Roberto Baca

Also, *V*2

and *V*0

202 Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials

(b) 1, and (c) 5 kHz. The input and output signals are shown.

like PLL system.

**5. Summary**

signals decrease slowly as frequency rises. Results from **Figure 10** indicate that

foil ferrite samples of grain-reduced crystalline structure with single magnetic domain offer controllable power losses under low-frequency excitation. Hence, a foil ferrite will operate

**Figure 10.** Waveforms monitored from the schematic circuit of **Figure 9** driven at three operating frequencies: (a) 0.5,

Since 1994, initiatives in response to the environmental and ecotoxicological concerns in manufacturing processes based on life-cycle assessment (LCA) have been established. To manufacturing electronic devices with desired characteristics, the conventional selection of raw materials had depended on link between material and function; however, environmental consequences of Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Department of Electronics, National Polytechnic Institute, México City, Mexico


*3.7. Correlation Analysis of MYB-Related Regulatory Genes and Anthocyanin Synthesis Structure*

*VvMYB5a* and *VvMYB5b* were not significantly associated with structural genes in the anthocyanin synthesis pathway, which may not be directly involved in regulating the synthesis of anthocyanins. *VvMYBPA1* showed significant correlations with *VvCHS*, *VvF3 H*, *VvF3H*, *VvFLS*, and *VvLAR*, which may directly regulate the flavonoid pathway, anthocyanin synthesis, flavonol synthesis, and catechol synthesis in the anthocyanin synthesis pathway. *VvMYBA1* was positively correlated with *VvF3 5 H, VvLDOX*, and *VvUFGT*, which may be directly involved in regulating the synthesis of anthocyanins and regulating the *UFGT* catalytic formation of stable anthocyanin pathways. *VvMYBA2* was not significantly associated with structural genes in the anthocyanin synthesis pathway (Table 3, Figure 7). Among these, the regulation of *VvMYBA2* and *VvMYB5a* was not clear, while synthetic genes regulated by *VvMYBPA1* and *VvMYBA1* were clearly known.

**Table 3.** MYB-related regulatory genes related to anthocyanin synthesis structural genes. \*\* represents *p* < 0.01.

**Figure 7.** The relationships between the expression color scale of anthocyanin synthesis structural genes and regulatory genes in grape peels and the regulation of the *MYBA* gene. The blue dotted arrows represent the structural genes in the anthocyanin synthesis pathway regulated by the regulatory gene; the '?' indicates that the regulatory mechanism of the regulatory gene is not yet clear; the green-to-red color scale means the TPM values showed an increasing trend.

#### *3.8. Screening of Genes Involved in the Regulation of Metal Ion Binding*

When screening by sorting all gene expression levels (TPM values) in the three white grape varieties, a gene located on chromosome 19 (gene ID: Vitvi19g01871) was found to show the highest expression level. Its expression level was much higher than those of other genes, and the gene was highly expressed (almost the maximum) in the three red varieties. Interestingly, the expression levels of this gene in the pericarps of the three white the three red varieties during the same period were also different (Figure 8). From the comparison of 10 wpf and 11 wpf, this gene was upregulated at 11 wpf compared with 10 wpf in the white cultivar 'Italia', while the opposite was found in 'Muscat of Alexandria' and 'Rosario Bianco' (Figure 8). In the red varieties of 'Benitaka' and 'Rosario Rosso', the expression levels at 11 wpf were downregulated compared with 10 wpf, while the expression in 'Flame Muscat' was higher (Figure 8). According to the functional annotation, it was inferred that this gene encodes a metallothionein-like protein, which regulates the binding of copper ions and zinc ions. Copper ions are related to the synthesis of chlorophyll, which may have a certain impact on the change in peel color at the véraison stage.

**Figure 8.** (**A**) 'Italia' 'Benitaka' TPM value almost top 10 of gene expression 10 wpf; (**B**) 'Italia' 'Benitaka' TPM value almost top 10 of gene expression 11 wpf; (**C**) 'Muscat of Alexandria' 'Flame Muscat' TPM value almost top 10 of gene expression 10 wpf; (**D**) 'Muscat of Alexandria' 'Flame Muscat' TPM value almost top 10 of gene expression 11 wpf; (**E**) 'Rosario Bianco' 'Rosario Rosso' TPM value almost top 10 of gene expression 10 wpf; (**F**) 'Rosario Bianco' 'Rosario Rosso' Top TPM value almost top 10 of gene expression 11 wpf. The green line represents the TPM values of white cultivars; the black line represents the TPM values of red and black cultivar.

#### **4. Discussion**

In recent years, it has been observed that many important fruit varieties are selected by bud sport [41,42]. According to statistics, there have been thousands of bud sport types on fruit trees, and some fruit trees can form a variety of bud sports. Due to the particularity of each bud sport, it brings certain characteristics in germplasm resources during fruit production and breeding. Therefore, this is an important approach used in the breeding of fruit crops.

The present study revealed that *VvMYBA1* showed elevated expression levels in the three red sport varieties at 10 wpf compared to three white varieties. In addition, after 11 wpf there were significantly higher *VvMYBA1* gene expression levels compared with the white cultivar grapes (Figure 4B). The *VvMYBA1* gene was proved to be a key transcription factor regulating color change in grape berry skins [43]. The *VvMYBA1* gene was expressed only in red berries, while it was hardly expressed in white berries (Figure 5K).

According to a correlation analysis, the majority of genes or enzymes related to the anthocyanin synthesis pathway were significantly correlated with *VvMYBPA1* and *VvMYBA1* (Table 3). Among them, five genes showed significant correlations with various genes, such as *VvMYBPA1*, *VvCHS*, *VvF3 H*, *VvF3H*, *VvFLS*, and *VvLAR*. Significant correlations of *VvF3 5 H*, *VvLDOX*, and *VvUFGT* with *VvMYBA1* were observed in our study.

The expression of the flavonoid 3-*O*-glucosyltransferase (UFGT) gene is essential for anthocyanin biosynthesis in grapes [44]. The *VvMYBA1* gene normally regulates the expression of *VvUFGT*, a key upstream gene of anthocyanin synthesis [45] considered to be the last step for catalyzing anthocyanin synthesis in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway [46], and both are very important in the formation of grape skin color. The RNA-Seq results indicated that the expression trends of *VvUFGT* in the three red varieties were consistent; among them, the expression level in 'Benitaka' was significantly higher than in the other two varieties and was not expressed in white grape varieties (Figure 5J). The above results are consistent with the results of a previous study conducted on 'Italia', 'Benitaka' and 'Flame Muscat' [5]. The Pearson's correlation analysis showed that *VvMYBA1* and *VvUFGT* were highly correlated with the same expression trend (Figure 5J,K). The results also indicated that *VvMYBA1* positively regulated the *VvUFGT* gene and played an important role in the biosynthesis of anthocyanins.

According to previous reports on anthocyanin synthesis in apples and bilberries, it was found that *MYBPA1* could also regulate the expression of *UFGT* [47]. In this experiment, the correlation between these two genes was not high. This may explain why, among the three groups of varieties (the 'Italia' vs. 'Benitaka' group, the 'Muscat of Alexandria' vs. 'Flame Muscat' group, and the 'Rosario Bianco' vs. 'Rosario Rosso' group), *MYBPA1* was not a key transcription factor regulating *UFGT* and the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. Its specific regulatory mechanism still needs further study.

*MYBPA1* plays an important role in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway, and the expression of *MYBPA1* is positively correlated with anthocyanin accumulation [48]. In blue bilberries, the *MYBPA1* and *MYBA* transcription factors can activate the expression of DFR and ANS genes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway, which are considered key genes for anthocyanin biosynthesis [49]. In this study, the expression levels of the *VvMYBPA1* gene in the two groups of bud sport varieties of 'Italia' vs. 'Benitaka' and 'Muscat of Alexandria' vs. 'Flame Muscat' were higher at 10 wpf compared with 11 wpf, while this gene was not expressed in the 'Rosario Bianco' vs. 'Rosario Rosso' group (Figure 5O). The expression trends of five structural genes (*VvCHS*, *VvF3'H*, *VvF3H*, *VvFLS*, and *VvLAR*, Table 3) related to *VvMYBPA1* were different in the three groups of tested varieties (Figure 5A–E,I). The phylogenetic analysis depicted that the flavonoid-related R2R3 MYBs of *VmMYBPA1* and *VvMYBPA1* belonged to the same group. *VmMYBPA1* could regulate the expression of *CHS* and significantly regulated the expression of the *F3 5 H* gene, while *VmMYBPA1* expression was significantly decreased in white mutant berries compared with blueberries [50], which indicates that it was related to anthocyanin biosynthesis. The expression level of *MYBPA1* is associated with the accumulation of proanthocyanidins (PA) during the early development

of grape berries. The expression level of *MYBPA1* was lower before the véraison stage and peaked at two weeks following the véraison stage, later showing a low expression level. *MYBPA1* activates the promoters of *LAR* and *ANR* in grapes [51]. The expression of *VvMYBPA1* was opposite to that of *VmMYBPA1*, as expressed in 'Italia'. This is in contrast to previous studies showing no expression observed in white grape varieties. A previous study also found that *VvMYBPA1* could also be expressed in seeds [52]. The above results might indicate that the pathway or regulation mechanism of the *MYB* gene in anthocyanin synthesis is different in diverse species.

