**4. Current knowledge on home care for COPD exacerbations**

COPD is often associated with exacerbations of symptoms. Exacerbations, particularly that result in admission to hospital, are significant events in the natural history of the disease. They are disruptive and distressing for patients, and account for a significant proportion of the total costs of caring for patients with COPD.

There is no generally agreed definition for an exacerbation of COPD. Definitions currently rely on clinical empiricism with little evidence-based scientific support (Caramori et al., 2009). Most common international guidelines and working groups provide very similar definition of a COPD exacerbation: "*an event in the natural course of the disease characterized by a change in the patient's baseline dyspnea, cough and/or sputum that is beyond normal day-to-day variations, is acute in onset, and may warrant a change in regular medication in a patient with underlying COPD"* (ATS/ERS guidelines, Celli et al., 2004; GOLD, 2009; BTS guidelines, 2007; CTS guidelines, O'Donnel et al., 2008; SEPAR/ALAT joint guidelines, Peces-Barba et al., 2008; Rodriguez-Roisin, 2000).

used for respiratory disease treatment are due to COPD, such that COPD accounts for more than one million "bed days" each year in hospitals in the UK (NICE guidelines, update

The impact of hospitalization for acute exacerbations is significant; mortality during admission is > 10% and mortality during the year after discharge following treatment for

An acute exacerbation of COPD is not an exceptional or unique event. The Risk Factors of COPD Exacerbation Study (EFRAM) found that 63% of patients were readmitted during the year following an exacerbation (Garcia-Aymerich et al., 2003). Patients with COPD experience exacerbations one to three times a year, with treatment often requiring emergency room care or hospitalization, which contributes substantially to the financial

Various observational studies have found that inpatient care accounts for 50-75% of the direct medical costs of COPD. This cost increases with disease severity: inpatient costs of patients with stage III (severe) disease are double those of patients with stage II (moderate) disease and 6.5 times greater than those of patients with stage I (mild) disease (Dalal et al.,

The indirect cost of COPD are substantial with an impact on annual productivity amounting to an estimated 24 million lost working days per annum. There is little data available to quantify other indirect costs such as carer time and inability to carry out non-occupationally

There continues to be high demand for acute care hospital beds for patients with an exacerbation of COPD. Recent reports highlight the fact that although the acute hospital is the standard venue for providing acute medical care, it may be hazardous for older persons, who commonly experience iatrogenic illness, functional decline, and other adverse events. One way to decrease or avoid admissions to hospital is to provide people with acute care

COPD is often associated with exacerbations of symptoms. Exacerbations, particularly that result in admission to hospital, are significant events in the natural history of the disease. They are disruptive and distressing for patients, and account for a significant proportion of

There is no generally agreed definition for an exacerbation of COPD. Definitions currently rely on clinical empiricism with little evidence-based scientific support (Caramori et al., 2009). Most common international guidelines and working groups provide very similar definition of a COPD exacerbation: "*an event in the natural course of the disease characterized by a change in the patient's baseline dyspnea, cough and/or sputum that is beyond normal day-to-day variations, is acute in onset, and may warrant a change in regular medication in a patient with underlying COPD"* (ATS/ERS guidelines, Celli et al., 2004; GOLD, 2009; BTS guidelines, 2007; CTS guidelines, O'Donnel et al., 2008; SEPAR/ALAT joint guidelines, Peces-Barba et

**4. Current knowledge on home care for COPD exacerbations**

acute COPD exacerbation is 25-40% (Escarrabill, 2009).

burden of the disease (Dalal et al., 2011).

related activity (NICE guidelines, update 2010).

the total costs of caring for patients with COPD.

al., 2008; Rodriguez-Roisin, 2000).

2010).

2011).

treatment at home.

When an exacerbation of COPD has been diagnosed, to define its severity is essential. Quantification of severity is important in medical management as well as in determing the setting of care (Celli et al., 2004). At present, there is not a validated method for quantifying the severity of exacerbation. Generally, the intensity of the underlying COPD must be considered, as well as comorbidity and a history of previous exacerbations. In addition to these factors, the progression of the symptoms, response to therapy, and availability of adequate home care must be considered in order to decide whether hospitalization is necessary. However, grading of the severity of mild to moderate exacerbations remains contentious since they can be categorised either on clinical presentation (essentially symptoms) or healthcare use resources (Rodriguez-Roisin, 2006).

The most recent position paper of the American Thoracic Society and the European Respiratory Society (ATS/ERS task force) provide a three levels operational classification of severity of COPD exacerbations which allows to identify the best setting of care according to specific elements of clinical evaluation and diagnostic procedures. Level I: patient can be treated at home, Level II: requires hospitalization, Level III: leads to respiratory failure (Celli et al., 2004).

In the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidelines (update 2010), hospital-athome and assisted-discharge schemes are recommended as a safe and effective alternative to conventional hospitalization (Grade A), particularly for patients with less severe exacerbations. The same authors admit that, currently, there are insufficient data to make firm recommendations about which patients with an exacerbation are most suitable for hospital-at-home or early discharge, and patient selection should depend on the resources available, absence of factors associated with worse prognosis and patient's preference (NICE guidelines, update 2010).

The joint guidelines of the Spanish Society of Pulmonology and Thoracic Surgery (SEPAR) and the Latin American Thoracic Society (ALAT) indicate home hospitalization only for patient without signs of severity such as diminished level of consciouness, abnormal chest radiograph, hypercapnia with acidosis, significant comorbidities, need of ventilatory support (Peces-Barba et al., 2008).

The Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) guidelines (update 2009) state that "admission of patient with severe COPD exacerbations to intermediate or special respiratory care units may be appropriate if personnel, skills, and equipment exist to identify and manage acute respiratory failure successfully" (GOLD, 2009).

A first feasibility analysis of home-based services to prevent conventional hospitalization of COPD exacerbations was reported in 1999 by Gravil and collegues (Gravil et al., 1998). Subsequent controlled trials confirmed both safety and cost reduction when these types of services were applied to selected COPD patients (Cotton et al., 2000; Davies et al., 2000; Hernandez et al., 2003; Ojoo et al., 2002; Skwarska et al., 2000).

In a review and a meta-analysis including 7 robust RCTs (n=754 patients) Ram and collegues evaluated the overall efficacy of hospital at home schemes, showing that selected patients presenting to hospital emergency departments with acute exacerbation of COPD can be successfully treated at home when supported by visiting respiratory nurses at home. Authors suggested that approximately 25% of the patients with COPD who presented at the

Hospital at Home for Elderly Patients

Shepperd et al., 2009b).

**5. The Hospital at Home Service of Torino**

patients with severe chronic or relapsing illnesses*.*

2005, 2008; Tibaldi et al., 2004, 2009).

patients, as part of the HHS service.

telephone if problems arise.

neoplastic diseases.

activity are:

with Acute Exacerbation of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 381

for a limited time period. The key is that if the hospital at home service was not available, then the patient would need to be admitted to an acute hospital ward. In a systematic review of avoidance of admission through the provision of hospital care at home, 10 randomized trials involving elderly patients with medical condition were included (with a total of 1327 patients). For 5 of these trials individual patient data were obtained for metaanalysis, representing 87% of potentially eligible patients. Authors reported a significantly lower mortality at 6 months for patients who received hospital care at home, greater satisfaction and lower costs (if costs of informal care are excluded). (Shepperd et al., 2008;

In October 1984, with Resolution N. 1134/41/84, the Management Committee of the Local

In October 1985 a team of doctors and nurses of the Turin Department of Geriatrics started an experiment that was unique in Italy at that time: medical treatment (including examinations and related medical and nursing services) at home rather than in hospital for

The Hospital at Home Service (HHS) is operating in Torino at S. Giovanni Battista Hospital, a large urban University teaching and tertiary-care hospital (Aimonino Ricauda et al., 2004,

The HHS is a service that provides diagnostic and therapeutic treatments by health care professionals, in the patient's home, of a condition that otherwise would require acute hospital in-patient care. A quick admission to hospital is possible for examinations or interventions that cannot be carried out at home. Transport and acceptance are free for these

The HHS normally operates 12 hours a day (from 8 am to 8 pm), seven day a week. At night our Regional Emergency Unit ("118") can be contacted. For selected patients, medical staff is on-call 24 hours a day. Caregivers are instructed in the emergency plan and encouraged to

The HHS team, equipped with 7 cars, is multidisciplinary and consists of 4 geriatricians*,* 13

The main feature of HHS is that physicians and nurses work together as a team (Figure 1), with daily meeting to discuss the needs of each patient and to organize individualized medical care plans and day-to-day work. The three most important aspects of the nursing

The team looks after 25 patients per day and 500 patients per year, on average. The most common diseases treated at home are cardiac, respiratory, cerebrovascular, metabolic and

nurses*,* 1 nurse coordinator*,* 2 physiotherapists, 1 social worker, 1 counsellor.

for specialistic consultations or exams which can be done only in hospital

Health Unit 1/23 of Turin set up the 'Experimental Project of Home Hospitalisation'.

emergency department with acute exacerbations would be suitable for home treatment (Ram et al., 2003, 2004).

