**3. Research Area and Data Source**

#### *3.1. Overview of the Research Area*

Fangsijie Town is located in the west of Yucheng City, Shandong Province (Figure 5). It is a key township in China's "Hundred Small Towns and Demonstration Pilot Towns" and enjoys many titles such as "National Development and Reform Pilot Town" and "Provincial Rural Civilization Demonstration Town". The experience of urban brands in the implementation of hollow village governance can provide a reference for homestead management in different regions. According to the third land survey database of Fangsi Town in 2019, the total area of Fangsi Town is 14,593.96 square kilometers. Compared with the land survey data in 2006, the area of cultivated land in Fangsi Town increased by 218.08 hectares in the past 14 years; 12.65 hectares of cultivated land was occupied for construction and 219.16 hectares of cultivated land was added to land reclamation. In general, work continues to improve but there is still a large area of idle land in the village to be reclaimed and developed. The per capita rural construction land is as high as 296 m2, and the homestead is seriously empty, which has become the main restricting factor for rural revitalization and new rural construction. There are 62 administrative villages in Fangsi Town. In 2019, the total population was 74,330, the household registration population was 69,283 and the urban population was 24,000. The urbanization rate is low and migrant workers account for more than 70% of the rural population. Among the four villages studied, Fangsijie village has a registered population of 2276, and the proportion of migrant workers is as high as 50%; Xingdian village has a registered population of 2748, and the migrant worker ratio is 23.3%; Zhengniu village has a registered population of 516. The elderly, women, and children in the village account for more than 30% of the permanent resident population. The registered population of Weizhuang village is 896, and the labor force accounts for more than 60%. On the whole, there are many migrant workers in Fangsi Town, and the labor force in the village is scarce. The "369" left-behind population is the main factor affecting the sustainable development of the village.

**Figure 5.** Research area.

According to the actor–network theory, in line with the principle of difference and comparability, the two hollow village governance categories are 'relocation and merger' and 'original site retention'; the different governance subject, governance object, and translation process occur in the process of hollow village governance. This study selected four typical villages—Fangsijie village, Xingdian village, Zhengniu village, and Weizhuang village—in the town to conduct in-depth research and discuss the operation mechanism and governance effect of four hollow village governance modes.

#### *3.2. Data Source*

This study adopted the research methods of on-the-spot investigation, in-depth interview and questionnaire survey to obtain the role orientation, role change, and village governance mode operation mechanism of each actor in the governance process of the case village. Before the investigation and study, we contacted the local town government and obtained research support. On the basis of the voluntary principle of respondents, we talked with the town government personnel, the two committees of the case village, villagers, business managers, tourists, and other actors, and filled out the questionnaire so as to obtain a series of actions, policies, and changes in the role of actors in the governance of hollow villages. The survey was conducted twice. From the first one, the general situation of village A and the basic situation of governance mode were obtained. From the second one, the operation mechanism of village hollow village governance mode was obtained, such as the process before and after governance, changes, and changes in the role of actors.

The research data mainly came from two sources: first, through an on-the-spot investigation, in-depth interviews were conducted with the local government, village committees, villagers, and other actors, with a total of 51 interviewees (Table 1). Through investigation and interviews, we sought to obtain the operation mechanism and governance of each mode in the process of transformation and understand the governance status and transformation effect of the four villages. The second source was the industrial survey report and meeting records of local government agencies or village committees on village development.

**Table 1.** Research objects and interview focuses.

The data in the table are from interviews.

#### **4. Results and Analysis**

#### *4.1. Mode Performance*

Through interviews and on-the-spot investigations, it was found that there are human actors (governance subjects) of the municipal government, town government, village committees, villagers, developers, enterprises, and tourists in the governance process of Fangsi Town hollow village, including key actors and non-human actors (governance objects) of population, land, industry, organization, and culture. The actors and social factors involved in the process of local practice are all natural. Instead of a simple combination, actors redefine their identities and action logic through the translation process. Based on our understanding of the law of the formation and development of the hollow village, and taking full account of the morphological characteristics of the hollow village in the selected cases, we divided the data into four modes, namely, the relocation and merger–urban–rural integration mode, the village integration–scale operation mode, the village intensive–idle land revitalization mode, and the original site optimization–sightseeing tourism development mode. Different governance modes meet the goals and interests of actors in the actor–network according to local conditions and achieve translation in the network to eliminate obstacles to action. Key actors in each model summon other heterogeneous actors to generate network relations under different models. With the evolution of policies and hollow villages, the network of actors is dynamically adjusted, which shows the impact of entry, exit, and role change on the network relations of heterogeneous actors. At present, the governance of hollow villages in Fangsi Town has achieved remarkable results, and Table 2 summarizes the various typical villages and models for the governance of hollow villages in plain agricultural areas.

