**1.1 Learning disabilities**

For a difficulty to be defined as LD, the following criteria must exist [1]:

	- Lack of precision or slowness when reading words, such as inaccurate reading, word guessing, and pronunciation difficulties.
	- Difficulty comprehending reading, such as inability to comprehend sequences or relationships, despite precise reading
	- Difficulty spelling, such as omitting, or switching letters.
	- Difficulty with written expression, such as multiple grammatical errors.
	- Difficulty with the command of numbers, numerical facts, and calculations, such as confusion while calculating.
	- Difficulty with mathematical conclusions, such as significant difficulties implementing mathematical terms or procedures.

The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities [2] defines LD as "a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span."

According to the DSM-5 [1], the term LD should be used for describing impaired academic functioning seen in reading (precision, fluency, or reading comprehension), writing (spelling or written expression), and mathematics (command of the meaning of numbers, numerical facts, or mathematical reasoning.)

The frequency of LD has increased over the past decades. Dor Haim [3] claims that the increasing number of children in Israel diagnosed with LD each year now includes about 15% of the population. The percent of individuals diagnosed with LD differs between countries, affecting about 5–15% of children and adolescents [1], with greater prevalence among boys [4]. These disabilities can be seen in these children's behavior and day interactions, impacting themselves and those interacting with them.

The literature presents a range of explanations and treatments for LD—depending on the discipline. For example, the cognitive paradigm describes LD as an

*How Frustrating It Can Be? Raising up a Child with Learning Disabilities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112293*

impairment of the neurological system that creates specific difficulties in components of information processing, such as storage and coding. As such, treatment emphasizes implementing learning strategies and improving information processing capabilities, with the aim of helping learners overcome and compensate for faulty cognitive processes. On the other hand, the behavior paradigm focuses on building bypasses that provide learners with techniques for improving their LD, such as using effective learning methods [5]. Alternatively, the neuro-psychological paradigm explains LD as stemming from an impaired stage of early-life neurological development. As such, treatment should entail drugs [6]. From a constructivist point-of-view, the term LD stems from social constructionism of the terms "difficulty" and "disability" and touches upon the changing relationships between humans and the culture they are a part of. As such, LD is subject to the cultural and technological influence of society. As such, differences may be seen with regard to the society in which the LD learner lives [7]. LD and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are common among children and adolescents, becoming a significant emotional and financial burden for the parents. The education system deals in this issue frequently, through the training of teachers, counselors, and psychologist [6].

#### **1.2 Types of learning disabilities**

According to The Israeli Ministry of Education [8], LD includes the following disabilities: dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, and ADHD. *Dyslexia* is a reading disorder that prevents learners from acquiring reading skills despite their normal mental ability. This includes difficulty decoding, processing, and comprehending written texts. Children with dyslexia tend to read slowly and imprecisely [9]. *Dysgraphia* is a learning disorder that interferes with acquiring writing skills despite the learner's mental abilities. This includes multiple spelling mistakes, incorrect use of grammar rules, and punctuation marks. Children with dysgraphia tend to invest great time and effort when writing, and are unable to keep up with their classwork, and their handwriting is illegible [9]. *Dyscalculia* is a learning disorder that interferes with performing mathematical calculations. This includes omitting numbers when calculating or replacing the plus sign with a minus. Children with dyscalculia tend to lose concentration while calculating and have difficulty deciphering numerical symbols [10].

To date, ADHD is one of the most widespread neurological and psychiatric disorders among children—impacting their emotional and behavioral development, as well as their familial, social, and academic future [11]. Although ADHD is prevalent among children, symptoms do continue among 50% of these children during their adulthood [12].

Children diagnosed with ADHD often present educational, behavioral, and social difficulties that negatively impact the quality of life of themselves and their families [4]. In addition, these children's normal development depends on a number of factors, including their environment, related illnesses, and quality of treatment provided. However, if suitable treatment is administered, these children could develop normally, becoming more apt at dealing with rules and requirements, even being able to realize their full potential as adults [13].

To be diagnosed with ADHD, symptoms must appear before the age of 12, significantly affect at least two aspects, such as social, academic, or professional, and cannot be explained by other psychiatric disorders [1]. The child must also meet at least six of the following criteria: difficulty paying attention to details, difficulty concentrating on a task or game over time, seems not to be listening when approached, does not follow orders and has difficulty finishing an academic task, has organizational

difficulties in new situations, avoids participating in activities that require thinking, loses personal items, is easily distracted, and if forgetful in daily activities.