The gene expression analysis showed that the expression of *VvLDOX* was consistent with the expression trends of *VvMYBA1* and *VvUFGT* in other test materials, except for in 'Italia' (Figure 5H,J–K). *LDOX* has a unique expression pattern in the biosynthesis of anthocyanin in grape peels, and its expression levels were very high in red or black peels, which was related to the content of anthocyanin. *UFGT* is present in many tissues of grape, as well as in the skins of white and red grape varieties, while the expression of *LDOX* is not as absolute as *UFGT* [53]. *VvMYBPA1* was found to activate *VvLDOX* expression in grapes [49], and this result suggested that the expression of *VvLDOX* in 'Italia' may be related to the regulation of *VvMYBPA1*, while there was no significant correlation between *VvMYBPA1* and *VvLDOX*.

In addition to the above results, an interesting point found in this study was the gene located on chromosome number 19 (Gene ID: Vitvi19g01871). The gene expression levels (TPM values) of green varieties at 10 weeks and 11 weeks post-flowering were between 64,711–168,489 and 78,173–127,381, respectively. The expression levels of red grape varieties at 10 weeks and 11 weeks post-flowering were between 39,130–59,249 and 28,319–67,849, respectively. The expression levels of this gene in green varieties were much higher than those in red varieties, as well as much higher than all the other differentially expressed genes (Figure 8). The gene was annotated by GO molecular gene function as a metallothionein-like protein that regulates the binding of copper ions to zinc ions. Copper ions play an important role in the redox of plant respiration and are related to chlorophyll synthesis, which is important for photosynthesis. Increased photosynthesis and chlorophyll lead to excessive chlorophyll accumulation in grape peel cells. However, its mechanism of action in the process of bud sport peel color and anthocyanin synthesis is still unclear, and the function of this gene needs to be further verified at molecular or cellular levels.


**4. Discussion**

After analyzing the results obtained at the end of the experimental tests, the torquemonitoring system was validated. The system performed accordingly, and no events were reported during the experimental runs. The system was able to record the torques during the entire rehabilitation procedure and a special section was implemented in the user interface to show torque variation during the rehabilitation using a code of colors (green for normal run and yellow for when the torque is not normal, but it is in allowable limits, and red for when the torque in the system exceeds a certain imposed value). The allowable torque for each patient is established by the physiotherapist after the first general evaluation of the patient using a series of dynamometers to test the spasticity of the patient and the ability to perform a certain motion.

Using the Biometrics sensors, the rehabilitation system may be also used as an evaluation device. The robotic system is able to perform "blind" rehabilitation. Using this feature, after the general health assessment of the patient by the physiotherapist, ASPIRE may be used to measure the spasticity level of the patient. The goniometers are placed on the patient body in the previously identified areas (Section 2.4). After calibrating the sensors, the patient is placed in the rehabilitation system and prepared for the rehabilitation procedure. In the user interface maximum amplitudes for rehabilitation motion are introduced and the torque monitor system is started. The speed of the rehabilitation motion is set to lowest, and the number of repetitions is set to 1. After the robotic system starts to perform the rehabilitation motion, the sensor system records the real-time amplitude of the motion performed, and the torque is monitored within the allowable limits. If the system succeeds

in performing the entire motion without triggering the torque monitor, then the patient has no spasticity, but if the torque monitor is triggered then the spasticity degree of the patient is computed using the value given by the sensor measuring system. This value can be used as a starting point for the future rehabilitation sessions and after each session this value can be tested to see if there are some improvements.

Torque monitor can be a useful tool to test some of the effects of some neurological diseases. For example, if after rehabilitation, graphical results show regular variation that can be interpreted as noise, further analysis may reveal that the noise is caused by the patient's tremor.

Based on the success of the experimental tests, and on the feedback received during the experimental tests from both the subject and from the robotic system, the functionality of the improved control system was validated. The system is able to accurately monitor the torques from the system using only the encoder of the servomotors without using any additional sensors for torque monitoring. The obtained values were checked against the values that resulted from the virtual simulation of the system and the differences were within an allowable range, the differences caused by the structure of the material, density, and even the manufacturing of some components.

Future work targets the implementation of interactive user interface using human– robot interaction modalities in order to prepare the robotic system for another session of clinical trials for the fall of 2021.


**2.5 Airway endoscopy and trans-nasal tracheoscopy (TNT)**

It is a form of indirectly visualizing the airway and larynx in which the clinician does not directly view the lower part of the airway or larynx [4]. Instead, it is visualized with fiber optic or digital laryngoscopes inserted trans-nasally.

The images from the scope can be displayed on a monitor for the clinician, patient and others to view at the time of the procedure; it can also be recorded. Experienced clinicians can also perform it on a wake tracheoscopy using local anesthesia on cooperative patients. They are an essential tool for identifying and planning strategies for management of difficult airway cases [5] (**Figure 4**).


*3.5. Stability of Quercetin*

### 3.5.1. Photochemical Stability

Quercetin is prone to degradation upon exposure to ultraviolet light due to oxidative decarboxylation of the C ring [22]. The retention of unencapsulated quercetin sharply decreased to 25% after 120 min of irradiation (Figure 10A). The quercetin loaded in HZ and HZ-chi/pec particles was more stable, with retention of about 80% after 120 min of irradiation. These results suggesting the hollow particle provide the excellent stability of quercetin against ultraviolet light. The protection results from the physical barrier and light-scattering effect of the particles [61]. The similar retention of quercetin in HZ and HZchi/pec particles (Figure 10A) indicates that the protection was fundamentally attributed to zein. A comparable protective effect has previously been reported by encapsulating quercetin in WPI/lotus root amylopectin, pea protein-isolated and zein/soluble soybean polysaccharide composite nanoparticles due to hydrogen and hydrophobic interaction between quercetin and proteins [39,43,64].

**Figure 10.** Retention of quercetin free and encapsulated in hollow zein particles coated without (qHZ) and with (qHZ-chi/pec) 1 mg/mL chitosan and 0.1 mg/mL pectin under irradiation (**A**) and during storage at 25 ◦C and 45 ◦C (**B**).

#### 3.5.2. Storage Stability

Liu and coworkers reported a drastic decrease in the content of quercetin to around 38% in 3 days of storage at room temperature [39]. The degradation of quercetin was faster at 45 ◦C than 25 ◦C, with the retention of quercetin being 42% and 16% after 2 days (Figure 10B), respectively. Its complete loss was observed at 25 ◦C and 45 ◦C after 4 days. The degradation of quercetin is attributed to its auto-oxidation in the aqueous medium, which is much pronounced at elevated temperature [19,65]. The retention of quercetin was significantly greater in HZ-chi/pec particles during storage, being 84% and 67% at 25 and

45 ◦C after 27 days (Figure 10B), respectively. The ABTS<sup>+</sup> scavenging capacity of quercetinloaded HZ-chi/pec particles was lower than quercetin alone (Figure 9), indicating that the entrapment of quercetin reduces its accessibility to ABTS+ [30]. It is thus speculated that the entrapment in HZ-chi/pec particles (Table 2) provides a physical barrier between quercetin and environment-sensitive factors, resulting in the improved stability of quercetin (Figure 10B). Moreover, the hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bond of quercetin with excipient biopolymer (Figure 4) may inhibit the flavonoid autoxidation and prolong its storage life.


**10. Conclusion**

It is important to describe quality indicators that have no ambiguity of interpretation and to calculate their values accurately in a coherent way. To this end, we introduce a representation system of quality indicators, which consists of (i) an ontology of medical services, (ii) objective graphs to represent the objectives of quantification and an interpretation of objective graphs as sets, and (iii) quantifying concepts. We also briefly explain the whole image of our theoretical framework to define quality indicators and to calculate their values. Moreover, we explain a way to calculate the values of quality indicators based on the medical databases through an example of a quality indicator.

**9**

*1France 2Germany*

**From Unstructured 3D Point Clouds to**

*1Laboratoire Le2i, UFR Sciences et Techniques*

*amFachbereichGeoinformatik und Vermessung, Mainz,*

*2Fachhochschule Mainz, Institut i3mainz,*

*Université de Bourgogne, Dijon,*

**Structured Knowledge - A Semantics Approach**

Helmi Ben Hmida, Christophe Cruz, Frank Boochs and Christophe Nicolle

Over the last few years, formal ontologies has been suggested as a solution for several engineer problems, since it can efficiently replace standard data bases and relational one with more flexibility and reliability. In fact, well designed ontologies own lots of positive aspects, like those related to defining a controlled vocabulary of terms, inheriting and extending existing terms, declaring a relationship between terms, and inferring relationships by reasoning on existent ones. Ontologies are used to represent formally the knowledge of a domain where the basic idea was to present knowledge using graphs and logical structure to make computers able to understand and process it, (Boochs, et al., 2011). As most recent works, the tendency related to the use of semantic has been explored, (Ben Hmida, et al., 2010) (Hajian, et al., 2009) (Whiting, 2006) where the automatic data extraction from 3D point clouds presents one of the new challenges, especially for map updating, passenger safety and security improvements. However such domain is characterized by a specific vocabulary containing different type of object. In fact, the assumption that knowledge will help the improvement of the automation, the accuracy and the result quality is shared by

As a matter of fact, surveying with 3D scanners is spreading all domains. Terrestrial laser scanners have been established as a workhorse for topographic and building survey from the archaeology (Balzani, et al., 2004) to the architecture (Vale, et al., 2009). Actually, with every new scanner model on the market, the instruments become faster, more accurate and can scan objects at longer distances. Such technology presents a powerful tool for many applications and has partially replaced traditional surveying methods since it can speed up field work significantly. Actually, this powerful method allows the creation of 3D point clouds from objects or landscapes. However, the huge amount of data generated during the process proved to be costly in post-processing. The field time is very height since in most cases; processing techniques are still mainly affected by manual interaction of the user. Typical operations consist to clean point clouds, to delete unnecessary areas, to navigate in an often huge and complicated 3D structure, to select set of points, to extract and model

**1. Introduction**

specialists of the point cloud processing.

