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## **Meet the editor**

Ana Alice Vilas Boas is a postdoctor at HEC Montreal. She attended her PhD degree studies at the University of Reading, UK. She is a Master in Management at the Federal University of Lavras. From 1993 up to 2008, she worked at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, and then she moved back to Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brazil, where she is a full professor in the Department of Man-

agement and Economics of the Federal University of Lavras (UFLA). Dr. Vilas Boas is an expert in human resource management and related areas such as business strategy, entrepreneurship, quality of working life, and distance learning. She supervised many master's dissertations and some PhD theses. Dr. Vilas Boas is the author of papers, chapters, and books published in Brazil and worldwide. Her main topics of interest nowadays are quality of working life and organizational behavior.

## Contents

### **Preface XI**

### Preface

Chapter 8 **Cultural Well-Being and GDP Per Capita in Italy: Empirical**

Chapter 9 **The Mammoth Task of Realising the Right to Life: A South**

Enrico Ivaldi and Marta Santagata

**Section 2 Well-Being and Quality of Working Life 185**

Chapter 10 **Well-being and Quality of Working Life of University**

Alessandro Vinicius de Paula and Ana Alice Vilas Boas

Chapter 11 **Work-Related Well-Being: From Qualitative Job Insecurity to**

Chapter 12 **Psychological Well-Being of Individuals as Employees and a Paradigm in the Future Economy and Society 225**

Chapter 13 **Physical and Psychical Well-Being and Stress: The Perspectives**

Chapter 15 **Professional Pride and Dignity? A Classic Grounded Theory**

Heidi Branta, Tina Jacobson and Aida Alvinius

Anderson de Souza Sant'Anna, Zélia Miranda Kilimnik and Daniela

Simona Šarotar Žižek and Matjaž Mulej

**of Leaders and Employees 243** Simona Šarotar Žižek and Vesna Čančer

**Study among Social Workers 285**

Chapter 14 **Human Work and its Discontents 265**

Martins Diniz

**African Perspective 165** Erika M. Serfontein

**Professors in Brazil 187**

**Cognitive Reappraisal 211**

Delia Vîrgă

**Evidence 151**

**VI** Contents

In modern world, people are always engaged with many different activities that involve a wide range of innovation and technology. In this context, information and communication technologies connect individuals with other professionals, family members, health profes‐ sionals, leisure workers, and so on. For this reason, people are spending more time with technology and spending less time with family or with themselves. Apart from that, the pat‐ tern of work and the food industry is changing people's habits too. All these affect our wellbeing and quality of life. Our quality of life depends on our lifestyle, and the latter will determine our quality of life. Thus, people need to take into consideration different aspects to feel psychologically, physically, and emotionally well. It involves issues related to person‐ al and professional life.

Human beings depend on their own work to live and to be recognized in the society. How‐ ever, this work is exploiting people and making them suffer more than enjoying their jobs. For this reason, this book emphasizes different perspectives of well-being and quality of life in order to give the readers some insights on how to improve their patterns of life in the job and out of it. First, the readers may pay attention to the reconceptualization of the human needs as a way of exploring the antecedents of happiness. In the sequence comes the chapter about positive psychology to facilitate personal flourishing and ways of understanding the concept of quality of life within the framework of social service provision. Then, the empha‐ sis goes to the relationship between physical and psychological well-being throughout sports. The fifth and sixth chapters present quality of life indexes for the United States. In the sequence comes the perspective of quality of life and well-being in the context of family policies in European countries. The next chapter of this section deals with cultural well-be‐ ing and income in Italy using empirical data to correlate these topics. Finalizing this part of the book, we may be ready about the mammoth task of giving effect to the right to life in South Africa. All these nine chapters help readers to make a mental map of some major is‐ sues in improving well-being and quality of life according to different points of view.

The second section of this book looks at studies and literature review about well-being and quality of working life (QWL). The term "quality of working life" was first introduced by Louis Davis at an international conference held at Arden House, in 1972. The communica‐ tions presented in that conference were published by Davis and Cherms, in 1975. That con‐ ference literally launched a whole field of research in job design referred to as sociotechnical system design (STSD). Two decades later, the concept of quality of working life (QWL) used in most organizational studies focuses on the general state of well-being in the workplace and the relationships that people have with this environment and with other peo‐ ple (Ketchum and Trist, 1992). After that, the studies on QWL turned their focus on biologi‐ cal, psychological, social, and organizational factors to explain quality of life on the job. At this time, Limongi-França elaborated the BPSO-96 model of quality of working life. In the first decade of this century, other studies kept searching to understand what could improve the quality of life on the job. In 2008, Estelle Morin, in partnership with Francisco Aranha, developed the General Quality of Work Life Model highlighting the importance of meaning‐ fulness of work, meaningfulness at work, individual differences, optimum experiences at work, and defensive strategies at work to better explain the quality of working life. Thus, we may say that quality of working life is now a complex concept, which combines different variables to establish relations between health in terms of psychological, physical, and emo‐ tional aspects and work conditions. For that, work conditions are related to the patterns of work organization in terms of technology, environmental structure, and human relations.

The first chapter of this section deals with the well-being and quality of working life of uni‐ versity professors in Brazil because this category of professionals is facing a lot of stress to cope with their daily activities and their workload is also affecting their quality of life, apart from other issues that are addressed in the text. In the sequence, we may read about workrelated well-being and its relation with job insecurity. The third chapter focuses on the psy‐ chological well-being of employees as a paradigm in the future economy and society. The fourth chapter is about physical and psychical well-being and stress in the perspectives of leaders and employees, showing the relevance of the equilibrium between body and soul to achieve QWL. The following chapter presents an examination about human work from the discomfort perspective. Additionally, the last chapter brings a classic ground theory study about professional pride and dignity in the context of quality of working life.

Giving the above, we consider this book will be of interest for readers with a diverse group of audience in different areas of specialty such as psychology, industrial and social psychol‐ ogy, management, medicine, education, law, and sociology.

> **Ana Alice Vilas Boas** Full Professor Federal University of Lavras Minas Gerais, Brazil

**Different Perspectives of Quality of Life**

this time, Limongi-França elaborated the BPSO-96 model of quality of working life. In the first decade of this century, other studies kept searching to understand what could improve the quality of life on the job. In 2008, Estelle Morin, in partnership with Francisco Aranha, developed the General Quality of Work Life Model highlighting the importance of meaning‐ fulness of work, meaningfulness at work, individual differences, optimum experiences at work, and defensive strategies at work to better explain the quality of working life. Thus, we may say that quality of working life is now a complex concept, which combines different variables to establish relations between health in terms of psychological, physical, and emo‐ tional aspects and work conditions. For that, work conditions are related to the patterns of work organization in terms of technology, environmental structure, and human relations. The first chapter of this section deals with the well-being and quality of working life of uni‐ versity professors in Brazil because this category of professionals is facing a lot of stress to cope with their daily activities and their workload is also affecting their quality of life, apart from other issues that are addressed in the text. In the sequence, we may read about workrelated well-being and its relation with job insecurity. The third chapter focuses on the psy‐ chological well-being of employees as a paradigm in the future economy and society. The fourth chapter is about physical and psychical well-being and stress in the perspectives of leaders and employees, showing the relevance of the equilibrium between body and soul to achieve QWL. The following chapter presents an examination about human work from the discomfort perspective. Additionally, the last chapter brings a classic ground theory study

about professional pride and dignity in the context of quality of working life.

ogy, management, medicine, education, law, and sociology.

VIII Preface

Giving the above, we consider this book will be of interest for readers with a diverse group of audience in different areas of specialty such as psychology, industrial and social psychol‐

**Ana Alice Vilas Boas**

Minas Gerais, Brazil

Federal University of Lavras

Full Professor

## **Exploring the Antecedents of Happiness: Reconceptualization of Human Needs with Glasser's Choice Theory**

### Turgut Turkdogan

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/68022

#### **Abstract**

This chapter aims to present a review about the antecedents of happiness by using human needs perspective. The chapter briefly includes the definition of happiness as a scientific matter, definition of the need theories approach for explaining the antecedents of happiness, definitions and discussions about the major need theories and reconceptualization of human needs with Glasser's Choice Theory, and also empirical studies that investigate the relationship between basic needs satisfaction and happiness. It is also thought that the conclusion obtained from this chapter will encourage researchers to investigate the antecedents of happiness with Glasser's conceptual framework and also invite researchers to study in a new research area with a new conceptual perspective.

**Keywords:** happiness, subjective well-being, human needs, choice theory, William Glasser

### **1. Introduction**

Happiness refers to positive sensations about quality of life, and it is also perceived as an important life value for attaining a good life in almost all over the world [1–3]. Although various philosophical currents have exhibited several attempts to attain a common conceptualization about happiness, it is still a contradictive matter to define a unique individual perception with a universalist perspective. However, scientific approach suggests determining particular criteria for defining this unique perception in the current positive psychology [4, 5].

Happiness is one of the most investigated concepts in the positive psychology field [5], and it is a holistic and also a subjective perception about the quality of life, that includes ``affective

and cognitive aspects of well-being [6]. Positive psychology conceptualizes happiness in terms of *subjective well-being*, and subjective well-being includes three related components termed as *(a)* positive affect, *(b)* negative affect, and *(c)* life satisfaction [4]. Positive affect includes favorable emotions like feeling interested, excited, strong, proud, etc in life; negative affect includes unfavorable emotions like feeling distressed, upset, guilty, hostile, etc. [7]; and life satisfaction is a cognitive evaluation about the quality of life that includes favorable beliefs about having good living conditions and achieving personal life purposes [4, 6]. In light of this conceptualization, feeling positive emotions more frequently and feeling negative emotions rarely in life, and having positive beliefs about the quality of life refers to a good level of subjective well-being [8].

#### **1.1. Discussions about the antecedents of happiness: what makes humans happy?**

After defining happiness as a scientific concept, an important discussion has occurred about what the antecedents of happiness are in life. In other words, what makes humans happy? Wilson, who first investigated subjective well-being as a scientific concept in his doctoral dissertation, concluded that the "happy person emerges as a young, healthy, well-educated, well-paid, extroverted, optimistic, worry-free, religious, married person with high selfesteem, high job morale, modest aspirations, of either sex and of a wide range of intelligence" (p. 294) [9]. Moreover, a series of studies examined the validity of Wilson's conclusion and investigated the variables such as age, gender, income, education level, job satisfaction, health conditions, marriage, personal characteristics, intelligence, religious belief and life values, which are thought to be in relationship with subjective well-being [4, 10, 11].