Signs of ADHD include standing up and walking around in situations that require concentration, running and climbing in inappropriate situations, difficulty complying with instructions during sports and other games, and seems to be activated by a motor: overtalking, impulsively answering before hearing the entire question, difficulty waiting in line, and interrupting and taunting others [1].

#### **1.3 Children with LD at school**

Reading, writing, and mathematics are the main skills that children acquire when first at school, and they lay the foundation for their academic success. However, despite their average or above-average intelligence, children with LD or ADHD often find it difficult to maintain the academic level of their peers [14].

Renee [14] defines academic failure as a pattern that is typical and constant throughout the life of learners with LD or ADHD. Such adolescents struggle in academic environments from kindergarten to higher education institutions. The difficulties they encounter affect their self-esteem; difficulties at school result in their doubting their capabilities, which in turn leads to decreased self-esteem [15]. Despite their efforts, failure is a constant in their lives—frequently resulting in complete lack of motivation to succeed at school [3, 14].

Ongoing academic difficulties also lead to social and behavioral withdrawal. As such, these learners require a comprehensive support system provided by their significant adult others—i.e., teachers, the school, parents, and additional family members [16]. However, these support systems must focus on providing these learners with tools for enhancing their personal growth—to help them learn to express themselves—and tools for dealing with frustration and challenges [17]. Studies indicate that allocating growth resources for extracurricular activity activities is an important means for practicing social skills within a social environment that suits children with LD or ADHD, as it enhances their selfconfidence and offers positive experiences in fields other than academic [18].

#### **1.4 Parenting children with academic disabilities**

Raising children with LD or ADHD is stressful and demanding, impacting the parents' functioning, and in turn impacts the child's behavior. Families may encounter health issues, depression, or stress. Some may incur financial difficulties following private tutoring, therapy, and assessments. Parents may not always be satisfied with the professional support that they receive from the school, teachers, or authorities—sometimes resulting in confrontations. For example, parents of children with LD and ADHD tend to conduct ongoing negotiations with the health and education systems. Others experience social distress due to their child's undesirable behavior [19]. While some parents seek social support from their extended family, research shows that most parents with children with ADHD or LD do not have close or supportive relationships with their extended families and as such are unable to receive significant support from them [13].

For some parents dealing with their children's difficulties is like opening a Pandora's box filled with anger, frustration, and feelings of failure following their own personal experiences at school. After years of denial, this encounter with their children's disability results in a range of unnamed and unfamiliar feelings. At first, parents may not even be aware of the relationship between their own experiences and those of their children [20].

#### *How Frustrating It Can Be? Raising up a Child with Learning Disabilities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112293*

Parents are expected to raise and educate their children while preparing them for their future roles as adults—as authentic, autonomic, independent, and responsible individuals. As defined by Galon and Cohen ([21], p. 161), "The role of parents is to reduce risks and increase possibilities." Parents of children with LD or ADHD, therefore, may find their role to be exceptionally challenging and difficult [22]. Parents' responses to their child who is encountering difficulties may include acceptance/rejection; control/submission; warmth/hostility; involvement/distance; and controlling/providing independence [23].

The unexpected appearance of LD or ADHD on the family's agenda forces parents to confront content that is not always positive and that they would clearly prefer to ignore or leave untouched in a hidden corner. Some parents even say: "School was hard for me too… I couldn't read or comprehend complex texts… I was expelled from school because of bad behavior… and look at me now – I have a great job, a great marriage, and none of that interferes with my success" [10].

Prior to a professional assessment, parents may feel that something is wrong with their child's natural development, as they notice significant difference between that child and other—especially when excelling in some skills while struggling with others [24].

Barkley [25] suggests that parents of children with LD or ADHD go through stages, until they find a system that suits their needs or expectations. At first, parents believe that their children's behavior is a cry for attention, and as such—the parents responding by ignoring them, hoping the decrease the severity of the problem. Later, as these undesirable behaviors continue, parents tend to give orders and instructions—hoping to control their children's impulses. Next, when parents feel frustration and despair, they add consequences, threats, and later—punishments. At this stage, parents often feel that the need to give in, give up, or intervene.