The proposed representation system plays a central role in the framework explained in Section 2, which enables medical staffs and patients, who desire to evaluate medical services, to define quality indicators and to calculate their values based on medical databases, without knowing the structure of the data models of them. Moreover, the representation system helps medical stuffs and system engineers, who develop or manage medical databases, collaborate in developing useful vocabularies to establish and standardize quality indicators.

## **11. References**

Abiteboul, S.; Hull, R. B. & Vianu, V. (1995). *Foundations of Databases*, Addison-Wesley.

http://www.internationalqip.com/index.aspx.


*4.6. Methodological Characteristics and Limitations of NGS*

The relevance of the microorganisms detected by NGS often remains unclear. Clinical experience and treatment recommendations are limited or lacking. Similar to other molecular genetic detection methods, it is uncertain whether the detection of cfDNA corresponds to clinically relevant infection. The genomic material obtained could originate from non-viable or commensal microorganisms and, therefore, might lead to false positive results and mimic an active infection. Furthermore, molecular techniques, currently do not allow for antimicrobial susceptibility testing [16]. In our institution, NGS currently offers no advantage over culture-based diagnostics in terms of turn-around time for logistic reasons. Improved workflows that might provide faster results in the future are currently

under investigation [23]. Results of prospective studies showing a positive effect of NGS on clinical outcomes and, thus, justifying the additional costs are still pending [22].

Identifying microorganisms of uncertain clinical relevance and lack of antimicrobial susceptibility testing can result in antimicrobial overtreatment and prevent de-escalation and rational use of antibiotics. These technical limitations demonstrate that NGS-based analysis cannot be used as a substitute for cultural methods, but rather may be considered as a complementary test in patients with severe COVID-19.

### *4.7. Limitations*

This study suffers from numerous limitations, which are mainly attributable to the retrospective study design and the limited cohort. As such, the study design was not suitable to investigate the impact of additional NGS-based diagnostics on morbidity and mortality. A very specific subgroup of patients with severe COVID-19 treated in the ICU was examined, consequently, our results cannot be generalized to other patient groups. The lack of routine screening for common viral infections impedes any direct comparison of the two methods, while sample collection from different sites could lead to divergent results between the methods. Significant differences in demographic variables, such as age or pre-existing diseases, could constitute confounding factors and the small number of individual pathogens precluded an analysis of the association between read count, outcome, and clinical relevance. Despite a comprehensive review of clinical data and documentation, important information may have been unavailable, potentially biasing the evaluation of treatment decisions.

#### **5. Conclusions**

The results of our study suggest that NGS-based diagnostics might offer a higher positivity rate than conventional culture-based methods and, therefore, may enable new therapeutic approaches in critically ill COVID-19 patients. However, further experience regarding the interpretation of the results is required and treatment decisions should be carefully considered to avoid overtreatment. Larger, prospective studies will be necessary to determine whether the identification of additional pathogens by NGS can improve the outcome of critically ill ICU patients with severe COVID-19.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, C.J.L. and F.D.; Investigation, C.J.L., S.E.S., T.K., H.S. and F.D.; Supervision, F.D.; Writing—original draft, C.J.L.; Writing—review & editing, S.E.S., W.A.W., A.M., B.W.B., H.S. and F.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** We acknowledge support for the Article Processing Charge from the DFG (German Research Foundation, 491454339).

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Medical Faculty of the University of Cologne (Reference No. 21-1444).

**Informed Consent Statement:** Patient consent was waived due to its retrospective design.

**Data Availability Statement:** The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors thank Noscendo GmbH for performing the NGS analysis and for providing expertise on general technical inquiries. We also thank Susanna Dreißig and Samuel Steinbach for their help with data collection.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**1. Introduction**

Internet has fast developed over these 2 decades and is widely used worldwide. The population of Internet users has reached 3.8 billion in 2017 [1], and the Internet is now an integral

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

part of life. In UK, USA, South Korea, and Taiwan, the Internet users are over 80% of the population [2], and in Asia, the Internet users of the world total are 49.7% [1]. Some users, however, excessively use, rely on, and even addict to the Internet, and suffer from negative consequences on physical and mental functions, social and occupational problems [2, 3]. Such excessive Internet use is called Internet addiction (IA). IA, first proposed in 1995 by Goldberg, was regarded as a behavioral addiction, and the widely used definitions of IA include preoccupation with online activities, withdrawal, craving, tolerance, mood modification, conflict, relapse, and negative consequences [2, 4, 5]. If users used computer or the Internet over 10 h/ day and 6 days/week [6], they have difficulty in finance and in family relationship, poor performance of school or work, etc. [2, 3]. Such users might be potential IA abusers. The definitions of IA given by several researchers are listed in **Table 1**.

Asian countries have higher prevalence rate (e.g., Hong Kong 17–26.8%, Taiwan approximately 20%) [15, 16]. Young reported five types of IA, namely cybersexual addiction, cyber-relationship addiction, net compulsions, information overload, and obsessive computer game playing [17]. The population of computer game players has over one billion in 2012 [18], and the situation that people addicted to the Internet game is called Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) [19]. IGD is a large population of Internet addicts, and the related research results were the most reported. The fifth version of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-5) suggested that IGD/IA should be further studied and more related data must be acquired [13, 20]. DSM-5 addresses and suggests nine criteria for IGD in 2013 [21], including preoccupation, withdrawal, tolerance, reduce/stop, give up other activities, continue despite problems, deceive/cover up, escape adverse moods, and risk/lose relationship/opportunities. The psychological syndromes of IA usually are assessed by IA scales [3, 4, 9]. However, self-reporting is a subjective measurement tool that may be biased, even unintentionally, by a reporter's feelings or forgotten details. Furthermore, scales or questionnaires assess the long-term developed states of IA rather than the developing states of IA or short-term change. Nevertheless, the physiological signals of people with IA can provide objective and short-term information on the condition. In recent years, although a few physiological features of IA were studied [22], the psychological and physiological features rarely investigated together, and the regulation of physiological reactions was little discussed. Both the features can be acquired through emotions, and the physiological regulation can be observed using noninvasive physiological signals. Furthermore, noninvasive physiologi-

Investigation of Emotion Characters of Internet Abusers Using Psychophysiological Signals

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73692

105

cal signals can provide short-term, dynamic changes of IA, and is a biofeedback means.

The behavior, psychological characters, and physiological features of IA abusers were reported, such as mood-altering use of the Internet, guilt, emotional, and social withdrawal from real relationship, craving, and fatigue, and users are vulnerable to disease [3, 23–27]. In clinical contexts, IA has been associated with mental disorders, such as substance use disorder [28] and depressive disorder [29]. IA abusers experienced positive feelings (e.g., pleasure, gratifying sensations, security, calm, and belonging) or negative feelings (e.g., frustrate and lonely) when they are able or unable to use the Internet [2, 3], and they express emotional withdrawal symptoms when offline, such as anxiety and depression [5]. The perceived ben-

Emotion was one important character of IA and IGD. For example, users feel pleasure [23], control, and excitement when online, but feel anxiety and alone when offline [3], and shift emotional states through the Internet or online activities [5]. Emotion can be used to assess pathological Internet use [3]. The relationships among showing emotion, verbal expression of emotions, controlling negative physical reactions, coping, and anger management were examined, and emotion management skill was significant for IA levels. IA abusers exhibited bad emotion management skills [31]. IA and emotional intelligence tests was negatively correlated [32, 33]. Excessive Internet users expressed poorer intimacy, and had worse ability to express positive and negative emotions [34]. The withdrawal symptoms of Internet gaming

**1.1. Psychological and physiological syndrome, emotion character of Internet**

efits keep people coming back to the addictive experience [30].

**addiction abusers**

The prevalence rate of IA investigated by several countries, such as Norway 0.7%, the US 1%, Europe 1.0–9.0%, and Asia 2.0–18.0%. The rate varied from different countries (0.7–26.8%) [2].

