managed a variety of crises situation, often in contrasting cultural or geographical locations.

© 2013 Niininen; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 Niininen; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

This paper is set out in the following structure: the basic crisis management concepts are outlined and applied to the tourism (and hospitality) settings. This is followed by a brief outline of the methodology utilised. The findings/discussion section is structured to reflect the key practical tips offered by the interviewees: '*Being prepared for crisis situations'*; '*Managing costs during crisis*'; '*Make full use of local advice'*; '*Maintaining good communication with guests'* and how to '*Use technology to enhance hotel security'*.

(i.e. all individuals with the means and motive to travel are potential tourists). Thus the variety of psychological or social responses to unexpected events from the guests of an international hotel will challenge even the 'best laid [crisis] plans' as well as the communi‐ cations skills of experienced PR Managers to maintain calm [2]. Fourthly, since the consumption of a tourism product requires the customer to travel to a destination the demand for tourism products is sensitive to reports on security and health issues; and finally, many tourists are attracted to fragile locales particularly vulnerable to the forces of nature (e.g. tropical weather, proximity to sea and even seismic activity) or destination with low degree of infrastructure development (so called 'unspoilt' destinations) [5, 9-11].

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149

Moreover, tourism participation is a discretionary activity for most international travelers, many countries (or destinations) have invested heavily on new campaigns in order to acquire the misplaced inbound tourists or to generate alternative demand from domestic travelers [12, 13]. Therefore, in tourism industry, '… it is no longer a question whether [a crisis] will arise, but when and how it will be dealt with' [7] therefore hotels' crisis plans should be more generic in nature, thus offering personnel accepted behavioural protocols without attempting to script for every eventuality. The wide variety of potential crisis in the hospitality industry also

The findings in this paper are based on in-depth interviews conducted during October 2008. Non-probability sampling was used to select locations due to the range of past crisis events varying from financial crisis (e.g. current financial crisis worldwide and the financial crisis in Finland in the early nineties), health concerns (e.g. SARS reports linked to Hong Kong) to terrorism (e.g. the UK and London) reported in those locations. At each city, major stakeholders from educational institutions to trade associations were approached to request contact details for hotel managers willing to participate in research projects. Individual interview requests were made through e-mail and the final number of interviews conducted was 12 (three in Hong

Each respondent received the planned interview questions in advance together with background information for this study and the University research ethics procedures. Although General Managers were approached initially, in some cases the interview request was delegated to the Head of Hotel Security thus resulting in a mixture of nine Hotel Managers and three Hotel Security experts. Collectively, the respondents hold decades of crisis management experience across the world with focus on the hospitality industry as well as other segments of the security industry like Police or Fire departments. Naturally, the personal crisis experience of each person influenced the examples and policies highlight‐ ed by each individual thus making the data more rich. The 'default' identification for each

respondent was to code them by location e.g. 'Hotel A, HK' or 'Hotel K, UK' etc.

supports this argument.

**3. Methodology**

Kong; six in London and three in Helsinki).

#### **2. Crisis management**

Crisis management has its roots in strategic planning incorporating contingencies for unex‐ pected events. The challenge for organisations is to recognise the early 'warning signals' and take appropriate action. Crisis can be classified by several variables: *those resulting from internal actions of the company* vs. *trends taking place in the market place* or *changes in the immediate environment outside the organisation*. Another approach to crisis classification is: *the crisis that can be managed* vs. *crisis that manage us* [the organisation][3].

Generally speaking, crisis as an event is characterised by its unexpected nature inflicting severe impact on those involved. Moreover, a crisis typically demonstrates the characteristics of suddenness, uncertainty and time compression thus demanding immediate action from the manager – often the crisis management decision-making is also based on incomplete facts [4, 5]. How any of these challenges are managed can determine the magnitude of the impact a crisis will have on the organisation. Prompt and expertly dealings with a crisis situation and those affected by this crisis can also open new opportunities for future business success [6]. Unfortunately the crisis reported in the news today will inevitably result in some financial losses as well as human suffering. As a result some businesses will be closed or relocated. The cynics amongst us argue that the crisis simply brought forward what was inevitable and that a 'natural process of weeding out the weak' has taken place.

Regrettably crisis events are commonplace, [7] as organisations are regularly dealing with the pre-crisis; during-crisis or post-crisis issues thus highlighting the need for an early 'diagnosis and treatment' of a crisis to reduce the negative impact to the company. Moreover, a crisis can also be a chain of events that are impossible to control or plan for, thus resulting in 'death or significant injuries' to those involved, disrupt the business operations as well as damage to or destruction of company assets. In other words, a crisis situation turns 'business as normal' into impossibility [3, 6].

Tourism as an industry has many characteristics that can make a crisis more probable, magnify the impacts of a crisis and attract extreme media coverage for the event. Firstly, tourism is big business and often cited as the 'largest peacetime industry' [8] and tourism is also advocated as the industry offering sustainable (and quick yielding) development opportunities to the least developed countries. Secondly, the tourism industry is highly integrated with several other industries. In other words, the ripples of a crisis event from the hotels' supply chain can result in a flood of issues/problems for the business of providing hospitality [1]. Thirdly, the tourism industry is about the movement of people

(i.e. all individuals with the means and motive to travel are potential tourists). Thus the variety of psychological or social responses to unexpected events from the guests of an international hotel will challenge even the 'best laid [crisis] plans' as well as the communi‐ cations skills of experienced PR Managers to maintain calm [2]. Fourthly, since the consumption of a tourism product requires the customer to travel to a destination the demand for tourism products is sensitive to reports on security and health issues; and finally, many tourists are attracted to fragile locales particularly vulnerable to the forces of nature (e.g. tropical weather, proximity to sea and even seismic activity) or destination with low degree of infrastructure development (so called 'unspoilt' destinations) [5, 9-11].

Moreover, tourism participation is a discretionary activity for most international travelers, many countries (or destinations) have invested heavily on new campaigns in order to acquire the misplaced inbound tourists or to generate alternative demand from domestic travelers [12, 13]. Therefore, in tourism industry, '… it is no longer a question whether [a crisis] will arise, but when and how it will be dealt with' [7] therefore hotels' crisis plans should be more generic in nature, thus offering personnel accepted behavioural protocols without attempting to script for every eventuality. The wide variety of potential crisis in the hospitality industry also supports this argument.

