**3. Results**

#### *3.1. Remote Sensing*

The analyzed satellite images and aerial pictures give a consistent idea of the changes in the land use of the area and the visibility of the paleohydrographic traces over the last 60 years. In particular, recent high-resolution true-color composite images allow mapping these features with submetric accuracy. The traces mainly consist of cropmarks with vegetation suffering from hydraulic stress during the growing season, and dead patches in July and August. Significant changes can be observed over very short periods (compare, e.g., Figure 4d,f) during the hot season, while sensitivity is low in spring time (e.g., Figure 4e) and is lost in winter, when the fields are covered by scarce vegetation and are bare and plowed, respectively. By comparing satellite images mostly taken during the growing season (i.e., those that best show the traces) differences in vegetation colors allow the identification of buried morphologies of two distinct reaches, hereafter named Reach A and Reach B, and a crevasse

splay. Reach A consists of two major bends, called Bend 1 and Bend 2 (Figure 4b). The NDVI and NDMI images derived from Sentinel-2 summer images (Figure 5c,d) clearly show the di fferential behavior of the paleomeanders in comparison to the external floodplain and the inner portion surrounded by Reach A; the vegetation growing on more permeable sandy soil is less healthy than the one living on finer sediments. The paleohydrographic traces are much more evidenced by NDVI and NDMI during the summer season and they clearly help in identifying the general pattern of the abandoned channels. However, the rather low resolution of the Sentinel-2 images does not contribute significantly to discriminating in detail the specific morphological and sedimentological features composing the paleohydrographic traces.

**Figure 4.** Remote-sensing results: (**a**) aerial photogram of the study area enhancing the poorly visible fluvial pattern during winter time; (**b**) meander belt reconstruction and fluvial morphology identification in the study area—white dashed lines highlight evidence of scroll-bar morphologies; and (**c**–**f**) satellite images (2016, 2013, 2012) providing information about fluvial morphology on the basis of seasons and soil use.

**Figure 5.** Processed satellite images: (**a**) RGB combination on Sentinel-2 image to highlight petrographic differences in the study area; (**b**) band 8, of Sentinel-2 image of the study area, showing paleochannel morphologies; and (**c**,**d**) NDVI and NDMI indexes calculated on Sentinel 2 images (2018), respectively, enhancing different plant health and hydraulic stress.

Bend 1 is an open bend, with an SSW–NNE bend axis, and is characterized by a sinuosity of about 2.2 and a radius of curvature of ca. 140 m. The scroll-bar pattern is particularly clear from cropmarks, in the northcentral portion of the bend (Figure 4c,d), showing a different signal compared to the residual channel fill (i.e., light cropmark when the others are dark, and vice-versa), testifying the progressive growth of the meander bend. The channel fill displays a width of about 15–20 m and can be better defined where bounded by opposite-trending scroll-bar patterns, like in the upstream side of the bend. The riffle-to-riffle distance on the channel fill is about 260 m.

Bend 2 is a low sinuosity bend (i.e., 1.12), with an NW–SE bend axis, characterized by an estimated radius of curvature and ri ffle-to-ri ffle distance of 135 and 230 m, respectively. Bend 2 is sited upstream from Bend 1, and shows a scroll-bar pattern that testifies a progressive expansional growth style (sensu [77]) of the bend.

Reach B forms a bend occurring south of Reach A, but is less visible from satellite images and its sinuosity cannot be defined. The radius of curvature is ca. 350 m and the axis of the bend trends ca. SW–NE, although satellite images do not show a clear bar-scroll pattern and the position of the relevant channel fill. Reach B cuts over Reach A suggesting that it developed after a chute channel that cut o ff Reach A [78], which was later abandoned. Additionally, along the eastern side of Reach B, (Figure 4d,f) a divergent pattern of minor channels point to a local development of a crevasse splay sourced from the downstream side of the bend. Several straight dark stripes, with a width of about 1 m, located on Reach B, can be interpreted as traces of abandoned ditches that were associated with a drainage system dating back to Renaissance times and dismissed later on (Figure 4d).

#### *3.2. 3D Electrical Conductivity Model from EMI*

The inversion of the EMI data produced a 3D volume of electrical conductivity values. The results are shown in Figure 6, where we elected to show the volume sliced horizontally at eight depth levels down to a depth of nearly 8 m below ground, corresponding each to a layer selected in the inversion approach. Note that the inversion was conducted with an Occam approach, but using a limited number of layers compatible with the information contained in the six di fferent acquisition configurations obtainable with the CMD Explorer instrument.