In conclusion, there is an international consensus on home care for COPD exacerbations, especially for less severe episodes, although data on specific characteristics of patients suitable for this form of care are currently insufficient. In addition, the confusion on definition of "home hospitalization" and "hospital at home" can make difficult to clear up this problem.

Intermediate care is a treatment model which bridges the interface between hospital and community care. A specific subtype of intermediate care is Hospital-at-Home. There is a consensus on defining "Hospital-at-Home" a model of care where "active treatment is provided by healthcare professionals in the patient's home for a condition that otherwise would require hospital care, always for a limited period" (Cochrane Database of Systematic Review, Shepperd et al., 2001). Many disparate models exist with the general nomenclature of "Hospital at Home", "Home hospitalization". These include usual community-based care, outpatient infusion centre, nurse-only outpatient care and the direct clinical unit model of care. These models have distinct features.

For patients with exacerbations of COPD, over the last few years there has been considerable interest especially in hospital-based rapid assessment units and early discharge or admission avoidance hospital at home schemes.

**Rapid assessment units** aim to identify those patients that can be safely be managed at home. These units generally involve a full assessment of the patient in the hospital by a multidisciplinary team and discharge to the community with appropriate support (e.g. nebuliser and compressor or oxygen concentrator, nursing and medical supervision from respiratory specialists, increased social support). Patients remains under the care of the hospital but General Pratictioners are made aware of the fact that their patients are receiving home care.

**Early or assisted or supported discharge schemes** aim to identify patients in hospital who could be discharge before they have fully recovered by providing increased support in their homes. These schemes involve getting people out of hospital as quickly as possible. In a recent review Shepperd and collegues have demonstrated that mortality and disability for patients recovering from stroke, COPD or surgical interventions are similar in hospital and in early/supported discharge services. Patients may also be more satisfied with their care at home, and at the same time their cares, in most cases, do not report additional burden. However, authors concluded that there is little evidence of cost savings to the health care system (Shepperd et al., 2009a).

The **admission avoidance schemes** provide active treatment by hospital health care professionals (doctors, nurses and other professional figures) in the patient's home, always

emergency department with acute exacerbations would be suitable for home treatment

In conclusion, there is an international consensus on home care for COPD exacerbations, especially for less severe episodes, although data on specific characteristics of patients suitable for this form of care are currently insufficient. In addition, the confusion on definition of "home hospitalization" and "hospital at home" can make difficult to clear up

Intermediate care is a treatment model which bridges the interface between hospital and community care. A specific subtype of intermediate care is Hospital-at-Home. There is a consensus on defining "Hospital-at-Home" a model of care where "active treatment is provided by healthcare professionals in the patient's home for a condition that otherwise would require hospital care, always for a limited period" (Cochrane Database of Systematic Review, Shepperd et al., 2001). Many disparate models exist with the general nomenclature of "Hospital at Home", "Home hospitalization". These include usual community-based care, outpatient infusion centre, nurse-only outpatient care and the direct clinical unit model of

Established models for delivering hospital-level care in the home setting exist internationally, including United States, Canada, Israel, Australia, New Zeland, Spain, United Kingdom, Italy, France (Leff et al., 2005; Lemelin et al., 2007; Stessman et al., 1996; Caplan et al., 1999; Montalto, 2002; Richards et al., 2005; Cerrillo –Rodriguez et al., 2009; Pérez-Lopez et al., 2008; Kalra et al., 2008; Wilson et al., 1999; Myles et al., 1996; Aimonino

For patients with exacerbations of COPD, over the last few years there has been considerable interest especially in hospital-based rapid assessment units and early discharge

**Rapid assessment units** aim to identify those patients that can be safely be managed at home. These units generally involve a full assessment of the patient in the hospital by a multidisciplinary team and discharge to the community with appropriate support (e.g. nebuliser and compressor or oxygen concentrator, nursing and medical supervision from respiratory specialists, increased social support). Patients remains under the care of the hospital but General Pratictioners are made aware of the fact that their patients are receiving

**Early or assisted or supported discharge schemes** aim to identify patients in hospital who could be discharge before they have fully recovered by providing increased support in their homes. These schemes involve getting people out of hospital as quickly as possible. In a recent review Shepperd and collegues have demonstrated that mortality and disability for patients recovering from stroke, COPD or surgical interventions are similar in hospital and in early/supported discharge services. Patients may also be more satisfied with their care at home, and at the same time their cares, in most cases, do not report additional burden. However, authors concluded that there is little evidence of cost savings to the health care

The **admission avoidance schemes** provide active treatment by hospital health care professionals (doctors, nurses and other professional figures) in the patient's home, always

(Ram et al., 2003, 2004).

care. These models have distinct features.

or admission avoidance hospital at home schemes.

this problem.

Ricauda et al., 2008).

home care.

system (Shepperd et al., 2009a).

for a limited time period. The key is that if the hospital at home service was not available, then the patient would need to be admitted to an acute hospital ward. In a systematic review of avoidance of admission through the provision of hospital care at home, 10 randomized trials involving elderly patients with medical condition were included (with a total of 1327 patients). For 5 of these trials individual patient data were obtained for metaanalysis, representing 87% of potentially eligible patients. Authors reported a significantly lower mortality at 6 months for patients who received hospital care at home, greater satisfaction and lower costs (if costs of informal care are excluded). (Shepperd et al., 2008; Shepperd et al., 2009b).


**2. Experimental Section**

Implant types used for this analysis were the following: Astra Tech–Dentsply Implants (OsseoSpeed EV, Mölndal, Sweden), Straumann (Standard Plus SLA Implant, Zürich, Switzerland), Nobel Biocare (NobelActive Internal RP, Zürich, Switzerland), Cumdente (AS Implant, Tübingen, Germany), Bioconcept (Tissue Level Implant, Jiangsu, China), Biodenta (Dental Implant, Bernek, Switzerland). The three implants from market-leading manufacturers and the correspondent three look-alike implants were purchased in the period between March 2018 and May 2019, either by ghost-shopping, where the ordering practice was reimbursed from the research fund or by direct order. In all six cases, the manufacturers or the respective distributors were not informed about the purpose of the implant order. None of the samples were provided free of charge. Prices varied from 191 euro to 322 euro for the samples of market-leading brands and from 78 euro to 276 euro for the look-alike products.

All of the six samples collected were carefully unpacked, mounted on the sample holder on carbon tabs without touching the implant surface, and analyzed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) in a particle-free clean room environment (according Class 100 US Federal Standard 209E, Class 5 DIN EN ISO 14644-1) to avoid artifacts from the ambient air (Figure 1).

**Figure 1.** Implant sample with a length of 10 mm mounted on the SEM sample holder.

The scientific workstation used was a Phenom proX Scanning Electron Microscope (Eindhoven, Netherlands), equipped with a high-sensitivity backscattered electron (BSE) detector. The detector for the energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and elemental analysis was a thermoelectrically cooled silicon drift detector (SDD) type, with an active detector area of 25 mm2.

The high-sensitivity BSE detector allows a magnification of up to 100,000× with a resolution down to 15 nm. This study used material-contrast images from 500× to a magnification of 5000×. Material-contrast imaging gave additional information about the chemical nature and allocation of different remnants or contaminations on the sample material.