#### **3. Methodology**

This paper is set out in the following structure: the basic crisis management concepts are outlined and applied to the tourism (and hospitality) settings. This is followed by a brief outline of the methodology utilised. The findings/discussion section is structured to reflect the key practical tips offered by the interviewees: '*Being prepared for crisis situations'*; '*Managing costs during crisis*'; '*Make full use of local advice'*; '*Maintaining good communication with guests'* and how

148 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

Crisis management has its roots in strategic planning incorporating contingencies for unex‐ pected events. The challenge for organisations is to recognise the early 'warning signals' and take appropriate action. Crisis can be classified by several variables: *those resulting from internal actions of the company* vs. *trends taking place in the market place* or *changes in the immediate environment outside the organisation*. Another approach to crisis classification is: *the crisis that*

Generally speaking, crisis as an event is characterised by its unexpected nature inflicting severe impact on those involved. Moreover, a crisis typically demonstrates the characteristics of suddenness, uncertainty and time compression thus demanding immediate action from the manager – often the crisis management decision-making is also based on incomplete facts [4, 5]. How any of these challenges are managed can determine the magnitude of the impact a crisis will have on the organisation. Prompt and expertly dealings with a crisis situation and those affected by this crisis can also open new opportunities for future business success [6]. Unfortunately the crisis reported in the news today will inevitably result in some financial losses as well as human suffering. As a result some businesses will be closed or relocated. The cynics amongst us argue that the crisis simply brought forward what was inevitable and that

Regrettably crisis events are commonplace, [7] as organisations are regularly dealing with the pre-crisis; during-crisis or post-crisis issues thus highlighting the need for an early 'diagnosis and treatment' of a crisis to reduce the negative impact to the company. Moreover, a crisis can also be a chain of events that are impossible to control or plan for, thus resulting in 'death or significant injuries' to those involved, disrupt the business operations as well as damage to or destruction of company assets. In other words, a crisis situation turns 'business as normal' into

Tourism as an industry has many characteristics that can make a crisis more probable, magnify the impacts of a crisis and attract extreme media coverage for the event. Firstly, tourism is big business and often cited as the 'largest peacetime industry' [8] and tourism is also advocated as the industry offering sustainable (and quick yielding) development opportunities to the least developed countries. Secondly, the tourism industry is highly integrated with several other industries. In other words, the ripples of a crisis event from the hotels' supply chain can result in a flood of issues/problems for the business of providing hospitality [1]. Thirdly, the tourism industry is about the movement of people

to '*Use technology to enhance hotel security'*.

*can be managed* vs. *crisis that manage us* [the organisation][3].

a 'natural process of weeding out the weak' has taken place.

**2. Crisis management**

impossibility [3, 6].

The findings in this paper are based on in-depth interviews conducted during October 2008. Non-probability sampling was used to select locations due to the range of past crisis events varying from financial crisis (e.g. current financial crisis worldwide and the financial crisis in Finland in the early nineties), health concerns (e.g. SARS reports linked to Hong Kong) to terrorism (e.g. the UK and London) reported in those locations. At each city, major stakeholders from educational institutions to trade associations were approached to request contact details for hotel managers willing to participate in research projects. Individual interview requests were made through e-mail and the final number of interviews conducted was 12 (three in Hong Kong; six in London and three in Helsinki).

Each respondent received the planned interview questions in advance together with background information for this study and the University research ethics procedures. Although General Managers were approached initially, in some cases the interview request was delegated to the Head of Hotel Security thus resulting in a mixture of nine Hotel Managers and three Hotel Security experts. Collectively, the respondents hold decades of crisis management experience across the world with focus on the hospitality industry as well as other segments of the security industry like Police or Fire departments. Naturally, the personal crisis experience of each person influenced the examples and policies highlight‐ ed by each individual thus making the data more rich. The 'default' identification for each respondent was to code them by location e.g. 'Hotel A, HK' or 'Hotel K, UK' etc.

### **4. Findings and discussion**

The first observation during the data collection process was how well prepared all hotels interviewed were. Most interviewees arrived with their crisis management plans, in one incident; a major evacuation practice was due to take place later on the same day.

degree of security measures needed for mega events like the 2012 London Olympics (all London respondents) and offering hotel services to the top politicians in the EU or other VIP guests (Hotel E, Finland). In such instances the security protocols are set externally and specialist security personnel is provided by the event organisers. A more common request for additional security takes place when a corporate client uses the hotels conference facilities for a strategically significant meeting. In these situations public access to some parts of the hotel

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151

The day-to-day security operations included the 'secondary' security role assigned to most front line employees. This approach allows for a more discrete security operations and maintaining the appropriate quality of service. For example, the concierge limits the access to the hotel by suspicious individuals (Hotel D, Finland and Hotel L, UK) and front of house personnel diplomatically offering assistance to visitors who do not seem to be‐ long. Such helpful attention to visitors was also experienced by me as the 'out of place

Managing costs effectively during any crisis is probably the key to being able to remain in business during and after crisis, as any reduction in hotel occupancy rates will translate into a drop in the revenues. However, this cost saving exercise should be conducted in a way that allows the hotel to bounce back quickly once the demand for their services returns. For example, short term cost cutting can result in years of Good Will from all stakeholders disappearing, thus resulting in difficulty in securing supplies and recruiting personnel after the crisis is over. A key cost area for service industries is the payroll, therefore if substantial cost cutting is required to survive the current crisis. Therefore, the Hotel Manager will need to 'look for ways of reducing costs whilst maintaining their support to the staff' (Hotel C, HK). The labour cost and capacity can be reduced by asking volunteers to take vacation during crisis (Hotel B, HK) or by changing operating procedures (Hotel C, HK). Another response to a crisis

Moreover, a significant drop in demand and revenues due to a crisis will also require cutting costs in any area possible. For example, the supply costs for power and/or electricity can be managed by closing areas of the property; e.g. by closing a floor and concentrating the guests accommodation in dedicated areas will save power and allow for better utilisation of staff (Hotel B, HK). By concentrating the fewer visitors to specific areas can also help create the perception that the hotel is not badly hit by the current crisis situation, e.g. the worldwide economic crisis. And finally, a drop in demand and revenues should also prompt the Hotel Management to re-evaluate further investment plans. In conclusion, during a crisis event it is

The advice to 'make use of local advice' that is often also offered for free, was most frequently communicated by interviewees based in Finland and London. However, such observation

may be restricted (Hotel D, Finland).

**4.2. Managing costs during crisis**

event is to stop recruiting (Hotel G, UK).

important not to waste resources (Hotel G, UK).

**4.3. Make full use of local advice**

interviewer'.

The probability of incidents or crisis events taking place in a hotel increases with the volume of business and the size of the establishment; 'when the company [the hotel or the chain of hotels] provides thousands of bed nights every year, something is likely to happen'. One important contributor to hospitality industry incidents or crises are the guests or visitors to the property. The Hotel Manager can select their staff members and train them to respond to events in the desired way. Unfortunately, such luxury does not always exist with the visitors and guests. This is not to say that the visitors would be deliberately causing harm but the mixture of varying cultural norms, language barriers and lack of understanding of the prevailing condition can confuse the guests, thus causing an incident or making the crisis control extremely difficult for the hotel employees [2]. However, clever use of the *extended Marketing Mix* resulting in the market *positioning*, the *rates* charged as well as the *physical evidence* of the hotel can, on one hand, discourage segments that might not respond well to the guidance by the hotel employees. On the other hand, the *physical evidence* evident in a 5\* hotel can also have a surreal calming effect on visitors not used to such luxury and formality possibly resulting in the incidental visitor to 'be on their best behaviour'. Furthermore, policies like 'no Buck's nights' as well as good records of past visitors can also be used to discourage segments outside the hotel's target market.