**Table 1.** Definitions of IA in literatures.

Asian countries have higher prevalence rate (e.g., Hong Kong 17–26.8%, Taiwan approximately 20%) [15, 16]. Young reported five types of IA, namely cybersexual addiction, cyber-relationship addiction, net compulsions, information overload, and obsessive computer game playing [17]. The population of computer game players has over one billion in 2012 [18], and the situation that people addicted to the Internet game is called Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) [19]. IGD is a large population of Internet addicts, and the related research results were the most reported.

part of life. In UK, USA, South Korea, and Taiwan, the Internet users are over 80% of the population [2], and in Asia, the Internet users of the world total are 49.7% [1]. Some users, however, excessively use, rely on, and even addict to the Internet, and suffer from negative consequences on physical and mental functions, social and occupational problems [2, 3]. Such excessive Internet use is called Internet addiction (IA). IA, first proposed in 1995 by Goldberg, was regarded as a behavioral addiction, and the widely used definitions of IA include preoccupation with online activities, withdrawal, craving, tolerance, mood modification, conflict, relapse, and negative consequences [2, 4, 5]. If users used computer or the Internet over 10 h/ day and 6 days/week [6], they have difficulty in finance and in family relationship, poor performance of school or work, etc. [2, 3]. Such users might be potential IA abusers. The defini-

The prevalence rate of IA investigated by several countries, such as Norway 0.7%, the US 1%, Europe 1.0–9.0%, and Asia 2.0–18.0%. The rate varied from different countries (0.7–26.8%) [2].

2) Proposed two definitions: first definition: behavioral addiction, second definition: Internet-

Goldberg [7] A mal-adaptive pattern of Internet use, leading to clinically significant impairment or

4) Continued use despite problems caused by the behavior. Leung [11] Internet addiction has been used to describe problematic, excessive, or mal-adaptive use of

2) Causes distress or impairs one's functioning in important life domains.

tions of IA given by several researchers are listed in **Table 1**.

Young [8] 1) Reported the very first case of Internet addiction,

3) A preoccupation with use,

2) Defined addictive use of the Internet.

2) Often accompanied by a loss of control,

**Authors and Years Proposed definition**

104 Drug Addiction

distress.

Young [10] 1) An uncontrollable urge,

Shaw and Black [12] 1) Time consuming,

Block [13] 1) Excessive Internet use,

Spada [2] An addictive behavior

Brand et al. [14] 1) Internet use disorder,

**Table 1.** Definitions of IA in literatures.

Young [9] 1) Proposed the Internet Addiction Scale,

related disorders.

the Internet.

2) Withdrawal, 3) Tolerance,

4) Adverse consequences.

An impulse-control disorder

2) Specific Internet-use disorders

The fifth version of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-5) suggested that IGD/IA should be further studied and more related data must be acquired [13, 20]. DSM-5 addresses and suggests nine criteria for IGD in 2013 [21], including preoccupation, withdrawal, tolerance, reduce/stop, give up other activities, continue despite problems, deceive/cover up, escape adverse moods, and risk/lose relationship/opportunities. The psychological syndromes of IA usually are assessed by IA scales [3, 4, 9]. However, self-reporting is a subjective measurement tool that may be biased, even unintentionally, by a reporter's feelings or forgotten details. Furthermore, scales or questionnaires assess the long-term developed states of IA rather than the developing states of IA or short-term change. Nevertheless, the physiological signals of people with IA can provide objective and short-term information on the condition. In recent years, although a few physiological features of IA were studied [22], the psychological and physiological features rarely investigated together, and the regulation of physiological reactions was little discussed. Both the features can be acquired through emotions, and the physiological regulation can be observed using noninvasive physiological signals. Furthermore, noninvasive physiological signals can provide short-term, dynamic changes of IA, and is a biofeedback means.


**4. Conclusions**

238 Nitroxides – Theory, Experiment and Applications

Molochnikov et al., 2007).

**Figure 17.** Scheme for the mechanism of binding Co2+ by hybrid systems

The elemental composition of the surface shows that chitosan does not cover it completely and some part of the functional groups remains on the support surface in free form. The more complex structure of the surface of hybrid system was characterized by investigating its acid–base properties via ESR spectroscopy of the NR used as pH probes. The titration curves of NR R1 on the surface of the Co2+-containing system are shown in Figs. 13-15. The shift in these curves relative to the calibration curve left or right allows us to determine whether the surface has a positive or negative charge, respectively (Kovaleva et al., 2000 ;

The technique for introducing Co2+ ions into the hybrid materials from the ethanol solutions could lead to the formation of sediments of basic cobalt chloride or chloride–alcoxide micelles on the surface of these materials. In the case of the MCC–chitosan (Fig. 15) and Al2O3–chitosan (Fig. 13) systems, the titration curves of the cobalt-containing materials at pH > 5 are shifted slightly to the left relative to the titration curves of the initial samples. Consequently, the occurrence of basic cobalt chloride on the surface of these materials does not lead to a change in the surface charge, but changes its value slightly. This is due to the effective neutralization of a positive charge of Co2+ ions by negative chloride and hydroxide ions. In order to confirm our hypothesis, we present the published data on studying the sorption of Co2+ ions from aqueous solutions and on the nature of the interaction between the metal center and amino groups of chitosan. According to (Minimisawa et al., 1999) maximum adsorption starts to decrease with increasing pH due to the formation of cobalt hydroxocomplexes. The maximum sorption of cobalt ions by chitosan found at pH 6–8 in (Silva et.al, 2008) is in good agreement with the data from (Minimisawa et al., 1999) and is determined by the formation of Со(ОН)2 phase or slightly soluble basic salts. No chemical

interaction with amino groups of chitosan occurs in this case (Zhao et al., 1998).

The SiO2–chitosan system behaves differently. Even at the highest pH values, the titration curve of the sample modified with cobalt (Fig. 17) was appreciably shifted to the left relative to the NR curve of the initial sample, although it remains to the right of the calibration curve. Accordingly, the formation of the chloride hydroxyl cobalt micelles immediately leads to a considerable reduction in the negative surface charge of the SiO2–chitosan system. The different behavior of the titration curve for system III (Table 2) is most likely associated pH-sensitive NRs gave reliable information on the local acidity of solutions in and the charge of a surface on pure and metal containing inorganic and organo-inorganic materials and systems and allowed to estimate an electric potential near the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles.

The differences between the acidities of external solutions (pHext) and inside pores (or near the surface) of all the studied materials and systems (pHint) were found.

The method of spin pH probes allowed to determine the ionization constants of characteristic functional groups of SiO2-based systems from the horizontal plateaus corresponding to the constant pHint in the samples.

An increase in concentration of H+ ions (a decrease in pHint) in solutions located inside - Al2O3, TiO2 hydrogel and near the surface of the BS-50 type SiO2, TiO2 and SiO2 xerogels ; the

related CMs and hybrid materials ; metal-containing systems, as compared to those of external solution can be explained by releasing H+ ions due to dissociation of acidic functional groups, exchange them with metal ions and the partial desruption of hydrogen bonds. It leads to negative charge of a surface of the above-mentioned objects. A decrease in concentration of H+ ions (an increase in pHint) as compared to those of external solution were characteristic for γ-Al2O3 and cellulose matrixes. This resulted from binding H+-ions by the surface of γ-Al2O3 and MCC and PC with basic functional groups such as -AlOH , –AlO and OH- , respectively. As a result, a surface gains a positive charge.

The sorption capacity of Cu2+ ions depends on a surface charge of the oxides gels, xerogels and the related CMs studied and decreases as a negative surface charge reduces. The sorption of Cu2+ ions on the surface of nanoparticles of nanostructural TiO2 increases the charge of the latter. An increase in a percentage of PC in the SiO2 –PC composites leads to an increase in the amount of silanol groups as a result of increasing in dispersivity of SiO2 particles and specific surface (Ssp) of the samples, and to reducing a negative surface charge up to zero, and even its reversing. It led to the formation of Cu(OH)2 .

The deposition of chitosan on the substrate always creates a negative charge on the surface. While the deposition of chitosan leads to relatively slight changes in the surface potential in the case of inorganic substrates such as Al2O3 and SiO2, these changes are so great in the case of MCC that they even lead to changes in the surface charge.

The charge of the surface of Co2+-modified organo-inorganic hybrid materials at different pHint was found to effect on the composition and structure of Co2+ -containing surface compounds.

The modification of a surface of powder cellulose with nanostructured SiO2 and TiO2 xerogels, aluminum oxides, silica and MCC with acidic functional groups and chitosan makes it possible to adjust the local acidity and surface charge over a wide range.

The study of the surface of organo–inorganic composites and hybrid materials and systems using pH-sensitive nitroxyl radicals allows also to reveal regularities in changing their properties during further modification. In addition, this method enables us to describe qualitatively the processes of structure formation in these systems and their effect on catalytic activity in different pH-dependent reactions.

The calculated φ value (31.7 mV) was found not to be the electric potential of TiO2 nanoparticle surface, but it only characterizes the electric eld generated by a nanoparticle at the site where the radical fragment –N–O• of NR is located. Once the anisotropic spectra of NR in nanostructured oxides are simulated, an electical potential of a surface can be determined. When measuring the SEP of solids, the knowledge of the distance between a radical and a surface is of principal importance. The xation of pH-sensitive NRs on the surface of nanoparticles with linkers of a known length can solve this problem. This will allow one to calculate the potential immediately on the surface of nanoparticles and to compare the calculation results with the experimental data on the electrokinetic potentials.