In order to achieve a complete overview of the horizontally mounted implant sample and comprehensive surface quality information in high resolution, implants were scanned at a magnification of 500× in the "Image-Mapping" mode prior to the detailed analysis of potential impurities. This technique produces up to 600 single high-resolution SEM images of the implant surface that were digitally composed into one large image, with an extremely high resolution. The composed SEM image, showing the full size of the implant from shoulder to apex, made it possible to count particles in the visible field (viewing angle of approximately 120◦) and to identify areas of interest for a subsequent EDS spot analysis. After the mapping process, SEM images of impurities and other regions of interest were produced with 500×, 1000× 2500×, and 5000× magnification. In the next step, the elemental composition of particles was determined and, where possible, the differential spectra of particles were achieved to subtract signals from the core material and such focus on signals from the superficial contamination (Figure 2).

**Figure 2.** Workflow of the SEM/EDS analysis.

All of the analyses, as well as the complete setup, as described above were performed at the Medical Materials Research Institute, Berlin, Germany, which is an officially accredited (Deutsche Akkreditierungsstelle–DAkkS) and externally audited testing laboratory according to the international standards DIN EN ISO 9001:2015, ISO 22309:2015 and DIN EN ISO/IEC 17025. These standards were chosen as a precondition in order to assure testing procedures at the highest level of accuracy.

In addition to the SEM/EDS analysis, all of the implants in this study were provisionally evaluated from a surface topographical point of view by interferometry. All implants seemed to be in the moderately rough surface range, i.e., with Sa (Sa = arithmetical mean height of the surface) values of between 1 and 2 micrometers.

#### *2.1. Clinical Documentation of Analyzed "Look-Alike" Implant Systems*

A search for available clinical trial regarding the dental implant systems was carried out. Initially the website of each dental implant manufacturer was searched (www.biodenta.com, www.bioconcept.cn, www.cumdente.com). In addition, the manufacturers were contacted via their respective contact e-mail address on their websites, requesting any scientific documentation regarding clinical performance such as published papers or summaries of ongoing projects. If no response was received within one week, a reminder was sent.

Furthermore, a search for clinical trials was performed in the PubMed database (PubMed.gov, US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health). The search terms "dental implants" (MeSH) and "dental implants" (free text) were used in combination with the product name "Biodenta", "Bioconcept", and "Cumdente". No limits were set. (("dental implants" [MeSH Terms] OR ("dental" [All Fields] AND "implants" [All Fields]) OR "dental implants" [All Fields]) AND biodenta [All Fields]), (("dental implants" [MeSH Terms] OR ("dental" [All Fields] AND "implants" [All Fields]) OR "dental implants" [All Fields]) AND bioconcept [All Fields], (("dental implants" [MeSH Terms] OR ("dental" [All Fields] AND "implants" [All Fields]) OR "dental implants" [All Fields]) AND cumdente [All Fields])).


*Article* **Consumers' Willingness to Pay for Organic Foods in China: Bibliometric Review for an Emerging Literature**

#### **Rui Li 1,2,\*, Hsiu-Yu Lee 3 , Yu-Ting Lin 4 , Chih-Wei Liu 3 and Prony F. Tsai 3,5,6**

Received: 11 March 2019; Accepted: 8 May 2019; Published: 16 May 2019

**Abstract:** We conducted a bibliometric review on a small but promising body of literature on consumers' willingness to pay for organic foods in China. Results found that consumers' health consciousness, individual norms, consumer knowledge, food safety, environmental concerns, animal welfare, and purchasing power are major influencing factors for willingness to pay for organic foods in China. Notably, most research methods utilized are quantitative methods, leading us to call for the adoption of more qualitative, review, or mixed-methods. These findings increase our understanding of the knowledge structure of this emerging context-specific literature.

**Keywords:** willingness to pay (WTP); organic foods; China; Bibliometrics

#### **1. Introduction**

Organic food has proposed both opportunities and challenges for market consumers (and other stakeholders) in all of the world, especially in developing economies. There are numerous benefits that are associated with organic food; this includes the fact that it is better for the environment, richer in certain nutrients, healthier, safer, and good for the welfare of animals and future sustainability. Also, organic agriculture is gaining enormous popularity regarding providing food and income.

Willer and Lernoud [1] indicated that the total area in Asia dedicated to organic agriculture was about 4.9 million hectares of organic agricultural land in 2016, whereby the leading countries were China (2.28 million hectares) and India (almost 1.2 million hectares). Therefore, the rest of the global countries are left to share the 20%, which is shocking and raises concern on what influences the willingness of consumers to purchase organic food in emerging economies such as China, Brazil, and India. Nonetheless, some studies have suggested that domestic markets for organic food and products in emerging markets, such as China, have been increasing in the last decade [2]. Currently, there are more people that are willing to eat organic food as well as pay a premium price for it. This is mainly due to health concerns that are linked to inorganic food. Specifically, the demand for food quality is increasing in China, and the quality of food has become an essential component of food quality [3]. The change in attitude has mainly been influenced by recent health concerns in China. For instance, some of the health crises in China associated with food safety include: the baby milk incident, Avian Influenza (Bird Flu), and Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow disease). See a comprehensive review from the following book [3].

However, as has commonly been accepted by public, one of the major factors that is mainly associated with consumers' willingness to pay for organic food is the price, due to the fact that such foods have commonly higher prices. Based on such thought, the main aim of this study is to critically investigate various research topics that are found in agriculture, economics, nutrition, marketing, and food journals addressing the factors that influence customers' willingness to purchase organic food. The research will analyze the emergent but representative literature about Chinese consumers' willingness to pay for organic foods. This will be achieved through a bibliometric mode of investigation. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to critically explore Chinese consumers' perception of organic foods and their willingness to purchase organic food. The research question is: What are the major factors (addressed in the literature) that influence Chinese consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) for organic food and products?

#### **2. Methodology**

Bibliometric studies are used with the theoretical perspective that the examination of citations enhances comprehension of the growth of contributions within a particular scientific field; it can identify when papers were written, and the relevance of such a publication in the currently. If a publication continues to be cited over time, historical value is assumed, making the source considered as a primary reference. Moreover, bibliometric identifies key topics contained in those keywords in the field. Progressive use of a keyword across numerous works and time indicates important areas, concepts, or topics in a field. If there is a significant change in keyword usage over some time, it is an indication that there is a paradigm shift. In such perspective, this study will assess journals and other scholarly works to identify the aspect that influences consumers' willingness to pay for organic food and products in China. To our knowledge, there are not many published papers in the Social Science Citation Index, but it still has great potential because of its practical significance in the Chinese food market.

#### *2.1. Data Selection*

The selection of data from an extensive search of prior research in the field of consumer behavior, and specifically on the Chinese consumers' willingness to pay for organic foods was an important primary step in answering the research question, and framing the current study in the context of the wide research in the field. The first step in search of previous research involved checking through various databases such as Blackwell, Proquest, SSRN, and AgEcon Search. These databases were selected as they have a large pool of resources, with both published works and also working papers that are relevant in answering the research question under consideration. Moreover, most of the works published in these journals are original papers whose research has been carried out either quantitatively or qualitatively.

The researcher identified the keyword queries for the different sub-areas of Chinese consumer behavior in reference to their willingness to pay for organic foods. The keywords associated with purchase of organic foods by the Chinese are specific to that area, and are important in ensuring that all factors are explored, and the emergent themes from the analysis are exhaustive. The keywords used to address all the subareas of the research questions included; 'Chinese organic foods', 'willingness to pay', 'organic foods purchase', organic foods purchase intentions', 're-purchase intentions', and 'Chinese consumer behavior.' These keywords were used comprehensively for purposes of covering the multidimensionality of the Chinese consumers' behavior towards the purchase of organic foods. The search was intended to collect a large representative pool of original research that could allow this research to draw informed and fundamental conclusions.

Given that thousands of article results retrieved from the databases did not provide useful estimates and variables related to 'willingness to buy' organic foods among Chinese consumers, the researcher set a criterion that limited the scope to articles that precisely addressed the research problem and the research population. First, articles selected covering the concept of 'willingness to pay' were limited to those that focused on organic foods only. Other articles focusing on other aspects of food safety and sustainability such as pest-reduced foods, pesticide-free foods, and labeled foods were eliminated from this study. However, articles that focused on specific organic foods such as organic rice and organic fruits were included.