The reported crises experienced by the respondents can be classified as internal (within their property) and external (outside their property). The internal crises varied from technical/ power failures to death of a hotel guest and the external crises varied from mass cancellation of hotel bookings due to the current financial crisis, to accidental or deliberate incidents of vehicles crashing into the hotel buildings (such deliberate damage to the hotel property and risking of human lives would be classified as terrorism) (Hotel A, HK).

All respondents referred to the Hotel Manager's responsibility for the well being and safety of staff and guests. In fact the Hotel Manager's *duty of care* was the most commonly cited expression across all interviews. Another conclusion from the data collected is that hotel security was often delegated to individuals who already had responsibility for Occupational Health and Safety (OHS). Furthermore, basic hotel security training was also cited to be part of the overall induction to new staff members (Hotel L, UK).

#### **4.1. Being prepared for crisis situations**

All respondents advocated the importance of being prepared for crisis situations and most respondents arrived to the interview with their Crisis Preparation Manuals. Furthermore, in one hotel, a crisis response practice was scheduled to take place shortly after the interview. The obvious/visual display of security measures (e.g. metal detectors at the entrance) is appropriate for specific target segments or situations only. The examples illustrated the varied degree of security measures needed for mega events like the 2012 London Olympics (all London respondents) and offering hotel services to the top politicians in the EU or other VIP guests (Hotel E, Finland). In such instances the security protocols are set externally and specialist security personnel is provided by the event organisers. A more common request for additional security takes place when a corporate client uses the hotels conference facilities for a strategically significant meeting. In these situations public access to some parts of the hotel may be restricted (Hotel D, Finland).

The day-to-day security operations included the 'secondary' security role assigned to most front line employees. This approach allows for a more discrete security operations and maintaining the appropriate quality of service. For example, the concierge limits the access to the hotel by suspicious individuals (Hotel D, Finland and Hotel L, UK) and front of house personnel diplomatically offering assistance to visitors who do not seem to be‐ long. Such helpful attention to visitors was also experienced by me as the 'out of place interviewer'.

#### **4.2. Managing costs during crisis**

**4. Findings and discussion**

outside the hotel's target market.

The first observation during the data collection process was how well prepared all hotels interviewed were. Most interviewees arrived with their crisis management plans, in one

The probability of incidents or crisis events taking place in a hotel increases with the volume of business and the size of the establishment; 'when the company [the hotel or the chain of hotels] provides thousands of bed nights every year, something is likely to happen'. One important contributor to hospitality industry incidents or crises are the guests or visitors to the property. The Hotel Manager can select their staff members and train them to respond to events in the desired way. Unfortunately, such luxury does not always exist with the visitors and guests. This is not to say that the visitors would be deliberately causing harm but the mixture of varying cultural norms, language barriers and lack of understanding of the prevailing condition can confuse the guests, thus causing an incident or making the crisis control extremely difficult for the hotel employees [2]. However, clever use of the *extended Marketing Mix* resulting in the market *positioning*, the *rates* charged as well as the *physical evidence* of the hotel can, on one hand, discourage segments that might not respond well to the guidance by the hotel employees. On the other hand, the *physical evidence* evident in a 5\* hotel can also have a surreal calming effect on visitors not used to such luxury and formality possibly resulting in the incidental visitor to 'be on their best behaviour'. Furthermore, policies like 'no Buck's nights' as well as good records of past visitors can also be used to discourage segments

The reported crises experienced by the respondents can be classified as internal (within their property) and external (outside their property). The internal crises varied from technical/ power failures to death of a hotel guest and the external crises varied from mass cancellation of hotel bookings due to the current financial crisis, to accidental or deliberate incidents of vehicles crashing into the hotel buildings (such deliberate damage to the hotel property and

All respondents referred to the Hotel Manager's responsibility for the well being and safety of staff and guests. In fact the Hotel Manager's *duty of care* was the most commonly cited expression across all interviews. Another conclusion from the data collected is that hotel security was often delegated to individuals who already had responsibility for Occupational Health and Safety (OHS). Furthermore, basic hotel security training was also cited to be part

All respondents advocated the importance of being prepared for crisis situations and most respondents arrived to the interview with their Crisis Preparation Manuals. Furthermore, in one hotel, a crisis response practice was scheduled to take place shortly after the interview. The obvious/visual display of security measures (e.g. metal detectors at the entrance) is appropriate for specific target segments or situations only. The examples illustrated the varied

risking of human lives would be classified as terrorism) (Hotel A, HK).

of the overall induction to new staff members (Hotel L, UK).

**4.1. Being prepared for crisis situations**

incident; a major evacuation practice was due to take place later on the same day.

150 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

Managing costs effectively during any crisis is probably the key to being able to remain in business during and after crisis, as any reduction in hotel occupancy rates will translate into a drop in the revenues. However, this cost saving exercise should be conducted in a way that allows the hotel to bounce back quickly once the demand for their services returns. For example, short term cost cutting can result in years of Good Will from all stakeholders disappearing, thus resulting in difficulty in securing supplies and recruiting personnel after the crisis is over. A key cost area for service industries is the payroll, therefore if substantial cost cutting is required to survive the current crisis. Therefore, the Hotel Manager will need to 'look for ways of reducing costs whilst maintaining their support to the staff' (Hotel C, HK). The labour cost and capacity can be reduced by asking volunteers to take vacation during crisis (Hotel B, HK) or by changing operating procedures (Hotel C, HK). Another response to a crisis event is to stop recruiting (Hotel G, UK).

Moreover, a significant drop in demand and revenues due to a crisis will also require cutting costs in any area possible. For example, the supply costs for power and/or electricity can be managed by closing areas of the property; e.g. by closing a floor and concentrating the guests accommodation in dedicated areas will save power and allow for better utilisation of staff (Hotel B, HK). By concentrating the fewer visitors to specific areas can also help create the perception that the hotel is not badly hit by the current crisis situation, e.g. the worldwide economic crisis. And finally, a drop in demand and revenues should also prompt the Hotel Management to re-evaluate further investment plans. In conclusion, during a crisis event it is important not to waste resources (Hotel G, UK).