Because of digital methods more of us now transcribe manuscripts than ever before, we look at manuscripts in ways we never did before, we may enumerate their pages and construction in new ways. You may argue, and I would agree, that desirable and useful as these changes may be, this falls someway short of a revolution. A great number of editions are still being made without transcription of manuscripts, and certainly requiring no refoliation of the manuscripts. Even if many more people were transcribing and refoliating manuscripts, still this may not amount to a revolution. I remarked earlier that we could count something as a revolution if it changed what we do, what we make, and how we are. Changing what people do, how people work, would be no revolution if it meant that people are still making the same things.

However, some have argued that the digital world is bringing us a new kind of edition. The ease and excellence of digital imaging, and the accompanying interest in manuscript transcription, has given rise to what Elena Pierazzo calls "documentary digital editions", or Keirnan "image-based scholarly edition".18 In the last decades, a small cottage industry has sprung up around the transcription of manuscripts into digital form. We may see this with the list of digital editions maintained by Patrick Sahle at http://www.digitale-edition.de/. Many of these editions are what one might call digital facsimile transcripts, focussing on a single manuscript and recording its text in precise form, page by page, line by line and character by character. These editions —and they most certainly are editions, in the basic sense that an editor is scrutinizing every mark on the page— characteristically focus on two elements: the exact disposition of the text on each page and on the writing process. The first of these corresponds to "diplomatic" or "facsimile print" editions, the second to "genetic editions". Both kinds of edition are, of course, well established in the print world. We can date the first to the midnineteenth century, with such exemplars as Tischendorf's facsimile print transcript of Codex Sinaiticus.19 We could go back even earlier, to the handwritten facsimile copies of Ari hin Frodi's Islendinga bok, made by Jon Erlendsson around 1651.20 We can date the second to the initiatives of Louis Hay, which sparked the "critique genetique" movement which in turn found an institutional home in ITEM, with parallel streams of activity showing themselves in the transcription of the authorial manuscripts of Joyce, Beckett, Melville and Nietsche, among others.21 This catalogue of historical precedents suggests that, in itself, this move to "digital documentary editing" is not as revolutionary as some of its proponents claim. One might argue, that all these editions do is present familiar objects in digital form. Even if it were revolutionary, one might argue that the revolution is potential, as yet unrealized, and liable to fizzle to nothing after all: yet another utopian dream wrecked on cold reality. The editions listed by Sahle are impressive. But when we consider the number of editions produced by TUSTEP and Classical Text Editor (see above), and recall that the major scholarly publishers among them have published many times this number of scholarly editions over the years (459 listed at http://www.oxfordscholarlyeditions.com/. Over 1500 at http://www.brepols.net/, searching for "edition") this number looks less impressive. Further, a number of the editions listed by Sahle appear as effectively self-published, appearing on a university website and so hostages to the shifting policies of that university. Browsing through these editions reveals broken links, browsers which do not display as one might expect, or editions which are no more than electronic equivalents of a print publication. There are imaginative and remarkable projects here; and there are many which are not. In the context of the wide world of scholarly editions, the editions listed by Sahle appear as an insurgency. As with all revolutions, the insurgents display various levels of intensity, commitment and achievement. But these insurgents have not seized power.

I noted above that Elena Pierazzo argues that these are a new kind of edition: she calls them "a new type of editorial object", which she labels as a "documentary digital edition" (elsewhere, she calls them "digital documentary editions") and which she says record "as many features of the original document as are considered meaningful by the editors, displayed in all the ways the editors consider useful for the readers including all the tools necessary to achieve such a purpose".22 First, the core transcripts at the centre of these editions appear like nothing so much as diplomatic editions, well-known to textual scholars for centuries. Gregory Pass defines a diplomatic edition as "an edition (in print or online) of an historic manuscript text that seeks to reproduce as accurately as possible in typography all significant features of the manuscript original, including spelling and punctuation, abbreviations, deletions, insertions, and other alterations".23 This describes rather well the digital transcripts listed by Sahle and described by Pierazzo. The difference is that Pass is describing print books while Pierazzo is describing digital materials, and Pierazzo also includes tools and variant views in her description. Thus, typically, a digital transcript might offer alternative ways of seeing the text, toggling abbreviation on or off. However, there are rather few other tools offered by the actual digital editions listed by Sahle. They usually offer a search tool, they sometimes offer the facility to see the text and image side by side (a surprising number do not): that seems to be all. You can navigate from page to page; there might be indices of various kinds. But you can do these things with print editions too.

Indeed, these digital editions as described by Pierazzo, including the Jane Austen manuscript edition for which she had considerable responsibility, are surprisingly inert. You can view the transcription and image page by page, you can move from page to page, exactly as you can for a print edition. As in a print edition, there is one interface, that provided by the production team, and only one. We are offered a diplomatic view only of the text, and that is all. In a comparison of this edition with a print edition, this edition does not come off very well. It is in its favour, that it is free on the internet. But some of the things one might expect of a print edition —particularly, a table of contents detailing exactly what is in each manuscript volume— are absent from this digital edition. Nor do we find compensation in other areas. One might expect to be able to read either of the two chapters of Persuasion given here as a continuous text, without having to flick from page to page. Or one might want to load the text of a chapter into another system, a PDF viewer for instance, to read, annotate or print. You cannot do that either. In all, this looks like an uneasy compromise: it has some things a print edition might not have and some things a digital might have, while missing other things print and digital editions might have.

Not much revolution here, one might say. Indeed, one would expect a diplomatic edition in digital form is not going to be very different from one in print form. However, there are other kinds of edition: particularly, editions of texts in many manuscripts. Unsurprisingly, these are very rare among the editions listed by Sahle, which are almost all editions based on single witnesses. However, some have been made. My own editions of the Canterbury Tales, Prue Shaw's editions of the Dante, the transcripts of the Piers Plowman Electronic Archive and the Birmingham/Münster editions of the Greek New Testament are editions of texts which exist in multiple witnesses. Let us look at Prue Shaw's edition of Dante's *Commedia*, which may reasonably be seen as

**Figure 6.** The Shaw edition of Dante's *Commedia*, showing the first page of the Ashburnham manuscript

the most fully conceived and realized digital edition of a text in many versions.24

At first, this looks like another of the many single witness image plus transcription we have discussed. We open with an image of the manuscript on the left and a transcription of the manuscript page on the right. We see that the transcript offers multiple views: we can look at a transcription of the text as it literally appears, or as first written by the scribe, or after any of multiple layers of correction. Further, this is not just one witness: there are seven manuscripts, and the full text of two editions. However, this edition is considerably more than a set of transcripts of the seven manuscripts. Probe further: we find a word-byword collation of the seven manuscripts and two editions, thus.

We see among other things that this collation includes information about the various layers of copying in the manuscripts. This collation is given for all 95,000 words in the 14,223 lines of the Commedia, and allows us, at every word, to see how the seven manuscripts and two editions agree. Note too that this collation is fully regularized: that is, variation in spelling has been filtered out so that the collation presents only variants with likely stemmatic significance.

This edition does not only include a collation. Clicking on the 'VMAP' symbol beside lines the collation brings up what we call a variant map.

**Figure 7.** The word-by-word collation of two lines of Dante's *Commedia*, from Shaw's edition

**Figure 8.** The variant map for Purgatorio 18, 57: "e de primi appetibili"

This resembles a stemma, in that it appears to group manuscripts and texts in some kind of tree-like relationship: thus Mart/Triv, Urb/Rb and Ash/Ham appear to form three distinct pairs.25 Where does this diagram come from? The extensive introductions provided by Shaw and others explain that this diagram was made by phylogenetic software, developed for evolutionary biology, which creates a hypothesis of the family relations among the manuscripts based on the readings they share and do not share in the collation. Throughout the introduction, Shaw examines the evidence provided both by phylogenetic and traditional philological methods. In 1964, the great Dante scholar Giorgio Petrocchi produced a stemma of the relations among the early manuscripts of the Commedia.26 In 2000, Federico Sanguineti challenged Petrocchi's stemma, alleging that the single manuscript at the top left of Figure 8, Urb, was independent of all other mss of the Commedia and therefore equivalent in authority to all the other 800 manuscripts of the Commedia.27 One can read in the editorial material Shaw's careful demolition of Sanguineti's arguments. Further, the reader can test in the collation, in the variant maps, and in the variant database tool provided by Shaw, whether Shaw is right. Here is the core evidence of the common descent of Urb and another manuscript, Rb, which validates Petrocchi against Sanguineti, in the form of some 300 variants identified by the VBase search tool as likely to have been present in the shared ancestor of Urb/Rb.

Yet, there is one thing missing from Shaw's edition. She does not provide her own edited text. This absence strikes me as the single most remarkable element of the edition. It shifts the focus away from the editor, as maker of a text, to the documents themselves and what we might learn from them. The centre of the edition is not the product: the edited text, with all else seen as ancillary, preparatory, and explanatory. The centre of the edition is process: the search for understanding of all these documents and how they relate to each other. Nor is Shaw alone in this view of an edition in the digital age, as not requiring an edited text. Our editions of sections of the Canterbury Tales also lack an edited text. While the Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament text can be found within the Greek New Testament edition websites at Münster and Birmingham, it is almost invisible, indeed irrelevant. The absence of an edited text from both the Shaw edition and the Greek New Testament sites declares clearly: the aim of these editions is something other than the establishment of a text.

If an edition no longer needs an edited text, one might ask: why do we need an edition?