**Table 2.** Case village governance.

Mode 1: Relocation and merger–urban–rural integration mode. Mode 2: Village integration–scale operation mode. Mode 3: Village intensive–idle land revitalization mode. Mode 4: Original site optimization–sightseeing tourism development mode. The data in the table are from interviews, questionnaires, and remote-sensing images.

#### *4.2. Mechanism of Modes*

The relocation and merger–urban–rural integration mode is one of the development modes of relocation and merger villages. This mode is people-oriented, uses policy support and village collective funds to relocate the village as a whole, re-plans the original site, and transfers rural surplus labor to the community. Through demolition compensation and housing subsidies, the government encourages villagers to voluntarily withdraw from the homestead, move into the new community with perfect supporting facilities, and reclaim and develop the homestead and the village leisure. The model is applicable to villages around the town, which are close to the town, have good transportation and an industrial base, have great governance potential and low governance cost, and can easily achieve urbanization.

#### 4.2.1. Operating Mechanism of Relocation and Merger–Urban–Rural Integration Mode

(1) Construction of the actor–network: Fangsijie village is located around the town, with policy support to carry out new community construction. The operation mechanism of the actor–network construction process is as follows: taking the hollow village governance group composed of the Fangsi Town government and the village committees as the key actors, through top-down solicitation, the stakeholders are empowered to remove obstacles in action. -1 Administrative recruitment. The government of Fangsi Town, together with surrounding villages, established a hollow village governance group, integrated multi-sectoral administrative resources, and joined the network of actors in the hollow village governance. -2 Recruitment of housing and land. Set up a settlement area near the town center through the demolition compensation subsidies or housing subsidies to encourage the surrounding village's villagers to withdraw from the homestead voluntarily. This involves the homestead and village idle land's reclamation, taking land shares, joint development and the renovation of a joint stock system and other multiple utilization modes. -3 Recruitment of production and employment opportunities. Based on fine management, the main town is constantly building functional facilities to improve its carrying capacity and matching degree. Through the establishment of industrial zones and commercial logistics zones, the urban economy prospers, the commercial circulation and modern service industry are vigorously developed, the financing channels are innovated, the competition mechanism is properly introduced, and the investment of enterprises attracts a large number of employment opportunities for urban residents. -4 Recruitment of living environment renovation. Fangsi Town adheres to the core of "people's urbanization" and aims to build a new livable house temple. Fangsijie village has been successfully included in the central budget investment plan to support the infrastructure construction of affordable housing projects, and CNY 17 million has been invested in the central budget. A total of CNY 26.854 million has been invested to support infrastructure projects for community reconstruction, which meets the basic demolition and resettlement support needs of 1251 residents. At the same time, it improves public services such as medicine, health, and education in the community, expands public spaces such as squares, parks, and libraries, and improves residents' living suitability (Figure 6).

(2) The change of actors' role: with the further integration of urban and rural factors, the OPP of the actor–network has shifted from hollow village governance to accelerating the construction of new urbanization and promoting the development of suburban integration. In the network of hollow village governance actors in Fangsijie village, the hollow village governance group plays a leading role among key actors, placing the village collective as the main body in a passive position. After the gradual relocation of villagers to urban communities, the government delegates most of its leadership to village-level actors. In the new network of actors, the government's decision-making power gradually weakens instead of giving it the role of regulator and supervisor; the village's two committees together constitute the community property office and gradually grasp the decision-making power of space development, supporting facilities, etc., which has become a trend among key actors. For non-human actors, the implementation of this model interconnects the

original elements of each village with cities and towns, forming a long-term urban–rural coordination mechanism. -1 Urban and rural spatial coordination. After the completion of the Fangsijie community, farmers can not only obtain employment in the city but also enjoy the living environment of urbanization. The operation and management of the community are integrated with the city to build a harmonious space for urban and rural integration. -2 Urban and rural economic co-ordination. Relying on industrial and commercial logistics zones to promote the free and efficient flow of land, capital, talent, technology, management, information, and other production factors between urban and rural areas, forms a standardized circulation order and creates an environment for all kinds of economic subjects to obtain equal opportunities and have equal rights. -3 Urban and rural social pooling. The combination of urban employment and residence can increase employment opportunities for villagers, attract the transfer of the surrounding agricultural population, speed up the integration of urban and rural areas, and achieve equalization from social management and public service supply.