The concept of currency was also considered during the selection of the articles. Only articles published within the last five years were included in the study, limiting the articles only for those published between 2013 and 2018. The rationale for the time limit is derived from the fact that five years is a critical time in behavioral fields where adequate changes in customer needs and preferences can undergo significant changes. According to Simões [4], Chinese consumers, especially mature citizens, are very conscious about issues related to sustainability, and their behavior continues to change in alignment with their view of sustainable development. Since organic foods are related to sustainability in the long run, this time period was deemed appropriate in ensuring that the study reflected the current studies about Chinese consumer behavior in reference to the willingness to pay for organic foods.

The selected materials were also limited to Chinese consumers only. Most of the retrieved articles yielded results on willingness to pay for organic foods from consumers in other Asian countries, especially Thailand, India, Indonesia, Taiwan, and Malaysia among others. Since the inclusion of different Asian countries expanded the scope of the current study, only studies that were conducted from the perspective of the Chinese consumer were considered relevant for inclusion in the research.

#### *2.2. Data Collection Procedure*

The data collection process was conducted in stages. First, the primary search terms were used in each database one at a time. Then, the keywords were combined to form multiple phrases that refined the search and resulted in a wide range of results. The same procedure was repeated for all the databases until all the relevant articles had been retrieved. Articles were included if they meet the aforementioned inclusion criteria, otherwise the rest were not included. Only quantitative, qualitative, and systematic reviews that were peer-reviewed prior to publication were considered. Others such as newspaper articles and general commentary in economics were excluded. The study only utilized published works.

During the first stage of search, a total of 164 articles were identified as containing relevant information on the field of consumer behaviour, and especially the willingness to pay for organic foods. Due to the large body of previous research available for review and the broad scope of their literature, the inclusion criteria already identified was used to narrow the search. The abstract was used to refine the search and determine whether or not the article contained the required information. As such, all the articles that did not have an abstract were automatically excluded.

After the review of the abstract for relevant information, the sample of articles selected was reduced to 67 articles. Broad categories were used to eliminate policy papers and other articles that did not specifically address the issue of organic foods from the perspective of Chinese consumers. Reviewing the articles to only include those published about Chinese consumers and those written in English, or those that have a translated version, narrowed the search to 43 articles. The final exclusion criterion was the time factor, which limited the sample to 10 articles. Figure 1 below demonstrates the sampling process and the narrowing of the number of articles from 164 to 10.

**Figure 1.** Overview of the sampling procedure. **Figure 1.** Overview of the sampling procedure.

#### **3. Results and Discussions 3. Results and Discussions**

#### *3.1. Bibliometric Matrix Synthesis*

*3.1. Bibliometric Matrix Synthesis*  The results of the analysis of the selected articles based on the author, year of publication, title, methods, and results are presented in the Table 1 below. This analysis was important in performing The results of the analysis of the selected articles based on the author, year of publication, title, methods, and results are presented in the Table 1 below. This analysis was important in performing the bibliometric analysis of the characteristics of selected studies and their contribution to the study.

the bibliometric analysis of the characteristics of selected studies and their contribution to the study.

#### *3.2. Most Cited Keywords*

The analysis of the articles revealed intersecting themes including health consciousness, individual norms, consumer knowledge, food safety, environment/animal welfare, and nutritional factors. Some articles reported multiple themes. Figure 2 below presents the major themes emerging from the keywords most cited in the selected articles. Due to space in the figure, please find the caption's full description for each category in the main text. *Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2019**, *16*, x 7 of 12

**Figure 2.** Keywords that were most cited. **Figure 2.** Keywords that were most cited.

This figure has demonstrated that the major concerns for the Chinese consumers' WTP include the following. This figure has demonstrated that the major concerns for the Chinese consumers' WTP include the following.

#### 3.2.1. Health Consciousness 3.2.1. Health Consciousness

3.2.2. Individual Norms

The result from the materials disclosed in the sampled literature showed that the more conscious the Chinese consumers are about their health, the more their willingness to pay for organic foods. As aforementioned, the Chinese people have a positive attitude towards organic foods due to the understanding that organic foods are good for health, as opposed to the conventional counterparts that are chemical and toxin-laden. Yang, Al-Shaaban, and Nguyen [12] conducted a study in which health consciousness was depicted as the primary factor influencing the purchase intention of consumers towards organic foods. The study found that organic foods are preferred since they are often perceived by consumers to be relatively free from chemicals, and may thus be thought of as safer for consumption. As such, they are more willing to buy the types of foods they are sure to consume without suspicion or worries. The result from the materials disclosed in the sampled literature showed that the more conscious the Chinese consumers are about their health, the more their willingness to pay for organic foods. As aforementioned, the Chinese people have a positive attitude towards organic foods due to the understanding that organic foods are good for health, as opposed to the conventional counterparts that are chemical and toxin-laden. Yang, Al-Shaaban, and Nguyen [12] conducted a study in which health consciousness was depicted as the primary factor influencing the purchase intention of consumers towards organic foods. The study found that organic foods are preferred since they are often perceived by consumers to be relatively free from chemicals, and may thus be thought of as safer for consumption. As such, they are more willing to buy the types of foods they are sure to consume without suspicion or worries.

According to Gan et al. [15], Chinese consumers have become increasingly aware of health concerns in the country's food industry in relation to their general wellbeing. This notion was strongly held by the respondents in the study who demonstrated concerns about the quality of the water they are drinking and the foods they are consuming. The respondents also indicated that they constantly worrying about the conventional foods they eat due to the harmful chemicals and pesticides used to grow them. Others reported that were regular readers of health-related articles in books, magazines, and also in the newspaper. They also read the ingredients labels before making any purchase decisions to ensure that they do not pay for foods that have high levels of preservatives and additives. Gan et al. [15] attribute these tendencies to the rise in the number of health-conscious According to Gan et al. [15], Chinese consumers have become increasingly aware of health concerns in the country's food industry in relation to their general wellbeing. This notion was strongly held by the respondents in the study who demonstrated concerns about the quality of the water they are drinking and the foods they are consuming. The respondents also indicated that they constantly worrying about the conventional foods they eat due to the harmful chemicals and pesticides used to grow them. Others reported that were regular readers of health-related articles in books, magazines, and also in the newspaper. They also read the ingredients labels before making any purchase decisions to ensure that they do not pay for foods that have high levels of preservatives and additives. Gan et al. [15] attribute these tendencies to the rise in the number of health-conscious people

Many of the sampled studies have argued that individuals whose personal norms and attitudes are aligned with a positive attitude towards organic food products are more likely to demonstrate willingness to pay for organic foods compared to those who do not feel that paying for organic foods

people in China, who demonstrate preferences for organic foods, hence a high level of willingness to pay for organic foods as they are aligned with their lifestyle choices. The study also notes that in China, who demonstrate preferences for organic foods, hence a high level of willingness to pay for organic foods as they are aligned with their lifestyle choices. The study also notes that households with a history of consumption of organic food have fewer cases of chronic illnesses.

#### 3.2.2. Individual Norms

Many of the sampled studies have argued that individuals whose personal norms and attitudes are aligned with a positive attitude towards organic food products are more likely to demonstrate willingness to pay for organic foods compared to those who do not feel that paying for organic foods is the right thing to do. For example, Yang, Al-Shaaban, and Nguyen [12] found that Chinese consumers who feel they make a conscious choice to pay for organic foods, as well as those who believe that choosing organic foods is the right decision, are more willing to buy organic foods because their motivation is intrinsic and based on their attitudes.

In another study, Fang and Levy [5] found that there was a statistically significant relationship between the attitude of Chinese consumers towards organic foods and their purchase intentions. In this case, the study notes that the attitudes of the consumers are aligned with their personal norms, and there is a link between organic foods and the achievement of various values in life. The lifestyle of individuals is important in determining the values they give organic food products. If the value of organic foods is highly aligned with the achievement of life values, then Chinese consumers are highly likely to pay for the organic foods. In most cases, consumers who have a tendency to pay more attention to the foods they buy are more likely to pay for organic foods.

Yen [13] also provided valuable insight into this body of evidence by positing that Chinese consumers' willingness to pay for organic foods is influenced by self-congruity and the need to self-identify with the social self-concept. Respondents indicated that eating organic foods fits well with their image of self, is consistent with the way they view themselves, and has helped them reflect on who they are at a personal level.