**Figure 9.** VBase search for Urb/Rb variants

In the midst of this confusion of documents, one might also ask: where is Dante, and the work we know as the Commedia? F.W. Bateson asked: if the Mona Lisa is in the Louvre, where is *Hamlet*?28 The best answer for this that I know (and it is not Bateson's answer) is that Hamlet is in all the documents, all the versions, all the performances of *Hamlet*, and in the minds of all who have ever encountered *Hamlet*. There is no one *Hamlet*, no one *Commedia*, no one definitive text we can point at and say, this is what Dante wrote. Yet: we still think of something we call the *Commedia*. This has led several scholars to ask, from different directions, what do we mean by the term "work" in the digital age, for example in the essays in a recent number of Ecdotica edited by Barbara Bordalejo, with articles by her, Paul Eggert, Peter Shillingsburg, Hans Gabler and myself.29 Here is the definition I offer of a "work" in that collection: the work is the set of texts which is hypothesized as organically related, in terms of the communicative acts which they present. In this definition, the task of an editor of the *Commedia* is to identify the documents which witness the communicative act we call the *Commedia*, and then to define how all the documents are related to each other and what each tells us of the *Commedia*, as Shaw does. In this definition, the *Commedia* is grounded in the seven manuscripts and two editions Shaw studies. These manuscripts, the documents Shaw hypothesizes, the relations she uncovered among the documents and all involved in their creation, transmission and reception, and the acts of communication we extract from them: these are the *Commedia*.

This redefinition of the edition amounts to a considerable expansion. An edition, it follows, is not just the production of a text. It is a narration of the whole history of a work, from its conception, through its production and first and later publication, and then its reception among all its readers right to the present. This could be an enormous task. Exactly one such edition has been produced: Paul Eggert's edition of the Australian writer Henry Lawson's short story collection "While the Billy Boils".30 Eggert is able, on his own, to create such an edition for this one book, telling its whole history. But to do this for a work the size of the *Commedia*, with its influence stretching over centuries into almost every corner of our culture —no one scholar could ever do that. Indeed, no one scholar could ever achieve the first and most basic task of such an edition, the transcription of all the manuscripts, their collation and analysis. With considerable funding and help, and huge individual effort, Shaw was able to do this for just seven manuscripts, and it took fifteen years. How long would the full 800 manuscripts take?

### **Elements of a revolution: changing who we are**

Now finally, we arrive at what I believe may be truly revolutionary about the impact of the digital age on scholarly editing. Every edition I have discussed so far has been made according to what we might call the Alexandrian consensus. The librarians gathered the many texts of Homer together; the scholars studied them and created a text; a grateful world took that text and read it.31 This model rests on two pillars. The first pillar is that only qualified scholars may examine the primary documents. The second pillar is that only qualified scholars have the authority to make a text the rest of us may read. Both pillars are now fallen. We are moving to a world where every manuscript and every book from the past is online, free for anyone to look at. You no longer need to be tenured and well-connected to see a manuscript: increasingly, all you need is an internet connection. As for academic authority: peer-review and tenure committees are fine things but no-one is going to assert that only approved scholars can read manuscripts. If anyone doubted this, the Transcribe Bentham and similar projects has shown that transcriptions of even very demanding material can be made by people without formal training.32

Here is what we have: we want to make editions based on all the manuscripts, possibly hundreds, even thousands of them. We want to trace the history of a work through all its manifestations: every publication, every version. The materials are available free online to everyone. We do not have enough students and scholars to do this work within the academy. We know there are interested and committed people who can help us. So let us thrown open the doors, and invite others to join us. "Crowdsourcing" is the word of the moment: writing encyclopedias, correcting newspaper transcripts, and now scholarly editing. These are tasks for the wisdom of crowds.

Indeed, we need people to help us. Several major projects, including our own, are experimenting with opening up our work to others. We could do this in two ways. We could say to people: give us your work, and we will use it as we wish. Or we could say: we will work together and anyone can use what we make. The difference is small, it seems: but critical. Traditionally, we scholars like to own and control what we make. This is my edition. I want to control how it is used. You may contribute, but I will control what you contribute. In the world of print, where the target was a fixed printed object distributed by a publisher who was happy to hold the exclusive license for your edition, this was a fortunate coalescence of interests.

But in the digital world, that attitude cripples. I make my digital edition, I create a beautiful interface for it, then I wrap it up in copyright and other licensing restrictions so that it can only be used in the ways, and even by the people, whom I approve. There are numerous problems with this. First: who is going to maintain that interface, that edition, when you are no longer there, or you have run out of funding? What happens to all those carefully made transcripts, all that work? Second: why would people want to contribute to your edition, when you are going to control their work— so that they might even lose access to their own work? There are other arguments too: one might question the morality of work done with public support, as is the case for virtually all editions, becoming effectively the private property of the editors.

It is for these reasons that we, and several others, argue that we should publish the base materials of our editions —particularly the transcripts and the images— under the Creative Commons Attribution licence. Indeed we should go further than that. We should make it as easy as we can for others to take what we have made, to adapt it and augment it in any way they wish, and then republish it. And that includes commercial publishers. If they can take what we have made and publish it and make money from it, excellent. In this world, our transcripts of Canterbury Tales manuscripts would appear in many places across the web. Some scholars might add annotations to them, links to other materials, commentaries, glossaries. Others might alter them for their own purposes. Instead of our own, single, monolithic edition, there would be a flourishing ecoculture of overlapping sites, using our material in multiple ways, each finding their own readership. I have to say that persuading scholars to relinquish control of what they have made is not easy. We have been trained, since our first undergraduate days, to regard our research as dragons value their gold: of more value if we hoard it than if we spend it. But in the digital world, giving and taking is all that matters.

And, there are people, many, many of them, who want to take what we make. I have mentioned the Codex Sinaiticus website: within the first four months of the sites launch, over 1.25 million people visited it. Less spectacular perhaps, but equally impressive, are the figures for Barbara Bordalejo's online Variorium edition of Darwin's *Origin of Species*: over the last two years, this has averaged a steady 500 users a month, with around thirty of those each month spending more than half an hour looking at the site.33 And here, too, is our view of how we might bring the Canterbury Tales, its text, manuscripts, and performance, to the born-digital generation. We call this the CantApp:

**Figure 10.** The CantApp, opening page

Bordalejo's Darwin *Variorum* could not have been made without the work of others before her; we should like our CantApp to inspire others to take our work and do better. We all know the topos that we are standing on the shoulders of the scholars who have preceded us. The digital age offers a variant on this. As well as stand on the shoulders of others, we should help others to stand on our shoulders. This will change who we are. Now, that would be revolutionary.

### **Notes**

1. Among many essays and books incorporating (while sometimes criticizing) this meme, see Jerome McGann, *Radiant Textuality* (New York: Palgrave, 2001); pages 53–74 reprint his essay 'The Rationale of Hypertext', originally published online in 1995 and available at www2.iath.virginia.edu/public/ jjm2f/rationale.html and in print in *Electronic Text: Investigations in Method and Theory*, ed. by Kathryn Sutherland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); *Digital Critical Editions*, ed. by Daniel Apollon, Claire Bélisle and Philippe Régnier (Urbana, Chicago and Springfield: University of Illinois Press, 2014): Tara Andrews, 'The Third Way: Philology and Critical Edition in the Digital Age', in *Variants 10*, ed. by Wim Van Mierlo (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2013).

2. Roger Boesche, *Tocqueville's Road Map: Methodology, Liberalism, Revolution, and Despotism* (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2006), pp. 86–87.

3. There is a full print facsimile of the Beowulf manuscript edited by Julius Zupitza, *Beowulf. Autotypes of the unique Cotton ms. Vitellius A XV in the British Museum, with a transliteration and notes* (London: N. Trübner, for the Early English Text Society, 1882; reprinted in 1959 and 1969). A single page of the manuscript, fol. 160v, is reproduced as Figure 1 of the most widely used edition of *Beowulf: Klaeber's Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburgh. Fourth Edition,* ed. by R. D. Fulk, Robert Bjork and John D. Niles (Toronto, Buffalo, London: University of Toronto Press, 2008).

*4. Electronic Beowulf 4.0*, ed. by Kevin Kiernan (University of Kentucky, 2015), at http://ebeowulf.uky.edu/ebeo4.0/start.html [accessed 31 October 2015].

5. Personal communication, Scott McKendrick, British Library. The digital edition is http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/ [accessed 31 October 2015].

6. A.S.G. Edwards paper, delivered in a Master Class at the Centre for Textual Scholarship at De Montfort University on 1 June 2006; reported by Peter Shillingsburg, 'How Literary Works Exist: Convenient Scholarly Editions', *Digital Humanities Quarterly*, 3:3 (2009) #18, at http://www. digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/3/000054/000054.html [accessed 31 October 2015]. See too Edwards' critique of digitization in 'Back to the Real?', *Times Literary Supplement* 7 June 2013, where he argues (inter alia) that success of digitization in reaching many readers (e.g. the 10,000 hits a month on the Codex Sinaiticus website) is not scholarship but "a new branch of the entertainment industry."

7. Emma Beer, 'Waking up in the British Library', *Ariadne*, 43 (2005), at http:// www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue43/wakingupinbl-rpt.

