**Author details**

Füsun Mayda Domaç1 , Derya Uludüz2 \* and Aynur Özge3 \*

1 Department of Neurology and Sleep Medicine Center, University of Health Sciences, Erenkoy Mental Health and Neurological Diseases Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey

2 Brain 360 Neurology Health Institute, Istanbul, Turkey

3 Department of Neurology, Mersin University School of Medicine, Algology and Clinical Neurophysiology, Mersin, Turkey

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>and<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Sleep Patterns Changes Depending on Headache Subtype and Covariates of Primary Headache… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106497*


**4. Conclusion**

By using DMAc/LiCl system, conversion of biomass waste to valuable products like cellulose hydrogel films was successfully prepared. Comparative studies on the properties and nature of cellulosic hydrogels from various plant biomass wastes were also reviewed. The yield percent of cellulose fibers: 28.50% of thanaka heartwood, 20.31% of sugarcane bagasse and 21.63% of rice straw was found in the study. It was regarded that the amount of the cellulose fibers depends on the nature of biomass materials. Cellulose hydrogel films were transparent and flexible but of slightly variable strengths due to the different kinds of cellulose sources. The water retainable property of SBCF was greater than that of THCF and RSCF. Based on the comparison of viscoelasticity measurement, it was found that THCF and RSCF were stronger, more elastic in nature and of a less deformed nature than the SBCF film. Since the cellulose solutions displayed antimicrobial activities against six test organisms, the cellulose hydrogel films could be utilized in biomedical applications.

#### **Acknowledgements**

We are extremely thankful to experts at Open Access Funding Page and especially to Mia Vulovic, Author Service Manager, for granting a free publishing fee allowing us to share our research with a wider audience. The authors: Cho Cho, Thinzar Aye and Aung Khaing, would like to express our sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. Pho Kaung, Rector of the University of Yangon for motivating and heartening us in our research. We are greatly appreciated Prof. Dr. Ye Chan, Head of Universities' Research Centre (URC), for his permission to carry out this research. We are deeply indebted to Prof. Dr. Takaomi Kobayashi, Department of Science of Technology Innovation, Nagaoka University of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan, for his invaluable advice and endless support. Our special thanks go to all of the URC staff.

### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Comparative Study of Cellulose Hydrogel Films Prepared from Various Biomass Wastes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99215*


*2.3. Chemical Analyses*

Total element concentrations in the original MIBA and the solid residues after cultivation were analyzed at accredited laboratories (Eurofins, Luxembourg, and Synlab, Munich, Germany) by melting with LiBO2 followed by dissolution in HNO3 according to ASTM D3682: 2013 and ASTM D4503: 2008, or with HNO3/HCl/HF according to SS-EN 13656: 2003. Final analysis of the solutions was performed using ICP-SFMS (Inductively Coupled Plasma-Sector Field Mass Spectrometry) according to SS-EN ISO 17294-2: 2016 and EPA method 200.8: 1994. A total content analysis of the elements in the soil before and after cultivation was carried out at an accredited laboratory (Eurofins, Luxembourg) by dissolution in aqua regia according to SS-ISO 11466, followed by analysis with ICP-SFMS (SS-EN ISO 17294-1, 2 (mod) or EPA method 200.8 (mod)) or ICP- AES (Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy) (SS-EN ISO 11885 (mod) and EPA method 200.7 (mod)). The contents in the original MIBA and reference soil were analyzed in triplicates, while the residues after harvest, due to limited sample volume, were analyzed as singlicates.

The total organic carbon (TOC) and acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC) of the MIBA were analyzed at an accredited laboratory (Eurofins, Luxembourg) in duplicate, using SS-EN 13137: 2001 and EN 14429: 2015, respectively. The particle size distribution in MIBA was carried out as singlicate (30 g) at the Chalmers University of Technology using EN 933-1. The particle size distribution and humus content in soil were analyzed in triplicates using SS ISO-11277 (2009), while TOC was analyzed using SS-EN 15936: 2012 metodappl. A/SS-EN 13137: 2001 m and pH using DIN ISO 10390: 2005–12, all in triplicates and at accredited laboratories (Eurofins, Luxembourg). The bulk density of the soil was analyzed in triplicate (internal method at the accredited laboratory Eurofins, Luxembourg), while the corresponding value for MIBA was calculated from data in [30,31].

