**4. Telomeres in endocrine diseases**

#### **4.1. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)**

To the best of our knowledge, the first endocrine disease, in which telomere length was investigated, was polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) [43]. PCOS is characterized by polycystic ovaries, irregular menstrual cycles, androgen excess, and insulin resistance [44]. PCOS is a complex and multigenetic disorder, in which single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in several genes have been found to be associated. Phenotypes of the disease vary according to the ethnic origin, race, genetic factors, and other environmental factors [45,46]. In addition, no single etiologic factor was able to fully account for the pathogenesis of this disorder. Interest‐ ingly, patients with PCOS exhibited a significantly shorter telomere length than the controls after adjusting for age [43]. In addition, significant negative correlation between telomere length and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) was observed. There are several lines of evidences, which suggest that oxidative stress plays a role in the pathogenesis of PCOS [47, 48]. Telomere shortening can cause dysregulation of the insulin sensitivity, mitochondrial function, and Ca2+ metabolism [49,50], suggesting a causal role of shortened telomere length in the development of PCOS. Conversely, an elevated oxidative stress associated with the androgen excess, abdominal adiposity, insulin resistance, and obesity might play a role in telomere shortening.

#### **4.2. Cushing's syndrome**

Cushing's syndrome is characterized by excessive secretion of cortisol, which leads to increased mortality and severe morbidity, including cardiovascular risk, obesity, fatigability, osteopenia, and impaired quality of life [51]. These comorbidities are not completely reversible after the biochemical control [52]. Hyperstimulation of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and subsequent hypercortisolemia may also occur in several kinds of psychiatric disorders or life stressors [53]. Interestingly, these situations are reportedly associated with shortened telomeres, in which chronic stress and enhanced HPA axis are observed. For example, patients with depression exhibited shorter telomere length than healthy controls [54]. Telomere length of newborn baby was shorter in proportion to the stress levels experienced by the mother during her pregnancy [55]. The exposure to violence or neglect in childhood was associated with shorter telomere length either in children or retrospectively in adults [56]. *In vitro* analysis has revealed that high levels of glucocorticoid reduce a 50% of telomerase activity in lymphocytes [57]. In this aspect, to elucidate the reason why comorbidities of Cushing's syndrome are not completely recover after a biochemical control, Aulinas et al. [58] hypothesized that shortening of telomere might occur in Cushing's syndrome and evaluated the telomere length in patients with Cushing's syndrome. They evaluated 77 patients with Cushing's syndrome (59 pituitary adenoma, 17 adrenal adenoma, and 1 ectopic; 21 with active disease). Although mean telomere length in patients with Cushing's syndrome and age-, sex-, and smoking-matched controls were comparable, in the longitudinal evaluation, telomere length was shorter in active disease than controlled disease after adjustment for age. They also showed that dyslipidemic patients with Cushing's syndrome had shorter telomere length than non-dyslipidemic patients with Cushing's syndrome and total cholesterol and triglycerides negatively correlated with telomere length. In addition, inflammatory markers and serum levels of CRP and IL-6 were also negatively correlated with telomere length in patients with Cushing's syndrome [59]. These observations suggested that hypercortisolism might nega‐ tively regulate telomere maintenance through the production of inflammatory cytokines or lipids.

#### **4.3. Acromegaly**

might impair the regenerative capacity in response to liver injury, which might result in liver

To the best of our knowledge, the first endocrine disease, in which telomere length was investigated, was polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) [43]. PCOS is characterized by polycystic ovaries, irregular menstrual cycles, androgen excess, and insulin resistance [44]. PCOS is a complex and multigenetic disorder, in which single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in several genes have been found to be associated. Phenotypes of the disease vary according to the ethnic origin, race, genetic factors, and other environmental factors [45,46]. In addition, no single etiologic factor was able to fully account for the pathogenesis of this disorder. Interest‐ ingly, patients with PCOS exhibited a significantly shorter telomere length than the controls after adjusting for age [43]. In addition, significant negative correlation between telomere length and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) was observed. There are several lines of evidences, which suggest that oxidative stress plays a role in the pathogenesis of PCOS [47, 48]. Telomere shortening can cause dysregulation of the insulin sensitivity, mitochondrial function, and Ca2+ metabolism [49,50], suggesting a causal role of shortened telomere length in the development of PCOS. Conversely, an elevated oxidative stress associated with the androgen excess, abdominal adiposity, insulin resistance, and obesity might play a role in

Cushing's syndrome is characterized by excessive secretion of cortisol, which leads to increased mortality and severe morbidity, including cardiovascular risk, obesity, fatigability, osteopenia, and impaired quality of life [51]. These comorbidities are not completely reversible after the biochemical control [52]. Hyperstimulation of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and subsequent hypercortisolemia may also occur in several kinds of psychiatric disorders or life stressors [53]. Interestingly, these situations are reportedly associated with shortened telomeres, in which chronic stress and enhanced HPA axis are observed. For example, patients with depression exhibited shorter telomere length than healthy controls [54]. Telomere length of newborn baby was shorter in proportion to the stress levels experienced by the mother during her pregnancy [55]. The exposure to violence or neglect in childhood was associated with shorter telomere length either in children or retrospectively in adults [56]. *In vitro* analysis has revealed that high levels of glucocorticoid reduce a 50% of telomerase activity in lymphocytes [57]. In this aspect, to elucidate the reason why comorbidities of Cushing's syndrome are not completely recover after a biochemical control, Aulinas et al. [58] hypothesized that shortening of telomere might occur in Cushing's syndrome and evaluated the telomere length in patients with Cushing's syndrome. They evaluated 77 patients with Cushing's syndrome (59 pituitary adenoma, 17 adrenal adenoma, and 1 ectopic; 21 with active

fibrosis.

**4. Telomeres in endocrine diseases**

**4.1. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)**

148 Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome

telomere shortening.

**4.2. Cushing's syndrome**

Patients with acromegaly exhibit reduced life expectancy and increased comorbidities, such as DM, hypertension, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, and malignant diseases, which are also known as age-related diseases. Underlying mechanisms of these increased agerelated diseases are mainly explained by over secretion of GH and IGF-I; however, precise mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Therefore, we investigated the telomere length of peripheral leukocytes in patients with acromegaly [60]. Intriguingly, patients with acromegaly exhibited shorter telomere length compared with patients with nonfunctioning pituitary adenoma or healthy control subjects. In addition, telomere length in acromegaly was nega‐ tively correlated with the disease duration, suggesting that exposure to increased serum GH or IGF-I levels may reduce telomere length. *In vitro* analysis revealed that not GH but IGF-I increased the telomere shortening rate per one cell division in human skin fibroblasts. Furthermore, IGF-I–treated cells showed cellular senescence and increased expression of SASP-related cytokines (e.g., IL-6). It has been reported that the development of age-related diseases, such as DM and vascular diseases, is associated with cellular senescence and SASP [8]. Together with our data, it is suggested that cellular senescence induced by telomere shortening may be involved in the increased morbidity and mortality in acromegalic patients.

The underlying mechanisms of how excess IGF-I induces telomere shortening and subsequent cellular senescence remain unclarified. It has been reported that various factors, including ROS, defects in the telomere repair system, inflammatory reactions, and increased cellular turn over, cause telomere shortening [61]. Intriguingly, oxidative stress was enhanced both in GHtransgenic rats and patients with acromegaly [62]. In addition, it has been reported that IGF-I enhances ROS-p53 pathway and subsequent cellular senescence in cultured cells with a confluent status [63]. Bayram et al. [64] also reported that patients with acromegaly exhibited increased oxidative stress and DNA damage. Furthermore, the causal role of increased oxidative stress in telomere shortening has been reported. Human fibroblasts cultured under 40% oxygen, in which oxidative stress is increased, exhibited an accelerated rate of telomere shortening [33] and inhibition of the glutathione-dependent antioxidant system results in telomere shortening and senescence in human endothelial cells [65]. Taken together, although further investigations are needed, we speculate that the increased oxidative stress associated with the increased serum levels of IGF-I may lead to the telomere shortening in patients with acromegaly.


**Abstract**

In the introduction and the second part of the chapter, we discuss the Compton effect in general, and the modern viewpoint on the 2-dimensional carbon crystals called graphene, where graphene unique properties arise from he collective behavior of electrons governed by the Dirac equation. The Dirac equation in graphene physics is used for so called pseudospin of pseudoelectron formed by the hexagonal lattice composed of the systems of two equilateral triangles with the corresponding particular wave functions. The total wave function of an electron moving in the hexagonal system is superposition of the particular wave functions. The crucial step in the graphene physics is the definition of the new spinor function where spinor function is solution of the Pauli equation in the nonrelativistic situation and Dirac equation of the generalized case. The corresponding mass of such effective electron is proved to be approximately zero.

In the third part of the chapter, we deal with the Dirac equation and its Volkov solution and in the fourth part of the chapter, we discuss the Volkov solution in a dielectric medium.

The fifth part of the chapter, deals with the Compton effect derived from Volkov solution of the Dirac equation while the sixth part of the chapter, deals with the calculation of the Compton effect with ultrashort laser pulse, where the pulse is of the Dirac delta-function form.

The seven part of the chapter, deals with Compton effect initiated by two orthogonal plane waves. We solve the Dirac equation for two different four-potentials of the plane electromagnetic waves and we specify the solutions of the Dirac equation for two orthogonal plane waves. The modified Compton formula for the scattering of two photons on an electron is determined.