The level of income or money is one of the most investigated variables in subjective well-being studies. Researchers investigated the relationship between money and subjective well-being, and the general implication about this relationship shows that low levels of income have a significant relationship with the low levels of happiness and money has a buffering effect for preserving individuals from unhappiness. On the other hand, the good level of money does not guarantee happiness in life [10, 12–16]. Also, age is another variable which was highly investigated in subjective well-being studies, and researchers specifically investigated the role of youthfulness for attaining happiness [9]. However, the results show that there is a U-shaped relationship between age and happiness, rather than a linear relationship [4, 10, 13, 17, 18]. Young people and the elderly are the happiest groups in life, but the middle-aged adults have risk factors for being unhappy because of the stressful life events in these years, such as dealing with behavioral and emotional problems of adolescent children, health problems of the aging parents, and making important decisions about the future like marriage or professional career, etc. [13, 17–19]. Another variable investigated most in subjective well-being studies is gender, and it can be said that although females exhibit more negative affections compared to males, there is not a significant variation in the general level of happiness between men and women [10, 11, 15].

To sum up, the researchers concluded that there is a limited effect of sociodemographic variables for explaining the antecedents of happiness. Thus, the new tendency in research indicates that studying psychological variables would bring more important findings, rather than the sociodemographic [11]. After two decades from Myer and Diener's this conclusion, the research findings which were obtained from 100 thousand people in 70 countries are also emphasizing the limited effect of the sociodemographic variables (such as health, education, income, living as married, gender, religiosity, trust, unemployment, age, number of the children, etc.) for explaining the happiness [20]. Hence, it seems like a correct decision to explore the psychological predictors of happiness for attaining a comprehensive understanding about the antecedents of the happiness.

### **1.2. A prominent approach for attaining happiness: need theories**

An important discussion about the psychological antecedents of subjective well-being refers to *need theories* that emphasize the basic needs satisfaction for attaining happiness, and the major assumption of need theories claims that happiness is felt only if human needs can be satisfied sufficiently [4, 9]. Fundamentally, this is an old assumption which was propounded by the antique age philosophers, and also named as hedonism. For example, Aristuppus (400 years before Jesus) described the purpose of life as obtaining high level of pleasure, and Hobbes submitted to following human desires for attaining happiness, and also De Sade described the purpose of life as following exciting feelings and pleasure. On the other hand, Aristotle objected to this hedonist assumption and claimed that following just pleasure in life would bring insatiability for human beings, and he also suggested virtue as a life purpose in his eudaemonist view [4, 5].

Obviously, happiness cannot be the only criterion for a good life, and both of the views named as hedonism and eudemonism have great values for the human life. However, the eudaemonist view refers to psychological functioning or psychological well-being, and the hedonist view refers to happiness or subjective well-being in the field of positive psychology [5, 21–23]. Therefore, the studies investigating the antecedents of happiness account for the fact that psychological needs need to be satisfied in order to attain happiness. Besides, the research results support the assumption that satisfaction of the psychological needs make significant contributions to predicting subjective well-being almost all over the world [12, 15, 16, 24, 25–30].

#### **1.3. What are human needs?**

and cognitive aspects of well-being [6]. Positive psychology conceptualizes happiness in terms of *subjective well-being*, and subjective well-being includes three related components termed as *(a)* positive affect, *(b)* negative affect, and *(c)* life satisfaction [4]. Positive affect includes favorable emotions like feeling interested, excited, strong, proud, etc in life; negative affect includes unfavorable emotions like feeling distressed, upset, guilty, hostile, etc. [7]; and life satisfaction is a cognitive evaluation about the quality of life that includes favorable beliefs about having good living conditions and achieving personal life purposes [4, 6]. In light of this conceptualization, feeling positive emotions more frequently and feeling negative emotions rarely in life, and having positive beliefs about the quality of life refers to a good level

**1.1. Discussions about the antecedents of happiness: what makes humans happy?**

which are thought to be in relationship with subjective well-being [4, 10, 11].

cant variation in the general level of happiness between men and women [10, 11, 15].

To sum up, the researchers concluded that there is a limited effect of sociodemographic variables for explaining the antecedents of happiness. Thus, the new tendency in research indicates that studying psychological variables would bring more important findings, rather than the sociodemographic [11]. After two decades from Myer and Diener's this conclusion, the

After defining happiness as a scientific concept, an important discussion has occurred about what the antecedents of happiness are in life. In other words, what makes humans happy? Wilson, who first investigated subjective well-being as a scientific concept in his doctoral dissertation, concluded that the "happy person emerges as a young, healthy, well-educated, well-paid, extroverted, optimistic, worry-free, religious, married person with high selfesteem, high job morale, modest aspirations, of either sex and of a wide range of intelligence" (p. 294) [9]. Moreover, a series of studies examined the validity of Wilson's conclusion and investigated the variables such as age, gender, income, education level, job satisfaction, health conditions, marriage, personal characteristics, intelligence, religious belief and life values,

The level of income or money is one of the most investigated variables in subjective well-being studies. Researchers investigated the relationship between money and subjective well-being, and the general implication about this relationship shows that low levels of income have a significant relationship with the low levels of happiness and money has a buffering effect for preserving individuals from unhappiness. On the other hand, the good level of money does not guarantee happiness in life [10, 12–16]. Also, age is another variable which was highly investigated in subjective well-being studies, and researchers specifically investigated the role of youthfulness for attaining happiness [9]. However, the results show that there is a U-shaped relationship between age and happiness, rather than a linear relationship [4, 10, 13, 17, 18]. Young people and the elderly are the happiest groups in life, but the middle-aged adults have risk factors for being unhappy because of the stressful life events in these years, such as dealing with behavioral and emotional problems of adolescent children, health problems of the aging parents, and making important decisions about the future like marriage or professional career, etc. [13, 17–19]. Another variable investigated most in subjective well-being studies is gender, and it can be said that although females exhibit more negative affections compared to males, there is not a signifi-

of subjective well-being [8].

4 Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life

At this stage, another important discussion has occurred about what the human needs are. Additionally, is it possible to conceptualize the human needs with a universal perspective for the whole humanity? Although people speak different languages in the world, Chomsky showed that a universal language development process for all humanity is possible [31]. Also, Ekman showed that people from different cultures share universal emotions, and it is possible to identify the emotional expressions in the human face universally [32]. In light of these instances, it is also possible to conceptualize human needs with a universal perspective. First of all, the all living creatures share a universal biological structure. Within this universal biological structure, our nervous system exists and the basic principles of the nervous system are avoiding suffering and approaching to pleasure [33, 34]. Thus, reducing the tension in our nervous system which appears at the lack of the fulfillment of the basic needs is the fundamental view for attaining happiness in the need theories [4–9].

However, humans are not just simple biological creatures, and it is not so easy to explain the complex pattern of human needs. As a matter of fact, the investigation of the human needs has been the focus point of many researchers for a long time. For instance, Murray defended the validity of tension reduction assumption about the basic needs satisfaction and also classified human needs under twenty headlines such as achievement, affiliation, aggression, autonomy, exhibition, nurturance, play, sexuality, understanding, etc. [35]. Although it can be accepted as the first remarkable attempt about classification of the human needs, this classification refers to a wide range of needs that include both supportive and opposite qualities about the human needs in the same conceptual framework. Besides, not every individual feels the absence of these needs equally, and some of these needs are not perceived as essential for every individual. It can be said that only two needs were investigated prominently among these twenty needs, namely affiliation and achievement. In other words, the affiliation need, which refers to establishing close friendships or looking for presence of other people (especially in stressful situations), and the achievement need, which refers to accomplishing difficult things or overcoming obstacles, are the two prominent human needs in Murray's classification system [36].

Maslow's needs hierarchy can be accepted as one of the most famous attempt about classification of the human needs, and these needs are described as physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, and need for self-actualization [37]. Maslow classified the human needs hierarchically and divided these needs as the bottom level needs (including physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs) and the top level needs (including esteem needs, and need for self-actualization). Maslow also claimed that the individuals must satisfy the most basic needs in order to satisfy the highly developed needs. The bottom level of needs such as food, security, and also belongingness is common needs which can be observed among other living creatures, and a developed need like esteem can be observed among the developed creatures, but the need for self-actualization can be accepted as a human-specific need. So, it can be said that the need for self-actualization is the most prominent need in this hierarchy. However, self-actualization might be accepted as a theoretical concept rather than an empirical concept, and the scientific measurement of this concept might be seen as a controversial matter [38, 39].

Self-determination theory, which aims to explain the importance of internal motivation for attaining psychological growth and health, presents another classification system about the basic psychological human needs [21]. According to self-determination theory, satisfaction of the basic psychological needs is the key point of psychological well-being for all humans, and these basic psychological needs include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Correspondingly, Ryff classified psychological needs as self-acceptance, positive relations with other people, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth for attaining psychological well-being [40]. However, these theories actually emphasize positive psychological health, personal growth, and full-functioning in life which were conceptualized in the psychological well-being perspective [5]. On the other hand, the fundamental point that is emphasized in the subjective well-being perspective is about reducing tension which appears at the lack of fulfillment of the basic needs, and satisfying the basic needs for attaining happiness as emphasized in the Glasser's Choice Theory [41].

There are also other current need theories that demonstrate a need-based approach to subjective well-being in addition to Glasser's Choice Theory. For instance, Costanza and his colleagues integrated the approaches of Max-Neff's Matrix of Human Needs and Nussbaum and Glover's Basic Human Functional Capabilities, and they defined the human needs for attaining happiness as subsistence, reproduction and care, security, affection, understanding, participation, leisure, spirituality, creativity/emotional expression, identity, and freedom [42–44]. However, it seems difficult to distinguish the operational definitions of these needs from each other. For instance, subsistence need (food, shelter, vital ecological services, healthcare, etc.) and security need (safety from violence at home and in public, care for the sick and elderly, etc.) include similar essentials for maintaining life in safety. Similarly, affection need (attachment, respect, love and care, etc.) and identity need (status, recognition, sense of belonging, etc.) also include similar aspects to belonging need. It is crucial to state that as the comprehensiveness of an eclectic approach increases, the risk for the internal consistency also increases. Consequently, a conceptual framework with high consistency should aim to achieve the comprehensive definition in the shortest possible way.