A 5-step sequential extraction scheme based on [32] was performed by an accredited laboratory (Synlab, Munich, Germany) on the original MIBA (single sample) to study the potential mobility and operational binding forms of selected elements [33]. The method uses 1 M NaOAc, pH 5, to extract easily adsorbed and exchangeable metals and carbonates, followed by Na4P2O7 to extract metals weakly bound to organic matter, 0.25 M NH2OH·HCl in 0.1 M HCl in 60 ◦C to extract metals bound to amorphic iron and manganese oxides, 1.0 M NH2OH·HCl in 25% CH3COOH in 90 ◦C to extract metals bound to crystalline iron oxides, and finally KClO3 in 12 M HCl 4 M HNO3 in 90 ◦C to extract metals bound to the stable organic forms and sulfides. The leachates were analyzed according to SS-EN ISO 17294-1,2 (mod)/EPA-method 200.8 (mod) and SS 028150-2.

To evaluate potential leaching, SS-EN-12457-3 was performed on representative original MIBA samples. The test was carried out in duplicate. The pH of the leachates was measured according to SS-EN ISO 10523: 2012. The electrical conductivity (EC) of the leachates was measured according to SS-EN 27888-1 at a liquid-to-solid (L/S) ratio of 2. All analyses were conducted at accredited laboratories (Eurofins, Luxembourg, and Synlab, Munich, Germany).

The elemental contents of the harvested plants (above- and below-ground biomass) were analyzed after microwave digestion with HNO3/H2O2 using ICP-SFMS according to SS-EN ISO 17294-2: 2016 and EPA method 200.8: 1994. The analyses were done at an accredited laboratory (Synlab, Munich, Germany) in duplicate.

#### **3. Result and Discussion**

#### *3.1. Characterisation of Original MIBA*

Biomass ashes are known to act as a fertilizer and promote the growth of trees when spread in woods or used in agricultural processes [34,35]. The Swedish Forest Agency has issued recommendations on the total content of different elements in biomass ashes to be reintroduced to a forest [36]. A comparison between those values and the contents of the MIBA samples used in this study showed that of the macronutrients (Ca, K, P, Mg), Ca and Mg were present in sufficient concentrations, whereas the K and P contents were too low (Table 1). This shows that there is potential for plants to grow in MIBA and that growth could be promoted by adding NPK fertilizer. However, the amounts of the potentially toxic metals Cr, Cu, Ni, and Pb all exceeded the recommended levels, and it is well known that this can inhibit growth, especially of the roots; see, e.g., [37] and references therein. On the other hand, their mobility in water is low (Table 1) and sequential extraction has shown that of these elements, Pb was the only one with a high proportion present in exchangeable and adsorbed forms (Figure 1). In addition to Pb, Zn, Cd, and Ca are also highly mobile and were present in more than 50% of the exchangeable fraction. Chromium and Ni were mainly present in stable forms (steps 4 and 5), and are unlikely to be as available for phytoextraction. For most elements, the presence in step 2 (labile organic forms) was <10%, which was expected, as the TOC in MIBA is low (Table 1). The predicted mobility of Cu is low, and >70% was present in the sulfide fraction (step 5). The consistency of the results from the total elemental analyses for the other elements was acceptable between the methods. The mobility of anions, such as chloride and sulfate, as well as ECsw, were noteworthy (Table 1), as high salinity is known to affect plant growth negatively [38].

**Figure 1.** Sequential extraction distribution for original MIBA. Step 1: easily adsorbed and exchangeable metals and carbonates, Step 2: metals weakly bound to organic matter, Step 3: metals bound to amorphic iron and manganese oxides, Step 4: metals bound to crystalline iron oxides, and Step 5: metals bound to stable organic forms and sulfides.