The conclusion eighth part involves possible perspectives of the Compton effect with regard to the scientific and technological meaning of the results derived in our contribution.

**Keywords**: Compton effect, Dirac equation, Volkov solution, dielectric, laser pulse, graphene, silicene.

© 2015 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**4. Results and discussion**

LGSS is in the evolution phase and most of the firms oppose adopting such type of strategy due to the change in routine work method into their operation. However, the presented framework will help the organization for improving sustainable performance through overcoming the barriers and constraints which come in front of the execution.

After the integration of these strategies, one can correlate the different functionality of these modern techniques. It has found that top management support, a culture of the organization, and team work are the crucial success factors for the execution of such a program [4, 8]. In the same way, there are certain challenges to adopt these strategies because of improper guidance and roadmap to achieve set objectives of the firm [36]. There is a need to find out such types of obstacles during the execution of the improvement program within a given time frame to take a competitive advantage.

The LGSS tools and techniques overcome the barriers and at the same type advanced statistical tools help to find out the root cause of the problems and also to find out the solution for such type of problems. Currently, most of the organizations want to implement such types of manufacturing philosophies into their operation to enhance productivity, on-time delivery, improved quality, and reduced cost. In the LGSS framework, the Define-Measure-Analyze-Improve-Control (DMAIC) approach helps to overcome the barriers of the Lean-Green approach to delivering the sustainable results.

## **5. Proposed plan for validation**

"The limitation of this work is that the presented framework has not tested statistically; in the future, the research will be based on an empirical study to be carried out in different industrial sectors." To validate the proposed plan, an empirical study taking a survey of manufacturing industries in which those practices are going on into their operation has need to be taken and then it should be statistically validated using SPSS-AMOS software.

In execution steps as shown in **Figure 3**, problem identification should be based on LGSS practices. Meanwhile, every problem that faces in the industry must be identified and solved by LGSS tools and techniques. Moving toward step 2, there should be an assessment of the current state of the problem to know the issues in the process. After that, the main drivers of the issues are associated with the inefficiency. Hence, the root causes using the fishbone diagram, 5 Why, DOE, etc. should be found out to deliver productivity to the system. After finding the root

**91**

**Author details**

Mumbai, India

Lokpriya M. Gaikwad1

\* and Vivek K. Sunnapwar2

2 Lokmanya Tilak College of Engineering, Navi Mumbai, India

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
provided the original work is properly cited.

constructive and important comments on the chapter.

I confirm there is no "conflict of interest."

1 Mechanical Engineering Department, Sardar Patel College of Engineering,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Integrated Lean-Green-Six Sigma Practices to Improve the Performance of the Manufacturing…*

cause of the problem, the best solution for implementation into practices should be found out. However, the best solution for the implementation should be sustained for continuous improvement. Everyone within the organization should be capable of finding solutions for the problems and sustaining the best solution into practice.

The LGSS approach reduces the negative environmental effect and improves operational, social, and financial performance. The integrated LGSS framework presented is based on theoretical elements such as tools and techniques, barriers, and enablers. Top management support and teamwork have a significant effect on execution of LGSS. The proposed framework provides a way of starting from project identification to finding a solution to the problem of implementation in a system/process. The stepwise framework of LGSS provides help to the operation manager to execute this sustainable approach irrespective of the size, culture, and type of industry. Providing this integrated approach, definitely, the organization can enhance its operational productivity keeping in mind socio-economic needs and global competitive pressure that force the organization to implement such type

The authors sincerely thank the editor and the anonymous reviewers for their

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93276*

**6. Conclusion**

of approach.

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

*Integrated Lean-Green-Six Sigma Practices to Improve the Performance of the Manufacturing… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93276*

cause of the problem, the best solution for implementation into practices should be found out. However, the best solution for the implementation should be sustained for continuous improvement. Everyone within the organization should be capable of finding solutions for the problems and sustaining the best solution into practice.


**1.1. Timeline for fuel cell development**

Fuel cell was first discovered by William Grove in 1839 when he thought it possible to produce electric current through reverse electrolysis by combining hydrogen and oxygen together. This awareness made scientists throughout the 19th century to conduct several studies until Francis Thomas Bacon, a British scientist, worked on developing alkaline fuel cells in 1958. This technology was utilized for NASA Apollo spacecraft program and was licensed to Pratt and Whitney. Through the research work of Thomas Grubb and Leonard Niedrach in 1960, polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) technology was invented at General Electric (GE). A small fuel cell was further developed in the mid-1960s by General Electric for US Army Signal Corps and US electronic division of the Navy's Bureau of ships. In the year 1970, GE developed a novel water-electrolysis technology for undersea life support leading to the US Navy Oxygen Generating Plant. The British Royal Navy adopted this technology in the early 1980s for their submarine fleet. In the 1990s, Los Alamos National Lab and Texas A&M University researched different ways of reducing platinum load required for PEM cells.

#### **1.2. Definition of fuel cell**

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (e.g., hydrogen, methanol, etc.) and an oxidant (air or pure oxygen) in the presence of a catalyst into electricity, heat, and water[4].

Economy benefits of fuel cells are possible as a result of its fantastic flexibility and features over conventional energy sources:

**•** Fuel cells produce clean energy through electrochemical conversion of the fuel. Therefore, they are environmentally friendly because of the zero or very low emissions.


3. Meteorological and hydrological aspects

The meteorological and hydrological observations, the study of the glaciers state and the measurement of snow cover parameters are relevant at the upper reaches of Transboundary Rivers. Collection and systematization of such data is a source of forecasting the water flow of the corresponding rivers. Scientifically based and promising scheme of the main water consumer development—agriculture in the lower reaches of Transboundary Rivers is entirely determined from the degree of reliability and availability of a database on the values of the total water flow. The existence and continuous functioning of a developed network of observational and measuring stations on the watershed of the rivers is necessary in order to ensure uninterrupted and reliable information on meteorological and hydrological parameters. Taking into account the mountain orography of the Central Asian water resources formation zone, full-fledged climatic information can be provided only by a dense network of observations.

Unfortunately, the current situation of the hydrometeorological information exchange between the relevant agencies of Central Asian countries does not meet modern requirements. A low level of the information interchange causes the use of incorrect data and the emergence of a scenario of climate processes far from the real picture. Moreover, they become subject to mutual distrust and sometimes the appearance of conflict situations. It is clear that the implementation of uninterrupted hydrometeorological observations and the study of the state of water bodies located in hard-to-reach mountain areas are associated with the mobilization of huge material, financial and human resources. This plan requires a joint effort of the countries in the organization of a developed monitoring network with the extensive use of automatic stations and remote sensing methods. Of course, the existence and functioning of the regional center is necessary to coordinate the work of separate structures for integrated monitoring in the countries of Central Asia.

#### 3.1. Vakhsh River Basin

River was measured at the Dupuly Hydropost, which is the only operating station on the Zeravshan River. To determine the mean annual value of the water flow of the Zeravshan and Yagnob Rivers for the period 1931–2011, the data of the Agency for Hydrometeorology of the Republic of Tajikistan were used. Sampling of water from the Zeravshan and Vakhsh rivers and its tributaries were used by the scheme (Figures 14 and 19) developed in [11, 20] accordingly. The complex chemical water analyses were carried out by methods described in [9]. Sampling of water for isotopic analysis was carried out according to the methodology developed at the University of Colorado at Boulder (USA). Isotopic analysis of water was performed on Wavelength-Scanned Cavity Ringdown Spectroscopy (WS-CRDS). The individuality of each river from the point of view of chemical composition of water is compiled by sampling of the tributaries to the confluence with the main river and with other tributaries [20] (Figure 1). The analysis of the meteorological conditions of the Pyanj River Basin and the dynamic change in temperature and precipitation were carried out using the date of the Agency of Hydrometeorology of the Republic of Tajikistan from the next meteorological station of the basin:

The meteorological and hydrological observations, the study of the glaciers state and the measurement of snow cover parameters are relevant at the upper reaches of Transboundary Rivers. Collection and systematization of such data is a source of forecasting the water flow of the corresponding rivers. Scientifically based and promising scheme of the main water consumer development—agriculture in the lower reaches of Transboundary Rivers is entirely determined from the degree of reliability and availability of a database on the values of the total water flow. The existence and continuous functioning of a developed network of observational and measuring stations on the watershed of the rivers is necessary in order to ensure uninterrupted and reliable information on meteorological and hydrological parameters. Taking into account the mountain orography of the Central Asian water resources formation zone, full-fledged climatic

Unfortunately, the current situation of the hydrometeorological information exchange between the relevant agencies of Central Asian countries does not meet modern requirements. A low level of the information interchange causes the use of incorrect data and the emergence of a scenario of climate processes far from the real picture. Moreover, they become subject to mutual distrust and sometimes the appearance of conflict situations. It is clear that the implementation of uninterrupted hydrometeorological observations and the study of the state of water bodies located in hard-to-reach mountain areas are associated with the mobilization of huge material, financial and human resources. This plan requires a joint effort of the countries in the organization of a developed monitoring network with the extensive use of automatic stations and remote sensing methods. Of course, the existence and functioning of the regional center is necessary to coordinate the work of separate structures for integrated monitoring in

Darvaz, Khorog, Dzavshangoz, Murgab and Gorbunov.

154 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

3. Meteorological and hydrological aspects

information can be provided only by a dense network of observations.

the countries of Central Asia.

The location of hydrological stations of the Vakhsh River Basin shown in Figure 2.