#### **4.3. Make full use of local advice**

The advice to 'make use of local advice' that is often also offered for free, was most frequently communicated by interviewees based in Finland and London. However, such observation could be purely incidental; e.g. in Finland only three respondents were interviewed, one of them had recent experience in providing accommodation for high ranking EU delegates (Hotel E, Finland); the London hotels were getting ready for the 2012 Olympics, and therefore, a greater collaboration between hotels and authorities is to be expected.

during their stay at the hotel (Hotel A, HK). For example, international news reports on poor air quality, polluted rivers or even faulty air-conditioning units near the hotel location could cause some negative word-of-mouth if the hotel is not able to demonstrate appropri‐

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153

Hotels also provide the venue and catering for different types of events. Such functions serve specialist menus to groups up to several hundred guests. The participants of these specialist events can continue their celebrations in various independent restaurants outside the hotel and may even conclude the night with a snack from a street vendor. A guest suffering from food poisoning might blame the hotel for their symptoms even when they are not able to identify all food items consumed during their celebrations. A hotel can eliminate false accusations of poor food hygiene by preserving/freezing a small sample of food prepared for a major banquet. If required, the hotel can get the preserved food samples analysed by an independent laboratory before accepting any liability (Hotel B, HK). Finally, the prevalence of food allergies today requires detailing and standardising the ingredients for every item on the

Technology can be used to enhance the overall hotel security and cameras in corridors as well as other public spaces are the norm today (Hotel D, Finland). Well positioned cameras and other visible security measures are welcomed by the guests as they increase the perception of security (Hotel I, UK). However, excessive use of cameras can give the impression of specific security problems on the premises (Hotel L, UK). Electronic key cards are also the norm today

Recording security cameras at key positions, alarms and motion sensors indicating unauthor‐ ised access, as well as digital monitoring of access to the premises, were nominated as common tools for maintaining hotel security. The hotels in Finland were already using external security agencies to monitor their alarms as well as patrol the premises (Hotel D). Some of the London

The Internet and e-mail were seen as a tool for enhancing the hotel security as well as a potential risk to the operations or the image of the hotel. The need for up-to-date firewalls to protect the hotels' computer networks was highlighted by some of the interviewees (e.g. Hotel D, Finland). Furthermore, the need to backup the data together with alternative communications channels outside the primary premises was also identified (e.g. Hotel B, HK; Hotel, UK). Moreover, licence plate readers were installed in the garage of one busy London hotel (Hotel L, UK). Finally, the collaboration between hotels and the police also involved e-mail alerts of scams targeting hotels complete with photographs of the suspects the hotels should look out for

Finally, many types of technology was utilised by all interviewees in maintaining the hotel security, and to some extent overt security measures facilitated by technology (e.g. electronic key cards, security cameras in public places) are now expected by the hotel guests. However,

and the CCTV is viewed invaluable in securing the hotel premises (Hotel K, UK).

based hotels were considering such an option as well (Hotel G).

ate duty of care through well maintained records.

**4.5. Use of technology to enhance hotel security**

menu (Hotel D, Finland).

(Hotel D in Finland; Hotel K, UK).

The type of free advice offered by local authorities (as well as other organisations) is determined by the location of the hotel. For example, the location of the hotel will determine the required building standards as well as the requirement for a formal rescue plan to be lodged with the authorities, the frequency of relevant safety inspections, and the extent to which the authorities are working with the hotels in a proactive manner (Hotel D, Finland).

Two of the London Interviewees made unprompted comments on how they 'welcomed the need for fire compliancy and regular inspections' since 'the fire certificate ensures compliance with fire safety'. Moreover, through a thorough crisis preparedness plan the hotels were also able to save in their insurance premiums (Hotel G, UK). Furthermore, 'regular fire inspections help hotels enhance/update their fire safety plans' (Hotel L, UK).

The closer links between the London Metropolitan Police and the hotels had also resulted in the Police issuing regular updates on specific criminal activities targeting hotels as well as fraudulent individuals to watch out for (Hotel L, UK). Finally, the time to develop positive relationships with authorities like the police or fire/rescue departments is during the quiet times, as good links to the authorities would be needed during crisis (e.g. Hotel L, UK; Hotel D, Finland).

#### **4.4. Maintaining good communication with guests**

In a large hotel good customer records are the basis for excellent customer relations. These records will allow the hotel to learn about their frequent guests and to keep their loyal customers (e.g. Hotel D in Finland). However, such inside knowledge should not be used to exhaust the guests with direct mail but rather preserve such communications for times when there is a need to attract business (Hotel L, UK). Furthermore, good guest history [and incident reports] also help dealing with complaints that may be received later.

Accurate record keeping should not be limited to the Customer Relations Department but be a standard across all the departments within the hotel. Moreover, all well documented procedures can also stop a minor incident from becoming a major crisis. For example, accurate temperature control in food preparation processes, maintenance work carried out, and even the details of deliveries taken, may be questioned months after the guest has departed. One Hong Kong based Hotel Manager (Hotel A) commented on guests from several months ago inquiring whether they had been served milk products sourced from China at any stage during their visit to the hotel. These guests had heard international news reports about contaminated baby milk in China and wanted to know if any food or beverages consumed in the hotel could have traces of such contaminated milk (for more on milk contamination in China please see [14] ). This example highlights the need of thorough record keeping across all departments within the hotel, as these files are needed to reply to a concerned guest whether they have been exposed to any external health risks during their stay at the hotel (Hotel A, HK). For example, international news reports on poor air quality, polluted rivers or even faulty air-conditioning units near the hotel location could cause some negative word-of-mouth if the hotel is not able to demonstrate appropri‐ ate duty of care through well maintained records.

Hotels also provide the venue and catering for different types of events. Such functions serve specialist menus to groups up to several hundred guests. The participants of these specialist events can continue their celebrations in various independent restaurants outside the hotel and may even conclude the night with a snack from a street vendor. A guest suffering from food poisoning might blame the hotel for their symptoms even when they are not able to identify all food items consumed during their celebrations. A hotel can eliminate false accusations of poor food hygiene by preserving/freezing a small sample of food prepared for a major banquet. If required, the hotel can get the preserved food samples analysed by an independent laboratory before accepting any liability (Hotel B, HK). Finally, the prevalence of food allergies today requires detailing and standardising the ingredients for every item on the menu (Hotel D, Finland).

#### **4.5. Use of technology to enhance hotel security**

could be purely incidental; e.g. in Finland only three respondents were interviewed, one of them had recent experience in providing accommodation for high ranking EU delegates (Hotel E, Finland); the London hotels were getting ready for the 2012 Olympics, and therefore, a

The type of free advice offered by local authorities (as well as other organisations) is determined by the location of the hotel. For example, the location of the hotel will determine the required building standards as well as the requirement for a formal rescue plan to be lodged with the authorities, the frequency of relevant safety inspections, and the extent to which the authorities are working with the hotels in a proactive manner (Hotel D, Finland). Two of the London Interviewees made unprompted comments on how they 'welcomed the need for fire compliancy and regular inspections' since 'the fire certificate ensures compliance with fire safety'. Moreover, through a thorough crisis preparedness plan the hotels were also able to save in their insurance premiums (Hotel G, UK). Furthermore, 'regular fire inspections

The closer links between the London Metropolitan Police and the hotels had also resulted in the Police issuing regular updates on specific criminal activities targeting hotels as well as fraudulent individuals to watch out for (Hotel L, UK). Finally, the time to develop positive relationships with authorities like the police or fire/rescue departments is during the quiet times, as good links to the authorities would be needed during crisis (e.g. Hotel L, UK; Hotel