#### *3.2. Plant Growth and Biomass*

The plant height growth was initially similar for all sunflower plants (Figure 2a). However, after a few weeks, the rate decreased in the MIBA boxes, and after a few more weeks, the MIBA plants started to lose their leaves and dried out. The addition of fertilizer had only a minor effect on growth, which could have been due to the presence of potentially toxic elements like Cu, Zn, and Cl that may inhibit nutrient uptake and affect plant growth negatively [37–39]. Additionally, sunflower roots are likely to be too weak to efficiently penetrate the compact MIBA and therefore don't absorb enough water and nutrients (Table 1).

Rapeseed showed a different pattern. Initially, the plants in the MIBA with fertilizer (RF) grew slower than the reference plants (Rref) (Figure 2b). However, after a few weeks, the rate increased and at harvest, the heights of the Rref and RF plants were almost the same. However, the height variation was larger for RF than for Rref, implying that cultivation in original MIBA is likely to be more diverse. Contrary to the sunflowers, the addition of fertilizer was crucial. After only a few weeks, the plants without nutrient addition (RwoF) already had a slower growth rate, and after 8 weeks, their growth stopped completely (Figure 2b). The leaves of these plants were purplish, which is a known effect of

P deficiency; see, e.g., [40]. The P content was 5 times higher in MIBA than in soil, but was not in available forms for rapeseed (Table 1). Shortage of P is more common in alkaline soils with low TOC and high Fe, and in plants with weak roots, which describes the conditions in the MIBA boxes without fertilizer (Tables 1 and 2). No difference in the growing capacity trends was observed for rapeseed plants planted at longer or shorter distances from each other, indicating that many plants can be cultivated in a limited space, giving a higher potential phytoextraction capacity.

**Figure 2.** Average growth in cm for (**a**) sunflowers and (**b**) rapeseed cultivated in MIBA or reference soil (Sref and Rref) over 20 weeks. Error bars indicate variations in height.

The main fraction of the biomass was found in the above-ground biomass irrespective of the cultivation conditions or plant type (Table 2). However, the above-ground biomass was significantly higher for the control plants, Sref, than for the sunflowers grown in MIBA, which was due to the fact that the MIBA plants dried out and stopped growing. Both the heights and the distances between the plants in Rref and RF were similar, but the total biomass was approximately 3 times larger in the control plants, Rref (Figure 2b and Table 2). The ocular inspection confirmed that both the above- and under-ground biomass of the RF

plants was weaker than that of the Rref plants. This indicates that although the taproots of rapeseed developed better than those of the sunflowers, their growth was still restricted in MIBA. There are likely several reasons for this, and except for the higher bulk density of MIBA (Table 1), which can inhibit root growth [41], another major difference was the particle size distribution (Figure 3). MIBA contains a higher fraction of larger particles, which is well known to give lower water- and nutrient-holding capacities. At harvest, it was noted that the reference soil contained more water than the MIBA samples, despite the same amount of water having percolated through all cultivation boxes. This was also noted during the growing season, when the top layer of the MIBA appeared slightly drier than the reference soil. MIBA is known to be a draining material, and much of the added water probably percolated faster through the cultivation boxes and collected in the lower parts, where the roots were unable to reach it, while the water in the reference boxes was more evenly distributed. Additionally, the organic matter (TOC) in MIBA was low (Table 1), which further affects this. Mixing the MIBA with organic matter would likely give a better material for cultivation, as the presence of organic matter not only improves the nutrientand water-holding capacities but also provides better access to nutrients [42]. The fraction of smaller particles will increase, and organic matter can also protect plants from absorbing too much salt [42]. The latter might be of high importance in MIBA (Table 1).

**Table 2.** Above- and under-ground biomass yield [g] for sunflowers and rapeseed cultivated in MIBA or reference soil (Sref and Rref) with SD in brackets.

1This includes the whole plant, due to insufficient biomass for division into parts.