The increase in the volume of river flows of the Vakhsh River and its tributaries, Surkhob and Obikhingou rivers (Figure 3), shows that currently there is a reduction of the Tajikistan glaciations areas resulting in increased snow melt, probably due to the overall temperature increase in the region and changing precipitation patterns [6].

In the Surkhob River Basin, there are intensively melting small glaciers of the Northern slopes in the Western part of a ridge of Peter the Great. On the southern slopes of the Alay Ridge, glaciation decreases slowly as there are larger glaciers. In the Obikhingou River Basin, the largest glacier Garmo is intensively melting. During the twentieth century, it became shorter by almost 7 km, having lost more than 6.0 km2 in area. It is currently retreating at an average speed of 9 m/year and the surface settles up to 4 m/year due to melting. Another glacier in the same basin, Skogach, retreats at a rate of 11 m annually.

Another important aspect of the hydrology of the rivers, the cyclical nature of the water flow, should also be considered. Assessing the long-term fluctuations of annual runoff and their periodicity is important. On the other hand, there are attempts to link fluctuations in water availability with various geophysical processes. The lack of a clear periodicity in long-term fluctuation of flow does not rule out the tendency to have continuously alternating high water years, called cyclical fluctuations of water flow. The length of these cycles, their sequence and

Figure 2. Vakhsh River Basin with location of hydrological stations: 1-Tiger Beam (R. Vakhsh), 2-Darband (R. Vakhsh), 3- Garm (R. Surkhob), 4-Tavildara (R. Obikhingou), 5-Dombrachi (Kizilsu), 6-Davsear (Muksu) [6].

the degree of deviation varies over a period. It is not always possible to make clear boundaries between wet and dry periods. Cyclical changes of the Vakhsh River runoff for the period 1932– 2012 are shown in Figure 4a [6].

The presence of average annual water flows in the differential integral curve allows defining the periods of high and low water availability of the Vakhsh River (Figure 4b). It should be noted that the appearance of cyclicality in the water flow of rivers allows predicting the future

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Another important factor in the water flow change is the meteorological condition of the river basins. The analysis of the date from meteorological stations shows that in the Vakhsh River Basin (including the basins of the tributaries of the river) the change in temperature has an increasing trend (Figures 5b and 6). On the other hand, as it is shown in Figure 6b, d, atmospheric precipitation on the Kyzilsu River Basin has a decreasing trend with almost constant

As it was noted earlier, for the period 1960–2012, the water runoff in most of the rivers of the Vakhsh River Basin has an increasing trend. Thus, the increase in water volume and the decrease in precipitation give reason to believe that there is a continued reduction in the size

The deviation of average annual temperature at Zeravshan Glacier for the period 1931–1961 (a) and 1981–2011 (b) is presented in Figure 7. The period 1931–1961, as it can be seen from Figure 7, is characterized by low temperature and by high levels of precipitation in the form of snow. This suggests that the meteorological conditions during the period 1931–1961 were

Figure 5. Cycle of the Vakhsh River water flow for the period 1932–2012 (a) and dynamics of the temperature change in

scenarios of changes in the water flow of the river (Figure 5a) [6].

value on the Obikhingou River Basin.

3.2. Zeravshan River Basin

of the glaciers in the Vakhsh River Basin [6].

favorable for increasing the mass of the glacier [6].

the Vakhsh River Basin (Meteostation Garm) (b).

Figure 3. The water volume change of the Surkhob (a) Obikhingou (b) rivers for the period 1960–2012 [6].

Figure 4. The water volume changes of the Vakhsh River for the period 1932–2012 (a) and the differential integral curve of the Vakhsh River annual average water discharge (b) [6].

The presence of average annual water flows in the differential integral curve allows defining the periods of high and low water availability of the Vakhsh River (Figure 4b). It should be noted that the appearance of cyclicality in the water flow of rivers allows predicting the future scenarios of changes in the water flow of the river (Figure 5a) [6].

Another important factor in the water flow change is the meteorological condition of the river basins. The analysis of the date from meteorological stations shows that in the Vakhsh River Basin (including the basins of the tributaries of the river) the change in temperature has an increasing trend (Figures 5b and 6). On the other hand, as it is shown in Figure 6b, d, atmospheric precipitation on the Kyzilsu River Basin has a decreasing trend with almost constant value on the Obikhingou River Basin.

As it was noted earlier, for the period 1960–2012, the water runoff in most of the rivers of the Vakhsh River Basin has an increasing trend. Thus, the increase in water volume and the decrease in precipitation give reason to believe that there is a continued reduction in the size of the glaciers in the Vakhsh River Basin [6].

#### 3.2. Zeravshan River Basin

the degree of deviation varies over a period. It is not always possible to make clear boundaries between wet and dry periods. Cyclical changes of the Vakhsh River runoff for the period 1932–

Figure 3. The water volume change of the Surkhob (a) Obikhingou (b) rivers for the period 1960–2012 [6].

Figure 4. The water volume changes of the Vakhsh River for the period 1932–2012 (a) and the differential integral curve of

the Vakhsh River annual average water discharge (b) [6].

2012 are shown in Figure 4a [6].

156 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

The deviation of average annual temperature at Zeravshan Glacier for the period 1931–1961 (a) and 1981–2011 (b) is presented in Figure 7. The period 1931–1961, as it can be seen from Figure 7, is characterized by low temperature and by high levels of precipitation in the form of snow. This suggests that the meteorological conditions during the period 1931–1961 were favorable for increasing the mass of the glacier [6].

Figure 5. Cycle of the Vakhsh River water flow for the period 1932–2012 (a) and dynamics of the temperature change in the Vakhsh River Basin (Meteostation Garm) (b).

Figure 6. The average annual precipitation and temperature according to meteorological stations Lyakhsh (a, b) and Tavildara (c, d) for the period 1960–2012 [6].

The trend in temperature reversed during the period 1981–2011 compared to 1931–1961 (Figure 7b) and precipitation remained almost constant. The temperature change of the Yagnob River Basin for the period 1931–1961, as it is shown in Figures 7c and 6d, is similar to the Zeravshan River basin and has a near-constant value. A significant increase of the temperature is appears for the period 1981–2011 [6].

The average annual water discharge of the Zeravshan River for the periods 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 is presented in Figure 8a and b. The decreasing trend of water discharge for the period 1931–1961 can be explained by the low and near-constant value of the temperature resulting in the snow accumulating and expanding the glacier rather than melting and contributing to river flow. This interpretation is supported by the fact that Yagnob River water

Figure 7. The average annual temperature for the periods of 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 in the area of the glacier

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Zeravshan (a, b) and in the Yagnob River Basin (c, d).

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Figure 7. The average annual temperature for the periods of 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 in the area of the glacier Zeravshan (a, b) and in the Yagnob River Basin (c, d).

The trend in temperature reversed during the period 1981–2011 compared to 1931–1961 (Figure 7b) and precipitation remained almost constant. The temperature change of the Yagnob River Basin for the period 1931–1961, as it is shown in Figures 7c and 6d, is similar to the Zeravshan River basin and has a near-constant value. A significant increase of the temper-

Figure 6. The average annual precipitation and temperature according to meteorological stations Lyakhsh (a, b) and

The average annual water discharge of the Zeravshan River for the periods 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 is presented in Figure 8a and b. The decreasing trend of water discharge for the

ature is appears for the period 1981–2011 [6].

158 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

Tavildara (c, d) for the period 1960–2012 [6].

period 1931–1961 can be explained by the low and near-constant value of the temperature resulting in the snow accumulating and expanding the glacier rather than melting and contributing to river flow. This interpretation is supported by the fact that Yagnob River water flow has been almost constant during period 1931–1961 (Figure 8c). A completely different pattern in runoff is observed for the period 1981–2011 which experienced a significant increase in water discharge (Figure 8b) [6].

The hydrographs of the Zeravshan (a) and Yagnob (b) Rivers for the periods 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 is shown in Figure 9 that demonstrate that for the Zeravshan and Yagnob Rivers

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The period 1981–2011 for the Zeravshan River (Figure 9a) is characterized by a flow reduction compared to the period 1931–1961. According to the estimated data, the mean annual runoff for the period 1981–2011 is 5.36 km3 compared to 6.08 km3 of the period 1931–1961, that is a decrease of the mean annual runoff by 12%. The mean annual flow of the Yagnob River for the periods 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 are 1.02 and 1.04 km3 respectively, an increase of no more than 2% [6].

Impact of climate change on the water flow was calculated for Zeravshan River based on the

ΔQ ¼ Qi–Qо

where, Qi is total water flows for ith year and Qo is the mean annual water flow for the period

The trends in the flow of the Zeravshan River for the periods 1931–2011(a), 1931–1961 and

Figure 9. The hydrograph of the Zeravshan (a) and Yagnob (b) Rivers for the periods 1931–1961 (▲) and 1981–2011

water discharge is the maximum in July and June, respectively [6].

deviation of annual runoff from the mean (Figure 9) [6]:

1981–2011 are shown in Figure 10b and c [6].

1931–2011.

(■) [15].

Figure 8. The water discharge value of the Zeravshan (a, b) and Yagnob (c, d) Rivers for the periods 1931–1961 and 1981– 2011, respectively [6].