#### 3.2.3. Consumer Knowledge

Bibliometric-based evidence from this analysis demonstrates that Chinese consumers are more willing to pay for organic foods when they have sufficient awareness about the knowledge of organic foods, the benefits of organic foods, the nutritional values, and health impact in the long-run. For instance, Gan et al. [6] also reported that the level of knowledge of the consumers regarding organic foods is related to their willingness to buy organic food products. The positive correlation confirms the notion that consumers who have a high level of knowledge regarding the benefits of purchasing and consuming organic foods are highly likely to pay for organic foods. Gan et al. [6] explain that since organic foods are credence goods, information is critical in influencing consumers to buy organic foods as opposed to other conventional food products that are readily available, cheaper, and at the convenience of the consumer. The results of this study are also consistent with Yang, Al-Shaaban, and Nguyen [12] to the extent that limited consumer knowledge is a key impediment to the willingness of consumers to pay for organic food products. As such, it is essential that marketers of organic foods take into account the knowledge level of the market, understanding the concept of organic foods and their many benefits. The more people become knowledgeable about organic foods, the more their willingness to pay for them.

Similarly, Liu, Pieniak, and Verbeke [8] found that among safe foods, green foods, organic foods, and hazard-free foods, organic foods are the less known among the Chinese consumers due to the limited efforts to enhance consumer awareness. The study found that only a quarter of the respondents were aware of organic foods. Knowledge level of a consumer is a primary factor in forming a positive attitude towards the purchase of organic foods.

#### 3.2.4. Food Safety

With the increased cases of scandals in the Chinese food system, food safety has become a major factor to consider when making purchase decisions, especially for consumables. McCarthy [9] noted that most of the food safety issues are attributed to the high levels of additives and pesticides especially in genetically modified foods.

Gan et al. [6] also support the notion that food safety is a major contributor of consumers' willingness to pay for organic food products. Health and food safety factors are important considerations that influence consumers to make purchase decisions in favor of organic foods. Organic foods are more nutritious in terms of vitamins and minerals, and they are also safe from pesticides, toxins, preservatives, and additives. With the increase in cases of food scandals in China, most consumers have become increasingly conscious about the safety of conventionally grown foods. The study also notes that there is limited information about food safety in China, which limits the extent to which consumers can make informed decisions. Increased awareness of the level of safety of foods in the Chinese markets can play a critical role in educating people to make informed health and nutritional choices that are good for their health.

According to Li and Xin [7], young Chinese consumers are motivated to pay for organic vegetables and fruits especially due to the recent food scandals in the country. Li and Xin [7] attribute the increasing demand for organic foods among Chinese consumers to the poor record of the country's food system, which has increased the desire of the people to demand for health and safe foods that are free from contaminants and other disease-causing elements. The study explores various scandals related to conventional food products from counterfeit eggs, gutter cooking oils to milk and baby formula adulterated with melamine. These cases are just an isolated few that raise food safety concerns, giving organic food marketers an edge in terms of the influence to meet consumer needs and expectations of safe foods.

Xie et al. [10] found that most Chinese consumers are highly willing to pay for organic foods because they are assured that the safety of the food is guaranteed. Organic foods are grown without the use of chemicals and pesticides that may have traces in the end products that is taken to the consumers' plates. A respondent was noted saying that she had found worms in organic apples several times, but that was an assurance that the apple was organically grown without any pesticides used to prevent the infection of the fruits by the worms. Another respondent also explained that she had previously worked in an organic certification body and she was aware of animals that were pumped with hormones and medicine, which was not the case in organically grown animals. As such, consumers are highly willing to pay for foods that are organically grown as that assures them of the safety of their foods.

In another study, Yang, Al-Shaaban, and Nguyen [12] also found that food safety was an important consideration in the willingness to pay for organic foods. Organic foods are safe for human consumptions as they are free from chemicals and other harmful substances that would result in ill health. Moreover, organic foods give consumers the confidence that they can consume the foods without fear or suspicion.

#### 3.2.5. Environment/Animal Welfare

The results of this study indicate that environmental and animal welfare concerns are related to a high willingness of Chinese consumers to pay for organic food products. A study conducted by Xie et al. [10] found that the majority of Chinese consumers are ethically minded when making consumption decisions, based on the increased cases of food fraud in the industry. Such consumers have a greater willingness to purchase organic foods as they are aligned with personal objectives of preserving the integrity, beauty, and stability of their households, and also the environment. A respondent in the study stated that the environment in which they live is free from plastic waste, pesticide bottles in the lands, streams and rivers, and it is such a beautiful place that they would wish it for the next generation. The respondents acknowledged the high costs of organic foods, noting that

they would rather eat less and preserve their health, the environment, and the welfare of animals than eat more conventional foods.

McCarthy [9] also found that Chinese consumers have a positive attitude towards the ethical principles that guide organic foods farming, including the care for the welfare of the animals. Despite the fact that health concerns outweigh the environmental concerns when making purchase decisions for organic foods, McCarthy [9] notes that consumers are more motivated to pay for organic foods that are linked to moral attitudes, the type of decisions that make people feel that they are doing the right thing for themselves, and for the environment. In this case, consumers are more likely to pay for organic products that are farmed under ethical and moral foundations, and those that ensure environmental conservation and care for the welfare of animals.

According to Zhu [16], the ecological motive has a significant influence on the intention of people to purchase organic foods, which then translates into their willingness to pay for organic foods. The study combines both environmental concerns and animal welfare into the ecological motive, noting that these characteristics are important for organic food consumers, as they are major determinants of whether or not consumers will pay for the organic foods as opposed to the conventionally grown foods. Zhu [14] cites several studies to affirm this conclusion by noting that previous research supports the results in terms of the positive ethical role that influences the purchase decisions of organic food products. The study also explains that organic foods consumers have a high sense of consciousness towards the environmental, and that is their major motivation to buy organic foods. This variable is also related to the self-identity variable, as individuals make the purchase decisions based on their belief systems of doing the right thing.

#### 3.2.6. Nutrition

Nutrition is a critical driver for the purchase of organic foods for Chinese consumers. Xie et al. [10] found that consumers of organic foods are reported to value organic foods because organic foods are laden with nutritional values compared to conventionally grown food products. A total of 65% of respondents in the study reported that they buy organic foods because organic foods are fresher and have a better taste. As such, Chinese consumers are more willing to pay for organic foods if they perceive that the food has more nutritional value compared to the other types of foods that are not fresher, healthier, and rural-like.

The findings in Xie et al. [10] are consistent with the results of the study conducted by Li and Xin [7]. The study found that people reported that organic foods are more nutritious, have a better taste, and are safer and good for human consumption. The labeling of organic food products is also important in providing transparent information that shape the consumers' positive attitudes towards the purchase of organic foods. Li and Xin [7] interpret the finding of the study in the content of a wider body of literature and note that other studies found organic foods to have a high level of minerals such as magnesium, iron, phosphorous, and vitamins such as Vitamin C. These foods are also very nutritious, hence the positive attitude of Chinese consumers towards the purchase of organic foods.

#### 3.2.7. Consumer Purchasing Power

The results of this analysis demonstrate that there is a positive relationship between the consumers' purchasing power and their willingness to pay for organic foods. Gan et al. [6] found that organic foods are expensive compared to conventional foods that are readily available. People with a high social standing are more likely to purchase organic foods as social markers. Education is also attributed to the increase in purchasing power of consumers in China as they have high incomes compared to their uneducated counterparts. Higher income households demonstrate a higher willingness to pay for organic foods because they have the ability to pay for a premium to derive the benefits of organic foods. They believe that organic foods are more preferable, nutritious, healthier, and more aligned with their social values as opposed to the conventional alternatives. On the other hand, price is also discriminative in the sense that consumers who want to consume organic foods cannot do so because

of the limited resources. Gan et al. [6] notes that the level of price sensitivity among Chinese consumers is very high, such that people make purchase choices that give them value for money. In this case, they are less willing to pay a premium to get organic foods when conventional foods are cheaper and highly convenient.

The results of Gan et al. [6] are also confirmed by findings reported by Xie et al. [10] in which the respondents reported that the high price for organic foods was a major deterrent to the purchase of organic foods, especially for young Chinese consumers. In Nanjing and Shanghai, the difference in the cost of organic and conventional fruits and vegetables was found to be very high for the average consumers to afford. Some respondents also indicated that while they understood the manual work and the high cost of organic farming compared to conventional farming, the premium price charged for organic farming made it very costly that most people could not buy. Nevertheless, the study found that most people regarded the cost of organic foods as necessary, hence a high willingness to purchase.