8. Kenneth M. Price, 'Edition, Project, Database, Archive, Thematic Research Collection: What's in a Name?', *Digital Humanities Quarterly*, 3:3 (1009), at http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/3/000053/000053.html.

9. For TUStep: see the list at http://www.tustep.uni-tuebingen.de/ed3.html, numbering over 900 volumes; for Classical Text Editor, see the list at http:// cte.oeaw.ac.at//?id0=pub, for some 150 volumes.

10. Thomas Tanselle, 'Foreword', in *Electronic Textual Editing*, ed. by Lou Burnard, Katharine O'Brien O'Keefe and John Unsworth (New York: Modern Language Association, 2006), pp. 1–6 (p. 6); Barbara Bordalejo, 'The Texts We See and the Works We Imagine', *Ecdotica*, 13 (2013), pp. 64–75 (p. 75).

11. One can index the difficulty of manuscript transcription from the proliferation of articles, manuals and guides over the last decades. A few examples: my own attempt, with Elizabeth Solopova, to define protocols for manuscript transcription for the manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales, in "Guidelines for Transcription of the Manuscripts of the Wife of Bath's Prologue"; see too Alois Pichler's argument that "Texts are not objectively existing entities which just need to be discovered and presented, but entities which have to be constructed in "Advantages of a Machine-Readable Version of Wittgenstein's Nachlass", p. 774. Pichler's view (which is effectively identical to mine and Solopova's) is attacked by Renear as "anti-realist": see the account of the discussion in my "What Text Really is Not, and Why Editors have to Learn to Swim". The distinction between levels of transcription is also discussed by Barbara Bordalejo in "The Commedia Project Encoding System". See also, among many others: the "Basic Conventions for Transcription" for the Scriptorium project at http://scriptorium.english.cam.ac.uk/handwriting/ materials/conventions/; the CENDARI project guide at http://www.cendari.eu/ sites/default/files/ARGTranscriptions.pdf; and many more.

12. The whole manuscript is online at https://www.llgc.org.uk/?id=257; the first page is there numbered as "folio 2r".

13. You can read about our efforts to answer these questions in the Canterbury Tales Project blog and wiki, at www.textualcommunities.usask.ca, a discussion informed by the conflicting perspectives presented by the studies referred to in footnote 11.

14. Recording of these lower-level "graphetic" features of scribal writing (the different forms of each letter, indeed of each stroke) might be useful for the making of "scribal profiles" as advocated by Angus McIntosh, 'Scribal Profiles from Middle English Texts', *Neuphilologische Mitteilungen*, 76 (1975), 218–235.

15. This explanation follows that given by John Manly and Edith Rickert, *The Text of the Canterbury Tales: Studied on the Basis of All Known Manuscripts,*  8 vols (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1940), I, 271–272*.* Compare the discussion of these folios by Estelle Stubbs, 'Observations: Section IV', in *The Hengwrt Chaucer Digital Facsimile* (Leicester: Scholarly Digital Editions, 2001).

16. For example: in Oxford New College MS 314 (Ne) the text of the Parson's Tale appears in the following order: segments 1–98, 532–580, 162–273, 687– 735, 320–532, 99–161, 582–687, 273–320, 735–end. The shifts from sequence to sequence occur mid-page and mid-segment. Sense can be made of this if one presumes that in the ancestor copy of this tale the text of the seven segments 99–735 occupied three quires of eight. The first and last two leaves of the first quire (containing 99–161 and 273–320) were swapped with the first and last two leaves of the third quire (containing 532–580 and 687–735) to give the order in which the Parson's Tale now appears in Ne.

17. Daniel W. Mosser, *A Digital Catalogue of the Pre-1500 Manuscripts and Incunables of the Canterbury Tales* (Blacksburg VA: 2nd edn, Virginia Tech, 2013).

18. Kevin Kiernan, 'Digital Facsimiles in Editing', in *Electronic Textual Editing*, ed. by Lou Burnard, Katherine O'Brien O'Keeffe and John Unsworth (New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2006), pp. 262–268; Elena Pierazzo, 'A Rationale of Digital Documentary editions', *Literary and Linguistic Computing*, 26 (2011), 463–477.

19. Constantin von Tischendorf, *Bibliorum Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus*, 4 volumes (Leipzig, 1862).

20. Vésteinn Ólason, *Íslendingabækur – The Books of The Icelanders*, Richard and Margaret Beck Trust Lecture, University of Victoria (20 March 2003). At http://web.uvic.ca/~becktrus/assets/text/vesteinn\_01.php.

21. Jedd Deppman, Daniel Ferrer and Michael Groden, *Genetic Criticism: Texts and Avant-textes* (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2004).

22. Pierazzo, 'Rationale', p. 475.

23. Gregory A. Pass, *Descriptive Cataloging of Ancient, Medieval, Renaissance, and Early Modern Manuscripts* (Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries, 2003), p. 144.

24. Prue Shaw, *Dante Alighieri. Commedia. A Digital Edition.* (Leicester and Florence: Scholarly Digital Editions and SISMEL, 2010).

25. Mart: Milan, Biblioteca Nazionale Braidense, Aldina AP XVI 25; Triv: Milan, Biblioteca dell'Archivio Storico Civico e Trivulziana, Ms. Trivulziano 1080; Rb: Florence, Biblioteca Riccardiana, Ms. Riccardiano 1005 and Milan, Biblioteca Nazionale Braidense, Ms. AG XII 2; Urb: Città del Vaticano, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Ms. Urbinate latino 366; Ash: Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Ms. Ashburnham 828; Ham: Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ms. Hamilton 203.

26. Dante Alighieri, *La Commedia secondo l'antica vulgata a cura di Giorgio Petrocchi*, Edizione Nazionale a cura della Società Dantesca Italiana, 4 vols (Milano: Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, 1966–1967).

27. Dantis Alagherii, *Comedìa. Edizione critica per cura di Federico Sanguineti* (Firenze: Edizioni del Galluzzo, 2001).

28. F.W. Bateson, 'Modern Bibliography and the Literary Artifact', in *English Studies Today*, ed. by Georges A. Bonnard (Bern: 2nd edn, Francke Verlag, 1961), pp. 67–77 (p. 70).

29. Peter M. Robinson, 'The Concept of the Work in the Digital Age', in *Work, Text and Document in the Digital Age*, ed. by Barbara Bordalejo, *Ecdotica*, 10 (2013), pp. 13–41.

30. Paul Eggert, *The Biography of a Book: Henry Lawson's While the Billy Boils* (Philadelphia and Sydney: Penn State University Press and University of Sydney Press, 2013).

31. L.D. Reynolds and N.G. Wilson, *Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature* (Oxford: 4th edn, Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 6–16.

32. Tim Causer and Valerie Wallace, 'Building a Volunteer Community: Results and Findings from Transcribe Bentham', *Digital Humanities Quarterly*, 6:2 (2012), online at http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/2/000125/ 000125.html.

33. Barbara Bordalejo, ed., *Online Variorium of Darwin's Origin of Species*  (Darwin Online, 2009), at http://darwin-online.org.uk/Variorium/index. html.

# **Bibliography**

Andrews, Tara, 'The Third Way: Philology and Critical Edition in the Digital Age', in *Variants 10*, ed. by Wim Van Mierlo (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2013), pp. 61–76

### CORPUS TROPORUM *Studia Latina Stockholmiensia* (SLS)*/Corpus Troporum* (CT)

CORPUS TROPORUM I, Tropes du propre de la messe. 1. Cycle de Noël, éd. Ritva Jonsson. SLS 21. Stockholm 1975.

CORPUS TROPORUM II, Prosules de la messe. 1. Tropes de l'alleluia, éd. Olof Marcusson. SLS 22. Stockholm 1976.

CORPUS TROPORUM III, Tropes du propres de la messe. 2. Cycle de Pâques, éd. Gunilla Björkvall, Gunilla Iversen, Ritva Jonsson. SLS 25. Stockholm 1982.

CORPUS TROPORUM IV, Tropes de l'Agnus Dei. Edition critique suivie d'une étude analytique par Gunilla Iversen. SLS 26. Stockholm 1980.

CORPUS TROPORUM V, Les deux tropaires d'Apt, mss. 17 et 18. Inventaire analytique des mss et édition des textes uniques par Gunilla Björkvall. SLS 32. Stockholm 1986.

CORPUS TROPORUM VI, Prosules de la messe. 2. Les prosules limousines de Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Cod. Guelf. 79 Gud. lat., par Eva Odelman. SLS 31. Stockholm 1986.

CORPUS TROPORUM VII, Tropes de l'ordinaire de la messe. Tropes du Sanctus. Introduction et édition critique par Gunilla Iversen. SLS 34. Stockholm 1990.

CORPUS TROPORUM IX, Tropes for the Proper of the Mass. 4. The Feasts of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Edited with an Introduction and Commentary by Ann-Katrin Andrews Johansson. CT. Stockholm 1998.

CORPUS TROPORUM X, Tropes du propre de la messe. 5. Fêtes des Saints et de la Croix et de la Transfiguration. A Introduction et commentaires (Pp. 647 + carte + 13 photos). B Édition des textes (Pp. 560). Par Ritva Maria Jacobsson. CT. Stockholm 2011.

CORPUS TROPORUM XI, Prosules de la messe. 3. Prosules de l'offertoire. Édition des textes par Gunilla Björkvall. CT. Stockholm 2009. Pp. X + 254.