However, humans are not just simple biological creatures, and it is not so easy to explain the complex pattern of human needs. As a matter of fact, the investigation of the human needs has been the focus point of many researchers for a long time. For instance, Murray defended the validity of tension reduction assumption about the basic needs satisfaction and also classified human needs under twenty headlines such as achievement, affiliation, aggression, autonomy, exhibition, nurturance, play, sexuality, understanding, etc. [35]. Although it can be accepted as the first remarkable attempt about classification of the human needs, this classification refers to a wide range of needs that include both supportive and opposite qualities about the human needs in the same conceptual framework. Besides, not every individual feels the absence of these needs equally, and some of these needs are not perceived as essential for every individual. It can be said that only two needs were investigated prominently among these twenty needs, namely affiliation and achievement. In other words, the affiliation need, which refers to establishing close friendships or looking for presence of other people (especially in stressful situations), and the achievement need, which refers to accomplishing difficult things or overcoming obstacles, are the two prominent human needs in Murray's

Maslow's needs hierarchy can be accepted as one of the most famous attempt about classification of the human needs, and these needs are described as physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, and need for self-actualization [37]. Maslow classified the human needs hierarchically and divided these needs as the bottom level needs (including physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs) and the top level needs (including esteem needs, and need for self-actualization). Maslow also claimed that the individuals must satisfy the most basic needs in order to satisfy the highly developed needs. The bottom level of needs such as food, security, and also belongingness is common needs which can be observed among other living creatures, and a developed need like esteem can be observed among the developed creatures, but the need for self-actualization can be accepted as a human-specific need. So, it can be said that the need for self-actualization is the most prominent need in this hierarchy. However, self-actualization might be accepted as a theoretical concept rather than an empirical concept, and the scientific measurement of this concept

Self-determination theory, which aims to explain the importance of internal motivation for attaining psychological growth and health, presents another classification system about the basic psychological human needs [21]. According to self-determination theory, satisfaction of the basic psychological needs is the key point of psychological well-being for all humans, and these basic psychological needs include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Correspondingly, Ryff classified psychological needs as self-acceptance, positive relations with other people, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth for attaining psychological well-being [40]. However, these theories actually emphasize positive psychological health, personal growth, and full-functioning in life which were conceptualized in the psychological well-being perspective [5]. On the other hand, the fundamental point that is emphasized in the subjective well-being perspective is about reducing tension which appears at the lack of fulfillment of the basic needs, and satisfying the basic needs for

attaining happiness as emphasized in the Glasser's Choice Theory [41].

classification system [36].

6 Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life

might be seen as a controversial matter [38, 39].

Similarly, another need-based approach to subjective well-being aims to integrate the prominent human needs which are emphasized in the major need theories [29]. The determination progress of these needs is based on the empirical research in the literature, and the prominent human needs for attaining happiness are named as basic needs for food and shelter, safety and security, social support and love, feeling respected and pride in activities, mastery, and self-direction and autonomy. The research results, which were obtained from 123 countries about the need-based subjective well-being, support the significance of the relationship between need satisfaction and happiness almost universally. However, this attempt seems to investigate the validity of the general assumptions of the need theories in an eclectic way, rather than presenting a new consistent theoretical perspective for attaining happiness. At this juncture, Glasser's Choice Theory might be accepted as a clear and consistent conceptual framework which aims to explain the basic human needs for attaining happiness with a theoretical perspective.

### **2. Reconceptualization of the human needs with Glasser's Choice Theory: five basic needs**

Choice Theory is accepted as the theoretical background of William Glasser's psychotherapy approach which is called Reality Therapy, and it emphasizes that we always make internal decisions whatever the external conditions are, and the aim of our behaviors is to satisfy our basic needs for attaining happiness in life. In choice theory approach, it is mentioned that humans come into the world with five basic needs in the long evolution process, and these needs are named as survival, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun [45–48]. Moreover, the major assumption of choice theory about the basic needs is that happiness is felt only if the five basic needs can be satisfied sufficiently and a person who is unhappy has not been able to satisfy at least one of these five basic needs [41, 48].

#### **2.1. Survival need**

Survival need defines the biological essentials for maintaining our life, and it includes the basic physiological needs such as food, water, shelter, sex, health, and safety [48–50]. First and foremost, all living creatures feel an enormous desire to survive although the living conditions are so compelling, and directing the behavior of the organism to fulfill the basic biological essentials is the primary function of the nervous system. The tension which appears at the lack of the fulfillment of the basic physiological needs is already an important risk factor for unhappiness [33, 34]. Besides, the pleasure of fulfillment of the basic physiological needs can be considered an important source for attaining objective happiness of the organism, and determining the level of this pleasure is also possible with a biological measurement in today's modern world [34–51].

On the other hand, it can be said that having sufficient resources for physiological needs such as high nutritional value foods, potable water, secure sheltering conditions, and general health insurance is considerably associated with the level of income. Thus, research findings indicate that although a good level of income does not guarantee happiness in life, it has a buffering effect for preserving the individuals from unhappiness about the insufficient resources for basic biological essentials [10, 12–16]. As a matter of fact, when the role of income is considered for attaining survival need satisfaction, it would not be a realistic expectation to expect for a balanced distribution of happiness in such a world in which there is an unbalanced distribution of income [52–55]. Unfortunately, unbalanced income distribution is not the only problem in the world for attaining survival need satisfaction. Millions of people around the world are still trying to combat catastrophes such as epidemic diseases or wars and terrorist attacks. Although the research results support the validity of psychological needs satisfaction beyond physiological needs for attaining happiness [29, 56], and also the psychology currents try to describe and understand the human-specific psychological needs, it would be wrong to ignore that the we live in such a world where even the basic physiological needs are not fulfilled adequately yet. Thus, although Glasser emphasized the equality of the importance on five basic needs theoretically and also accepted the physiological and psychological needs as the basic needs as a whole, satisfaction of the survival need can be considered as a control variable for investigating the role of psychological needs in prediction of happiness.

#### **2.2. Love and belonging need**

Human beings have an innate orientation about establishing emotional attachments with other people, and love and belonging need defines the desire to satisfy emotional relationships in our lives especially with the people important to us like family members, friends or a girlfriend/boyfriend [45–48]. Actually, love and belonging need is also perceived as a basic human need by the other need theorists as well. For instance, Bowlby believed that humans are in search of bonding with other people starting from cradle till grave, and he built the attachment theory solely based on the love and belonging need [57]. Affiliation need which refers to establishing close friendships or seeking presence of other people (especially in stressful situations) is also a prominent need of Murray's need classification [36]. Maslow accepted belongingness and love need as a bottom level need just like physiological needs or safety need, and attaining the top level needs like esteem need or self-actualization need is only possible by fulfilling belongingness and love need according to this hierarchical classification [37]. Deci and Ryan also defined the relatedness need as one of the major psychological basic needs for attaining psychological well-being in self-determination theory [21]. Similarly, Ryff determined the need for positive relations with other people as one of the major components of the psychological well-being [40].

Also, the research results show that the love and belonging need is a significant predictor of happiness. For instance; the relation of satisfaction with friends and family members exhibits a significant relationship with subjective well-being [12, 15]. Similarly, perceived social support or social connectedness is a significant predictor of subjective well-being [29, 58–60]. Also, the research results indicate a significant relationship between satisfaction of relatedness need and subjective well-being [23, 27, 28, 30, 61]. Moreover, marriage, which can be considered as an important source for the love and belonging need, is a robust predictor of happiness in life. As a matter of fact, married people are happier than the never married, divorced, or widowed people in life, even after the variables such as age or income are controlled [4, 10, 13, 17, 62, 63]. Furthermore, the research results show that the sociocultural sources of the love and belonging need such as social relations, connectedness and common good orientation in a society are also significant predictors of happiness beyond the individual sources [64].

It should also be emphasized that love and belonging need has a unique importance among the other basic needs in the choice theory. Although it would be quite problematic, it might be possible for an individual to try to fulfill his/her satisfaction of survival, power, freedom, and fun needs all alone without the need of any company. However, it is absolutely impossible to try to fulfill satisfaction of love and belonging need on one's own. Moreover, satisfaction of the basic psychological needs such as power, freedom, and fun in a balanced way is only possible by maintaining interpersonal relationships in a balanced context. Actually, most of the problems we experience in fulfilling our psychological needs arise from the problems in the interpersonal relationships in our lives. Thus, love and belonging need can be accepted as the most difficult need to satisfy in the choice theory [48].

#### **2.3. Power need**

**2.1. Survival need**

8 Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life

in today's modern world [34–51].

**2.2. Love and belonging need**

Survival need defines the biological essentials for maintaining our life, and it includes the basic physiological needs such as food, water, shelter, sex, health, and safety [48–50]. First and foremost, all living creatures feel an enormous desire to survive although the living conditions are so compelling, and directing the behavior of the organism to fulfill the basic biological essentials is the primary function of the nervous system. The tension which appears at the lack of the fulfillment of the basic physiological needs is already an important risk factor for unhappiness [33, 34]. Besides, the pleasure of fulfillment of the basic physiological needs can be considered an important source for attaining objective happiness of the organism, and determining the level of this pleasure is also possible with a biological measurement

On the other hand, it can be said that having sufficient resources for physiological needs such as high nutritional value foods, potable water, secure sheltering conditions, and general health insurance is considerably associated with the level of income. Thus, research findings indicate that although a good level of income does not guarantee happiness in life, it has a buffering effect for preserving the individuals from unhappiness about the insufficient resources for basic biological essentials [10, 12–16]. As a matter of fact, when the role of income is considered for attaining survival need satisfaction, it would not be a realistic expectation to expect for a balanced distribution of happiness in such a world in which there is an unbalanced distribution of income [52–55]. Unfortunately, unbalanced income distribution is not the only problem in the world for attaining survival need satisfaction. Millions of people around the world are still trying to combat catastrophes such as epidemic diseases or wars and terrorist attacks. Although the research results support the validity of psychological needs satisfaction beyond physiological needs for attaining happiness [29, 56], and also the psychology currents try to describe and understand the human-specific psychological needs, it would be wrong to ignore that the we live in such a world where even the basic physiological needs are not fulfilled adequately yet. Thus, although Glasser emphasized the equality of the importance on five basic needs theoretically and also accepted the physiological and psychological needs as the basic needs as a whole, satisfaction of the survival need can be considered as a control

variable for investigating the role of psychological needs in prediction of happiness.

Human beings have an innate orientation about establishing emotional attachments with other people, and love and belonging need defines the desire to satisfy emotional relationships in our lives especially with the people important to us like family members, friends or a girlfriend/boyfriend [45–48]. Actually, love and belonging need is also perceived as a basic human need by the other need theorists as well. For instance, Bowlby believed that humans are in search of bonding with other people starting from cradle till grave, and he built the attachment theory solely based on the love and belonging need [57]. Affiliation need which refers to establishing close friendships or seeking presence of other people (especially in stressful situations) is also a prominent need of Murray's need classification [36]. Maslow accepted belongingness and love need as a bottom level need just like physiological needs or Power need is defined as having a sense of control over the processes in our living space by activating our personal capabilities, and these capabilities refer to feelings such as being worthy, competitive, successful, principled, and respected. Correspondingly, the achievement need which refers to accomplishing difficult things or overcoming obstacles is one of the most prominent human needs in Murray's classification system [36]. Furthermore, Maslow conceptualized the esteem need as a top level human need in his hierarchical classification [37] Deci and Ryan accepted the competence need as one of the major psychological basic needs for attaining psychological well-being as well [21]. Additionally, Ryff's classification system also includes similar needs like environmental mastery, personal growth, and purpose in life for attaining psychological well-being [40].