In some cases, parents notice their children's difficulties but are unable to decipher them. At first, these difficulties may only appear within the family setting, yet over time, they begin to expand into additional environments [26]. As reality steps in, parents may feel guilt, anger, pressure, shame, and disappointment—especially when they compare their own children to their peers. Others may react with denial. In her research, Einat [27] found that as LD and ADHD are not a visible disability, they do not automatically encourage the support and assistance of others, and may be regarded by others as less severe or problematic than visible disorders [28].

When children perceive their parents' negative attitudes toward them, they respond accordingly—leading to an undesirable cycle of negative interactions. In turn, the children's self-esteem begins to diminish, responding toward their parents in anger and disappointment.

In summary, LD and ADHD within the family setting often upsets the delicate family balance and existing patterns, in turn making parenting more difficult [28]. That is why parents often feel a range of emotions toward their children and toward their parenting capabilities [29].

#### **1.5 Coping mechanisms**

The past few years have seen an attempt to decrease difficulties among parents of children with LD and ADHD, promoting healthy interactions between the parents and their children. Intervention programs, for example, aim at helping parents adopt certain cognitive behaviors that will promote their relationship with their child, while enhancing their day-to-day interactions. Such interventions also aim at helping parents deal with the social, environmental, and medical challenges that they face [30].

Studies show that intervention programs may enhance the parents' perceptions of their own capabilities, in turn enhancing their belief in their own ability to efficiently manage the broad range of tasks and situations that stem from their role as a parent. With the help of such programs, parents learn to take care of their children in the long run, and despite posing intellectual challenges, these programs have also helped parents decrease their feelings of guilt, depression, negative thoughts, and even conflicts with their children [31]. Research has also shown the importance of parental guidance, thanks to its long-term benefits for the child within the familial, social, and environmental cell. Benefits include making progress at school, less need for special education, a decrease in school dropout rates, and an improvement in the child's capabilities [32].

Studies show that parental involvement in their children's school is important when dealing with LD and ADHD, as reciprocity between the parents and the educational framework has a significant impact on these children [26, 33].

Positive relationships contribute to the development of the emotional, social, and academic skills of children with LD or ADHD. Negative relationships such as conflicts between the educational institution and the parents, on the other hand, harm these skills [34, 35].

It seems that most literature on children with LD or ADHD deals in addressing the children's needs. Yet few examine the subjective experience of the parents and the challenges that their children's disabilities pose for them as parents. As such, this study aims at examining the difficulties that are encountered by the parents.


The interviewee added:

*I want them to read my notes on the portal. They need to buy data bundles to access the Internet. How much is the mobile data plan per day? Can a student have money to spend on data? Can we afford that? As a university or country, we are challenged. What are we doing to help the situation? We have heard about provincial resource centres to alleviate or meet half the challenges we are meeting on VLEs. There is nothing. I think there is a lack of support in the area of VLEs. For our population, it is missing, and it is very difficult for us to help our students. For example, regardless of the size of the class, only a quarter can complete the assignment online while the rest prefer to submit hardcopies or wait until they return to campus and have access to the Internet or Wi-Fi to complete the assignment(s). That makes it very difficult for me to mark assignments on time and prepare for exams at the same time. So, the reality of what we think we can achieve with VLEs is different from what is on the ground. The reality is that most of our students cannot access learning materials on their online portals due to the cost implications that characterise online teaching and learning.*

The relevance of VLEs is also hampered by a lack of financial support from the government in the form of student grants and sponsorships in HEIs for them to learn online. This further points to the fact that Education 5.0 during COVID-19 remains largely unattainable. This agrees with [17]'s projection that African governments still find it difficult to commit resources towards the evolving models of education. Interviewee 1 also admitted all this disaster is being experienced because the government of Zimbabwe imposed VLEs upon educational institutions. However, it was not like CUT was totally taking a new route.

*I would want to say, yes it was prescribed, but it does not mean that the school or the department was looking totally in a different direction from that. As a school or department, we were also looking at using the VLEs for teaching. In fact, we have been using VLEs in the past. But, where we are now speaking of these things being prescribed to us is when we were asked to speed up the use of VLEs. Before the coming of COVID 19 and Education 5.0, we were using VLEs. We were not following the 80 percent to 90 percent proportion that is now followed. In the past, we would use VLEs to distribute the notes and assignments and some of the general discussions with students. However, we reserved the demonstrations and serious lectures for in-person encounters. When VLEs came, we found ourselves in*  *Relevance of New Higher Education Approaches in Zimbabwe's 'Second Republic' DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99934*

*a situation where we were told to do most of the things or everything through VLEs. That's where we end up talking about this thing being prescribed for us.*

In the teaching and learning processes, the feasibility of the government's statement on the adoption of Education 5.0 was tantamount to the infiltration of VLEs. Further, Interviewee 3 lamented the disgust that came after the outbreak of COVID-19 with the imposition of VLEs and Education 5.0. Interviewee 3 also said that both students and lecturers lack ICT skills, therefore it is difficult to regularise VLEs at HEIs quickly.