CORPUS TROPORUM XII, Tropes du Gloria, vol 1, Introduction et édition des textes, (428pp.), Vol. 2. Aperçu des manuscrits (2438pp.+32 planches), Par Gunilla Iversen, SLS 61, Stockholm 2014.

*Pax et Sapientia*. Studies in Text and Music of Liturgical Tropes and Sequences, in Memory of Gordon Anderson, ed. Ritva Jacobsson. SLS 29. Stockholm 1986.

*Recherches nouvelles sur les tropes liturgiques.* Recueil d'études réunies par Wulf Arlt et Gunilla Björkvall. SLS 36. Stockholm 1993.

# STUDIA LATINA STOCKHOLMIENSIA

*Published by Stockholm University*

### Nos. 1–22

### Editor: Dag Norberg

STUDIA LATINA STOCKHOLMIENSIA *Published by Stockholm University* Nos. 23–46

#### Editor: Jan Öberg

STUDIA LATINA STOCKHOLMIENSIA *Published by Stockholm University* Nos. 47–48

#### Editor: Monika Asztalos

STUDIA LATINA STOCKHOLMIENSIA *Published by Stockholm University* Nos. 49–53 Editor: Hans Aili and Gunilla Iversen

49. *Magnus Karlsson*. Erik XIV. Oratio de iniusto bello regis Daniæ anno 1563 contra regem Sueciæ Ericum 14 gesto. Edited with introduction, translation and commentary. Stockholm 2003. Pp. 267.

### STUDIA LATINA STOCKHOLMIENSIA *Published by Stockholm University* Nos. 54–58 Editor: Hans Aili

### STUDIA LATINA STOCKHOLMIENSIA *Published by Stockholm University* Nos. 59– Editor: Maria Plaza

The Ars Edendi Lectures have been organized by the research programme at Stockholm University funded by Riksbankens Jubileumsfond during the years 2008-2015, with a focus on editorial methods for dynamic textual traditions of medieval Greek and Latin texts.

This fourth volume gathers contributions both on the fundamentals of editing, as in Glenn Most 'What is a critical edition?', and looking at specifics such as marginalia (Teeuwen), errors (Maggioni), musical notation (Atkinson). Two papers focus on digital tools in editing Greek (Dendrinos) and Latin and early Romance (Robinson) texts. Richard Janko describes the challenges in making out words in Herculaneum papyri. Both traditional and innovative approaches are contemplated in this rich and varied collection by leading experts in the field of editing.


**5.1. Germplasm acquisition and utilization**

**4.3. Genes involved in drought tolerance**

650 Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

millet [72, 73] and tef [3] has been sequenced.

Farnesylated protein

β-carbonic anhydrase

**Table 5.** Differentially regulated drought-related genes in millets.

ATFP6

Farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase

(*Pg*CA)

The sequence of the genome and transcriptome of plants provides information important to the understanding of the types of genes involved in the regulation of drought tolerance, particularly in plants with increased resistant to moisture scarcity. So far, the genome of foxtail

Transcriptome sequencing of millets after exposure to moisture-deficit condition provides information on genes differentially regulated under exposure to abiotic stresses particularly to drought. A transcriptome-wide study of finger millet plants exposed to drought obtained

Genes known to be involved in drought response and/or tolerance of selected millets are presented in Table 5. Wang et al. [75] indicated that the overexpression of SiLEA14, a type of LEA gene from foxtail millet, increased the tolerance of *Arabidopsis* plants to salt and osmotic stress. Parvathi et al. [76] reported the induction of several genes when finger millet was exposed to drought. The up-regulated genes include metallothionein, farnesylated protein

**Gene name Source of the gene Test organism (type) Reference**

increased drought tolerance

increased drought tolerance

adjustment and chlorophyll retention under drought

Finger millet Induced under drought [76]

Finger millet Induced under drought [76]

Pearl millet Up-regulated when exposed to drought [79]

Traits associated with drought tolerance were investigated using a genome scan and associa‐ tion mapping methods [77, 78]. A single gene known as β-carbonic anhydrase (*Pg*CA) was

EcDehydrin7 Finger millet Overexpression of EcDehydrin7 [80] Ec-apx1 Finger millet Expression increased under drought [82]

Metallothionein, Finger millet Induced under drought [76]

Protein phosphatase 2A Finger millet Induced under drought [76] RISBZ4 Finger millet Induced under drought [76]

[75]

[83]

[81]

2824 genes that were differentially expressed under these conditions [74].

ATFP6, Farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase and protein phosphatase 2A.

SiLEA Foxtail millet Overexpression in foxtail millet and Arabidopsis

SiARDP Foxtail millet Overexpression in foxtail millet and Arabidopsis

Mt1D bacteria Finger millet expressing mt1D had better osmotic

National and international efforts have been made to collect and maintain landraces of various millets types. The recent review by Goron and Naizanda [6] indicates the institutions involved in the preservation efforts and the amount of germplasm available at each institution. In general, India and China dominate the collections of millets. While institutions in India maintain 67% of the total of 33650 finger millet accessions, a single institution in China called the Chinese National Gene Bank preserves 61.2% of the total of 43,580 foxtail collections. Similarly, in the Ethiopian Institute of Biodiversity (EIB), over 5000 tef landraces collected from various tef-growing regions in the country are available [86]. Although these germplasm collections might not be exhaustive, they can play a key role in improving the productivity of respective crops. Further, large-scale expeditions need to be made for other millets in order to fully survey and bank the existing diversity in millets.

#### **5.2. Breeding for drought tolerance**

Breeding for drought tolerance is the major objective of many crop-breeding programmes due to the widespread prevalence of the moisture-deficit problem in global agriculture. A number of crops with drought tolerance have been developed. There are two options for the manage‐ ment of crops in water-limiting environments: the genetic and agronomic [87]. The genetic approach requires robust and reproducible screening methods for the identification of traits of drought tolerance in germplasm and breeding materials, and incorporation of the same into high-yielding varieties using conventional and biotechnological tools.

Crop breeding has relied for many years on conventional and ancient techniques such as selection and hybridization. Mutation breeding, the process of using chemicals or radiation to generate mutant plants with desirable traits, has also been used for several decades and has been a key in the release of over 2000 crop varieties to the farming community among which drought-tolerant cultivars are included [88]. Crop improvement techniques that apply modern genetic and omics (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics) tools include the following: (i) *marker-assisted selection* (MAS) which refers to the utilization of molecular markers located near genes of interest to breed for traits that are difficult to observe, (ii) *TILLING* (targeting induced local lesions in genomes) [89] or EcoTILLING [90], the highthroughput and non-transgenic techniques which rapidly detect point mutations in mutagen‐ ized populations, and (iii) *Gene* targeting that relies on the following three tools to increase the efficiency of gene targeting: *zinc-finger nucleases* [91, 92], *TALEN* (transcription activator-like effector nuclease) [93] and *CRISPR/Cas* (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)/(CRISPR associated), type II prokaryotic adaptive immune system [94, 95].

#### **5.3. Improved crop management**

The wise use of crop management practices which include the time of planting, frequency of tillage and the rate and time of fertilizer application is important particularly in the semi-arid regions where moisture is scarce. Flexibility to change from late maturing crops to early maturing crops when the rainfall arrives late in the season is important. In the central semiarid regions of Ethiopia farmers start their season by planting sorghum in April. When sorghum fails due to late arrival of rain, they sow wheat in June. However, if the rain is still late or not enough for wheat plant establishment, farmers sow tef in July or early August as the last option. Compared to sorghum and wheat, tef requires less moisture and matures early.

Suggestions have been earlier given on the type of technologies to be adopted in the semi-arid regions of Southern Africa [96] and West Africa [97]. According to Mir and colleagues, these technologies should include genomics, physiology and breeding [98].

### **5.4. Agricultural inputs and insurance**

Access to agricultural inputs such as improved seeds, fertilizer and chemicals as well as credit and markets is important for farmers. In semi-arid areas where millets are dominantly cultivated, the amount and pattern of rainfall is erratic. Due to this, an insurance system known as Weather Index Drought Insurance has been implemented for the last decade in several African countries including Niger [99], Ghana [100], Kenya [101] and Burkina Faso [102] as well as India [103]. The successful insurance organization called 'Kilimo Salama' which was initially established by Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture (SFSA) and imple‐ mented in several East African countries has been recently transferred to the Agriculture and Climate Risk Enterprise Ltd. (ACRE) [104, 105].

#### **5.5. Partnership in research and development**

Collaborations among national and international institutions are required in both research and development, in order first to develop improved millet cultivars and later to disseminate them to the farming community. Among the institutions with a global mandate to improve millets, ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics) has recently added tef to the list of its mandate crops [106]. With its headquarters in Patancheru, India and regional officers in Nairobi (Kenya) and Bamako (Mali), it has been focusing on the improvement of diverse millets. The centre is among the 15 international agricultural research centers that belong to the CGIAR (Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research), the global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for food security. Hence, the research and development of tef, a vital crop in the Horn of Africa that feeds over 50 million people in Ethiopia alone, will receive a global partnership towards its improvement and development. In general, suggestions given to the improvement of understudied or orphan crops [107, 108] could also be applied to the research and development of millets.