An arcuate sedimentary body having low electrical conductivity (i.e., a resistive body) is clearly visible at a depth between 1 and 6 m below ground. The internal boundary of this arcuate body (see Slice 5 in Figure 6b) is fully visible in the maps, and shows a radius of curvature and a sinuosity of ca. 60 and 2.3, respectively. The external boundary (see Slice 5 in Figure 6b) slightly debouches from the maps, but its radius of curvature and sinuosity can be estimated to be ca. 135 and 2.2, respectively (Figure 6b), as also confirmed by remote-sensing results. Orientation of the outer boundary of this body fits with the orientation of meander Bend 1 of Reach A, as depicted by remote-sensing analyses, and is also consistent with the associated scroll pattern (Figure 4b), suggesting that these low-resistivity deposits represent the point-bar body associated with meander Bend 1 of Reach A. Of course, the main contribution of the EMI data is to provide continuous and extensive depth information that is not available from remote sensing. In the shallower layers (Slices 1–5), the arcuate point-bar body presents low conductivity values with σ < 20 mS/m, and its conductivity is still close to 40 mS/m at about 5–6 m below ground (Slices 6 and 7; Figure 6b). Note that the width of the most resistive part of the bar is clearly shrinking with depth, thus showing the 3D shape of the sand body. At larger depths (Slice 8—below 6.1 m) conductivity increases up to 180 mS/m, delimiting the base of the bar body. It must be noted, however, that the CMD Explorer provides, as a rule of thumb, reliable information only down to 6 m below ground and thus Slice 8 is e ffectively an extrapolation due to the need to have an infinite semispace at the bottom of the electrical conductivity model, and thus should be considered with care. Although the point-bar body shows a fairly homogeneous electrical resistivity, a subtle increase in resistivity values defines a 20 m narrow, NNE–SSW trending belt in the SE corner of Slices 2 to 6. The location of this belt fits with that of the abandoned channel forming the meander Bend 1 as apparent in satellite images (Figure 4b), and suggests that the higher resistivity values are linked to the coarser material of the deposits filling the abandoned channel. Deposits surrounding the low-resistivity point-bar body show conductivity values spanning from 80 to 250 mS/m, with values close to 100 mS/m down to 3 m below ground, increasing to 250 mS/m below 3 m. Comparison between geophysical data and geomorphic evidences suggest that these electrically conductive sediments represent floodplain deposits in which the Bend 1 meander was cut, thus developing the related point-bar sedimentary body.

**Figure 6.** Geophysical results: (**a**) 3D view of the eight 2D conductivity maps; (**b**) the eight 2D maps showing difference in conductivity values and highlighting point-bar, channel-fill and floodplain morphologies.


**5.2 Disadvantages of OGTT**

*5.2.1 Factors why OGTT may not be the first choose in screening for dysglycaemia*

more between 90 and 180 minutes post-glucose solution ingestion. It is possible therefore that some of the earlier reports of poor reproducibility of the test may be attributable to a volume effect. The gastric emptying falls as the glucose concentration rises and this was demonstrated over a wide range of glucose concentrations [77]. It has been suggested that this is due to the stimulation of receptors in the duodenum sensitive to the osmotic pressure of the duodenal contents. The rate for gastric emptying in normal individuals lies between 40 and 80 minutes. Chronic pancreatitis does, however, causes overt diabetes in some patients, and most patients with this condition have impaired insulin secretion [78] even if this is not sufficiently severe to produce disturbances in carbohydrate tolerance. The liver, situated between the portal and systemic circulation, is in a position to influence oral glucose tolerance profoundly. Reproducibility can be improved by drawing Blood at the stipulated time or at least within 5 minutes and centrifuge sample

*Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): Undeniably the First Choice Investigation…*

e. Other factors are: Lack of adequate patient

j. Others are: gastric emptying, Intestinal absorption, the gastrointestinal hormonal stimulus to insulin release, the liver, and the pancreatic islets.

f. Exercise during the days before the test g. Caffeine use, Smoking, Medications, Stress h. Changed in ambient temperature i. Volume of the glucose solution

preparations, Diet

To improve the reliability of a test it should be conducted in the individual that appropriately require the test, hence OGTT reproducibility can be improved when

Interaction with patients before procedure is very important because one of the

resistance 14. Hypertension 15. Recurrent infections

disease).

11. Women with polycystic ovarian disease

12. Woman who delivered a macrosomic baby(>4 kg) 13. Have other clinical conditions associated with insulin

16. It also helps determine if there is other condition that affects blood glucose levels (e.g., Cushing's syndrome,

celiac disease, cystic fibrosis, acromegaly, pheochromocytoma, hemochromatosis, or Wilson's

conditions leading to spurious result in patient investigation is lack of patient's

within 45 minutes of drawing it to obtain plasma.