In a large hotel good customer records are the basis for excellent customer relations. These records will allow the hotel to learn about their frequent guests and to keep their loyal customers (e.g. Hotel D in Finland). However, such inside knowledge should not be used to exhaust the guests with direct mail but rather preserve such communications for times when there is a need to attract business (Hotel L, UK). Furthermore, good guest history [and incident

Accurate record keeping should not be limited to the Customer Relations Department but be a standard across all the departments within the hotel. Moreover, all well documented procedures can also stop a minor incident from becoming a major crisis. For example, accurate temperature control in food preparation processes, maintenance work carried out, and even the details of deliveries taken, may be questioned months after the guest has departed. One Hong Kong based Hotel Manager (Hotel A) commented on guests from several months ago inquiring whether they had been served milk products sourced from China at any stage during their visit to the hotel. These guests had heard international news reports about contaminated baby milk in China and wanted to know if any food or beverages consumed in the hotel could have traces of such contaminated milk (for more on milk contamination in China please see [14] ). This example highlights the need of thorough record keeping across all departments within the hotel, as these files are needed to reply to a concerned guest whether they have been exposed to any external health risks

greater collaboration between hotels and authorities is to be expected.

152 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

help hotels enhance/update their fire safety plans' (Hotel L, UK).

reports] also help dealing with complaints that may be received later.

**4.4. Maintaining good communication with guests**

D, Finland).

Technology can be used to enhance the overall hotel security and cameras in corridors as well as other public spaces are the norm today (Hotel D, Finland). Well positioned cameras and other visible security measures are welcomed by the guests as they increase the perception of security (Hotel I, UK). However, excessive use of cameras can give the impression of specific security problems on the premises (Hotel L, UK). Electronic key cards are also the norm today and the CCTV is viewed invaluable in securing the hotel premises (Hotel K, UK).

Recording security cameras at key positions, alarms and motion sensors indicating unauthor‐ ised access, as well as digital monitoring of access to the premises, were nominated as common tools for maintaining hotel security. The hotels in Finland were already using external security agencies to monitor their alarms as well as patrol the premises (Hotel D). Some of the London based hotels were considering such an option as well (Hotel G).

The Internet and e-mail were seen as a tool for enhancing the hotel security as well as a potential risk to the operations or the image of the hotel. The need for up-to-date firewalls to protect the hotels' computer networks was highlighted by some of the interviewees (e.g. Hotel D, Finland). Furthermore, the need to backup the data together with alternative communications channels outside the primary premises was also identified (e.g. Hotel B, HK; Hotel, UK). Moreover, licence plate readers were installed in the garage of one busy London hotel (Hotel L, UK). Finally, the collaboration between hotels and the police also involved e-mail alerts of scams targeting hotels complete with photographs of the suspects the hotels should look out for (Hotel D in Finland; Hotel K, UK).

Finally, many types of technology was utilised by all interviewees in maintaining the hotel security, and to some extent overt security measures facilitated by technology (e.g. electronic key cards, security cameras in public places) are now expected by the hotel guests. However, the underlying guideline for the use of technology in hotels was the need to 'protect the privacy of our guest' (Hotels H and L, UK),

**References**

169-181.

46-50.

411-419.

(2006). , 69-85.

ing, (2004). , 238-251.

4.

[1] Corey, C. M, & Deitch, E. A. Factors Affecting Business Recovery Immediately after Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, (2011). ,

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[2] Wester, M. Fight, Flight or Freeze: Assumed Reactions of the Public During a Crisis.

[3] Laufer, D. Charting a Course Through Crisis. BizEd (2010). September/ October): ,

[4] Stafford, G, & Yu, L. and Kobina Armoo, A Crisis management and Recovery, How Washington, DE., Hotels Responded to Terrorism. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Ad‐

[5] Irvine, W. a. A. A.R., The impacts of Foot and Mouth Disease on peripherial tourism area: The role and effect of crisis management. Journal of Travel and Tourism Mar‐

[6] Kash, T. J. a. D. J.R, Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis and intervention.

[7] Henderson, J. a. N. A., Responding to crisis: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and hotels in Singapore. International Journal of Tourism Research, (2004). ,

[8] Tarlow, P. (2006). Issues in health, safety and security. e-Review of Tourism Research

[9] Mckercher, B. a. P. R., Privation as a stimulus to travel demand? Journal of Travel

[10] Méheux, K, & Parker, E. Tourist sector perceptions of natural hazards in Vanuatu and the implications for a small island developing state. Tourism Management,

[11] Cioccio, L, & Michael, E. J. Hazard or disaster: Tourism management for the inevita‐

[12] Fall, L. T. The increasing role of public relations as a crisis management function: An empirical examination of communication restrategizing efforts among destination or‐ ganization managers in the wake of 11th September 2001. Journal of Vacation Market‐

[13] Stanbury, J, & Pryer, M. and Roberts, A Heroes and Villains- Tour operator and me‐ dia response to crisis: An exploration of press handling strategies by UK adventure

ble in Northeast Victoria. Tourism Management, (2007). , 1-11.

tour operators. Current Issues in Tourism, (2005). , 27-40.

[14] AnonChina say milk contamination under control. (2008). ABC.

Leadership and Organization Development Journal, (1998). , 179-186.

Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, (2011). p. no-no.

ministration Quarterly, (2002). , 27-40.

and Tourism Marketing, (2005). , 107-116.

keting, (2005). , 47-60.

#### **5. Conclusions**

The main contribution from this study is the accumulation of practical advice that all Hotel Managers can utilize, regarding of the size of their hotel. The practical advice offered by the participants of this study is based on accumulation of decades hotel management experience across the globe. The findings from these interviews can be grouped under the following headings: *Being prepared for crisis situations*; *Managing costs during crisis*; *Make full use of local advice*; *Maintaining good communication with guests*; and the *Use of technology to enhance hotel security*. The need to offer high levels of service, local collaboration as well as the secondary security related responsibilities of all existing staff were another overlapping theme through‐ out the interviews.

The findings of this study could be presented as a benchmark for good practice for crisis prevention in large international hotels. The examples cited by the interviewees covered crisis situations from small accidents to terrorism or accidental death within the premises.

The limitations of this study are, therefore, outcome of the limited resources (time and funding for data collection) and the bias towards large, international hotels. The timing of the data collection also coincided with the Economic Tsunami of 2008 where the signs for economic slowdown were already evident (reduced advance bookings, lower than usual occupancy rations as well as the cancellations of large bookings).