**Figure 3.** Cumulative particle size distribution curves for original reference soil and MIBA.

Rosenkranz et al. added compost in their study, but unfortunately, they did not include any cultivation in reference soil [25]. The mass above ground per rapeseed plant (*Brassica n.*) in their study was, however, consistent with the Rref in this study, showing the effect of the addition of organic matter to MIBA. However, the higher contents of especially Cu, Pb, and Zn in the conventional MIBA used here are also likely to have contributed to the inferior growth rate [37]. Cultivation of rapeseed in sandy soil contaminated with

Zn and Pb in amounts corresponding to those in the MIBA used here resulted in 30% less above-ground biomass, indicating that the contamination level and the density of the cultivation material both have an impact [43].

#### *3.3. Metal Accumulation in Plants*

Although most of the biomass was present in the parts above ground, the highest metal concentrations were generally found in the roots for both plant types (Table 3). This was particularly true for minor and trace elements such as Cu, Pb, and Zn in RF (Table 3). Accumulation of Pb and Zn in rapeseed roots has previously been reported and suggested to be caused by the formation of low mobility compounds between the heavy metals and organic substances, as the metals enter the plasma in the roots [29,43]. For RwoF, the distribution could not be evaluated due to insufficient biomass. The distribution trend was weaker for the sunflowers, likely due to the limited germination of the MIBA plants. Earlier research has indicated that the Zn content is highest in the leaves of the sunflower [18]. However, this was not found in the present study, neither in the sunflowers planted in MIBA nor in those planted in the reference soil (Table 3). The metal contents were generally higher in the rapeseed plants grown in MIBA than in the sunflowers (Table 3). For instance, the Zn content in the below-ground biomass was about 10 times higher for the rapeseed plants than for the sunflowers (Table 3). This is probably because the root systems of rapeseed are more suitable for cultivation in MIBA than those of sunflowers, as discussed above, although the effects of potential water and nutrient shortages are also likely to influence this.

When calculating the bioaccumulation coefficients (BAC), i.e., the concentration of metal in plant parts above ground divided by the metal concentration in original MIBA, it is obvious that none of the used plant types should be classified as hyperaccumulators for any of the elements studied, as BAC < 1. On the other hand, BAC might not be optimal for evaluating the extraction efficiency in this material, as MIBA is more complex and generally contains higher concentrations of metals than polluted soils. However, the results indicate that for most elements, the higher the pollutant content in the solid material, the higher the content in the plants. The Zn concentration was approximately 5 times higher in the above-ground sunflower parts cultivated in MIBA than in the reference soil, even though the growth was limited (Table 3). This was even more distinct for rapeseed, where the Zn concentrations detected in the RwF roots were almost 20 times higher than those in the Rref roots (Table 3). The highest enrichments compared to the reference cultivation were found for Cu (50 times), and for Sn and Pb (25 times). Marchiol et al. reported that the Zn content in rapeseed tissues cultivated in polluted soil substrate was 100 times higher than in reference soil, while the enrichment for elements like Cu and Pb was one order of magnitude higher [43]. This indicates that if the cultivation properties of MIBA are improved by, e.g., the addition of organic matter [42], the extraction efficiency in rapeseed probably will increase.

#### *3.4. Metal Contents in MIBA after Harvest*

Although the enrichment of several elements in the plants was significant, the observed decreases in the MIBA samples were limited (Figure 4). This was also confirmed by the low BACs, as calculated above. Except for elements that to a large extent form water-soluble compounds (Ca, K, Na, and S), i.e., are washed out during watering, no noteworthy changes in the MIBA composition were identified. Naturally, this was partly due to the limited growth, and better cultivation conditions would most likely result in higher extraction rates. Regardless, cultivation in MIBA should primarily be seen as a way to recover unutilized metals, rather than as a way to efficiently remediate the material, as this would take many years due to the complex contamination situation [22]. However, phytoextraction would likely decrease metal mobility, consequently enabling further utilization alternatives, even though metal compounds would still be present.