The hydrographs of the Zeravshan (a) and Yagnob (b) Rivers for the periods 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 is shown in Figure 9 that demonstrate that for the Zeravshan and Yagnob Rivers water discharge is the maximum in July and June, respectively [6].

flow has been almost constant during period 1931–1961 (Figure 8c). A completely different pattern in runoff is observed for the period 1981–2011 which experienced a significant increase

Figure 8. The water discharge value of the Zeravshan (a, b) and Yagnob (c, d) Rivers for the periods 1931–1961 and 1981–

in water discharge (Figure 8b) [6].

160 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

2011, respectively [6].

The period 1981–2011 for the Zeravshan River (Figure 9a) is characterized by a flow reduction compared to the period 1931–1961. According to the estimated data, the mean annual runoff for the period 1981–2011 is 5.36 km3 compared to 6.08 km3 of the period 1931–1961, that is a decrease of the mean annual runoff by 12%. The mean annual flow of the Yagnob River for the periods 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 are 1.02 and 1.04 km3 respectively, an increase of no more than 2% [6].

Impact of climate change on the water flow was calculated for Zeravshan River based on the deviation of annual runoff from the mean (Figure 9) [6]:

$$
\Delta \mathbf{Q} = \mathbf{Q} \mathbf{-Q}\_o
$$

where, Qi is total water flows for ith year and Qo is the mean annual water flow for the period 1931–2011.

The trends in the flow of the Zeravshan River for the periods 1931–2011(a), 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 are shown in Figure 10b and c [6].

Figure 9. The hydrograph of the Zeravshan (a) and Yagnob (b) Rivers for the periods 1931–1961 (▲) and 1981–2011 (■) [15].

4. Hydrochemical and ecological aspects

Figure 11. Water sampling side of the Zeravshan River and its tributaries [10, 11].

impacts are on children under the age of five [21].

4.1. Zeravshan River Basin

Water quality has become a global issue. Every day, millions of tons of inadequately treated sewage and industrial and agricultural wastes are poured into the world's waters. Every year, lakes, rivers and deltas take in the equivalent of the weight of the entire human population nearly 7 billion people—in the form of pollution. Every year, more people die from the consequences of unsafe water than from all forms of violence, including war—and the greatest

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From the international level to watershed and community levels, laws on protecting and improving water quality should be adopted and adequately enforced, model pollutionprevention policies disseminated and guidelines developed for ecosystem water quality. Standard methods to characterize in-stream water quality, international guidelines for ecosystem water quality and priority areas for remediation need to be addressed globally [21, 22].

The results of chemical analyses of the Zeravshan River are presented in Figure 12 which shows that the difference of the chemical content values of cations and anions of the Zeravshan river water before and after the Anzob mountain-concentrating combine (AMCC) wastewater dams is insignificant and does not exceed their maximum permissible concentration (MPC). It

is obvious that the Zeravshan River is not polluted by wastewater of the AMCC [10].

Figure 10. The actual water content of the Zeravshan River (a) for the period 1931–2011(a) and for the periods 1931–1961 (b) and 1981–2011 (c) [6].

A comparison of the Zeravshan glacier meteorological conditions for the periods 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 shows a changing trend in temperature. If the period 1931–1961 was characterized by almost constant temperature, significant increases were observed for the period 1981– 2011(Figure 7). A similar situation was evident in the Yagnob River Basin. The reduction of water flow in the Zeravshan River for the period 1931–1961 changed to a significant decrease during the period 1981–2011 from 6.08 to 5.36 km3 [6] (Figure 11).

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Figure 11. Water sampling side of the Zeravshan River and its tributaries [10, 11].

### 4. Hydrochemical and ecological aspects

Water quality has become a global issue. Every day, millions of tons of inadequately treated sewage and industrial and agricultural wastes are poured into the world's waters. Every year, lakes, rivers and deltas take in the equivalent of the weight of the entire human population nearly 7 billion people—in the form of pollution. Every year, more people die from the consequences of unsafe water than from all forms of violence, including war—and the greatest impacts are on children under the age of five [21].

From the international level to watershed and community levels, laws on protecting and improving water quality should be adopted and adequately enforced, model pollutionprevention policies disseminated and guidelines developed for ecosystem water quality. Standard methods to characterize in-stream water quality, international guidelines for ecosystem water quality and priority areas for remediation need to be addressed globally [21, 22].

#### 4.1. Zeravshan River Basin

A comparison of the Zeravshan glacier meteorological conditions for the periods 1931–1961 and 1981–2011 shows a changing trend in temperature. If the period 1931–1961 was characterized by almost constant temperature, significant increases were observed for the period 1981– 2011(Figure 7). A similar situation was evident in the Yagnob River Basin. The reduction of water flow in the Zeravshan River for the period 1931–1961 changed to a significant decrease

Figure 10. The actual water content of the Zeravshan River (a) for the period 1931–2011(a) and for the periods 1931–1961

during the period 1981–2011 from 6.08 to 5.36 km3 [6] (Figure 11).

162 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

(b) and 1981–2011 (c) [6].

The results of chemical analyses of the Zeravshan River are presented in Figure 12 which shows that the difference of the chemical content values of cations and anions of the Zeravshan river water before and after the Anzob mountain-concentrating combine (AMCC) wastewater dams is insignificant and does not exceed their maximum permissible concentration (MPC). It is obvious that the Zeravshan River is not polluted by wastewater of the AMCC [10].

According to Figure 13, in seasonal snow on the Zeravshan, Rossinj and Rama glaciers a

The isotopic analyses of water samples from the tributaries of the Zeravshan River: Sabag, Yarm, Samjon, Tro, Dehavz, Dihadang, Gusn and Dashtioburdon. Were carried out according to the methodology developed at the University of Colorado in Boulder. Analysis was performed on Wavelength-Scanned Cavity Ringdown Spectroscopy (WS-CRDS) and the isotopic composition of hydrogen and oxygen expressed in relative terms δ2

δ ¼ Rsample=Rstandard � 1 ∙1000‰

where Rsample and Rstandard relations 2H/1H and 18O/16О in the measured sample and the

The standard is ocean water (SMOW, Vienna, IAEA). Measurement precision was �0.05‰. At the isotopic analyses it was found that the upstream tributaries of the Zeravshan river

Figure 13. Chemical composition of seasonal snow on glaciers of the Zeravshan River Basin.

�, Cl� and cations Ca2+ and Mg2+ is observed.

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165

domination in anions SO4

δ18O [20]:

standard.

The isotopic composition (δ2

hydrological and glaciological researches.

2�, NO3

Figure 12. Results of chemical analyses of the Zeravshan River waters up to ( ) and after ( ) wastewater dams of Anzob mining plant [10].

The orographic feature due to the limitation of underdeveloped irrigated land determines the agriculture level on upstream of the Zeravshan River. Therefore, it can be expected that the runoff flow of collector-drainage water with high salinity to the river is negligible. An analysis of the histogram data (Figure 12) of the water composition shows that the Zeravshan river and its tributaries do not experience anthropogenic pressure in the upper reaches, and their mineralization is mainly due to the flushing of water coastal mineral deposits.

A similar phenomenon is observed while analyzing the content of heavy metals and distribution of heavy metals in the snow cover on the glaciers on the southern slope of Mount Elbrus due to their transport to long distances in the form of microparticles by an airflow [23]. Apparently accumulated contaminants in the snow cover and glacier during the melting process reach the river and spread out over long distances.

The choice of snow cover as a natural indicator to air pollution is actual because the snow effectively absorbs impurities from the atmosphere and deposits dry dust emissions from anthropogenic sources [24]. The concentration of pollutants in the snow is 2–3 orders higher than in the atmosphere. This allows measurement of the content by quite simple methods with a high degree of reliability [25]. In order to have information about the chemical composition formed from glaciers' water flow in the formation zone, a complex of physical and chemical analyses of seasonal snow on the glaciers of the Zeravshan, Rossinj and Tro of the Zeravshan River Basin and tributaries of the Zeravshan River emerging from these glaciers was conducted. The river Zeravshan, one of the major rivers of Central Asia, originates at a height of 2775 m. The annual flow of the Zeravshan River is on average about 5.2 Bln. m3 .

According to Figure 13, in seasonal snow on the Zeravshan, Rossinj and Rama glaciers a domination in anions SO4 2�, NO3 �, Cl� and cations Ca2+ and Mg2+ is observed.

The isotopic composition (δ2 H, δ18O) and deuterium excess is an informative indicator for hydrological and glaciological researches.

The isotopic analyses of water samples from the tributaries of the Zeravshan River: Sabag, Yarm, Samjon, Tro, Dehavz, Dihadang, Gusn and Dashtioburdon. Were carried out according to the methodology developed at the University of Colorado in Boulder. Analysis was performed on Wavelength-Scanned Cavity Ringdown Spectroscopy (WS-CRDS) and the isotopic composition of hydrogen and oxygen expressed in relative terms δ2 Н and δ18O [20]:

$$\delta = \left[ \left( \mathbf{R}\_{\text{sample}} / \mathbf{R}\_{\text{standard}} \right) - 1 \right] \cdot 1000\% \text{s}$$

where Rsample and Rstandard relations 2H/1H and 18O/16О in the measured sample and the standard.