*The two exist; they may be oil and water in the sense that if you want somebody to be practically sound in terms of skills, then there is the issue of online learning. It is not feasible; somebody has to be there simulating, and that does not always work. Somebody has to be there face-to-face with learners. Yes, there are aspects that we can say with VLEs can be possible, but for some, life is very difficult; it doesn't work.*

Zimbabwe still has issues with nationwide Internet access. Students travel long distances to study at local HEIs. These areas have few or no Internet-access facilities installed, nor do they have the electronic gadgets needed to run VLEs. Distance education demands that colleges and universities be technologically rich. The inaccessibility of digital resources makes VLEs irrelevant in the education sector. However, to further guide the overhaul of virtual higher education teaching and learning, the issue emerged as one of the major challenges that impinged upon Education 5.0 after the outbreak of COVID-19.

### **6. VLE support systems**

The interviewees also lamented how VLEs can support the practical constituents of Education 5.0. They all held that the government is not concerned with issues of research on the viability of VLEs in Education 5.0 exercises in the country.

In different interview sessions, Interviewees 1 and 2 were worried about the absence of proper research on the inclusion of Education 5.0 and VLEs. Interviewee 1 observed:

*In terms of support, I don't think we are serious as a country. We are not creating a conducive environment for us to use VLEs. What we are doing is pretending that things are moving when they are not. You need to do research so that you don't produce substandard students at the end. From the... VLEs lectures conducted so far, learners have grasped or learnt nothing at all. And we insist we want VLEs without having evaluated the VLE lecture experiences so far. We should have evaluated how students who participated in such online classes grasped both the theoretical and practical teaching virtually. Then we could see how effective it is and move.*

#### Interviewee 1 added:

*So, we need to make concerted efforts where the institution, the ministry, and the government look at things objectively. Yes, we are rushing to say they must cover all the learning virtually. But we are flogging a dead horse. With VLEs, we are finding it foolhardy to make learning a continuous process. Learning must be continuous, but my experience with VLEs is that it's continuous academic coaching with little*

*or no effective learning taking place. This is because we do not have adequate resources to support our VLEs. Look at the practical subjects.*

*How are VLEs supporting the practical component? Yet, these are the courses that help us make the products that are going to emphasise innovation and industrialisation. What skills have we given them online? What have we done to impart the skills? Even if we go through our VLEs, what is there to impart skills or support skills acquisition? There is nothing. What you get is the theory or methodological component. We have a skills deficiency and that deficiency will kill innovation and industrialisation.*

From the evidence gathered, the MHTESTD opted to go it alone in deciding how Education 5.0 should be executed virtually in HEIs. Lecturers from different local HEIs should have been taken for exchange programmes on how Education 5.0 and VLEs can be attached. That has been pertinent in countries like Malaysia, Germany, and China. This would have gone a long way in equipping higher education and training educators with the VLE skills needed to make them able to teach online effectively and efficiently, particularly for Education 5.0. Notably, the modernisation of the university curriculum in Malaysia has been characterised by the inclusion of a variety of projects and technologies for it to be a success. Unlike in Zimbabwe, as stated by Interviewee 1, Malaysian local and international industry groups were invited to give webinars, seminars, and workshops to academic practitioners so that they would turn out to be technologically and industrially compliant [20].

*The interviewee argued that research is key when it comes to the need to merge VLEs with teaching, research, community service, innovation and industrialisation. When it comes to VLEs, there was supposed to be enough research in terms of the person who is going to deliver and the person who is going to receive via these platforms to be all equipped. At the same time, whatever we are going to use as a medium for communication, is it effective enough so that whatever we want to do succeeds? So, the issue of VLEs at a localised level may work, especially for a few well-resourced people. At the moment, there are many hitches.*