1 Whole plant due to limited biomass.

**Table 3.** Total amounts in parts above ground and roots from sunflower and rapeseed cultivated in MIBA, with or without fertilizer, and in reference soil. All values

**Figure 4.** Contents (mg/kg DS) of selected elements in MIBA before and after cultivation of sunflowers and rapeseed.

#### *3.5. Potential for Recovery of Zn and Other Metals from MIBA*

From the results, it is obvious that the direct cultivation of sunflowers and rapeseed in conventional MIBA is not straightforward. However, although both growth and metal reduction were limited, a glimpse of the potential for using plants grown in MIBA as a metal-enriched biofuel is shown. Plants from phytoextraction could be incinerated in WtE plants, and the metals could be recovered from the fly ash, as discussed in the Introduction. Calculations assuming 6% of fly ash mass after incineration of rapeseed plants [44] provide ash with interesting quantities of Co, Cu, Pb, and Zn, for which the estimated amounts are comparable to workable ores (Table 4) [45]. Additionally, Co has been identified by the EC as a critical raw material [1]. However, for this to be interesting on a larger scale, metal enrichment in these plants must increase. In addition to improving important cultivation parameters of MIBA, such as the particle size distribution and the content of organic matter, the choice of more suitable plants for phytoextraction in this kind of material is urgent. As the metal content in MIBA is high, it would probably be more efficient to use perennial plants, as one cultivation season is too short to reach efficient extraction. For instance, plants in the salix family could be an alternative, as they are known to grow in highly polluted soils in the climate of northern Europe and have a high capacity for extracting Zn and other metals [20–22]. In a study using Salix caprea, Zn was enriched in the leaves, while Co, Cu, and Ni had mainly accumulated in the roots [20]. By collecting the leaves regularly, Zn can be recovered continuously, whereas metals mainly enriched in the roots can only be recovered when the whole plant is harvested. An additional advantage with plants in the salix family is their high biomass; this makes them suitable for incineration, which makes them interesting from an energy perspective as well, as they may be capable of displacing fossil fuels.


**3. The concept of organizational culture**

The term culture, which originally referred to the cultivation of fields, quickly gained a wider meaning. Since the times of Cicero, who wrote about the "cultivation of the human soul," it has been used in a metaphorical sense, referring to other spheres. In the broadest sense, culture encompasses all that is the aftermath of collective activity in the behavior of human societies. If one refers culture to an organization, it is the result of a joint action of managers and subordinates, aimed at achieving the set objective. It determines the manner of its implementation, resulting from the values professed in a given organization. Culture is about shared views, ideologies, values, beliefs, expectations, and norms [14]. By studying the organizational culture of a company, one learns about the way of thinking of its employees and the principles and norms they follow. With this knowledge, it is possible to choose effective methods of influencing their behaviors [15].

The adaptation of cultural analysis to business practice resulted in creating an organizational cultures elements canon. It includes cultural values, basic assumptions, social and organizational norms, ways of communication, stories, narratives, myths, metaphors, rituals, symbols, customs, organizational heroes, taboos, cultural patterns, cultural artifacts, and subcultures [16, 17]. Organizational culture is therefore a set of values manifested, among others, in such areas of behavior as the way employees are treated. It is a set of norms on how managers relate to their subordinates and how these subordinates relate to their subordinates [18].

The concept of organizational culture is broad-based, ambiguous, and abstract. Being a complex phenomenon, it is uneasy to analyze. The difficulties are caused by many reasons, one of which seems to be utterly important. It is the fact that organizational culture is not isolated from other elements of the whole organizational system. Multidirectional relationships with other subsystems (strategy, structure, human resource management, etc.) make culture arduous to study. Many elements and relationships between them are invisible, often unconscious, and thus difficult to observe and measure [19]. Despite that, researchers persistently strive to get to know organizational culture better because of the functions it performs. It sets boundaries, provides employees with a sense of identity, and facilitates their engagement not only in their own interest but in the interest of the entire organization. It is a social binder that serves to maintain the integrity of the organization thanks to standards that define what employees should do and how they should do it and what values should guide their behaviors. It also serves as an explanatory and control mechanism, shaping the attitudes and behaviors of employees [20]. The recognition of organizational culture as part of the organizational system makes it possible to study its relationship with other subsystems, for example, with the management system. In this work, the research problem was the interdependence between one of the organizational subsystems, that is, management and organizational culture. This issue has not received much attention so far. The article is an attempt to fill the existing gap in this field.