The standard is ocean water (SMOW, Vienna, IAEA). Measurement precision was �0.05‰. At the isotopic analyses it was found that the upstream tributaries of the Zeravshan river

The orographic feature due to the limitation of underdeveloped irrigated land determines the agriculture level on upstream of the Zeravshan River. Therefore, it can be expected that the runoff flow of collector-drainage water with high salinity to the river is negligible. An analysis of the histogram data (Figure 12) of the water composition shows that the Zeravshan river and its tributaries do not experience anthropogenic pressure in the upper reaches, and their mineralization is mainly due to the flushing of water coastal mineral

Figure 12. Results of chemical analyses of the Zeravshan River waters up to ( ) and after ( ) wastewater dams of Anzob

A similar phenomenon is observed while analyzing the content of heavy metals and distribution of heavy metals in the snow cover on the glaciers on the southern slope of Mount Elbrus due to their transport to long distances in the form of microparticles by an airflow [23]. Apparently accumulated contaminants in the snow cover and glacier during the melting

The choice of snow cover as a natural indicator to air pollution is actual because the snow effectively absorbs impurities from the atmosphere and deposits dry dust emissions from anthropogenic sources [24]. The concentration of pollutants in the snow is 2–3 orders higher than in the atmosphere. This allows measurement of the content by quite simple methods with a high degree of reliability [25]. In order to have information about the chemical composition formed from glaciers' water flow in the formation zone, a complex of physical and chemical analyses of seasonal snow on the glaciers of the Zeravshan, Rossinj and Tro of the Zeravshan River Basin and tributaries of the Zeravshan River emerging from these glaciers was conducted. The river Zeravshan, one of the major rivers of Central Asia, originates at a height of 2775 m. The annual flow of the Zeravshan River is on average about 5.2

process reach the river and spread out over long distances.

164 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

deposits.

mining plant [10].

Bln. m3 .

Figure 13. Chemical composition of seasonal snow on glaciers of the Zeravshan River Basin.

are characterized by light isotopic compositions of the oxygen and hydrogen isotopes: δ18O (13.23: 13.43) ‰, δ2 Н (88.92: 88.32) ‰ and deuterium excess 16.92—19.21. This suggests that the observed fractionation is a result of the freezing and the accumulation that occurs in winter. In turn, the downstream tributaries of the Zeravshan river have the following isotopic composition: δ18O (11. 98: 11.61) ‰ and δ2 Н (78.45: 75.80) ‰. The obtained results indicated the existence of seasonal variations in the isotopic composition of precipitation and their influence on the isotopic composition of the river, in other words, the change of the ratio of rainwater, meltwater from seasonal snow and underground waters [10].

The location of tributaries of the Zeravshan River is shown in Figures 14 and 15. The comparison of the isotopic analyses results (Figure 14) with the scheme of location of the Zeravshan tributaries shows that as you move from the upstream to the downstream is the weighting of the isotopic composition of water of the relevant tributaries of the Zeravshan River. The main factor of this process is to increase the temperature and therefore the evaporation of water from the rivers [10].

Currently the Zeravshan River irrigates about 551 Th. ha agricultural lands (13% of the total area of irrigated lands of Uzbekistan). One of the most important indicators of the Zeravshan River in the downstream is the salinity that often reaches maximum values of up to 3.0 MPC. This trend continued during the entire annual cycle [26, 27]. The main source of pollution of the river Zeravshan on the territory of Uzbekistan is agricultural drainage water from irrigated lands [26, 28, 29].

A degree of mineralization was determined by measuring the electroconductivity of the water. The values of the electroconductivity of water in different parts of the flow of the Zeravshan river and drainage channels on the territory of the Republic of Uzbekistan shows the extreme values in the collectors and canals that indicate high degree of soil salinity (Figure 16).

The change of the concentration of NO3 along the entire length of the Zeravshan River with the exception of collectors and canals in the downstream of the river shown in Figure 17.

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Point 13 in Figures 16 and 17 corresponds to the section of the river on the border of Tajikistan with Uzbekistan. As can be seen in Figure 16, electroconductivity of water on the territory of Tajikistan is characterized by a minimum value 240 μS/cm and after crossing the border there is a sharp increase in electroconductivity of water. The results indicate that mineralization of the Zeravshan river water mainly occurs in a downstream of the river on the territory of

Monitoring of the Transboundary rivers water quality, identifying sources of anthropogenic pressure and taking adequate measures to eliminate them by the development of modern methods are effective tool for regulating the relationship between the components of the geoecosystem [10]. The chemical composition of the Vakhsh River and its tributaries have been

The scheme of water sampling shows the respected individuality of each tributary from the point of view of chemical composition by sampling of tributaries' water up to the confluence

studied by sampling the waters at the points indicated in the scheme (Figure 18).

Uzbekistan.

4.2. Vakhsh River Basin

Figure 15. Scheme of the Zeravshan River tributaries location [10].

Figure 14. The values of hydrogen δ2 Н and oxygen δ18 O isotopes for the Zeravshan River tributaries.

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Figure 15. Scheme of the Zeravshan River tributaries location [10].

The change of the concentration of NO3 along the entire length of the Zeravshan River with the exception of collectors and canals in the downstream of the river shown in Figure 17.

Point 13 in Figures 16 and 17 corresponds to the section of the river on the border of Tajikistan with Uzbekistan. As can be seen in Figure 16, electroconductivity of water on the territory of Tajikistan is characterized by a minimum value 240 μS/cm and after crossing the border there is a sharp increase in electroconductivity of water. The results indicate that mineralization of the Zeravshan river water mainly occurs in a downstream of the river on the territory of Uzbekistan.

#### 4.2. Vakhsh River Basin

are characterized by light isotopic compositions of the oxygen and hydrogen isotopes:

This suggests that the observed fractionation is a result of the freezing and the accumulation that occurs in winter. In turn, the downstream tributaries of the Zeravshan river have the

obtained results indicated the existence of seasonal variations in the isotopic composition of precipitation and their influence on the isotopic composition of the river, in other words, the change of the ratio of rainwater, meltwater from seasonal snow and underground waters [10]. The location of tributaries of the Zeravshan River is shown in Figures 14 and 15. The comparison of the isotopic analyses results (Figure 14) with the scheme of location of the Zeravshan tributaries shows that as you move from the upstream to the downstream is the weighting of the isotopic composition of water of the relevant tributaries of the Zeravshan River. The main factor of this process is to increase the temperature and therefore the evaporation of water from

Currently the Zeravshan River irrigates about 551 Th. ha agricultural lands (13% of the total area of irrigated lands of Uzbekistan). One of the most important indicators of the Zeravshan River in the downstream is the salinity that often reaches maximum values of up to 3.0 MPC. This trend continued during the entire annual cycle [26, 27]. The main source of pollution of the river Zeravshan on the territory of Uzbekistan is agricultural drainage water from irrigated

A degree of mineralization was determined by measuring the electroconductivity of the water. The values of the electroconductivity of water in different parts of the flow of the Zeravshan river and drainage channels on the territory of the Republic of Uzbekistan shows the extreme

values in the collectors and canals that indicate high degree of soil salinity (Figure 16).

Н and oxygen δ18

O isotopes for the Zeravshan River tributaries.

following isotopic composition: δ18O (11. 98: 11.61) ‰ and δ2

Н (88.92: 88.32) ‰ and deuterium excess 16.92—19.21.

Н (78.45: 75.80) ‰. The

δ18O (13.23: 13.43) ‰, δ2

166 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

the rivers [10].

lands [26, 28, 29].

Figure 14. The values of hydrogen δ2

Monitoring of the Transboundary rivers water quality, identifying sources of anthropogenic pressure and taking adequate measures to eliminate them by the development of modern methods are effective tool for regulating the relationship between the components of the geoecosystem [10]. The chemical composition of the Vakhsh River and its tributaries have been studied by sampling the waters at the points indicated in the scheme (Figure 18).

The scheme of water sampling shows the respected individuality of each tributary from the point of view of chemical composition by sampling of tributaries' water up to the confluence

Figure 16. The electroconductivity change of the water in the upstream and downstream of the Zeravshan River (Numbers in brackets points sampling in the diagram in Figure 11).

with the main stream of the river and up to the junction with another tributary. We carried out chemical analysis of rivers water and groundwater of the rivers' basin, the results of which are

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Figure 18. Scheme of sampling of water from the Vakhsh River and its tributaries [10].

The content of the chemical elements of the Vakhsh River is shown in Figures 19 and 20 that indicate that they do not exceed established maximum permissible concentration. This suggests that formation of chemical composition of the Vakhsh river water is mainly due to

The results of isotopic analysis of the Vakhsh River and their tributaries are presented in

For interpretation of the isotopic analysis results of the Vakhsh River and its tributaries, we analyze the state of glaciation in the river basins. In the Surkhob River Basin, there are intensively melting small glaciers of the Northern slopes in the Western part of a ridge of Peter the Great. On the southern slopes of the Alay Ridge, glaciation decreases slower as there are larger glaciers. In the Obikhingou River Basin, the largest glacier Garmo is intensively

During the twentieth century, it became shorter by almost 7 km, having lost more than 6.0 km2 in area. It is currently retreating at an average speed of 9 m/year, and the surface settles due to the melting of up to 4 m/year. Another glacier in the same basin, Skogach, retreats annually

present in Figure 19a, b, respectively [10].

leaching of mineral rocks [10].

Figure 21 [10].

melting [10].

at 11 m [10].

Figure 17. The NO3 concentration along the entire length of the Zeravshan River (Numbers in brackets points sampling in the diagram in Figure 11).

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Figure 18. Scheme of sampling of water from the Vakhsh River and its tributaries [10].

Figure 17. The NO3 concentration along the entire length of the Zeravshan River (Numbers in brackets points sampling in

Figure 16. The electroconductivity change of the water in the upstream and downstream of the Zeravshan River

(Numbers in brackets points sampling in the diagram in Figure 11).