1. Age > 45 yrs. (type 2 among 40-70 yr —7%, IGT—20%. In general pop—

2. Body Mass Index(BMI) >27 kg/m2 3. High risk ethnic groups—Africans,

4. Family history(first-degree relatives (increase risk by 2–4 fold 5. High waist circumference(>92 cm,

7. History of gestational diabetes mellitus 8. Previous evidence of IGT or IFG 9. Dyslipidaemia(decrease HDL and

10. Patient with Cardiovascular disease

Carribeans, Asians

4.3%

>80 cm) 6. Sedentary lifestyle

increase TGs)

*Indications for OGTT.*

**Table 4.**

**125**

a. The OGTT is a non-physiological procedure and the interperson variability is rather high.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96549*

d. Biological variation is been found to be up to 20–35%—these can be minimized by stringent careful attention to the protocol

b. Analytical and biological variability c. Use of different samples(eg; venous and capillary for a repeat or during same

*Causes of variability in OGTT results.*

procedure

**Table 3.**

it is conducted in the selected individuals noted in **Table 4**.

*5.2.2 Patient's preparation for conduct of OGTT, improving reproducibility*

Due to the number of limitations, the OGTT should be undertaken on two separate occasions before the results are considered abnormal (unless the initial results are grossly abnormal). It has high intra-and interperson variability. This may be due to a number of factors, including diet and exercise during the days before the test, caffeine use, smoking, medications, and stress. However, with careful patient preparation the impact of these modifiable factors can be markedly reduced resulting in improved reproducibility. These modifiable factors can be placed into three categories:

This shows that with proper patient preparations spanning through history taking and physical examination and appropriate patient education will highly improve the reproducibility of OGTT, hence care must be taken of the factors [65, 77] in **Table 3** during patient preparation.

An increase in the volume or decrease in the osmolality of a meal may result in an increase in the rate of gastric emptying and in a subsequent increase in glycaemia. Gastric emptying has implications for the reproducibility of the OGTT. It was twice observed that the faster an OGTT meal is emptied from the stomach, the higher the resulting postprandial glycaemia level. About 30%, 19.8% and 14% differences in postprandial glucose after the dilution of 75-g (present study), 50-g and 25-g tolerance tests was noted, respectively [77]. The dilution effect is noted

*Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): Undeniably the First Choice Investigation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96549*

**Table 3.**

individual undergoing OGTT. Finally, all trials aimed at type 2 diabetes prevention included IGT subjects [74, 75], who could not be possibly recognised without OGTT, seems therefore evident that the routine execution of OGTT is presently the

*5.2.1 Factors why OGTT may not be the first choose in screening for dysglycaemia*

a. Biological variation which may account for about 5.7% of available blood

c. More cost and time, Cumbersome, unfriendly procedure for patients

d. Because of the OGTT's high variability and low sensitivity, epidemiological studies based on a single OGTT may overestimate the prevalence of diabetes

Due to the number of limitations, the OGTT should be undertaken on two separate occasions before the results are considered abnormal (unless the initial results are grossly abnormal). It has high intra-and interperson variability. This may be due to a number of factors, including diet and exercise during the days before the test, caffeine use, smoking, medications, and stress. However, with careful patient preparation the impact of these modifiable factors can be markedly reduced resulting in improved reproducibility. These modifiable factors can be placed into

a. When preparing patient for test: duration of fast; prior carbohydrate intake; medications (e.g. thiazide, oral contraceptives and corticosteroids); trauma;

b. Glucose given: quantity of glucose ingested; volume of administration; and

c. Fasting sample: posture; anxiety; caffeine; smoking; physical activity; stress,

This shows that with proper patient preparations spanning through history taking and physical examination and appropriate patient education will highly improve the reproducibility of OGTT, hence care must be taken of the factors

An increase in the volume or decrease in the osmolality of a meal may result in

glycaemia. Gastric emptying has implications for the reproducibility of the OGTT. It was twice observed that the faster an OGTT meal is emptied from the stomach, the higher the resulting postprandial glycaemia level. About 30%, 19.8% and 14% differences in postprandial glucose after the dilution of 75-g (present study), 50-g and 25-g tolerance tests was noted, respectively [77]. The dilution effect is noted

an increase in the rate of gastric emptying and in a subsequent increase in

intercurrent illness; age; physical activity.