Xu, Su, and Lone [11] also found that price is a major determinant of the willingness of Chinese consumers to pay for organic foods. The results of the study support the premise that low food expense consumers are attracted to brands of rice that are affordable, hence low willingness to pay for organic foods. On the other hand, high expense consumers are willing to pay a premium price for organic rice.

#### *3.3. Nature of Evidence*

The majority of the studies were made of quantitative studies while the rest of the studies were comprised of mixed methods and systematic reviews.

Such results show an urgent call for utilization of more diverse methodologies, in order to broaden the possible scopes of findings. Quantitative investigation for the issue of consumers' WTP might be more suitable for mature/established research questions, while other methods (especially qualitative methods) might benefit from innovative explorations and thus could facilitate the growth of the literature.

#### **4. Conclusions**

The purpose of this bibliometric study was to understand the knowledge structure of scientific literature on Chinese consumers' WTP for organic foods. Due to the fact that there is limited research on the WTP for organic food in China, the bibliometric methodology was vital in gathering information that is likely to influence Chinese consumers' willingness to pay for organic food. The research question was answered with the findings. What are the major factors (addressed in the literature) that influence Chinese consumers' WTP for organic foods? The first relates to health consciousness, which reminds that modern consumers should be vigil regarding foods that can harm their health. The bibliographic analysis also indicated individual norms, consumer knowledge, food safety, environmental concerns, animal welfare, and purchasing power to be very important aspects that influence consumers' WTP in China.

Despite the various perceptions that are related to organic food, the purchasing power remains the strongest fact that should be considered when purchasing organic food [1,10]. As deduced from the study, it is clear that the level of consumption of organic foods in China is positively correlated to the income levels of the consumers. Despite the fact that most consumers may be aware of the health benefits of consuming organic foods, they do not purchase them because they are expensive compared to conventional foods that are cheaper and readily available. Although the various attributes identified can prompt a Chinese consumer to pay a premium price for organic foods, it is very important that advocates and marketers of organic foods consider the price. The price might be a major hindrance for the Chinese consumer to pay for organic foods. Nonetheless, it is evident that despite the premium price associated with organic foods, there are some consumers that are willing to pay more because of issues, such as the perceived health and nutritional benefits that are associated with organic foods. The nutritional value of organic foods is a major motivation that has a positive impact on influencing consumption patterns.

There are some limitations that might stimulate future research ideas. The goal of this paper was not to conduct a thorough check of the literature, but to draw attention and stimulate innovative and timely research thoughts by reviewing a small numbered, but critical and representative, set of papers (for a now arising market for organic foods). In such a sense, it makes sense to review the relevant articles in the past five years. However, the reviewed scope and number of papers could be completed for future studies in order to gain richer information.

**Author Contributions:** R.L. wrote the original draft of the paper; H.-Y.L. and Y.-T.L. were revisers for the first draft; C.-W.L. was responsible for the analyses; P.F.T. reviewed and validated the manuscript and was in charge of the revision and resubmission.

**Funding:** This study was partially supported by the Guangdong province characteristic innovation in University Fund's project: "Structure-conduct-performance" Model of Community Supported Agriculture in Guangdong province in China, as well as the Humanities and Social Sciences Research in the Ministry of Education, and Youth Fund Projects in the Border Areas. Funding for the collaborative path research for poverty alleviation (15XJC840002) is acknowledged. Also, this study was subject to the National Social Science Fund's general project "Study on the Synergistic Path of Tourism Accurate Poverty Alleviation and Traditional Village Rejuvenation in Ethnic Areas" (16BSH028).

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

#### **References**

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

International Journal of *Environmental Research and Public Health*


**3.3 Growing sterile explants for callus formation (Solid Medium M&S + kinetin and - kinetin)**

Two factors were considered during the cultivation process of Callus of Chicory, Rhodiola krylovii, and Beebalm. These factors were (I) Growth Media with Kinetin

*Obtaining Cell Cultures of Medicinal Plants DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104650*

#### **Figure 10.**

*(i) Sterile Chicory with sprouts after 2-weeks. (ii) Sterile Cambridge scarlet with sprouts after 2-weeks. (iii) Sterile Rhodiola krylovii with sprouts after 2-weeks.*

(+ Kinetin) and (II) Growth Media without Kinetin (-Kinetin) and the determination of percentage (%)contamination of callus in test tubes after 2 weeks was done to know the percentage contamination of each plants using different media.

Growth of callus was observed with samples in media containing Kinetin. However, there was 62.5–75% contamination in the media containing Kinetin, as shown in **Figure 11**. Chicory and Rhodiola krylovii had the same level of percentage contamination, which was 62.5% and less than the percentage contamination of Bee balm.

**Figure 11.** *Percentage contamination for callus formation (Medium M&S + kinetin).*

**Figure 12.** *Percentage contamination for callus formation (Medium M&S - kinetin).*

After 2-weeks, no sign of growth was observed from any of the samples in the media with no Kinetin and all samples were contaminated. As shown in **Figure 12** of growth media without Kinetin, the level of contamination was 100% for all plants, and no growth was observed in all plant cultures. Thus, this can be due to the absence of Kinetin, a plant hormone that helps induce callus and shoot regeneration formation. While the high level of contamination can be a result of the poor method of sterilisation and the efficacy of sodium hypochlorite, this agrees with the studies of Racoppi [102], which reported that the sterilising agent NaOCl (Sodium Hypochlorite) could decrease in its activity when all the parameters, such as temperature and pH, are not stable. However, if the temperature is slightly above 10 °C, this might increase disinfection activity since this enables easy incursion into the seed coat. Higher temperatures of NaOCl affected the morphology of seedlings, resulting in abnormal growth of hypocotyls and other parts of the plant cells. The unsuccessful result of no growth must have been due to variation in room temperature. According to Yildiz [57], change in temperature of (�1°C) can have an adverse effect on the plant, resulting in no growth (see **Figures 13**–**15**).

*Obtaining Cell Cultures of Medicinal Plants DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104650*

**Figure 13.** *Callus of chicory in solid culture media after 8 weeks.*

**Figure 14.** *Bee balm (*Cambridge scarlet*) and* Rhodiola krylovii *in solid media with no growth of callus.*

**Figure 15.**

*Stevia, chicory and bee balm (*Cambridge scarlet*),* Rhodiola krylovi*i in solid media showing no growth sign after 4 weeks of culture.*


**5.2 Mechanosensitive channels and Ca2+ signaling**

Mechanosensitive ionic channels are transmembrane proteins that form a pore structure across the cell membrane. These channels are linked to the cytoskeletal proteins; thus, changes in cytoskeletal stresses may open the mechanosensitive channels [94, 95]. Similarly, changes in membrane tension could also alter the channel configuration.

Several MSCs have been identified in astrocytes that are members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) family including TRPV4, TRPC1, TRPC5, and TRPA1 [96–98, 99]. Studies of sensory neurons have suggested that Piezo channels play an important role in brain cells [100, 101]. Piezo-type MSCs are also present in astrocytes that can be inhibited with specific Piezo channel inhibitor [102]. Using an astrocyte model, a recent study has shown that N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid receptors (NMDARs) are the primary Ca2+ source in astrocytes and fluid shear stimuli can activate NMDARs in the absence of agonists [57].

The fluid shear forces can alter the channel activities via several mechanisms. They can modify the cytoskeletal stresses, and the cytoskeleton under high tension can pull the channel proteins via their links. Many MSCs are known to link with the actin cytoskeleton with cross-linking proteins [103–105]. In astrocytes and neurons, α-actinin binds to NMDA receptors, providing a mechanical link between NMDA receptors with the underlying cytoskeleton [106]. Shear stress can also cause transient deformation and bending of the lipid bilayer, altering the MSCs directly [107–109]. Most likely, both mechanisms are correlated.