168 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

the diagram in Figure 11).

with the main stream of the river and up to the junction with another tributary. We carried out chemical analysis of rivers water and groundwater of the rivers' basin, the results of which are present in Figure 19a, b, respectively [10].

The content of the chemical elements of the Vakhsh River is shown in Figures 19 and 20 that indicate that they do not exceed established maximum permissible concentration. This suggests that formation of chemical composition of the Vakhsh river water is mainly due to leaching of mineral rocks [10].

The results of isotopic analysis of the Vakhsh River and their tributaries are presented in Figure 21 [10].

For interpretation of the isotopic analysis results of the Vakhsh River and its tributaries, we analyze the state of glaciation in the river basins. In the Surkhob River Basin, there are intensively melting small glaciers of the Northern slopes in the Western part of a ridge of Peter the Great. On the southern slopes of the Alay Ridge, glaciation decreases slower as there are larger glaciers. In the Obikhingou River Basin, the largest glacier Garmo is intensively melting [10].

During the twentieth century, it became shorter by almost 7 km, having lost more than 6.0 km2 in area. It is currently retreating at an average speed of 9 m/year, and the surface settles due to the melting of up to 4 m/year. Another glacier in the same basin, Skogach, retreats annually at 11 m [10].

Figure 19. The results of chemical analysis of the waters and groundwaters of the Vakhsh River tributaries [10].

The weather and climatic conditions of the Vakhsh valley are warmer than in the valleys of its tributaries Surkhob and Obikhingou and consequently due to the evaporation process would have a heavy isotopic composition. However, the contribution of the water tributaries leads to the fact that the isotopic composition of water of the river Vakhsh becomes lighter [20].

Figure 21. The isotopic composition of water in the Vakhsh River and tributaries: 1, 2: Garmo glacier; 3: Surkhob river; 4:

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The isotopic composition of the Kyzilsu River is characterized by values δ18O = 13.36‰,

H = 96‰) and autumn (δ18O = 12.4‰; δ2

bution of glacial runoff is small and mainly occurs due to seasonal rains [20].

for the river, for example, for the Muksu River Basin, was observed.

Vakhsh river; 5: Obikhingou river; 6: Kyzilsu river; 7: river Muksu [10].

Consequently, it can be concluded that to formation of water flow of the Kyzilsu River contri-

Previously [20, 31], by analyses of the chemical composition of river water and groundwater in the river basins of Tajikistan, the processes of enrichment of underground water reservoirs by chemical elements of river water was suggested. Such a mechanism but in the opposite direction, that is, the conversion of reservoirs of underground waters to the source of water

The results of the isotope analyses of spring waters and groundwater basins of the rivers Muksu, Kizilsu, Surkhob and Obikhingou is shown in Figure 22. From Figure 22, we can see that the groundwater and spring water of the basin of the river Muksu by the values of the

H = 87.88‰ which is close to the values of the isotopic composition of the water areas with an average annual temperature above 0C (Figure 22). It was found that the isotopic composition of the Naryn River depending on the season changes in the following range: spring

H = 89‰) [20, 28, 30].

δ2

(δ18O = 13.4‰; δ2

Figure 20. The results of chemical analysis of the Vakhsh River waters.

In view of this, it can be approved that the rivers and Surkhob Obikhingou are fed by glaciers [10] and it can be assumed that precipitation mostly occurs in winter and isotopic compositions are significantly lighter [20].

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Figure 21. The isotopic composition of water in the Vakhsh River and tributaries: 1, 2: Garmo glacier; 3: Surkhob river; 4: Vakhsh river; 5: Obikhingou river; 6: Kyzilsu river; 7: river Muksu [10].

The weather and climatic conditions of the Vakhsh valley are warmer than in the valleys of its tributaries Surkhob and Obikhingou and consequently due to the evaporation process would have a heavy isotopic composition. However, the contribution of the water tributaries leads to the fact that the isotopic composition of water of the river Vakhsh becomes lighter [20].

The isotopic composition of the Kyzilsu River is characterized by values δ18O = 13.36‰, δ2 H = 87.88‰ which is close to the values of the isotopic composition of the water areas with an average annual temperature above 0C (Figure 22). It was found that the isotopic composition of the Naryn River depending on the season changes in the following range: spring (δ18O = 13.4‰; δ2 H = 96‰) and autumn (δ18O = 12.4‰; δ2 H = 89‰) [20, 28, 30]. Consequently, it can be concluded that to formation of water flow of the Kyzilsu River contribution of glacial runoff is small and mainly occurs due to seasonal rains [20].

Previously [20, 31], by analyses of the chemical composition of river water and groundwater in the river basins of Tajikistan, the processes of enrichment of underground water reservoirs by chemical elements of river water was suggested. Such a mechanism but in the opposite direction, that is, the conversion of reservoirs of underground waters to the source of water for the river, for example, for the Muksu River Basin, was observed.

The results of the isotope analyses of spring waters and groundwater basins of the rivers Muksu, Kizilsu, Surkhob and Obikhingou is shown in Figure 22. From Figure 22, we can see that the groundwater and spring water of the basin of the river Muksu by the values of the

In view of this, it can be approved that the rivers and Surkhob Obikhingou are fed by glaciers [10] and it can be assumed that precipitation mostly occurs in winter and isotopic composi-

Figure 19. The results of chemical analysis of the waters and groundwaters of the Vakhsh River tributaries [10].

tions are significantly lighter [20].

Figure 20. The results of chemical analysis of the Vakhsh River waters.

170 Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

The results of the monitoring of meteorological and hydrological parameters of river basins of Zeravshan, Vakhsh and Pyanj major tributaries of the Amu Darya show the individuality of each of them, demonstrating the significant influence of mountain orography on the development of climatic features. Therefore, the achievement of reliable data in such conditions is possible in the presence of a developed network of meteorological and hydrological stations in river basins.

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It is demonstrated by chemical analyses that the Zeravshan River and its tributaries in the upper reaches do not experience anthropogenic pressure and their mineralization is mainly due to the flushing of coastal water mineral deposits. Chemical analysis of the Zeravshan River water samples before and after the AMCC is shown in the insignificant effect of wastewater factory on water quality. The content of heavy metals in the river does not exceed maximum permissible concentration. The existence of seasonal variations in the isotopic composition of precipitation and their influence on the isotopic composition of the Zeravshan River water is observed. The isotopic analyses show weighting of the isotopic composition at moving from the upstream to the downstream of the Zeravshan River tributaries. The main factor of this process is to increase the temperature and therefore the evaporation of water from the rivers. The content of the chemical elements of the Vakhsh River shows that they do not exceed established maximum permissible concentration. This suggests that formation of chemical composition of the Vakhsh river waters is mainly due to

The results of the isotope analyses of spring waters and groundwater of the Muksu River Basin show that groundwater and spring water of the basin of the river Muksu by the values of the isotopic composition is significantly lighter when compared to river water and close to the values of melted glacier water. During spring, snowmelts at infiltration in underground reservoirs are accumulated melt water and at dry periods turn to sources of runoff formation of

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) supported this study

\*

1 Meteorology and Climatology Department of the Tajik National University, Dushanbe,

2 Institute of Water problems, Hydropower and Ecology AS & Tajik National University,

river. Of course, it will affect to the isotopic composition of river water.

leaching of mineral rocks.

Acknowledgements

Author details

Dushanbe, Tajikistan

Tajikistan

through CHARIS and PEER Projects.

Parviz I. Normatov1 and Inom Sh. Normatov2

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Figure 22. Isotopic analysis of spring (1, 3, 4, 5) and underground waters (2, 6, 7, 8) the basin of the rivers Muksu, Kizilsu, Surkhob, Obikhingou, accordingly [20].

isotopic composition is significantly lighter on average composition of river water and is close to the values of melted glacier water. During spring, snowmelt by the processes of infiltration, underground reservoirs are accumulated melt water and at dry periods turn to sources of runoff formation of river. Of course, it will affect the isotopic composition of river water [20].

## 5. Conclusion

Now the priority areas for the Central Asian countries are water and the effects of climate warming. The continued degradation of mountain glaciations, growing rate of population in the region and the problem of water supply of the population and economy branches have stimulated the search of scientific mechanisms, approaches to sustainable development at the national level and the solution to the problem of conflict-free use of water resources of transboundary river basins.

Integrated water resources management can play a key role in reducing tensions and conflicts between upstream and downstream countries of Transboundary Rivers of Central Asia on water issues, biodiversity and ecology of rivers and the rational use of water resources in the region. Certainly, the degree of implementation and effectiveness of integrated water resources management is mainly determined by the availability of reliable meteorological, hydrological and glaciological information and the degree of interchange between the countries of the region. High-level saturation of climatic information is achieved only at a continuous and consistent monitoring of climatic parameters of the region.

The results of the monitoring of meteorological and hydrological parameters of river basins of Zeravshan, Vakhsh and Pyanj major tributaries of the Amu Darya show the individuality of each of them, demonstrating the significant influence of mountain orography on the development of climatic features. Therefore, the achievement of reliable data in such conditions is possible in the presence of a developed network of meteorological and hydrological stations in river basins.