#### **3.1 The place of values in organizational culture**

The study of values is recognized as an appropriate and necessary part of the research on culture. "If we shy away from considering values, we cease to deal with something that is most important both within individual cultures and in human culture seen as a whole (…). When we eliminate values, we are left with a barren list of cultural elements or events, and there is a constant temptation to revive it by introducing the values we have just discarded, or by camouflaging the introduction of values derived from our culture" [21]. Benedict in "Patterns of Culture" [22] argues that the difference between cultures is not determined by the presence or absence of important values, but by the extent to which opposing values cooperate, that is, whether they are more or less synergistic in nature. If Benedict only analyzed values

### *Organizational Culture in Enterprises Applying the Humanistic and Economic Paradigm… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113155*

without paying attention to the relationships between them, she would not be able to understand the subtleties and power of culture. Referring to her concept of synergy as transcending the dichotomy of values, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner [23] formulated the definition of culture, assuming that it is a scheme by which a group habitually mediates in the case of differences between values—for example, between rules and exceptions, technology and people, conflict, and consensus. Cultures can learn to reconcile such values at ever higher levels, so learning the many exceptions leads to better rules. Such reconciliation brings health, wealth, and wisdom. On the other hand, cultures in which one pole of values dominates and combats the other are a source of stress and plunge into stagnation.

American anthropologists Kluckhon and Strodbeck [24] argue that each culture emphasizes a limited number of values (called cultural values) that concern solving basic human problems. According to the dictionary, "values are culturally conditioned, established and transmitted views on what is desirable, beneficial and valuable in a given social reality: these views enter into mutual relations according to a hierarchy, creating a system of values and norms within a specific culture" [25].

The determination of individual cultures' typical values has long been used in the descriptions of cultures made by anthropologists or historians. In the most valuable characteristics or synthetic analyses presented by researchers such as Malinowski et al. an extraction of value determinations can be observed. "In this way, the description brings characteristics of the actual physiognomy of culture. Such a characteristic is important both in the internal aspect of its own coherence and non-contradiction, and in the external aspect – by formulating an implicit or explicit comparison with other described cultures" [21]. Values, like any other manifestation of culture, are part of nature and therefore fall within the field of science interest.

The concept of value derives from German words *Wert* and *Wuerde*, which mean honor, dignity, and seriousness. Values in an organization are a set of common features that determine the actions of people and thus constitute the criteria for making decisions. Some authors define values as the unique DNA of an organization that allows it to maintain its continuity and contributes to the consolidation of its market success. A value system assures that when making choices, everyone throughout the organization follows the same principles.

Numerous research of organizational culture emphasize that values are its key component. Ł. Sułkowski, who defines it as a "learned product of group experience based on values, norms, and resulting cultural patterns," perceives values as the core element. This view is consistent with the method of defining adopted by Schein et al. [17].

Ł. Sułkowski states that organizational culture contains four elements, the first of which—the most central—includes both terminal and instrumental values. The second element, forming another cultural circle, includes patterns, norms, and cultural rules, as well as rituals, myths, symbols, and taboos. These elements of culture are directly related to personal and environmental values and influence organizational behaviors (third element), constituting their basis. By embracing the behaviors of employees—intentional (conscious) and habitual (unconscious)—they shape the structure of communication and power in the organization. The last element, artifacts, is related to external, material aspects, such as the layout of space [26]. They are secondary to values, norms, and basic cultural assumptions. The system of elements established by Ł. Sułkowski is presented in **Figure 1**.

Assuming that values in an organization are centrally located, the study of organizational culture consists in the search for these values. It is easiest to observe the

#### **Figure 1.**

*Axiological model of organizational culture. Source: Sułkowski, 2002.*

"outer" layer of culture, including artifacts and behaviors [27]. By examining the external symptoms of culture, one can indirectly look for basic, internal elements. A study in search for different value configurations in organizations should include an analysis of all presented spheres leading to the identification of key values. Such a study—indirectly also through the study of "external" symptoms of culture—makes it achievable to reach the internal key elements. However, it is also possible to take a different path, omitting external elements, consisting in reaching the values directly. Such a straight way gives a greater chance of reaching all the values present in the organizational culture, allowing for its better recognition.