The conclusion of this paper should also cite two quotes reflecting the many years of crisis management experience by the Interviewees: 'every cloud has a silver lining' (Hotel K, UK) and that hotels can 'come out of crisis stronger' (Hotel I, UK)

#### **Acknowledgements**

This study was funded by La Trobe University Outside Studies Programme

#### **Author details**

Outi Niininen\*

Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Senior Lecturer in Marketing, LaTrobe Business School, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic‐ toria, Australia

#### **References**

the underlying guideline for the use of technology in hotels was the need to 'protect the privacy

154 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

The main contribution from this study is the accumulation of practical advice that all Hotel Managers can utilize, regarding of the size of their hotel. The practical advice offered by the participants of this study is based on accumulation of decades hotel management experience across the globe. The findings from these interviews can be grouped under the following headings: *Being prepared for crisis situations*; *Managing costs during crisis*; *Make full use of local advice*; *Maintaining good communication with guests*; and the *Use of technology to enhance hotel security*. The need to offer high levels of service, local collaboration as well as the secondary security related responsibilities of all existing staff were another overlapping theme through‐

The findings of this study could be presented as a benchmark for good practice for crisis prevention in large international hotels. The examples cited by the interviewees covered crisis

The limitations of this study are, therefore, outcome of the limited resources (time and funding for data collection) and the bias towards large, international hotels. The timing of the data collection also coincided with the Economic Tsunami of 2008 where the signs for economic slowdown were already evident (reduced advance bookings, lower than usual occupancy

The conclusion of this paper should also cite two quotes reflecting the many years of crisis management experience by the Interviewees: 'every cloud has a silver lining' (Hotel K, UK)

Senior Lecturer in Marketing, LaTrobe Business School, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic‐

situations from small accidents to terrorism or accidental death within the premises.

rations as well as the cancellations of large bookings).

and that hotels can 'come out of crisis stronger' (Hotel I, UK)

Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
This study was funded by La Trobe University Outside Studies Programme

of our guest' (Hotels H and L, UK),

**5. Conclusions**

out the interviews.

**Acknowledgements**

**Author details**

Outi Niininen\*

toria, Australia

**Chapter 8**

**Learning from Lisbon: Contemporary Cities in**

Cities survive earthquakes and rebuild with improved urban strategies, architectural de‐ signs and building technologies. This chapter will present a detailed analysis of the re‐ sponse, recovery, planning and rebuilding processes after the Lisbon earthquake and compare them to the recent events in Christchurch, New Zealand. Archival research from libraries and museums in Portugal will inform the historical analysis, and interviews and of‐ ficial documents from New Zealand relief and reconstruction agencies will underpin the contemporary analysis. The study aims to identify opportunities and challenges in facilitat‐ ing good urban design in the process of recovering from a natural disaster, using case stud‐ ies which are separated by over 250 years, but which both attest to the centrality of urban

This section will look at the Lisbon earthquake and its aftermath, with a view to understand‐ ing how design, leadership and governance processes contributed to the production of an 18th century, state-of-the-art urban quarter in the wake of a national tragedy. Particular at‐ tention will be paid to the coincidence of enlightened political, economic and technical skills which were judiciously applied to the re-planning of the city. By many counts the thinking was modern, and bears a worthwhile comparison to the recent seismic events in Christ‐

> © 2013 Brand and Nicholson; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Brand and Nicholson; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

church, which will be the subject of the second part of the chapter.

**the Aftermath of Natural Disasters**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Diane Brand and Hugh Nicholson

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53635

design in the reconstruction process.

**1. Introduction**

**2. Lisbon 1755**

### **Learning from Lisbon: Contemporary Cities in the Aftermath of Natural Disasters**

Diane Brand and Hugh Nicholson

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53635

#### **1. Introduction**

Cities survive earthquakes and rebuild with improved urban strategies, architectural de‐ signs and building technologies. This chapter will present a detailed analysis of the re‐ sponse, recovery, planning and rebuilding processes after the Lisbon earthquake and compare them to the recent events in Christchurch, New Zealand. Archival research from libraries and museums in Portugal will inform the historical analysis, and interviews and of‐ ficial documents from New Zealand relief and reconstruction agencies will underpin the contemporary analysis. The study aims to identify opportunities and challenges in facilitat‐ ing good urban design in the process of recovering from a natural disaster, using case stud‐ ies which are separated by over 250 years, but which both attest to the centrality of urban design in the reconstruction process.

#### **2. Lisbon 1755**

This section will look at the Lisbon earthquake and its aftermath, with a view to understand‐ ing how design, leadership and governance processes contributed to the production of an 18th century, state-of-the-art urban quarter in the wake of a national tragedy. Particular at‐ tention will be paid to the coincidence of enlightened political, economic and technical skills which were judiciously applied to the re-planning of the city. By many counts the thinking was modern, and bears a worthwhile comparison to the recent seismic events in Christ‐ church, which will be the subject of the second part of the chapter.

© 2013 Brand and Nicholson; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 Brand and Nicholson; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **3. The event**

.

An estimated 8.4 magnitude earthquake in Lisbon on the morning of All Saints' Day in 1755 reverberated throughout the Iberian Peninsula, Madeira, the Azores, and North Africa. Tsu‐ namis affected the Caribbean and the Atlantic coasts of Europe [1]. Of a population of 250,000, up to 20,000 people perished in the quake, tsunami and fires that followed [2]:

leadership during the crisis. In a swift and articulate response to the emergency, the city was immediately surveyed and new construction was prohibited. Looters were publicly hung and able-bodied deserters were prevented from leaving the city and pressed into relief work by the army. Monasteries and public squares were filled with the homeless, and tent cities occupied by merchants and nobles sprouted (King José I and his family occupied an exten‐ sive tent and pavilion court in the hills of Ajúda at the edge of Lisbon for some months after the earthquake). Pombal moved about the city directing the recovery operation from his mo‐

Learning from Lisbon: Contemporary Cities in the Aftermath of Natural Disasters

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53635

159

What followed in the next two years was the ruthless and all-encompassing implementation of a radical plan which would change the political landscape and dramatically improve Por‐ tugal's economic position in Europe. The Terreiro do Paço (Figure 1) or Palace Square, had evolved as an elongated, spatially contained, urban space at the edge of the Tagus River in association with the Ribeiro Palace. In the wake of the earthquake the space was reconfig‐ ured, along with the adjacent central Baixa district, as the Praça do Comércio, a formal axial square surrounded by monumental public edifices where the business of an empire could be

Pombal's previous roles as political envoy to London and Vienna and Minister of Foreign Affairs and War (1750-1756), where he oversaw town planting in Brazil, had seen him devel‐ op sophisticated ideas on mercantilist economic reform and coherent town planning. In the reconstruction of Lisbon's heart he found the perfect vehicle for both. The aim was to create a modern political centre where commerce could thrive. He had, in his ministerial role, over‐ seen the dismantling of the Portuguese inquisition, the secularisation of education, and the nationalisation of industry [5]. He therefore favoured an institutional shift away from the old nobility (whom he considered corrupt and impractical) and the Jesuits, to the city's com‐ mercial elites who had helped finance the reconstruction. A strategically timed and imple‐ mented legal re-configuration of property ownership in the Baixa, transferred land from the aristocracy and ecclesiastic authorities to emerging merchant elites, whose collective eco‐ nomic enterprise would eventually succeed in rebuilding Portugal's indigenous economy. The waterfront square was edged with public buildings, which encompassed business, city government, and customs and exchange, in an effort to stimulate local trade and industry, and reverse high local unemployment levels and the traditional dominance of foreign mer‐

Urban renewal in the aftermath of the earthquake was appropriate for other reasons. Portu‐ gal had entered an era of nation-building with the consolidation of her borders in in 13th and 14th centuries. By the 16th century, Lisbon's image and role as the capital of a nation and a vast empire stretching from Angola to Macau was considered important, and urban embel‐ lishment was funded by gold and diamonds from Brazil. During the reign of King João V significant new urban projects were planned in the west of the city to boost the capital's sta‐ tus. The Águas Livres Aquaduct in 1728 is the best example of a new project that combined the provision of infrastructure with urban-scaled monumentality. Other projects included the construction of the vast and extravagant convent -palace at Mafra, the interior embellish‐

bile headquarters a carriage which he had commandeered from the royal family.

effectively conducted.

chants.