As a matter of fact, humans as social beings are in an effort to gain a respectful position in their social environment. For instance, we hate to be underestimated by other people, and we try to stay away from social circles that may harm our self-respect. Also, we are quite competitive for attaining prestigious jobs, titles, and positions. Thus, power need defines the desire for personal growth and success identity which aims to improve our competencies to gain a respectful position in life [48]. Nevertheless, it can be regarded as an important indicator of the power need satisfaction to achieve personal goals in educational degrees, career plans or desired economic standards. On the other hand, the behaviors which are used for power need satisfaction can be accepted as a controversial issue in daily life. The improper use of the power may prompt suppressing, downgrading or even restraining people aggressively. However, the conceptualization of the power need in the choice theory opposes to this view, and choice theory defines the power need as a line of personal empowerment and growth which is far from interpersonal conflicts, and also cares about protecting the benefits of others [46–48].

Research in the literature exhibits supportive results for the significance of the relationship between power need satisfaction and happiness. For instance, self-esteem can be accepted as a robust predictor of happiness in almost all over the world [11, 15, 65]. Also, similar results show that the variables such as assertiveness need [25], learned resourcefulness [66], respect need [26, 29], and competence need [23, 27, 28, 30] are significant predictors of happiness. Furthermore, findings show that having a purposeful and meaningful life, or having a successful goal pursuit in life are also significant predictors of happiness [67–70].

#### **2.4. Freedom need**

Freedom need is defined as the desire to have a personal space for acting freely in life, to maintain life, stay away from pressures, and to move with free will when making decisions about the course of life. Freedom need is also considered as a protective factor for the self, by opposing to improper use of power by others. Additionally, satisfaction of freedom need is so crucial to realizing the creative potential of the humans in daily life [47, 48].

Additionally, the major need theories emphasize the importance of freedom as a prominent psychological need under the heading of autonomy need in their approaches [5, 35, 40], and there are also many research findings indicating that satisfaction of autonomy need is a significant predictor of happiness [16, 23, 27–30].

Actually, having the sense of freedom can be considered as a prerequisite for attaining happiness in life. The research results which were obtained from 100 thousand people in 55 countries also emphasize the importance of individualism and the value of human rights in a society as a cultural orientation for attaining happiness [1]. As a matter of fact, happiness is regarded as an important life purpose in the individualist cultures which attach importance to sense of freedom as an indispensable life value. On the other hand, the need for freedom and autonomy can be perceived as an undesired condition that negatively affects the social cohesion in collectivist cultures. Thus, happiness exhibits a consistent association with individualism rather than collectivism almost all over the world [1, 15, 71, 72].

#### **2.5. Fun need**

Fun need defines the pleasant occasions in life, such as playing games, following a sense of humor, having hobbies concerning art, literature, or sport, and also discovering new experiences about life. Also, laughing can be accepted as the best descriptor of the fun need satisfaction in daily life. As a matter of fact, Aristotle argued that the ability for laughing with laughter is the most distinctive feature that distinguishes the human beings from other living creatures in the world. Furthermore, the fun need is accepted as an indispensable condition for learning activities according to the choice theory, and human beings draw away from learning activities as the learning environment become less fun [46–48]. At this juncture, it is crucial to state that although some of the theories accept the play need or the leisure need as a psychological need in their conceptual framework, the fun need has never been conceptualized as a specific psychological need for the human beings in any need theory.

Research in the literature exhibits supportive results for the significance of the relationship between fun need satisfaction and happiness. For instance, leisure engagement has a significant relationship with subjective well-being [65, 73,]. Besides, leisure satisfaction exhibits significant predictive roles on subjective well-being after personality traits like extraversion or neuroticism are controlled [74]. Moreover, the results of a meta-analysis provide strong evidences for positive relationship between leisure engagement and subjective well-being, and leisure engagement which includes games, sports, or cultural experiences appears to be at least as strongly related to subjective well-being as much as the variables like occupational status or income [75]. Thus, it can be said that the conceptualization of the fun need as a specific and important human need for attaining happiness can be accepted as a correct assumption of the choice theory [41].

### **3. Final considerations**

to stay away from social circles that may harm our self-respect. Also, we are quite competitive for attaining prestigious jobs, titles, and positions. Thus, power need defines the desire for personal growth and success identity which aims to improve our competencies to gain a respectful position in life [48]. Nevertheless, it can be regarded as an important indicator of the power need satisfaction to achieve personal goals in educational degrees, career plans or desired economic standards. On the other hand, the behaviors which are used for power need satisfaction can be accepted as a controversial issue in daily life. The improper use of the power may prompt suppressing, downgrading or even restraining people aggressively. However, the conceptualization of the power need in the choice theory opposes to this view, and choice theory defines the power need as a line of personal empowerment and growth which is far from interpersonal conflicts, and also cares about protecting the benefits of others [46–48].

Research in the literature exhibits supportive results for the significance of the relationship between power need satisfaction and happiness. For instance, self-esteem can be accepted as a robust predictor of happiness in almost all over the world [11, 15, 65]. Also, similar results show that the variables such as assertiveness need [25], learned resourcefulness [66], respect need [26, 29], and competence need [23, 27, 28, 30] are significant predictors of happiness. Furthermore, findings show that having a purposeful and meaningful life, or having a suc-

Freedom need is defined as the desire to have a personal space for acting freely in life, to maintain life, stay away from pressures, and to move with free will when making decisions about the course of life. Freedom need is also considered as a protective factor for the self, by opposing to improper use of power by others. Additionally, satisfaction of freedom need is so

Additionally, the major need theories emphasize the importance of freedom as a prominent psychological need under the heading of autonomy need in their approaches [5, 35, 40], and there are also many research findings indicating that satisfaction of autonomy need is a sig-

Actually, having the sense of freedom can be considered as a prerequisite for attaining happiness in life. The research results which were obtained from 100 thousand people in 55 countries also emphasize the importance of individualism and the value of human rights in a society as a cultural orientation for attaining happiness [1]. As a matter of fact, happiness is regarded as an important life purpose in the individualist cultures which attach importance to sense of freedom as an indispensable life value. On the other hand, the need for freedom and autonomy can be perceived as an undesired condition that negatively affects the social cohesion in collectivist cultures. Thus, happiness exhibits a consistent association with indi-

Fun need defines the pleasant occasions in life, such as playing games, following a sense of humor, having hobbies concerning art, literature, or sport, and also discovering new experiences

cessful goal pursuit in life are also significant predictors of happiness [67–70].

crucial to realizing the creative potential of the humans in daily life [47, 48].

vidualism rather than collectivism almost all over the world [1, 15, 71, 72].

nificant predictor of happiness [16, 23, 27–30].

**2.4. Freedom need**

10 Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life

**2.5. Fun need**

We were able to define a unique individual perception like happiness based on scientific criteria all over the world within a universalist perspective. We were also able to define the important sociodemographic variables in order to achieve happiness all over the world. However, we have not yet reached a unanimous acceptance about which psychological sources are needed for humans to achieve happiness. That is precisely the reason why investigating the psychological antecedent of the happiness can be seen as an interesting area for researchers.

An important approach that will lead researchers to discover the psychological antecedents of happiness can be considered as need theories. As a result of the precious efforts exhibited by the major need theorists, today we are clearly aware that satisfaction of the human needs has unique predictive role for happiness universally. However, we have not yet reached a consensus about conceptualizing human needs with a universal perspective. Although Murray describes certain needs about human nature, some of these needs are not perceived as essential for every individual, and Glasser dissociates his views from Murray by attaining a universal need conceptualization for all human-beings. Furthermore, Glasser theoretically dissociates his views from Maslow by objecting to the hierarchical classification of the human needs, and by attributing equal importance to the five basic needs. According to Glasser, some of these five basic needs can be considered more important for attaining happiness with an individualistic consideration. For instance, the satisfaction of power need may be accepted more important than the freedom need for attaining happiness among some individuals. However, theoretically both the power need and the freedom need are essential needs at a basic level for all human-beings universally, and all of the five basic needs have equal importance. Glasser dissociates his views from Ryan and Deci's self-determination theory and also Ryff's psychological well-being theory by defending the validity of tension reduction assumption about the basic needs satisfaction for attaining happiness. Also, the current need-based approaches about happiness are trying to reveal the unique predictive role of the basic needs satisfaction in an eclectic way, rather than presenting a new consistent theoretical perspective for attaining the happiness [29, 42]. At this juncture, Glasser's Choice Theory might be accepted as a precious conceptual framework which aims to explain the basic human needs for attaining happiness within a universalist perspective.

The major assumption of choice theory about the basic needs is that happiness is felt only if the five basic needs (survival, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun) can be satisfied sufficiently and a person who is unhappy has not been able to satisfy at least one of these five basic needs [48]. In a study which can be accepted as the first attempt to explore the validity of this major assumption, the researchers investigated the role of basic needs satisfaction in predicting subjective well being in university life context [41]. The findings of the study showed that five basic needs explained the variance in subjective well being in a large effect, with all of five basic needs significantly contributing to the prediction. Moreover, the findings also support the major assumption of choice theory about the role of five basic needs for attaining happiness. Consequently, the researchers concluded that the students who have the ability to make choices and to express themselves freely, who have an attempt to have fun, who feel themselves worthy and successful, who have enough safety and shelter conditions, and who have good relationships with significant people to themselves in their lives, are more close to happiness than others.

However, no other empirical studies have been found in the literature that directly investigated the antecedents of happiness using Glasser's conceptual framework about human needs. Thus, it would be a new research area to investigate the validity of Glasser's reconceptualization of human needs for attaining happiness. At this point, this theoretical review can be considered as an invitation for researchers to investigate the antecedents of the happiness with Glasser's conceptual framework as a new research area.

### **Author details**

Turgut Turkdogan

Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance, Pamukkale University, Turkey

### **References**

[1] Diener, E., Diener, M., & Diener, C. (1995). Factors predicting the subjective well being of nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 851-864. doi:10.1037/0022- 35<IP_ADDRESS>1

dissociates his views from Ryan and Deci's self-determination theory and also Ryff's psychological well-being theory by defending the validity of tension reduction assumption about the basic needs satisfaction for attaining happiness. Also, the current need-based approaches about happiness are trying to reveal the unique predictive role of the basic needs satisfaction in an eclectic way, rather than presenting a new consistent theoretical perspective for attaining the happiness [29, 42]. At this juncture, Glasser's Choice Theory might be accepted as a precious conceptual framework which aims to explain the basic human needs for attaining

The major assumption of choice theory about the basic needs is that happiness is felt only if the five basic needs (survival, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun) can be satisfied sufficiently and a person who is unhappy has not been able to satisfy at least one of these five basic needs [48]. In a study which can be accepted as the first attempt to explore the validity of this major assumption, the researchers investigated the role of basic needs satisfaction in predicting subjective well being in university life context [41]. The findings of the study showed that five basic needs explained the variance in subjective well being in a large effect, with all of five basic needs significantly contributing to the prediction. Moreover, the findings also support the major assumption of choice theory about the role of five basic needs for attaining happiness. Consequently, the researchers concluded that the students who have the ability to make choices and to express themselves freely, who have an attempt to have fun, who feel themselves worthy and successful, who have enough safety and shelter conditions, and who have good relationships with significant people to themselves in their lives, are more close to

However, no other empirical studies have been found in the literature that directly investigated the antecedents of happiness using Glasser's conceptual framework about human needs. Thus, it would be a new research area to investigate the validity of Glasser's reconceptualization of human needs for attaining happiness. At this point, this theoretical review can be considered as an invitation for researchers to investigate the antecedents of the happiness

Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance, Pamukkale University, Turkey

[1] Diener, E., Diener, M., & Diener, C. (1995). Factors predicting the subjective well being of nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 851-864. doi:10.1037/0022-

with Glasser's conceptual framework as a new research area.

Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
happiness within a universalist perspective.

12 Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life

happiness than others.

**Author details**

Turgut Turkdogan

**References**

35<IP_ADDRESS>1

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## **Positive Psychology: The Use of the Framework of Achievement Bests to Facilitate Personal Flourishing**

Huy P. Phan and Bing H. Ngu

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68873

#### **Abstract**

The *Framework of Achievement Bests*, which was recently published in *Educational Psychology Review*, makes a theoretical contribution to the study of positive psychology. The Framework of Achievement Bests provides an explanatory account of a person's optimal best practice from his/her actual best. Another aspect emphasizes on the saliency of the psychological process of *optimization*, which is central to our understanding of person's optimal functioning in a subject matter. Achieving an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. achieving excellent grades in mathematics) does not exist in isolation, but rather depends on the potent impact of optimization. This chapter, theoretical in nature, focuses on an in‐depth examination of the expansion of the Framework of Achievement Bests. Our discussion of the Framework of Achievement Bests, reflecting a methodical conceptualization, is benchmarked against another notable theory for understanding, namely: Martin Seligman's *PERMA* theory. For example, for consideration, one aspect that we examine entails the extent to which the Framework of Achievement Bests could explain the optimization of each of the five components of PERMA (e.g. how does the Framework of Achievement Bests explain the optimization of engagement?).

**Keywords:** Framework of Achievement Bests, best practice, personal flourishing, positive psychology, PERMA, well‐beings, optimization

### **1. Introduction**

The study of *positive psychology* has advanced theoretically and empirically with the work of Seligman (2011a, 2011b). The PERMA model [1, 2], for example, has provided grounding into the understanding of the positive psychology paradigm. Positive psychology, as noted, is not

© 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

a passing fad, but rather an inquiry that places strong emphasis on the *proactivity of human behaviour.* For example, one important aspect of this entails recognition of the achievement and experience of *optimal functioning*, which reflects maximization of a person's capability. Optimal functioning, in this sense, is concerned with a person's internal state of functioning (i.e. cognitive, motivational, emotional) that is maximized to his/her fullest potential. This the‐ oretical approach of positive psychology differs from the traditional, deficit models of human behaviour that focus on preventive measures and rectification of maladaptive functioning.

Recently, the *Framework of Achievement Bests* [3, 4] was developed to provide further under‐ standing into the positive psychology paradigm. This achievement best framework emphasizes on a person's quest to achieve *an exceptional level of best practice*. More importantly, though, the Framework of Achievement Bests attempts to account and explain how an individual reaches optimal functioning in a subject matter that reflects the maximization of capability. This focus of explanation regarding optimal functioning is achieved has, to date, received moderate theorizations from educators and researchers, alike. On this basis, it is postulated that more emphasis into the operational nature of optimal functioning is needed for clarity and under‐ standing. The current chapter discusses a conceptualization that details the potential contribu‐ tion of the Framework of Achievement Bests in the study of positive psychology. It is argued that the underlying structure of this framework is positive, in nature, and may complimenta‐ rily support the PERMA theoretical model [1, 5] in its explanatory account of human optimal functioning. It is conceptualized, for example, that the achievement of exceptional best prac‐ tice in a subject matter may itself serve to facilitate a person's state of flourishing.

### **2. The importance of positive psychology: in brief**

Positive psychology, as the term connotes, emphasizes on the positivity and apprecia‐ tive aspects of human behaviour [6, 7]. This 'branch' of psychology, credited to Seligman, Csíkszentmihályi, Diener, Maslow and others, emphasizes the importance of human proac‐ tivity, personal fulfilment and the aspiration to lead fruitful and meaningful lives. In this sense, positive psychology is a theoretical approach that focuses on virtues, inner strengths and resilience, and the achievement of optimal functioning. These attributes or characteristics are positive, in nature.

Why focus on the study of positive psychology? Positive psychology is noteworthy for long term research development as it serves as a complementary platform for the study of human weakness, healing and maladaptive functioning. Appreciation and the beauty in life are reflected in the positive psychology paradigm. Aside from accommodating shortcomings and damages with other theoretical orientations, positive psychology is able to bring out the best in people and society [8]. Preventive measures to rectify contextual situations and personal circumstances may, in this sense, benefit from the incorporation of positive psychology as an intervention. This theoretical contention is based on empirical documentations that detail the impact of positive psychology in instilling the following: *positive emotional functioning* (e.g. hap‐ piness), *positive learning experiences*, *positive social climates*, and *human strengths* and *virtues* [9].

The main question then, arising from this introduction, is not whether there is credence to accept the positive psychology paradigm. Rather, it is a methodical issue of how one con‐ tinues to sustain the potent effects of positive psychology [10, 11], namely (i) providing a strong sense of resilience in order to assist a person to rise to life's challenges, (ii) encourage proactive engagement in social relationships with others, (iii) seeking self‐gratification and self‐fulfilment of enrichment in creativity and productivity and (iv) encourage a person to move beyond oneself and to assist others in their quests to find satisfaction, wisdom, and last‐ ing meaning to life. Adopting positive psychology, in this sense, would enable individuals and society to approach life with collective conviction, personal resolute and confidence. A secondary school student, for example, may use his/her failures for improvement purposes, and to focus more on positive future outlooks rather than reflecting on past and/or current mediocracy.

a passing fad, but rather an inquiry that places strong emphasis on the *proactivity of human behaviour.* For example, one important aspect of this entails recognition of the achievement and experience of *optimal functioning*, which reflects maximization of a person's capability. Optimal functioning, in this sense, is concerned with a person's internal state of functioning (i.e. cognitive, motivational, emotional) that is maximized to his/her fullest potential. This the‐ oretical approach of positive psychology differs from the traditional, deficit models of human behaviour that focus on preventive measures and rectification of maladaptive functioning.

Recently, the *Framework of Achievement Bests* [3, 4] was developed to provide further under‐ standing into the positive psychology paradigm. This achievement best framework emphasizes on a person's quest to achieve *an exceptional level of best practice*. More importantly, though, the Framework of Achievement Bests attempts to account and explain how an individual reaches optimal functioning in a subject matter that reflects the maximization of capability. This focus of explanation regarding optimal functioning is achieved has, to date, received moderate theorizations from educators and researchers, alike. On this basis, it is postulated that more emphasis into the operational nature of optimal functioning is needed for clarity and under‐ standing. The current chapter discusses a conceptualization that details the potential contribu‐ tion of the Framework of Achievement Bests in the study of positive psychology. It is argued that the underlying structure of this framework is positive, in nature, and may complimenta‐ rily support the PERMA theoretical model [1, 5] in its explanatory account of human optimal functioning. It is conceptualized, for example, that the achievement of exceptional best prac‐

tice in a subject matter may itself serve to facilitate a person's state of flourishing.

Positive psychology, as the term connotes, emphasizes on the positivity and apprecia‐ tive aspects of human behaviour [6, 7]. This 'branch' of psychology, credited to Seligman, Csíkszentmihályi, Diener, Maslow and others, emphasizes the importance of human proac‐ tivity, personal fulfilment and the aspiration to lead fruitful and meaningful lives. In this sense, positive psychology is a theoretical approach that focuses on virtues, inner strengths and resilience, and the achievement of optimal functioning. These attributes or characteristics

Why focus on the study of positive psychology? Positive psychology is noteworthy for long term research development as it serves as a complementary platform for the study of human weakness, healing and maladaptive functioning. Appreciation and the beauty in life are reflected in the positive psychology paradigm. Aside from accommodating shortcomings and damages with other theoretical orientations, positive psychology is able to bring out the best in people and society [8]. Preventive measures to rectify contextual situations and personal circumstances may, in this sense, benefit from the incorporation of positive psychology as an intervention. This theoretical contention is based on empirical documentations that detail the impact of positive psychology in instilling the following: *positive emotional functioning* (e.g. hap‐ piness), *positive learning experiences*, *positive social climates*, and *human strengths* and *virtues* [9].

**2. The importance of positive psychology: in brief**

are positive, in nature.

20 Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life

With this in mind, it is argued that ongoing consideration and utilization of positive psy‐ chology may be facilitated by theoretical contributions, applications of different theoretical models (e.g. PERMA: [1, 5]), and continuing development and conceptualizations of under‐ standing. Both individuals and society may benefit from the use of positive psychology theo‐ ries in their daily functioning. The potency of positive psychology, in this instance, may be demonstrated by its explanatory and predictive effects. Students at school, for example, may focus on their positive emotions (e.g. happiness) for learning, in general. Rather than delv‐ ing into anxiety and the negativities of school pressures, students may wish to direct their attention on positive outlooks for accomplishment. In a similar vein, individuals may wish to pursue and enjoy life in a non‐materialistic sense, and not concentrate on the pursuit of wealth, and so on.

The Framework of Achievement Bests, published recently [3, 4], focuses on the achievement of optimal best practice. This theoretical tenet is in accordance with the positive psychol‐ ogy paradigm, and places strong emphasis on an internal state of optimal achievement that reflects personal maximization of capability. In this section of the chapter, a conceptualization of this framework and its potential contribution to positive psychology is discussed.

### **3. Best practice: the Framework of Achievement Bests**

The positive psychology paradigm places strong emphasis on proactive human endeavours in different domains of functioning. Proactive human endeavours involve strengths, aspi‐ rations, planning and the achievement of best practice. In this sense, achievements of best practice reflect the stamina, tenacity and growth of human endeavours. The notion of best practice, recently discussed [12], focuses on a person's internal state of functioning, academi‐ cally and non‐academically. Contrary to the reference 'best', best practice does not emphasize on exceptional or understanding qualities, nor does it emphasize on the highest standard in a subject matter. In a similar vein, best practice does not indicate automated or repeated actions, nor it is concerned with application of a key concept into practice. Rather, best practice in school contexts is non‐unitary, and espouses three major elements:

Best practice differs between individuals. Some individuals may demonstrate outstand‐ ing levels of best practice, whereas others may report low‐to‐average levels. In a society, for example, disparities in best practice may be observed from different levels of economic wealth. Similarly, in academic contexts, some students may show exceptional levels of best practice for different subject disciplines. At the same time, best practice also differs from an individual point of view. A 10th grade student may have exceptional knowledge (i.e. declara‐ tive, procedural and conditional) in mathematics, but moderate levels in personal experience or personal functioning. In another subject area, the same student may demonstrate an excep‐ tional level in personal experience and personal functioning, but not in acquired knowledge.