**1. Introduction**

This chapter aims to provide a conceptual framework of conflicts and social capital (SC) in organizations. These two variables are multifaceted theoretical concepts; conflicts and their positive and negative consequences have been studied intensively, while conflicts are usually categorized as negative behavior and as one of the "dark side" constructs such as aggression, incivility, deviance and bullying [1], but most of the conflict researchers also mention

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their positive consequences such as promoting subjects and finding solutions [2]. De Dreu and Gelfand [1] divided conflict management in organizations into three levels such as the individual level, the group level, and the organizational level. They claimed that each level of conflict can result in either harming or improving the quality of performance and satisfaction in organizations. The outcome (positive or negative) depends on the context of the conflict. The argument of this chapter is that an important contextual variable is SC. In this chapter, the author introduces the effect of social capital (SC) in various organizational levels and discusses its possible influence on organizational conflicts.

indicator of overall conflict. Considering the similarity of Amason et al.'s [6] types and Jehn's [7, 8] dimensions, the relationship conflict can be defined as an "A-type" conflict, and the task

Conflicts and Social Capital in Organizations http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73387 55

Avgar [9, 10] claimed that task conflict, that is, "C-type" conflict, amplifies the social capital in organizations, and relationship conflict, that is, "A-type" conflict reduces it. However, this statement is general because SC is a complex concept, and there are three levels of SC in organizations, and each level can influence conflicts and be affected by conflicts differently. The

Social capital (SC) is a comprehensive concept, which refers to the benefits derived from interactions between people. The concept of SC became widespread following Jane Jacobs' study in 1961. In her book: "The Death and Life of Great American Cities," Jacobs [10] argued that interpersonal relations that are based on trust, cooperation, common goals, and common activities can lead to better quality of life in urban neighborhoods, and eventually will raise the property values.

Leaning toward this observation, Coleman [11] looked at the concept of "SC" as a bridge between sociology [12, 13] and economics [14], that is, social connections that lead to a mea-

There are many definitions of SC, Putnam [4], for example, claimed that SC refers to features of social organization such as trust, norms, and networks. SC is a relational resource [11], and its function appears to be related to enabling some societal good within the boundary of a specific social level. Because SC is a broad concept, researchers tried to make it more accurate

Halpern [16] distinguished between three levels of SC in the upbringing and educational research: SC at the microlevel—the family level, SC at the macrolevel—state level, and a level that is in-between—the community level. Similar to Halpern's [16] typology, the SC in organizations is also divided into three levels such as personal SC, intraorganizational SC, and the

The first level of SC refers to the individual's profit from his/her positioning in social networks [17] inside and outside of the organization. Stofer et al. [18] defined personal SC as the set of resources that individuals bring to the performance of their tasks through their own

Personal SC is measured by parameters such as the number of social relationships the individual maintains in the organization and their hierarchical level, the number of social events to which he/she is invited, the degree to which he/she attends these events, and the individual's

next section introduces the concept of SC and its levels in organizations.

and refine it by distinguishing between its different levels [15].

involvement in various activities in the organization, est. [19, 20].

conflict can be defined as a "C-type" conflict.

**3. Social capital (SC)**

surable intangible asset.

macro level—external SC [15].

**3.1. Personal SC**

personal relations.

SC has many definitions and segmentations; it is considered a "positive psychology" variable [3] because it refers to the benefits derived from social interactions [4, 5]. The interface between organizational conflicts and SC is interesting because of their contrasting nature. Moreover, SC can lead to conflicts, and conflicts can lead to SC in every organizational level.

In order to make the discussion about conflicts simpler and clearer, the author prefers to use the segmentation of "A-type" and "C-type" conflicts, according to Amason et al. [6] and tries to examine their compound relationship with different levels of SC in organizations, that is, personal, intraorganizational, and external SC.


*Editorial* **Mineralogical Crystallography Volume II**

**Vladislav V. Gurzhiy**

Department of Crystallography, Institute of Earth Sciences, St. Petersburg State University, University Emb. 7/9, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia<EMAIL_ADDRESS>or<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
The International Mineralogical Association and UNESCO celebrates 2022—the Year of Mineralogy. However, this year was not chosen randomly. Indeed, 2022 is the bicentennial of the death of René Just Haüy (born 1743), who is considered to be one of the founders of crystallography and mineralogy in their modern state. The year 1822 also marks the publication of Haüy's *Traité de minéralogy* and *Traité de cristallographie*. Mineralogy is one of the oldest branches of science, with its origin in at least antic times, but its scientific renaissance started a little more than a century ago, when precise crystallographic studies, such as X-ray structural analysis (mainly, but not only), significantly improved the value of research results. Since the first decade of the XX century, mineralogy and crystallography together have played a key role in our everyday lives.

Various scientific events are being held around the world under the auspices of this landmark event, the Year of Mineralogy, and it is highly satisfying that this Special Issue "Mineralogical Crystallography Volume II" is published in 2022. The first volume of the "Mineralogical Crystallography" Special Issue [1] consisted of such topics as: Discovery of new mineral species; Crystal chemistry of minerals and their synthetic analogs; Behavior of minerals at non-ambient conditions; Biomineralogy; and Crystal growth techniques, and appeared to be very fruitful. The Special Issue "Mineralogical Crystallography Volume II" covers the following topics: Crystal chemistry and properties of minerals and their synthetic analogs; Gemology; Natural-based cement materials; Biomineralogy; and Crystal growth techniques. Additionally, we hope that this continuation will be just as successful, and that the new set of papers will again arouse genuine interest among readers and, perhaps, inspire them in their own successful research. We also believe that with the current collection of papers, we will be able to pay tribute to the union of Mineralogy and Crystallography.

## **1. Crystal Chemistry and Properties of Minerals and Their Synthetic Analogs**

Gurzhiy et al. [2] reviewed the state of the art within the structural chemistry of uranyl carbonate minerals and mineral-related synthetic compounds. It was shown that the majority of synthetic analogs of uranyl carbonate minerals were grown from aqueous systems at room temperature, which indicates that the formation of these minerals in nature does not need any specific thermodynamic (increased P and T) conditions, as was assumed for other uranyl-bearing systems.

Kornyakov and Krivovichev [3] report on the crystallization of two novel synthetic phases with structures based on layers of oxocentered (OCu4) tetrahedra, which were previously described in the structure of mineral shchurovskyite.

Huber et al. [4] have studied optical and spectroscopic characteristics of a number of *REE*-bearing (rare earth elements) minerals, such as loparite, lorenzenite, titanite, apatite and others, from massifs of Kola Peninsula (Khibiny, Lovozero, Afrikanda, and Kovdor), which can be regarded as indicator phases in intrusions of ultramafic and alkaline rocks.

The next two papers report on the synthesis and investigation of mineral-related materials with unique sorption characteristics. Samburov et al. [5] have synthesized an analog of the ivanykite mineral and studied its Pb sorption characteristics from model

**Citation:** Gurzhiy, V.V. Mineralogical Crystallography Volume II. *Crystals* **2022**, *12*, 1631. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/cryst12111631

Received: 2 November 2022 Accepted: 10 November 2022 Published: 13 November 2022

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solutions. The maximal sorption capacity reached 400 mg/g at ambient conditions, which is very promising for metal excretion.

Kong and Jiang [6] suggest a protocol for zeolite material preparation from the coal gangue that is enriched by Fe and high quartz content. Technology includes preliminary calcination and leaching, and further activation by sodium carbonate at heating. This procedure appears to be less laborious and with higher product purity.

A further two papers that can be fitted within this chapter deal with the determination of H2O molecules in structures of minerals. Wu et al. [7] have studied kaolinite and its polytype dickite by the means of near-IR spectroscopy, which helps to distinguish outer Al-OH bending vibrations at c.a. 4600 cm−1 and overtones of Al-OH stretching vibrations in the range of 7000–7250 cm−1.

Using FTIR, Zuo et al. [8] have found the presence of H2O molecules in the crystal structure of alkali feldspar within channels with preferable (001) orientation. It is suggested that this water plays an important role in the mechanisms of feldspar alteration and water preservation in nominally anhydrous minerals in Earth's depths.

#### **2. Gemology**

Wang et al. [9] report that there are two types of H2O molecules that are arranged in the crystal structure of beryl. It was shown that Fe2+ − Al3+ hetero-valent substitution shifts color of blue-green beryl from yellow to blue, which is also accompanied by an increase in H2O content, whose symmetry axis is perpendicular to the *c*-axis.

Zhang et al. [10] have studied apatite of Paraiba-like color from Madagascar. It was shown that studied samples belong to the fluorapatite mineral species. The F/Cl ratio suggests the magmatic origin of apatites, and their fascinating greenish-blue color is caused by the presence of *REE* (Ce and Nd) elements and crystal structure distortion effects.