At this moment the earth shook, the sea rose up foaming in the harbour and dashed to pieces the ships lying at anchor. The streets and squares were filled with whirling masses of flame and cinders. The houses collapsed the roofs crashing down on shattered foundations. Thirty thousand inhabitants were crushed beneath the ruins [3]

Aid came from Portugal's colonies and her allies and trading partners England, Germany and Holland. Strategically, local merchants donated a 4% surcharge on imports to the relief effort which gave them critical political influence in determining new land uses for the re‐ construction [4].

**Figure 1.** Panoramas of Lisbon before the 1755 earthquake [various authors] Museu da Cidade de Lisboa

#### **4. Recovery: A vision of economic and political reform**

The man in charge of the reconstruction effort, the Minister of State (1756-1777), Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, was decisive and commanding in his response to the disaster, relief and the forward planning of the city and his leadership in the crisis cemented his political power over his adversaries until the death of his supporter King José I in 1777. The King would make him the Marquis of Pombal 15 years after the earthquake in recognition of his leadership during the crisis. In a swift and articulate response to the emergency, the city was immediately surveyed and new construction was prohibited. Looters were publicly hung and able-bodied deserters were prevented from leaving the city and pressed into relief work by the army. Monasteries and public squares were filled with the homeless, and tent cities occupied by merchants and nobles sprouted (King José I and his family occupied an exten‐ sive tent and pavilion court in the hills of Ajúda at the edge of Lisbon for some months after the earthquake). Pombal moved about the city directing the recovery operation from his mo‐ bile headquarters a carriage which he had commandeered from the royal family.

**3. The event**

construction [4].

.

An estimated 8.4 magnitude earthquake in Lisbon on the morning of All Saints' Day in 1755 reverberated throughout the Iberian Peninsula, Madeira, the Azores, and North Africa. Tsu‐ namis affected the Caribbean and the Atlantic coasts of Europe [1]. Of a population of 250,000, up to 20,000 people perished in the quake, tsunami and fires that followed [2]:

158 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

At this moment the earth shook, the sea rose up foaming in the harbour and dashed to pieces the ships lying at anchor. The streets and squares were filled with whirling masses of flame and cinders. The houses collapsed the roofs crashing down on shattered foundations.

Aid came from Portugal's colonies and her allies and trading partners England, Germany and Holland. Strategically, local merchants donated a 4% surcharge on imports to the relief effort which gave them critical political influence in determining new land uses for the re‐

**Figure 1.** Panoramas of Lisbon before the 1755 earthquake [various authors] Museu da Cidade de Lisboa

The man in charge of the reconstruction effort, the Minister of State (1756-1777), Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, was decisive and commanding in his response to the disaster, relief and the forward planning of the city and his leadership in the crisis cemented his political power over his adversaries until the death of his supporter King José I in 1777. The King would make him the Marquis of Pombal 15 years after the earthquake in recognition of his

**4. Recovery: A vision of economic and political reform**

Thirty thousand inhabitants were crushed beneath the ruins [3]

What followed in the next two years was the ruthless and all-encompassing implementation of a radical plan which would change the political landscape and dramatically improve Por‐ tugal's economic position in Europe. The Terreiro do Paço (Figure 1) or Palace Square, had evolved as an elongated, spatially contained, urban space at the edge of the Tagus River in association with the Ribeiro Palace. In the wake of the earthquake the space was reconfig‐ ured, along with the adjacent central Baixa district, as the Praça do Comércio, a formal axial square surrounded by monumental public edifices where the business of an empire could be effectively conducted.

Pombal's previous roles as political envoy to London and Vienna and Minister of Foreign Affairs and War (1750-1756), where he oversaw town planting in Brazil, had seen him devel‐ op sophisticated ideas on mercantilist economic reform and coherent town planning. In the reconstruction of Lisbon's heart he found the perfect vehicle for both. The aim was to create a modern political centre where commerce could thrive. He had, in his ministerial role, over‐ seen the dismantling of the Portuguese inquisition, the secularisation of education, and the nationalisation of industry [5]. He therefore favoured an institutional shift away from the old nobility (whom he considered corrupt and impractical) and the Jesuits, to the city's com‐ mercial elites who had helped finance the reconstruction. A strategically timed and imple‐ mented legal re-configuration of property ownership in the Baixa, transferred land from the aristocracy and ecclesiastic authorities to emerging merchant elites, whose collective eco‐ nomic enterprise would eventually succeed in rebuilding Portugal's indigenous economy. The waterfront square was edged with public buildings, which encompassed business, city government, and customs and exchange, in an effort to stimulate local trade and industry, and reverse high local unemployment levels and the traditional dominance of foreign mer‐ chants.

Urban renewal in the aftermath of the earthquake was appropriate for other reasons. Portu‐ gal had entered an era of nation-building with the consolidation of her borders in in 13th and 14th centuries. By the 16th century, Lisbon's image and role as the capital of a nation and a vast empire stretching from Angola to Macau was considered important, and urban embel‐ lishment was funded by gold and diamonds from Brazil. During the reign of King João V significant new urban projects were planned in the west of the city to boost the capital's sta‐ tus. The Águas Livres Aquaduct in 1728 is the best example of a new project that combined the provision of infrastructure with urban-scaled monumentality. Other projects included the construction of the vast and extravagant convent -palace at Mafra, the interior embellish‐ ment of 65 medieval and baroque churches and the building of dozens of new places of wor‐ ship in the neoclassical style.

the field as well as state of the art scientific knowledge. Their training via an apprenticeship system at the University Coimbra, represented a productive intersection of the knowledge embodied in foreign treatises such as those of Alberti and Vitruvius, and the real world they

Learning from Lisbon: Contemporary Cities in the Aftermath of Natural Disasters

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161

Their approach to the built environment appears to privilege the site-specific adaptation of useful typologies, while giving a high priority to public space and infrastructure (especially port infrastructure, given that so many of the Portuguese colonial settlements and *feitórias* (trading posts) were coastal)[12]. Their sensitivity to the scale differential between the city and the building via a unified architectural language is a notable aspect of the Lisbon plan. Many of the best military personnel were in Lisbon at the time of the earthquake, and others joined them for the special mission of rebuilding the capital. Their designs were infused with the utopian‐ ism of the Portuguese school of the rational and civic-minded town planning demonstrated in