The Framework of Achievement Bests [3, 4] explores best practice by focusing on the follow‐ ing: (i) discern and define different levels of best practice and (ii) an underlying psychological process that attempts to explain the achievement of optimal best practice. This framework is innovative for its explanatory account of how one reaches an exceptional level of best practice. More importantly, however, it is argued that this framework is meaningful in terms of its theoretical contributions and relatedness to the positive psychology paradigm. Specifically, in this argument, it is postulated that the achievement bests framework would assist in the execution of the PERMA model [1, 5]. **Figure 1** shows the potential interrelations between the Framework of Achievement Bests, the PERMA model and positive psychology.

#### **3.1. Levels of best practice**

The Framework of Achievement Bests focuses on two major levels of best practice: (i) *realistic achievement best*, which is defined as 'an individual's actual competence at any given time to

**Figure 1.** Proposed relations between positive psychology, PERMA and best practice.

learn and/or to solve a problem' [3], and (ii) *optimal achievement best*, which is defined as 'an individual's striving to demonstrate and/or to seek mastery in competence at any given time, reflecting his/her fullest capacity' [3]. Realistic achievement, in this sense, reflects a person's actual level of best practice (e.g. I am capable of writing a 2000‐word essay about World War II). Optimal achievement, in contrast, emphasizes a person's aspired positioning to achieve an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. I can do much better and be able to write a 20,000‐word thesis on the history of World War II), using his/her historical and realistic achievements as a source of information.

The Framework of Achievement Bests differs from previous theorizations of cognition and motivation, such as the *expectancy‐value theory* [13–15] and/or the *zone of proximal development* [16]. For example, the expectancy‐value theory emphasizes on a person's perception of his/ her current competence, as well as his/her belief about upcoming tasks, either in the immedi‐ ate or longer term future. What is problematic, however, is that the notion of calibration may arise [17], resulting in inaccuracy and erroneous outcomes. Realistic and optimal achieve‐ ment bests, in contrast, are not concerned with *belief* about current ability (e.g. I believe that I can…..), and/or *expectancy* about the future (e.g. I expect to do well …). Rather, these two levels of best practice emphasize on the saliency of a person's recognition of his/her current, actual best practice (i.e. what a person can do), and his/her indication of capability that reflects exceptionality (i.e. what a person is capable of in terms of maximization). In this sense, levels of best practice are indicative of precision and a person's state of quality, competence and enriched experiences.

Different levels of best practice form part of a person's repertoire of knowledge, competence and functioning. At any moment in time, a person may report on his/her levels of best practice. **Figure 2** shows the different levels of best practice that are in accordance with proximal time‐ frames. For example, at the present time, a student may indicate his/her realistic and optimal achievement bests. Achievement of optimal best, in this case, stipulates a contextual timeframe for accomplishment, based on the level of complexity (e.g. *x*<sup>2</sup> + 10 = 26 vs. *x*<sup>2</sup> + *y*<sup>2</sup> = 25). An exceptional level of best practice, for instance, may take a period of 1 week to undertake and accomplish (e.g. say, *x*<sup>2</sup> + 10 = 26). If this is the case, then by next week, as shown, a person's optimal best stated today would be considered as being realistic best. Likewise, a person's indication of his/her realistic best today would be considered as historical by next week. This theorized sequencing contends that over the course of time, a person evolves in his/her devel‐ opment of best practice.

i. *Acquired knowledge*, which encompasses three different types, namely, *declarative* (i.e. knowledge about the world or of oneself), *procedural* (i.e. knowledge about application and procedure) and *conditional* (i.e. knowledge about one's own awareness of 'when' and

ii. *Personal experience* is relatively complex, and encompasses both classroom‐based academic (e.g. appreciation for *mastery*) and school‐based non‐academic (i.e. *emotional well‐being*, *feel‐*

iii. *Personal functioning* emphasizes on the saliency of a person's an internal state of cognition, motivation and behaviour that may result in quality learning in an effective manner.

Best practice differs between individuals. Some individuals may demonstrate outstand‐ ing levels of best practice, whereas others may report low‐to‐average levels. In a society, for example, disparities in best practice may be observed from different levels of economic wealth. Similarly, in academic contexts, some students may show exceptional levels of best practice for different subject disciplines. At the same time, best practice also differs from an individual point of view. A 10th grade student may have exceptional knowledge (i.e. declara‐ tive, procedural and conditional) in mathematics, but moderate levels in personal experience or personal functioning. In another subject area, the same student may demonstrate an excep‐ tional level in personal experience and personal functioning, but not in acquired knowledge. The Framework of Achievement Bests [3, 4] explores best practice by focusing on the follow‐ ing: (i) discern and define different levels of best practice and (ii) an underlying psychological process that attempts to explain the achievement of optimal best practice. This framework is innovative for its explanatory account of how one reaches an exceptional level of best practice. More importantly, however, it is argued that this framework is meaningful in terms of its theoretical contributions and relatedness to the positive psychology paradigm. Specifically, in this argument, it is postulated that the achievement bests framework would assist in the execution of the PERMA model [1, 5]. **Figure 1** shows the potential interrelations between the

'why' to apply declarative and procedural knowledge) knowledge.

*ings for schooling*, a *perceived sense of needs* and *social relationships*) attributes.

Framework of Achievement Bests, the PERMA model and positive psychology.

PERMA

**Figure 1.** Proposed relations between positive psychology, PERMA and best practice.

The Framework of Achievement Bests focuses on two major levels of best practice: (i) *realistic achievement best*, which is defined as 'an individual's actual competence at any given time to

Best Practice

Realistic Best

Optimal Best

**3.1. Levels of best practice**

22 Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life

Positive Psychology

#### **3.2. The psychological process of optimization**

Realistic and optimal achievement bests differ in that the former is actual best practice, whereas the latter is non‐actual, emphasizing instead on a positioning to demonstrate an exceptional level of best practice that reflects maximization in potential. In this analysis, as shown in **Figure 3**, the *zone of optimization* illustrates the striving of one level of best practice to that of another level (i.e. realistic best → optimal best). This achievement of optimal best (e.g. solving 4 + 52 =? → 4(*x* + *y*) 2 = 3*x* – 2*y*) is explained by *the psychological process of optimiza‐ tion*, which visually is in the shape of a 'funnel'. As illustrated, the funnel that enables matters (e.g. water) to pass through has a small mouth on the left‐hand side, and a wide mouth on the right‐hand side. A narrow funnel, in this instance, may deter matters from passing through the funnel quickly. Having said this, however, power‐generated mechanisms that are located internally (e.g. a battery‐operated pump) may facilitate the movements of matters across a funnel. This example is a mental representation of the underlying operation of optimization, which emphasizes on two important tenets: (i) matters as being a person's best practice and (ii) an internal battery‐operated pump as an underlying mechanism that optimizes or ener‐ gizes the movement of matters (i.e. a person's best practice).

This theorization reflects the totality of optimization, which emphasizes on the *energization in movement of matters across space*. The energization in movement of matters across a fun‐ nel (i.e. water flowing through a funnel) is facilitated by the *intensity* of the power‐operated mechanism (e.g. an internal battery‐operated pump), and the *volume* of the funnel (i.e. the size of the funnel). Intensity, from our conceptualization, is defined as the power of the internal mechanism that operates to facilitate the movement of matters across space (e.g. water). Some power‐generated mechanisms (e.g. an internal water pump) are relatively weak in terms of

**Figure 3.** The Framework of Achievement Bests. Source: Adapted from Ref. [1].

power, whereas others are quite powerful given their sizes. Volume, in contrast, emphasizes on the shape and dimensions of a funnel. An elongated funnel that has as small base is likely to deter matters from passing through quickly. This observation also holds true, especially if the internal mechanism is weak in terms of generated power. A funnel that is less elongated and has a large base, in contrast, is more likely to facilitate the movement of matters more quickly. A more powerful internal mechanism, likewise, would assist in the rapid movement of matters across the funnel.

**3.2. The psychological process of optimization**

24 Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life

=? → 4(*x* + *y*)

2

gizes the movement of matters (i.e. a person's best practice).

Current Level of Best Subscale Previous Track Record

Proxy-CL

**Figure 3.** The Framework of Achievement Bests. Source: Adapted from Ref. [1].

(e.g. solving 4 + 52

Historical Level of Best Practice

Realistic and optimal achievement bests differ in that the former is actual best practice, whereas the latter is non‐actual, emphasizing instead on a positioning to demonstrate an exceptional level of best practice that reflects maximization in potential. In this analysis, as shown in **Figure 3**, the *zone of optimization* illustrates the striving of one level of best practice to that of another level (i.e. realistic best → optimal best). This achievement of optimal best

*tion*, which visually is in the shape of a 'funnel'. As illustrated, the funnel that enables matters (e.g. water) to pass through has a small mouth on the left‐hand side, and a wide mouth on the right‐hand side. A narrow funnel, in this instance, may deter matters from passing through the funnel quickly. Having said this, however, power‐generated mechanisms that are located internally (e.g. a battery‐operated pump) may facilitate the movements of matters across a funnel. This example is a mental representation of the underlying operation of optimization, which emphasizes on two important tenets: (i) matters as being a person's best practice and (ii) an internal battery‐operated pump as an underlying mechanism that optimizes or ener‐

This theorization reflects the totality of optimization, which emphasizes on the *energization in movement of matters across space*. The energization in movement of matters across a fun‐ nel (i.e. water flowing through a funnel) is facilitated by the *intensity* of the power‐operated mechanism (e.g. an internal battery‐operated pump), and the *volume* of the funnel (i.e. the size of the funnel). Intensity, from our conceptualization, is defined as the power of the internal mechanism that operates to facilitate the movement of matters across space (e.g. water). Some power‐generated mechanisms (e.g. an internal water pump) are relatively weak in terms of

A state of personal flourishing

Current Level of Best Practice Exceptional Level of

Volume of

Exceptional Level of Best Subscale Accomplishment inadomain

Proxy-EL

Best Practice

optimization

Process of Optimization

Psychological Mechanism Psychosocial Mechanism

Educational Mechanism

Intensity of optimizatoion

= 3*x* – 2*y*) is explained by *the psychological process of optimiza‐*

In the context of the present discussion, the example above illustrates the underlying mechanism of the psychological process of optimization. Optimization, based on our discussion of matters moving through a funnel, is an internal process that is intricate, and involves the importance of intensity and scope. The intensity of optimization, specifically, emphasizes on the *extent and amount of resources* needed to optimize a person's state of functioning. The scope (or volume) of optimization, in contrast, focuses on the *amount of effort* and *time* needed to optimize a person's state of functioning. In essence, drawing from this theorization, the psychological process of optimization encompasses the utilization of resources, and the expenditure of time and effort. There are three types of resources, which we coined as 'mechanisms' [4], that operate to opti‐ mize a person's state of functioning. The sequencing of this psychological process is as follows:

In academic settings, for example, the process of optimization may facilitate the achievement of exceptional best practice. This contention [4] expands on previous theoretical orientations (e.g. cognitive flow [33]) by providing an explanatory account of how an individual achieves an exceptional level of best practice. For example, in the context of mathematics learning, say, an appropriate instructional design (i.e. educational practice) that takes into account the negative impact of cognitive load imposition [23, 34] may enlighten comprehension and understanding of the unit material. This effective pedagogical approach, in turn, may initiate and sustain a heightened state of persistence, which then motivates a student to expend more effort in his/her mathematics study.