It is demonstrated by chemical analyses that the Zeravshan River and its tributaries in the upper reaches do not experience anthropogenic pressure and their mineralization is mainly due to the flushing of coastal water mineral deposits. Chemical analysis of the Zeravshan River water samples before and after the AMCC is shown in the insignificant effect of wastewater factory on water quality. The content of heavy metals in the river does not exceed maximum permissible concentration. The existence of seasonal variations in the isotopic composition of precipitation and their influence on the isotopic composition of the Zeravshan River water is observed. The isotopic analyses show weighting of the isotopic composition at moving from the upstream to the downstream of the Zeravshan River tributaries. The main factor of this process is to increase the temperature and therefore the evaporation of water from the rivers. The content of the chemical elements of the Vakhsh River shows that they do not exceed established maximum permissible concentration. This suggests that formation of chemical composition of the Vakhsh river waters is mainly due to leaching of mineral rocks.

The results of the isotope analyses of spring waters and groundwater of the Muksu River Basin show that groundwater and spring water of the basin of the river Muksu by the values of the isotopic composition is significantly lighter when compared to river water and close to the values of melted glacier water. During spring, snowmelts at infiltration in underground reservoirs are accumulated melt water and at dry periods turn to sources of runoff formation of river. Of course, it will affect to the isotopic composition of river water.


**1. Introduction**

Owing to the large bandgap of 3.43 eV, resulting in a high electric breakdown field of 3.3 MV/cm and in a low intrinsic carrier concentration, and to the large saturation velocity of 2.5 × 107 cm/s, GaN is one of the most promising semiconductors for the future energy-efficient generation of high-power, high-frequency and high-temperature electronics [1–4]. Besides the unique intrinsic material properties, one of the most attractive properties of GaN is the possibility to exploit the polar nature of GaN-based materials to form AlGaN/GaN heterostructures featuring a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) at the heterointerface with a high carrier density of over 1 × 1013 cm−2 and high mobility values exceeding 2000 cm2 V −1 s −1 [5,6]. AlGaN/GaN heterostructures enable the fabrication of high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) which can significantly outperform the

**Citation:** Calzolaro, A.; Mikolajick, T.; Wachowiak, A. Status of Aluminum Oxide Gate Dielectric Technology for Insulated-Gate GaN-Based Devices. *Materials* **2022**, *15*, 791. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ma15030791

Academic Editor: Fabrizio Roccaforte

Received: 16 December 2021 Accepted: 16 January 2022 Published: 21 January 2022

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

traditional Si power devices in terms of breakdown strength, on-resistance and switching speed, achieving higher power density and higher energy efficiency [7,8].

Nowadays, GaN-on-Si HEMTs qualified for 200 V and 650 V high voltage power switching applications with operating frequency capabilities in the MHz range are commercially available and on the way towards 1.2 kV applications using engineered substrates [1,9,10]. For targeting higher voltage capabilities up to 1.7–1.8 kV, current aperture vertical electron transistors (CAVETs) adopting AlGaN/GaN heterojunctions have also recently attracted significant attention [11–13], where the high conductivity of the 2DEG channel is combined with the better field distribution of the vertical device geometry, and hence with the capability of vertical architectures of achieving an even higher breakdown voltage without enlarging the device area, in contrast to lateral transistors. In addition, GaN-based HEMTs with downscaled gate lengths to the sub-100 nm regime have also been demonstrated to achieve maximum current gain cutoff frequencies over 200 GHz, which are well suited for radio frequency (RF) high power amplifiers for 5G and beyond applications [14–18].

Despite the potentiality of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs, one of the most serious problems degrading the device performance and reliability is represented by the exceedingly high leakage currents through the Schottky-gate contact, especially under forward gate bias, which limits the gate voltage swing and the maximum on-state current of the device, resulting in reduced power efficiency and weak device failure protection [19]. In particular, a small gate swing is a strong limiting factor for power switching applications due to faulty gate voltage overshoots often occurring in circuits, which can eventually lead to early device failures. Moreover, since GaN-based HEMTs are naturally normally on (or depletion-mode) transistors with a negative threshold voltage (Vth), normally off (or enhancement-mode) HEMTs with a positive Vth are highly preferred to guarantee safe operation and for the reduced power consumption in power switching devices [20,21]. However, since normally off devices require a large positive gate voltage to be turned on, the problem of gate leakage currents becomes even more critical in normally off HEMTs. Similarly, in RF applications, power amplifiers using Schottky-gate HEMTs can suffer from reduced gain and efficiency caused by large gate inputs, which can drive the devices into deep forward bias regimes [22].

The employment of a metal–insulator–semiconductor (MIS) gate is an efficient way to suppress the gate leakage currents of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs, enabling reduced power consumption, a larger gate bias swing and a better immunity to gate breakdown [23–25]. However, in contrast to Si-based devices, the introduction of an insulator in AlGaN/GaN metal–insulator–semiconductor high electron mobility transistors (MIS-HEMTs) is complicated by the absence of a high-quality native oxide for (Al)GaN. Trap states located at the dielectric/(Al)GaN interface or within the dielectric can lead to dynamic charge/discharge processes, which are especially critical in the case of wide bandgap GaN-based materials where the traps can be deeply located in the bandgap and can cause severe operational instability due to their slow detrapping behavior [26–29]. The instability of the threshold voltage in AlGaN/GaN MIS-HEMTs is one of the major challenges [30–33]. In particular, a serious Vth shift induced by the "spill-over" of electrons from the 2DEG channel towards the dielectric/(Al)GaN interface in forward gate bias conditions has often been reported [34–37]. Another problem is the degradation of the current linearity in the transfer characteristics of AlGaN/GaN MIS-HEMTs, which can be responsible for gain loss and the degradation of large signal linearity in power amplifiers [38].

Besides insulated-gate GaN-based transistors adopting AlGaN/GaN heterostructures, other emerging GaN-based devices in the form of MIS-FETs use a gate dielectric layer on a GaN channel, such as lateral hybrid GaN MIS-FETs [39], vertical GaN trench MIS-FETs [40] and vertical FinFETs [41]. Figure 1 schematically summarizes the main configurations of lateral and vertical GaN-based transistors employing a gate dielectric layer. A Schottkygate HEMT is reported for comparison in Figure 1a. Hybrid GaN MIS-FETs obtained by a fully recessed AlGaN barrier layer are especially attractive for normally off operation

and large gate voltage operation [42], while GaN trench MIS-FETs have drawn attention among other vertical transistor concepts since they are inherently normally off with a Vth > 3 V and do not need the regrowth of the AlGaN/GaN channels [43,44]. Similar to MIS-HEMTs, instabilities over the gate dielectric affecting the device performance can arise in GaN devices with MIS-FET configurations due to the trap states at the dielectric/GaN interface influencing the Vth and reducing the current drive capability or/and bulk or border traps within the dielectric itself, which might mostly affect the long-term reliability performance of the device [43,45]. Moreover, differently from the MIS-HEMTs, where the 2DEG formed at the AlGaN/GaN interface benefits from the spatial separation from the dielectric/AlGaN interface, minimizing the interface scattering processes [46], interface traps in GaN MIS-FET configurations are located in the proximity of the electron channel and are more prone to act as impurity scattering centers, additionally affecting the carrier mobility [47]. This is particularly challenging for transistor concepts including a recess of the AlGaN barrier layer, as in the case of trench MIS-FETs and vertical FinFETs, since the etching process can critically affect the properties of the dielectric/GaN interface [48].

**Figure 1.** Schematic of representative GaN-based transistors: (**a**) Schottky-gate HEMT; (**b**) MIS-HEMT; (**c**) hybrid MIS-FET with fully recessed AlGaN barrier; (**d**) trench CAVET; (**e**) trench MIS-FET; (**f**) vertical FinFET.

Therefore, regardless of the transistor concept and design, trap states need to be minimized to ensure the safe operation and long-term lifetime of the insulated-gate GaNbased transistors. In particular, a gate dielectric technology aiming to improve the dielectric/(Al)GaN interface and dielectric bulk quality is essential to enhance the performance of the device. In general, various insulator materials have been employed, with SiO2, SiN and Al2O3 as the most commonly used dielectrics [7,29,49,50]. The same dielectric layer deposited both underneath the gate as well as between the gate and the ohmic contacts of the source and drain usually functions both as the gate dielectric and the passivation layer [51]. The latter has been indeed reported to mitigate the effects of drain current collapse and leakage currents at the (Al)GaN surface due to the passivation of trap states at the surface [52–54]. However, even though excellent device characteristics have been obtained, trap states in MIS gate structures still remain one of the biggest challenges for insulated-gate GaN-based transistors, and the practical implementation of these devices has been hindered by the concerns over the gate dielectric stability and reliability [1].

In this paper, the current status of the gate dielectric technology employing Al2O3 for insulated-gate GaN-based transistors is reviewed. First, the relevant aspects taken into account for selecting a suitable gate dielectric for GaN-based transistors are highlighted and the influence of this additional layer on the device parameters and performance is discussed. Afterwards, the state of the art of Al2O3 as a gate dielectric is presented with a particular

attention to the recent progress in engineering high-quality Al2O3/(Al)GaN interfaces and to the performance of Al2O3-gated GaN-based MIS-HEMTs for power switching applications. Novel emerging concepts using the Al2O3-based gate dielectric technology are also introduced. Finally, the recent status of nitride-based materials emerging as other gate dielectrics is briefly reviewed.