#### Interviewee 3 said:

*I admit, we still have challenges. Of course, as we prepare our module outlines, lecturers are encouraged to design them so that students are guided on the activities that they need to do to build on their skills, particularly hands-on skills. But, the challenge is that the nature of some of the modules is such that as the student is taught new skills and given an instruction, a syntax of how an operation is done is also given. The gist of teaching when it comes to practical skills is in allowing the student to do an operation while the lecturer or demonstrator watches.*

*In the process, lecturers will identify in which areas the student is doing it correctly and in which areas the student is doing it incorrectly, and then they will re-demonstrate again and again. It is not something that can be done through a syntactic manual, and it allows the students to perfect their skills without the regular intervention of the demonstrator. The situation requires the demonstrator to spot where the student is struggling or failing. Also, some skills require high mental engagement and psychomotor skills from the student.*

#### Interviewee 3 further noted that:

*Relevance of New Higher Education Approaches in Zimbabwe's 'Second Republic' DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99934*

*Of course, some lecturers have tried to demonstrate using films, sometimes borrowing films from YouTube here and there. Some lecturers have tried to upload films that they have made. But, still, they will not be able to do it the way it will be done in face-to-face interactions between students and lecturers.*

From the preceding statements, it appears that online and offline-assisted teaching and training have a long way to go in Zimbabwe. The interviewee mentions the need to virtually give students skills that will help them innovate and industrialise in the future. Interviewee 1 stated:

*Our students were exposed to these (VLEs) before COVID 19, and we were interacting with them all the time on WhatsApp. To give them notes, to give them assignments, and that's part and parcel of the VLEs … If you look at this new thing now, we are saying more than 75% of the time they are learning online. I think we need to look into the challenges as universities. What are the challenges our students are facing? Are they really benefiting from VLEs? How many of them are benefiting? To what extent? This is because, in the current situation, we have seen so many challenges in online teaching and learning.*

*So, let me answer the how part of it. We have incorporated the VLEs at our university. Besides, we use their personal emails. Why personal, individualised instructions? Some students may not be able to grasp what I have given via the university portal, and they may want to interact with me on a different platform. We go ahead and do that. One other student may not be able to access his or her university portal but may check his or her email. That can also complement our use of social media.... Looking at our resource constraints as students and lecturers, we all know that at times we cannot get the Internet or Wi-Fi. But, when you get it, then you can use any platform that is easier for you or more accessible to you.*

Currently, VLEs are not effective and efficient for the purpose of Education 5.0 teaching and learning at CUT. However, 20% of interviewees contended that there was no difference between face-to-face teaching and online teaching. Whether you teach face to face or online, it makes no huge difference to the content that you teach. "I teach the same content in both instances," argued Interviewee 1. This implies some lecturers have no problems when it comes to conducting both online practical and theoretical lectures. In this instance, VLEs are not entirely a threat in the DCAD at CUT.


**Author details**

Vladimir A. Zhukov, Oksana Y. Shtark, Alexey Y. Borisov and Igor A. Tikhonovich

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
All-Russia Research Institute for Agricultural Microbiology, St.-Petersburg, Russia

## **References**

[1] Vance CP. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation and Phosphorus Acquisition. Plant Nutrition in the World of Declining Renewable Resources. Plant Physiol 2001;127(2): 390-397.

plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR),

We thank Dr. Margarita A. Vishnyakova (N.I. Vavilov All-Russia Research Institute of Plant Industry, St-Petersburg, Russian Federation), Dr. Tatiana S. Naumkina (All-Russia Institute of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russian Federation) and Dr. Vladimir K. Chebotar ("Bisolbi-Inter" Ltd., St-Petersburg, Russian Federation) for the long-term collaboration in the fields of legume breeding and microbial inocula development. We are also grateful to Victoria Seme‐ nova (Komarov Botanical Institute, St-Petersburg, Russian Federation) for critical reading the manuscript. This work was supported by the grants of RFBR (10-04-00961, 10-04-01146, 12-04-01867), Grant to support leading Russian science school (HIII–337.2012.4) and Govern‐ mental contracts for research with Ministry of Science and Education of Russian Federation

Vladimir A. Zhukov, Oksana Y. Shtark, Alexey Y. Borisov and Igor A. Tikhonovich

All-Russia Research Institute for Agricultural Microbiology, St.-Petersburg, Russia

[1] Vance CP. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation and Phosphorus Acquisition. Plant Nutrition in the World of Declining Renewable Resources. Plant Physiol 2001;127(2): 390-397.

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
plant-microbe symbioses (PMS),

188 Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields

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**Acknowledgements**

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