In 1910, cavalry officer Christovam Sepúlveda published Manuel da Maya e os Engenheiros Militares Portuguêses no Terromoto de 1755 (Manuel da Maya and the Portuguese Military Engineers in the 1755 Earthquake) [14] which identified Maia's central role as the strategist in the planning and rebuilding exercise. Jacôme Ratton [15] identifies military architect Eu‐

Sepúlveda highlights two important aspects of the organisational culture of the military engineers. The first was their adherence to hierarchy, discipline and teamwork in military operations and the second was the heavy investment they made in strategic planning. Maia's role in executing both these practices is evident in the terms of reference for the re‐ construction that were which embodied in the Dissertacão and other critical supporting official documents published in the late 1750s. Manuel da Maia's 1755 Dissertacão [16] de‐ scribes the strategic solution for the rebuilding of Lisbon after the 1755 disaster. In addi‐ tion to emphasising leadership, Sepúlveda deemed the teamwork, training and field experience of this group of elite military engineers in the colonial realm as essential prep‐

There was ample regional and local precedent for disaster recovery as earthquakes had plagued Lisbon since its founding. A seismic event on the 26th of January 1531 had struck the city with equal force, but produced a far less acute political reaction due to the rela‐ tive social stability at the time [17]. The Portuguese had certainly benefited from the study of other disasters such as the 1666 fire of London and the numerous volcanic events of in Sicily, particularly those affecting the city of Catania. Maia had been involved for many years in surveying and engineering projects around Lisbon, and this formed the basis of his knowledge to reconstruct the city. Critically he had been involved in the surveying and building of the Main Fortification Line in 1716, the Águas Livres Aquaduct, between 1720 and 1730, and the Santa Isabel survey in the 1740s. This deep knowledge of the ter‐ rain subsequently allowed him to swiftly prepare the alternative plans. He authored the Dissertacão which described the methods and processes leading up to the publication of

génio dos Santos as the person who formulated the principles of the reconstruction.

encountered in their active service.

aration for the task.

the 1756 plan (Figure 2).

new world cities such as Goa, Rio, Macapà and Luanda [13].

More significantly, Enlightenment-thinking from Northern Europe opened up the possibil‐ ity of a scientific explanation for disaster rather than a religious one, rendering reconstruc‐ tion a rational rather than a superstitious exercise, while the destruction of a splendid European court generated political uncertainties and revolutionary possibilities. As part of the reconstruction exercise, Pombal surveyed the populace in search of technical and sci‐ entific data about the earthquake, and his findings pointed to new methods in construc‐ tion. Liquefaction had been observed in the riverside areas, so new buildings there were constructed on timber piles driven into the soil to act as anti-seismic stabilisers. Timber buildings had survived the quake better than masonry buildings, so new buildings had internal seismic frames added to their fabric. The new streets were widened so that even if the buildings on both sides had collapsed, there would remain an evacuation passage between them [6].

Ana Araújo [7] suggests that the press of the time stimulated a pan-European debate about issues of pragmatic responsiveness to natural disasters and unity of action across national borders. It was certainly the first example of a truly international relief effort after a calamity of such magnitude. Fact and fiction merged in the minds of the populace, fuelled by exag‐ gerated emotive accounts of the catastrophe printed in cheap popular news pamphlets [8]. These served to fuel superstitious terrors, displays of religious fanaticism and dire predic‐ tions associated with natural phenomena such as Halley's Comet which was expected to ap‐ pear in 1757 or 1758. The auto da fé, (act of faith, or public burning of heretics) held in the Terreiro in June 1756 was devised as a collective atonement for the earthquake of the previ‐ ous year [9].

The event also presented political opportunity for the Minister of State to distribute anti-Jes‐ uit propaganda in the capitals of Europe via anonymously authored opinion pieces in major newspapers [10]. Pombal co-opted some of the most influential men of the day in literature and science [11] to disseminate news and views about earthquake recovery, the necessity of repressive civil protection measures adopted post-disaster, and public health and welfare in‐ terventions. In the interests of civil obedience, state terror replaced the religious fear of the past.

#### **5. Experience and expertise**

The group charged with the recovery and rebuilding of Lisbon were an elite cohort of mili‐ tary engineers whose routine duties involved cartography, architecture and town planning, including the design and construction of infrastructure, (roads, aqueducts, ports, defence structures and fortifications) and associated buildings. They were a geographically mobile and flexible group of men, deployed in situations ranging from the frontier towns at outer reaches of the global Portuguese empire, to its busy cosmopolitan centre of trade and com‐ merce. Their expertise embodied a high level of practical knowledge gained from work in the field as well as state of the art scientific knowledge. Their training via an apprenticeship system at the University Coimbra, represented a productive intersection of the knowledge embodied in foreign treatises such as those of Alberti and Vitruvius, and the real world they encountered in their active service.

ment of 65 medieval and baroque churches and the building of dozens of new places of wor‐

160 Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters

More significantly, Enlightenment-thinking from Northern Europe opened up the possibil‐ ity of a scientific explanation for disaster rather than a religious one, rendering reconstruc‐ tion a rational rather than a superstitious exercise, while the destruction of a splendid European court generated political uncertainties and revolutionary possibilities. As part of the reconstruction exercise, Pombal surveyed the populace in search of technical and sci‐ entific data about the earthquake, and his findings pointed to new methods in construc‐ tion. Liquefaction had been observed in the riverside areas, so new buildings there were constructed on timber piles driven into the soil to act as anti-seismic stabilisers. Timber buildings had survived the quake better than masonry buildings, so new buildings had internal seismic frames added to their fabric. The new streets were widened so that even if the buildings on both sides had collapsed, there would remain an evacuation passage

Ana Araújo [7] suggests that the press of the time stimulated a pan-European debate about issues of pragmatic responsiveness to natural disasters and unity of action across national borders. It was certainly the first example of a truly international relief effort after a calamity of such magnitude. Fact and fiction merged in the minds of the populace, fuelled by exag‐ gerated emotive accounts of the catastrophe printed in cheap popular news pamphlets [8]. These served to fuel superstitious terrors, displays of religious fanaticism and dire predic‐ tions associated with natural phenomena such as Halley's Comet which was expected to ap‐ pear in 1757 or 1758. The auto da fé, (act of faith, or public burning of heretics) held in the Terreiro in June 1756 was devised as a collective atonement for the earthquake of the previ‐

The event also presented political opportunity for the Minister of State to distribute anti-Jes‐ uit propaganda in the capitals of Europe via anonymously authored opinion pieces in major newspapers [10]. Pombal co-opted some of the most influential men of the day in literature and science [11] to disseminate news and views about earthquake recovery, the necessity of repressive civil protection measures adopted post-disaster, and public health and welfare in‐ terventions. In the interests of civil obedience, state terror replaced the religious fear of the