Non‐academically, likewise, the process of optimization may operate to explain and facilitate in the achievement of optimal best. For example, consider the case of economic and social mobility, and a person's determination to do well, finally. Any person's ambition, in this case, may entail having a good paying job, residing in an affluent area and fulfilling personal and materialistic needs. Realistic best practice, in this case, may reflect say, the following: (i) a person having an average job that is not well rewarding, financially, (ii) the person resides in area that is considered as being working class and (iii) the person has desires and aspirations to have other materialistic needs. Benchmarking against this realistic best practice level, the person is able to achieve an exceptional level of best practice in terms of his/her job (i.e. to get a better paying job, consequently as a result of his/her academic qualifications), residential area (i.e. moving to a better location) and the fulfilment of materialistic needs (i.e. improve in the quality of materialistic needs). This achievement, of course, may depend on the impact of psychosocial factors, such as the social environment. Opportunities introduced and provided by the community, in this instance, may assist the person to capitalize on his/her talent, quali‐ fications, and so on, to achieve non‐academic optimal functioning.

### **4. Positive psychology and best practice**

An important question, which forms the basis of this chapter, is how the Framework of Achievement Bests relates to the positive psychology paradigm? That is, in other words, how does the achievement bests framework explain some of the attributes, characteristics and outcomes of positive psychology? Addressing these questions requires an in‐depth analysis of the main tenets of both theoretical orientations. **Figure 1** presents a conceptualization by which best practice makes a direct contribution to the positive psychology paradigm, and a direct contribution to the PERMA theoretical model. Understanding of this conceptualization is facilitated by the identification of convergence and commonalities between best practice and positive psychology. From what has been discussed so far, it is noted that both theo‐ retical orientations focus on the following: (i) enrichment of a positive state of cognitive and emotional functioning, (ii) intense concentration on the striving of personal endeavour (e.g. acquired knowledge), (iii) expenditure of strength, which reflects the maximization of capa‐ bility, (iv) contemplation of success, rather than delving into the negativities of life and/or one's failures and (v) purposive attention towards positive outlooks regarding life, in general.

Best practice then, based on the assessment made, is indicative of the positive psychology para‐ digm. In this sense, understanding the overall arching focus of positive psychology may arise from the study of best practice, involving both realistic and optimal achievement bests. Striving to optimal best practice, in itself, reflects a positive psychological dimension of human agency. Indeed, the Framework of Achievement Bests is not negative and does not emphasize on per‐ sonal failures, pessimism, and so on. Optimal best practice, regardless of its level, is positive and indicates personal resolute, a state of resilience and the maximization of one's full potential. For example, a child's indication of optimal best practice in creativity may explain his inner strength, resolute, and inspiration to strive and achieve exceptionality in this area of inquiry.

#### **4.1. PERMA and best practice**

One important line of inquiry in positive psychology involves the development of the PERMA theoretical model [2, 5]. The PERMA theoretical model attempts to understand a person's state of happiness. Central to this idea is the fact the notion of *flourishing* consists of five core elements, namely:

materialistic needs. Realistic best practice, in this case, may reflect say, the following: (i) a person having an average job that is not well rewarding, financially, (ii) the person resides in area that is considered as being working class and (iii) the person has desires and aspirations to have other materialistic needs. Benchmarking against this realistic best practice level, the person is able to achieve an exceptional level of best practice in terms of his/her job (i.e. to get a better paying job, consequently as a result of his/her academic qualifications), residential area (i.e. moving to a better location) and the fulfilment of materialistic needs (i.e. improve in the quality of materialistic needs). This achievement, of course, may depend on the impact of psychosocial factors, such as the social environment. Opportunities introduced and provided by the community, in this instance, may assist the person to capitalize on his/her talent, quali‐

An important question, which forms the basis of this chapter, is how the Framework of Achievement Bests relates to the positive psychology paradigm? That is, in other words, how does the achievement bests framework explain some of the attributes, characteristics and outcomes of positive psychology? Addressing these questions requires an in‐depth analysis of the main tenets of both theoretical orientations. **Figure 1** presents a conceptualization by which best practice makes a direct contribution to the positive psychology paradigm, and a direct contribution to the PERMA theoretical model. Understanding of this conceptualization is facilitated by the identification of convergence and commonalities between best practice and positive psychology. From what has been discussed so far, it is noted that both theo‐ retical orientations focus on the following: (i) enrichment of a positive state of cognitive and emotional functioning, (ii) intense concentration on the striving of personal endeavour (e.g. acquired knowledge), (iii) expenditure of strength, which reflects the maximization of capa‐ bility, (iv) contemplation of success, rather than delving into the negativities of life and/or one's failures and (v) purposive attention towards positive outlooks regarding life, in general. Best practice then, based on the assessment made, is indicative of the positive psychology para‐ digm. In this sense, understanding the overall arching focus of positive psychology may arise from the study of best practice, involving both realistic and optimal achievement bests. Striving to optimal best practice, in itself, reflects a positive psychological dimension of human agency. Indeed, the Framework of Achievement Bests is not negative and does not emphasize on per‐ sonal failures, pessimism, and so on. Optimal best practice, regardless of its level, is positive and indicates personal resolute, a state of resilience and the maximization of one's full potential. For example, a child's indication of optimal best practice in creativity may explain his inner strength, resolute, and inspiration to strive and achieve exceptionality in this area of inquiry.

One important line of inquiry in positive psychology involves the development of the PERMA theoretical model [2, 5]. The PERMA theoretical model attempts to understand a person's

fications, and so on, to achieve non‐academic optimal functioning.

**4. Positive psychology and best practice**

26 Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life

**4.1. PERMA and best practice**

The PERMA theoretical model is positive, consisting of attributes and characteristics that are proactive, motivational and engaging. As a point of summary, the PERMA model recognizes the importance of optimistic thinking, active engagement, a perceived sense of meaningful and intimate relationships with others, understanding the meaning of living a fruitful, purposive life and a need to have aspirations and goals for accomplishment. This emphasis indicates that achievements of such endeavours reflect a non‐deficit, dynamic approach to human behav‐ iour. It is important to note, however, that each mentioned attributes and characteristics vary in levels of intensity or achievement. For example, in daily settings, a person may vary in his/her optimistic thinking level. Likewise, in a classroom learning situation, a student may differ from his/her peers in relation to active engagement. On this basis, the Framework of Achievement Bests may offer a platform that could provide more information and explanation regarding the PERMA theoretical model.

Best practice, as explained by the Framework of Achievement Bests, entails different levels of achievement. More importantly, however, the achievement bests framework emphasizes the importance of personal striving to reach optimal best. Optimal best practice, reflecting an exceptional level of achievement, may situate and involve the combination of contexts and domains of functioning. Consider, in this case, the five elements of the PERMA theoretical model (i.e. domain of functioning) that are situated within secondary school mathematics learning (i.e. context). It is plausible, in this analysis, to consider different levels of best prac‐ tice for each of the five core elements. This theorization postulates that each element (e.g. positive emotions) may vary in levels of complexity and development of best practice. The Framework of Achievement Bests, in this sense, provides more clarity into the differential levels of best practice (e.g. personal experience) for the PERMA model, in totality. **Table 1** presents a detailed example of how levels of best practice (i.e. realistic vs. optimal) explain the complexity of each of the five core elements.

**Table 1.** Best practice and PERMA.

As shown in **Table 1**, each element of the PERMA theoretical model may reflect different lev‐ els of best practice. A realistic level of best practice, for example, shows mediocracy in terms of experience of positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning and accomplishment. A student who experiences a moderate level of realistic best for emotional functioning may, in this instance, have an aspired positioning to achieve an optimal level of best practice (e.g. an extreme state of optimism, especially in terms of seeking learning for enjoyment purposes). Likewise, another student may experience a low level of realistic best in terms of engage‐ ment—his/her optimal level of best practice may reflect proactivity and intense concentration and cognitive flow. An important issue here, in this analysis, is to consider strategies and programs that may facilitate optimal functioning in the PERMA theoretical model.

### **5. Caveats and recommendations**

achievements of such endeavours reflect a non‐deficit, dynamic approach to human behav‐ iour. It is important to note, however, that each mentioned attributes and characteristics vary in levels of intensity or achievement. For example, in daily settings, a person may vary in his/her optimistic thinking level. Likewise, in a classroom learning situation, a student may differ from his/her peers in relation to active engagement. On this basis, the Framework of Achievement Bests may offer a platform that could provide more information and explanation

Best practice, as explained by the Framework of Achievement Bests, entails different levels of achievement. More importantly, however, the achievement bests framework emphasizes the importance of personal striving to reach optimal best. Optimal best practice, reflecting an exceptional level of achievement, may situate and involve the combination of contexts and domains of functioning. Consider, in this case, the five elements of the PERMA theoretical model (i.e. domain of functioning) that are situated within secondary school mathematics learning (i.e. context). It is plausible, in this analysis, to consider different levels of best prac‐ tice for each of the five core elements. This theorization postulates that each element (e.g. positive emotions) may vary in levels of complexity and development of best practice. The Framework of Achievement Bests, in this sense, provides more clarity into the differential levels of best practice (e.g. personal experience) for the PERMA model, in totality. **Table 1** presents a detailed example of how levels of best practice (i.e. realistic vs. optimal) explain the

> Extremely optimistic in terms of achieving success in other activities in Algebra. Also understand the difference in engagement for the purpose of pleasure vs. enjoyment.

Show extreme engagement, reflecting personal interest, perceived value and intense flow for

Working interactively with peers, teachers and capable others to learn and understand different topical themes for a variety of subject

Appreciating successes, but also recognizing that failures are part of life. Perceive and view failures as sources for improvement.

Seeking to fulfil and achieve the goal of helping others to understand the importance of 'factorization'. Helping less capable peers, in this sense, reflects a sense of

the learning of Algebra.

disciplines, where possible.

accomplishment.

regarding the PERMA theoretical model.

28 Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life

complexity of each of the five core elements.

1. Positive emotions

**Elements Realistic best practice Optimal best practice**

Relatively optimistic in terms of achieving understanding of the topical theme of

where appropriate, to understand the topical

knowledge and understanding of a topical theme, in this case, the importance of

mastering this understanding of 'factorization'.

'factorization' in Algebra.

2. Engagement Moderate engagement in learning different

'factorization' in Algebra.

3. Relationships Working interactively with other peers in class,

theme of 'factorization'.

4. Meaning Learning for the purpose of seeking

'factorization'.