Peng et al. [11] report on the comprehensive experimental characterization of the natural forsterite crystals from a new locality in Jian forsterite jade (China). This Mgbearing end member of the olivine group material is remarkable due to the enrichment in B, which comes from H and B substitution for Si.

#### **3. Natural-Based Cement Materials**

Costafreda and Martín [12] studied bentonites from the San José–Los Escullos deposit (Spain) that can be used in manufacturing durable cements and concretes. The studied rocks contain various clay and phyllosilicate minerals such as smectites of the montmorillonite variety, illite, vermiculite, biotite, muscovite, kaolinite, chlorite, etc. The conducted experiments demonstrated the pozzolanic character of the bentonites, which is very promising in the manufacture of pozzolanic cements.

In the second paper of this workgroup, Martín et al. [13] suggest a protocol for natural and calcined fluorite usage in the manufacture of cements. The authors showed that involvement of local fluorite deposits can help mining companies to reduce CO2 emission and energy costs in the production of cement with good pozzolanic and mechanical properties.

Belmonte et al. [14] describe the pathway of the new cementitious material synthesis that can undergo self-healing, due to the addition of calcium nitrate to Portland cement. This results in the increase in the amount of ettringite crystals and sealing of fissures by them.

#### **4. Biomineralogy**

Pramono et al. [15] have successfully synthesized hydroxyapatite composite with spinel fittings using bovine bones, beverage Al cans and Mg (as the only commercial reagent). It was shown that the decrease in Al particle size increases hardness and reduces the porosity of the novel perspective biocomposite material.

#### **5. Crystal Growth Techniques**

Wang et al. [16] have found that syntheses of barite, at room temperature, in the presence of sodium and chlorine ions results in a low amount of rather simple morphologies, while a hydrothermal experiment significantly increased the variety of obtained crystal shapes. In addition, the dendritic type of crystalline barite can be considered as typomorphic for high temperature hydrothermal conditions, with an excess of Ba relative to sulfate ions.

Shakhgildyan et al. [17] have studied the role of gold nanoparticles on multicomponent glass crystallization, microstructure, and optical characteristics. It was shown that thermal precipitation of Au nanoparticles does not affect the crystallization and structure of glass and gahnite nanocrystals within the system, but strongly affects the optical properties of glass-ceramics.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Data Availability Statement:** Not applicable.

**Acknowledgments:** As the Guest Editor, I would like to acknowledge all the authors for their valuable contribution to this Special Issue, which is expressed in fascinating and inspiring papers.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declares no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


*4.5. Interproton Distance Determination via NOE Integration*

The NOE cross-peaks for all peptides were assigned from the corresponding ROESY spectra. Integration was performed based on Gaussian peak modeling to obtain the intensity of cross-peaks (I). The distance between the β-hydrogen atoms on the proline side-chain (regardless of stereochemistry) was set as the standard (1.77 Å) to derive the interproton distance for the cross-peak of interest using Equation (4). The distances (r) were grouped into short (≤2.5 Å), medium (2.5~3.5 Å), and long (>3.5 Å) for the depictions in the Wüthrich diagrams (Figures S39–S50).

$$\mathbf{r} = 1.77 \times 10^{-10} \times \left(\frac{\mathbf{I}\_{\text{standard}}}{\mathbf{I}\_{\text{NOE}}}\right)^{\frac{1}{6}} \tag{4}$$


*Edited by Philippe Blondel*

Bathymetry is the only way to explore, measure and manage the large portion of the Earth covered with water. This book ,presents some of the latest developments in bathymetry, using acoustic, electromagnetic and radar sensors, and in its applications, from gas seeps, pockmarks and cold-water coral reefs on the seabed to large water reservoirs and palynology. The book consists of contributions from internationallyknown scientists from India, Australia, Malaysia, Norway, Mexico, USA, Germany, and Brazil, and shows applications around the world and in a wide variety of settings.

ISBN 978-953-307-959-2

Bathymetry and Its Applications

Photo by Nkarol / iStock

## Bathymetry and Its Applications

*Edited by Philippe Blondel*

**BATHYMETRY AND ITS**

**APPLICATIONS**

**INTECHOPEN.COM**

Edited by **Philippe Blondel**


**3. Virtual gaming layouts**

In terms of gaming, a gamepad is an essential aspect concerning performance and accuracy in terms of computation for any rendered gameplay. For a competitive gamer or a noob or just a random player in the realm of shooting, chasing, drifting, controlling, precise allocating of targets, navigation view is of apex value and these are the aspects what determines the outcome of scoring the final win and emerging as a champion for the context on the perspective. Making the apex of head shot kills with the absolute precision and accuracy. All these prospects revolve around the control from the player and his ability of control from his associated device controller. The better the control the higher the probability on the chance of winning. There is a saying that accumulates and prioritize on the matter of selection for a controller that, more frames mean more kills and more frames means victory is at hand with absolute dominance. For competitive gamers it comes to down to the spilt second of a shot which determines the victory outcome for any gameplay.

#### *A Revolutionary Gaming Style in Motion DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100551*

According to the stats, the gamepad was invented and introduced in the year 1983 which got released later in the year 1985. But in that era of time, it was much complex and very hard to manufacture. After Technological improvements in the recent years, the scale and quality of gamepads has exceeded the gamer expectancy. Still despite all the advancements, it's still a very costly deal when it comes resolving around gaming setup and control efficiency of the associated peripheral devices. The apex root major fact to consider, would be the implementation of the wiring that is associated with its devices.

Next concerning gaming, the setup of gaming peripherals is what alters the course of achievement in terms of performance, efficiency, control and having the optimum machinery. The concerning factor on this issue is the aspect of cost. Cost brings down the scaling factor in terms of machinery and the control for its associative peripherals. Because the better the machinery the higher its cost will be. On the scaling of performance many factors change the perspective of usage and its ability to perform at its level of apex. Graphical computation, frame enhancement, memory mapping, process emulation, terminal sequencing, environment adaption, buffer render varies to a great extent when considering the machinery integration. This limits out the user experience in various states of matters considering for any kind or type of rendered gameplay in real-time interaction.

After the innovation of smartphone concept and its connectivity of control sparked the world, it completely changed the landscape in the realm of gaming and computing to a whole new level. Considering the modern day to day activities our whole assembly of work revolves around smartphones. These smartphone devices have become our daily companions in terms of usage and activity to a great extent. Various technical companies provide us with different sets of smartphones which comes well equipped with many sets of sensors and that is where the application comes to play. The application provides advanced functional utility features which comes well equipped with a variety of virtual joystick controllers/layouts (**Figure 9**). Each of the features provide real-time simultaneous interactive sessions in any given time of usage and activity for any type of gameplay (**Figure 10**).

To make the experience at the level of apex, the user could add and design their personal custom controllers/layouts accordingly due to the fact that, the application was built with the conceptuality of being user-friendly and the scope for its updating was also provided for real-time gameplay sessions (**Figure 11**). Along with the flow of time based on new release of games and their popularity with demand side by side attached with user needs, the layouts will be deployed with updates in each respective time of gameplay and collaboration.

The application had a collaboration with FAMICOM which has been built-in with the app and has an approximate of 31 games included which users can directly open and play (**Figure 12**). And if the user has personal games installed in their PC, then they can directly configure the layout from inside the game settings like an ordinary gamepad or controller. The application will integrate itself automatically. Next, the user just needs to assign the key buttons as per their desire and choice.

What sets this approach above others is the fact that, each prospective had its own set of layouts and if the user desired for any changes or alteration or modification one could make their custom personal layout as well because the user had the option for adding their design layouts. What makes this application unique because due to the fact that, the real-time interaction gameplay with simultaneous interactive sessions for any type of rendered gameplay environment.

For the virtual joystick controllers, its similar to physical gamepads and joysticks when plugged in and configured from user end for each specific key to key or button to button selection. The same functionality and perspective apply to the virtual controllers as well. So, the user can set each key button as per their usage choice and

#### **Figure 9.**

*Virtual gaming layouts for different variety of games.*

**Figure 10.** *Virtual gaming layout in a desktop real-time session.*

**Figure 11.** *Real-time gameplay session.*

**Figure 12.** *A collaboration integration from FAMICOM.*

then all ready for gameplay. The only difference was that it was virtual & remote and operated in a real-time dynamic session for simultaneous interactions among the associated devices.