**4. Production technology**

*Veganism - a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine*

**3.2 Nutritional and functional properties**

increase in the consumption of animal or meat products.

sources, are consistently related to nutrient adequacy.

palatability – are some major reasons for meat to rule over the diet of non-vegetarian consumers from pre-historic period. Various studies and surveys are conducted to note the increasing demand of meat in near future. It is expected that for 6 billion people around the world, in the year 2000, about 229 billion Kg of various animal products where produced; this will be doubled (approximately 465 billion Kg) by the year 2050 for 9.1 billion population [8, 9]. This hike in demand is not only attributable to the increasing population, but also to global economic developments including industrialization, urbanization, and rise in income, where another study illustrates that by the year 2030, meat consumption will be 72% more than the current statistics. Livestock farms were used previously to achieve the necessity of meat production [10, 11]. Today, limited natural resources like land and water and other ethical issues are some

In present scenario, about 20% electricity from total energy generated and 70% of water from total freshwater consumption is utilized for the production of food crops. Majority of thus produced crops and its wastes are used for the growth of livestocks in the form of feed and fodder, i.e., converting plant protein to animal protein for human consumption. Briefly, the reality is, when the world is facing food security and scarcity of natural resources, we are wasting majority valuable resources for the conversion plant nutrients to animal products. For instance, a study states that out of total grain and soy produced, 40% of grain and 75% of soy is used as feed. Then again, ideology of people matters a lot in order to put an end to these disputes. Studies conducted in various parts of the world give a common sketch that mostly, consumers who are health concerned is rarely diverting to the meat substitutes, and surveys shows that female population and educated people are more interested to substitutes animal protein than male population and lesseducated counterparts. Factors such as awareness of the negative health impacts of meat products, comparatively lowering number of neophobic people (who shows an extreme or irrational dislike towards anything unfamiliar or new to them), transition to plant-based diet, and publics who endorse to protect and care nature are some of the reasons for the growth and sustainability of meat substitutes; indirectly through which economy and sustainable development of a nation is influenced [12].

Consumption of plant and animal products always depends upon many reasons. One among them is their nutritional profile. From macro-nutrients like carbohydrates, protein and fat to micro-nutrients like vitamins and minerals varies drastically in both the sources. Due to the reason of palatability, it is commonly observed that consumption rate of animal products, including dairy and egg are always higher than the plant products. Concepts of higher biological value of egg, whey, etc. than the proteins of soy and other plant sources are also an inevitable factor for

From past decades, researches have provided sufficient evidences to increasing health risksdue to meat consumption.Animal proteins are usually associated with SFAs and plant proteins with fiber and phenolic compounds. This is usually reffered as "protein package" or "whole food package". Studies conducted among no-vegetarians, pesco-vegetarians, and vegetarians show that meat consumers are observed with higher energy intake along with high quantity of SFAs, vitamin B12, vitamin D, zinc, and iodine, while fiber, PUFAs, vitamin C, vitamin E are in lower concentration. Higher intake of nutrients and components like heme, cholesterol, etc. from animal sources, especially red meat, can cause to cancer, type-2 diabetes, stroke, heart disease, and metabolic syndromes. On the other hand, plant protein, regardless of the

of the inevitable challenges for the sustainability of livestock farms.

**72**

Invasion of plant-based substitutes in our daily diet has been started decades before, whether it is milk analog or meat analog. Many of the foods we consume today consists of plant protein and had been used as a source of plant-based protein long-ago to substitute and reduce the consumption rate of meat and meat-derived products. Some of the traditional recipes include mushrooms, legumes, tempeh, wheat gluten, and pressed tofu in which slight alterations are made sometimes by adding flavors to obtain final product that can successfully imitate the meat (lamb, chicken, beef, sausage, ham, etc.) in sensory attributes. Enlightenment on the health benefits of plant-based protein over the various adverse effect of meat consumption caused a major impact on increased production rate of meat substitutes in the food market around the world. Thus many innovative foods that can replace meat in table are available easily. Generally, the production of meat substitutes in supply chain is broadly classified into four major steps: [15, 16].

Various processing technologies are utilized for the conversion of plant-based protein into a product that can imitate meat especially in the area of texture and taste. Conceptualization of technological development in food sector is differentiated as First generation meat substitutes (mainly composed of low-moisture cooking developing intermediate products) and Second generation meat substitutes (based on high-moisture cooking extrusion, started in European markets at early period of 2000s). First generation meat substitute was found to be existing since 1990s in European markets and includes product like Textured or Texturized Vegetable Protein (TVP). The method is based on the working principle of extrusion consisting screw system within a barrel. In this method, high temperature is provided to the raw material and compressed inside the barrel, which is then conveyed through dye(s) so that an expanded final structure is obtained. This undergoes further processing to form final meat substitute. On the other hand, second generation meat substitutes were a success due to the advancement in food sectors, especially in the areas of cooking extrusion technology, various innovations in hydrocolloids and so on. These technologies opened a new insight to food market, not just because they helped in developing products that are more appealing and similar to meat, but also application of wide range of raw materials categorized as cereals, pulses, legumes, oilseeds, and aquatic plants. **Table 1** briefly explains some commonly used protein sources and its corresponding market products along with health benefits and challenges. Based on the availability, cost, convenience, nutritional profile of both raw material and final product, functional characteristics and physiological properties, numerous meat analogues are developed and are still in its experimental stages [25]. Acceptance of the final product of a meat substitute, however, has a vast influence on the ingredients used while manufacturing. **Figure 3** gives an idea on general classification on the ingredients for developing a meat analog.

**75**

**Table 1.**

*Plant Proteins as Healthy, Sustainable and Integrative Meat Alternates*

• Gastrointestinal and gut health • Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancerous and cardio-protective activities • Obesity and weight management

cholesterol level by inhibiting intestinal absorption cholesterol • Decrease cell proliferation

> inflammatory, antioxidative, and anticarcinogenic activities

• Low fat content and high protein content helps in lowering blood cholesterol level, and has glycemic properties

Fucoxanthin present in brown algae helps in apoptosis in human cancer cell line • anti-

inflammatory, Antidiabetic, antioxidant properties • Eicosapentaenoic (EPA) &docosahexaenoic acids (DHA) are against chronic diseases

*Table presenting different protein sources, corresponding meat substitutes and challenges faced for its acceptance.*

• Anti-

Sausages • Pigments like

**Health benefits Challenges References**

• Presence of antinutrients and some toxic compounds like phytic acids,lectins, saponins,alkaloids, tannins and enzyme inhibitors decreases protein digestibility and bioavailability of minerals

• Increase of uric acid level in blood leads to urolithiasis • Mycotoxins and allergies in some cases are still a challenge • Acceptance on the basis of sensory attributes like taste and color

• Consumer response to green protein products due to chlorophyll • Requires complex and effective processing methods • Waste water generated may cause hazards like algae

parks

[20]

[21, 22]

[23, 24]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94094*

**Meat substitute products**

Lupin steak and other similar products

Oilseeds CanolaPRO™ • Reduce plasma

Mycoproteins Quorn™ products (e.g. Meat free sausages, Meat-free chicken and Apple sausages)

**Primary ingredients or protein sources**

Legumes (pea, lentil, lupin, chickpea)

Filamentous fungus *Fusarium venenatum*

Algae *Arthrospira platensis* (spirulina)

*Plant Proteins as Healthy, Sustainable and Integrative Meat Alternates DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94094*

*Veganism - a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine*

(based on high-moisture cooking extrusion, started in European markets at early period of 2000s). First generation meat substitute was found to be existing since 1990s in European markets and includes product like Textured or Texturized Vegetable Protein (TVP). The method is based on the working principle of extrusion consisting screw system within a barrel. In this method, high temperature is provided to the raw material and compressed inside the barrel, which is then conveyed through dye(s) so that an expanded final structure is obtained. This undergoes further processing to form final meat substitute. On the other hand, second generation meat substitutes were a success due to the advancement in food sectors, especially in the areas of cooking extrusion technology, various innovations in hydrocolloids and so on. These technologies opened a new insight to food market, not just because they helped in developing products that are more appealing and similar to meat, but also application of wide range of raw materials categorized as cereals, pulses, legumes, oilseeds, and aquatic plants. **Table 1** briefly explains some commonly used protein sources and its corresponding market products along with health benefits and challenges. Based on the availability, cost, convenience, nutritional profile of both raw material and final product, functional characteristics and physiological properties, numerous meat analogues are developed and are still in its experimental stages [25]. Acceptance of the final product of a meat substitute, however, has a vast influence on the ingredients used while manufacturing. **Figure 3** gives an idea on general classification on the ingredients for developing a

**Health benefits Challenges References**

• Development of hormoneresponsive tissues are reported • Beany flavor reduces the consumer acceptance

• Gluten is a poor source of essential lysine and threonine • Many of wheat proteins are recognized as allergens and triggers of celiac disease (CD)

[17, 18]

[19, 20]

**74**

meat analog.

**Primary ingredients or protein sources**

Soy bean Tofu,

**Meat substitute products**

tempeh, Texturized soy protein (TSP) Schnitzel

Wheat Seitan • Helps in bowel

• Reduce of chronic illnesses (CVD, immune disorders, diabetes, obesity, antihypersensitive andbreast and prostate cancer • Nutraceutical effects • Anti-fibrosis, anti-estrogen • Shows positive effect on thyroid and fertility

movement • Increase gut microbiota • Decrease of serum cholesterol

levels • Reduce postprandial blood glucose level • Lowers the risk of cancer and colitis

#### **Table 1.**

*Table presenting different protein sources, corresponding meat substitutes and challenges faced for its acceptance.*

**Figure 3.**

*Schematic representation of ingredients used in meat analog industry.*