**Table 1.** Best practice and PERMA.

5. Accomplishment Seeking to fulfil and achieve the goal of

activities (e.g. engaging in in‐class work exercises) for the topical theme of One main inquiry of positive psychology that has gained traction in recent years is the under‐ taking of rigorous scientific studies to validate its theoretical tenets. The PERMA theoretical model [1, 5] has, to date, received moderate research attention from educators and scholars, alike [35, 36]. This limited focus has been noted, and questions have been raised regarding the relevance, appropriateness and validity of the PERMA theoretical model. In social sciences, acceptance of a particular theory or theoretical variable requires rigorous scientific testing, and empirical validation. This scientific inquiry may be in the forms of experimental interven‐ tions and/or implementation of a program to validate the effectiveness and predictive effects of the theory [37].

The development of an articulation that amalgamates positive psychology, best practice and the PERMA theoretical model has also resulted in the identification of caveats for research development. Firstly, expanding on the work of Seligman and colleagues [5, 38, 39], it is important for researchers to focus on different methodological approaches to validate the PERMA theoretical model. As previously discussed, the PERMA model is perceived as being questionable by some researchers, especially in terms of its ability to remain steadfast under scientific scrutiny. Considering the importance of structural validity of the PERMA model is one important line of inquiry. One possibility, for example, may involve the cross‐valida‐ tion (e.g. the use of confirmatory factor analysis [40]) of different positive psychology and mindfulness. **Figure 4** presents a conceptualization that depicts the cross‐cultural validation between positive psychology, best practice and the PERMA model. Based on *structural equa‐ tion modelling* (SEM) procedures [40, 41], each of the three theoretical orientations is treated as a latent variable (e.g. 'Positive Psychology'), which is then represented by a number of measured indicators. In this example, it is conceptualized that: (i) the latent variable titled 'Positive Psychology' is represented by three measured indicators, namely: 'happiness', 'opti‐ mal functioning' and 'flourishing', (ii) the latent variable titled 'PERMA' is represented by five measured indicators, namely: 'positive emotions', 'engagement', 'relationship', 'mean‐ ing' and 'accomplishment' and (iii) the latent variable titled 'Best Practice' is represented by three measured indicators, namely: 'acquired knowledge', 'personal experience' and 'per‐ sonal functioning'.

**Figure 4.** A conceptualization of cross‐validation. Note: Due to the complexity of the a priori model, not all paths (i.e. correlated variances between measured indicators and direct structural paths from measured indicators to latent factors) have been included.

The conceptualization detailed in **Figure 4** is a second‐order factor representation—that is, the latent factor of 'Positive Psychology' is hypothesized as second‐order, and is defined by two first‐order latent factors: 'PERMA' and 'Best Practice'. For research investigation, it is plausible to consider validating both the structural and measurement models of the proposed conceptualization. The measurement model involves examination of the factorial loadings between the latent factor and its corresponding measured indicators. Strong factor loadings (e.g. *α* > 0.70) and the overall fit of the a priori model may indicate sound psychometric prop‐ erties, and support the conceptualized theorization. In line with this, statistical assessment is the possible correlated variances that could exist between measured indicators of the different latent factors (e.g. 'positive emotions' ↔ 'happiness').

One important line of inquiry, as shown, entails the structural predictive influence of the latent factor of 'Positive Psychology' on different types of latent outcomes. This examination (e.g. 'Positive Psychology' latent factor → academic performance) may add credence to the validity of the positive psychology paradigm. The complexity of SEM procedures also enables statistical testing of the direct structural paths from the measured indicators of the 'PERMA', 'Best Practice' and 'Positive Psychology' latent factors to that of educational outcomes (e.g. 'flourishing' → outcomes). This inquiry, likewise, is significant for its emphasis on the struc‐ tural validation of conceptualized theoretical tenets (e.g. positive emotions from the PERMA theoretical model, acquired knowledge from the best practice theoretical model, happiness from the positive psychology paradigm, etc.).

Secondly, it is a similar line of inquiry for the theory of best practice. One important focus that has, to date, received some empirical evidence concerns the psychological process of optimi‐ zation. Optimization, involving the activated relationships between optimizing agents (e.g. psychological mechanisms) and internal personal processes (e.g. persistence) is relatively com‐ plex and requires further research development. Aside from what has been established [3, 4], to date, very little is known about the initiation, sustainability and activation of the overall process of optimization. For example, the initiation of a particular psychological mechanism (e.g. a sense of hope [42, 43]) and its subsequent activation on an internal personal process (e.g. persistence [25, 26]) have been inferred from individual strands of research.

### **Author details**

Huy P. Phan\* and Bing H. Ngu

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
University of New England, NSW, Australia

### **References**

The conceptualization detailed in **Figure 4** is a second‐order factor representation—that is, the latent factor of 'Positive Psychology' is hypothesized as second‐order, and is defined by two first‐order latent factors: 'PERMA' and 'Best Practice'. For research investigation, it is plausible to consider validating both the structural and measurement models of the proposed conceptualization. The measurement model involves examination of the factorial loadings between the latent factor and its corresponding measured indicators. Strong factor loadings (e.g. *α* > 0.70) and the overall fit of the a priori model may indicate sound psychometric prop‐ erties, and support the conceptualized theorization. In line with this, statistical assessment is the possible correlated variances that could exist between measured indicators of the different

**Figure 4.** A conceptualization of cross‐validation. Note: Due to the complexity of the a priori model, not all paths (i.e. correlated variances between measured indicators and direct structural paths from measured indicators to latent factors)

Personal Functioning Positive Psychology

Functioning Happiness

Flourishing Optimal

Outcomes

One important line of inquiry, as shown, entails the structural predictive influence of the latent factor of 'Positive Psychology' on different types of latent outcomes. This examination (e.g. 'Positive Psychology' latent factor → academic performance) may add credence to the validity of the positive psychology paradigm. The complexity of SEM procedures also enables statistical testing of the direct structural paths from the measured indicators of the 'PERMA', 'Best Practice' and 'Positive Psychology' latent factors to that of educational outcomes (e.g. 'flourishing' → outcomes). This inquiry, likewise, is significant for its emphasis on the struc‐ tural validation of conceptualized theoretical tenets (e.g. positive emotions from the PERMA

latent factors (e.g. 'positive emotions' ↔ 'happiness').

PERMA

Best Practice

Personal Experience

Acquired Knowledge

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## **Understanding the Concept of Life Quality within the Framework of Social Service Provision: Theoretical Analysis and a Case Study**

Zuzana Palovičová

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68200

#### **Abstract**

The study discusses the quality of life concept and its relation to the right to lead an independent life as a social service recipient. The combination of these concepts can be found in various strategic documents at the national and international level. The study articulates the thesis that the concept of capabilities is the basic concept for both the defi‐ nition of quality of life and the definition of the right to independent living, as the level of freedom and capability (capabilities) provides information on real opportunities and possibilities of individuals to make free decisions as well as allows to identify disparities caused by the social structure that disadvantages, marginalises or discriminates certain groups. The aims of the study are to provide a clear definition of the right to lead an independent life and to explicate the link between the concepts of quality of life, self‐ determination, autonomy, competence in the context of the rights of disabled people to the integration and social inclusion. Reflecting on the experience from the Slovak Republic, the study suggests that the social service transformation process does not always imply an improvement in the life quality of the disabled. Instead, an ill‐prepared deinstitutionalisation of the social services might dissolve the available system without providing an adequate replacement.

**Keywords:** quality of life, capabilities, social functioning, human rights, social services

### **1. Introduction**

The level of human welfare and well‐being is considered an important indicator of social inequality and social justice. In classical economics, the welfare is usually interpreted to mean welfare benefits, which are normally one‐dimensionally measured by indicators such as

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income, expenses, gross domestic product, investment, etc. Recently, however, other criteria than purely monetary are beginning to be taken into account in economics. This stream was initiated by A. Sen, who proposed to focus on issues of human welfare and quality of life through the freedom of choices that an individual has. His idea accurately conceptualises in the concept of capability and social functioning that serve as indicators of the human welfare. From this perspective, the lack of basic capabilities can be interpreted as a lack of freedom, which implies that it becomes a human rights consideration.

The study deals with the clarification of the quality of life with regard to the right to live independently in the context of social services. It defends the thesis that the concept of capabilities is the basic concept for both the definition of quality of life and the definition of the right to independent living, as the level of freedom and capability provides information on real opportunities and choices of individuals to make free decisions and allows one to identify inequalities caused by social structure that disadvantages, marginalises or discrimi‐ nates against certain groups. The study is divided into four parts. The first one focuses on Sen's analysis of the mutual relationship of the terms benefit, material resources, capability, freedom and social functioning, because through these terms, the human well‐being and wel‐ fare are usually explained. We are observing, whether these indicators, which are of concern for human welfare and well‐being, are equal or there is a reason to prioritise some of them. Having regard to the theoretical relevance of Sen's interpretation of human welfare in the next part of the study, we look at the possibilities for the practical implementation of this approach. We will show that the practical application of this methodology provides additional information to conventional methods based on revenues or gross domestic product. Another section is devoted to the analysis of the right to live independently with regard to the right of persons with disabilities to integration and social inclusion. Based on the conceptualisation of the right to independent living, we will attempt to articulate arguments and reasons against the segregation of people with disabilities and to identify the specific elements that are essen‐ tial for the transformation of the social care system. In the fourth part, we will demonstrate the main arguments from part one to part three and exemplify them on the example of the Slovak Republic.

### **2. Sen's interpretation of the human well‐being**

The basic starting point of Sen's approach is the quality of human life in its plural forms. He conceptualises the human welfare through the terms *social functioning* and *capabilities*. Social functioning is defined as a condition that one has reached (e.g. they are educated) or an activity that one is able to do (e.g. travel) [1]. Functioning reflects different aspects of satisfaction of human needs, desires and preferences and concerns various dimensions of human welfare from survival to self‐expression in art and culture. According to Sen, social functioning is subject to the available material resources and their characteristics and depends on so‐called conversion factors that may be personal (age, gender, disability, etc.), social (legislation, population density, crime, etc.) and environmental (climate, environment, infrastructure). These factors, along with varying resources and their characteristics, determine the level of functioning, which one is able to achieve, and thus their capabilities. The concept of *capabilities* then represents various combinations of functioning that a person has the potential to achieve. It defines them as 'a person's ability to do valuable acts or reach valuable state of being. The capabilities represent alternative combinations of things that a person can do or be' [2]. In fact they reflect the 'freedom to choose lives for which they have a reason to value' [3].

income, expenses, gross domestic product, investment, etc. Recently, however, other criteria than purely monetary are beginning to be taken into account in economics. This stream was initiated by A. Sen, who proposed to focus on issues of human welfare and quality of life through the freedom of choices that an individual has. His idea accurately conceptualises in the concept of capability and social functioning that serve as indicators of the human welfare. From this perspective, the lack of basic capabilities can be interpreted as a lack of freedom,