[65, 77] in **Table 3** during patient preparation.

b. Variable effects of administration of hyperosmolar glucose solution on gastric emptying, eg, nausea, vomiting, osmotic diarrhea, abdominal distension. Flavoring with sugar-free lemon and chilling increases palatability and may

one and only possible answer (Undeniably) [76].

*Type 2 Diabetes - From Pathophysiology to Cyber Systems*

**5.2 Disadvantages of OGTT**

glucose value

reduce nausea.

by as much as 16%

rate of ingestion.

and time of the day

three categories:

**124**

*Causes of variability in OGTT results.*

more between 90 and 180 minutes post-glucose solution ingestion. It is possible therefore that some of the earlier reports of poor reproducibility of the test may be attributable to a volume effect. The gastric emptying falls as the glucose concentration rises and this was demonstrated over a wide range of glucose concentrations [77]. It has been suggested that this is due to the stimulation of receptors in the duodenum sensitive to the osmotic pressure of the duodenal contents. The rate for gastric emptying in normal individuals lies between 40 and 80 minutes. Chronic pancreatitis does, however, causes overt diabetes in some patients, and most patients with this condition have impaired insulin secretion [78] even if this is not sufficiently severe to produce disturbances in carbohydrate tolerance. The liver, situated between the portal and systemic circulation, is in a position to influence oral glucose tolerance profoundly. Reproducibility can be improved by drawing Blood at the stipulated time or at least within 5 minutes and centrifuge sample within 45 minutes of drawing it to obtain plasma.

To improve the reliability of a test it should be conducted in the individual that appropriately require the test, hence OGTT reproducibility can be improved when it is conducted in the selected individuals noted in **Table 4**.

### *5.2.2 Patient's preparation for conduct of OGTT, improving reproducibility*

Interaction with patients before procedure is very important because one of the conditions leading to spurious result in patient investigation is lack of patient's

education and preparation. Interacting with patient is important in improving reproducibility of test for the following reasons:


*Edited by Carlos M. Travieso-Gonzalez*

Nowadays, the technological advances allow developing many applications on different fields. In this book Motion Tracking and Gesture Recognition, two important fields are shown. Motion tracking is observed by a hand-tracking system for surgical training, an approach based on detection of dangerous situation by the prediction of moving objects, an approach based on human motion detection results and preliminary environmental information to build a long-term context model to describe and predict human activities, and a review about multispeaker tracking on different modalities. On the other hand, gesture recognition is shown by a gait recognition approach using Kinect sensor, a study of different methodologies for studying gesture recognition on depth images, and a review about human action recognition and the details about a particular technique based on a sensor of visible range and with depth information.

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Motion Tracking and Gesture Recognition

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**5. Conclusions, Future Work and Future Challenges**

A C2F2C based framework has been proposed and implemented for intelligently allocating the resources in the residential buildings. This framework is based on three layers where consumers' requests have been considered constant for every hour of a day. Two control parameters: clusters of buildings and load requests are considered from any region. Whereas the performance parameters are RPH, RT, PT and the cost (i.e., VMs, MGs and data transfer). The optimization of these parameters have been performed by the SJF, ESCE and RR algorithms in this study. Two scenarios are considered for simulations: resource allocation using MGs and resource allocation using MGs, electric vehicles and power storage resources. Each scenario is further categorized into two other scenarios: one DC with 25 VMs and two DCs with 50 VMs. The performance of the proposed framework has increased, i.e., 50% in scenarios *1(2)* and *2(2)* as compared to the scenarios *1(1)* and *2(1)* in terms of RT and PT. Tradeoff occurs in the PT, as our system has processed and received more requests and it takes a lot of time to process the consumers' demands. In scenarios *1(2)* and *2(2)*, tradeoff occurs in cost due to maximum resource utilization using proposed algorithm. Simulation results also show that our technique has outperformed the prior techniques in terms of the aforementioned parameters as shown in the simulation section.

We described a C2F2C framework with simulations to support our idea. We believe that there are many other modern solutions; e.g., use of SDNs or blockchain that could replace the role of the cloud. This is one of our future interests.

For substantiating the implications of this study, the following future challenges need to be tackled intelligently.

**Author Contributions:** S.J. and N.J. proposed and implemented the main idea. T.S. and Z.W. performed the mathematical modeling and wrote the simulation section. A.R. and A.H. organized and refined the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Acknowledgments:** This work was supported by AI and Data Analytics (AIDA) Lab Prince Sultan University Riyadh Saudi Arabia.

**Conflicts of Interest:** All authors are agreed on this work. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

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