**Figure 6.** Action network of relocation and merger–urban–rural integration mode.

Under the top-down governance of the hollow village governance group, which is composed of the Fangsi Town government and the two committees of each village, the government formulates the governance scheme; the two committees of the village are then responsible for coordinating with farmers so that the various governance measures are carried out in a close and orderly manner. The village is based on the integration of urban and rural areas. The rural population is moved to the community near the center of the town, which promotes the integration of urban and rural populations. The population hollowing rate is reduced, the main structure of the village is improved, and the population density is increased. Moreover, under the radiation of urban enterprises, villagers have obtained a large number of jobs. While changing the traditional economic and occupational structure of the village, they also provide rich labor resources for urban

enterprises. However, due to the lack of timely reclamation and utilization of abandoned homesteads and idle land in the process of village governance, and villagers moving into urban communities and staying away from cultivated land, village land resources are extensive. In addition, it is difficult for villagers to adapt to urban life in the short term after moving into urban buildings. In the process of governance, villagers have always played the role of executors, and it is difficult to effectively participate in the process of village governance. Although the public service of the new community is constantly upgrading and the entertainment life is constantly enriched, the sense of belonging and identity is still low.

#### 4.2.2. Operating Mechanism of Village Integration–Scale Operation Mode

The village integration–scale management model is a hollow village governance model, which aims to promote agricultural production efficiency, gather adjacent villages, plan a collective community residence, and revitalize idle land, so as to integrate the village population and land and promote agricultural modernization and land intensification. Taking Xingdian village as the center and Fangsi Town government as the key actors, the governance and rural development transformation of hollow villages is carried out. The actor–network construction and role transformation of its operation mechanism are as follows:

(1) Construction of actor–network: taking Xingdian village as the center and gathering surrounding villages, the activist network appoints the Fangsi Town government as the key actor and relies on the existing administrative network to recruit other actors. -1 Administrative recruitment. The town government grasps the key links, such as policy implementation and fundraising, and supervises village collectives to lead the villagers to relocate as a whole or in stages according to the situation in the village. -2 Recruitment of house and land. In order to avoid the unfair evaluation of the rural vacated homestead, the village committee should hire a third-party company to evaluate the house price and formulate reasonable compensation and resettlement standards. Agricultural land consolidation companies and village collectives will comprehensively renovate vacated and abandoned homesteads, inefficient use of land, and idle land, and establish a mechanism for balancing the interests of arable land in the east and west of the province at a price of 170,000/mu. The city supplements the corresponding cultivated land quota for the southeast coastal cities. -3 Recruitment of agricultural transformation. With financial support from the government and the financial transfer of arable land reclamation provided by the eastern coastal cities to Yucheng, about 60 mu of land has been transferred to build community industrial parks and ecological experience parks, promote the transformation of traditional agriculture to modern agriculture, make full use of the village's labor force, and provide employment opportunities and increase residents' income (Figure 7).

(2) The change of actors' roles: after the initial completion of the Xingdian community, its development is facing a new transformation. The OPP of the actor–network has turned to promote agricultural production and efficiency, which has led to a change in the role of actors and the addition of new actors. For human actors, through village integration, originally scattered villages are gathered into resettlement areas. Under the guidance and supervision of the government, the "two committees" of the village assume the main responsibility for the transformation and development of the village. By coordinating the interest relationship between the investing enterprises, the villagers, and the village collective, the original independent economic status of each village will be broken, and a new community of interests will be formed. To a certain extent, this gives new actors an incentive to enter the network. For non-human actors, on the basis of large-scale operations, the goal of increasing agricultural production and farmers' incomes is to build a modern agricultural industry complex linked by factors, industries, and interests. -1 Industrial chain. Xingdian community village collectively led the villagers to develop live pig breeding and greenhouse planting, dairy cattle and beef cattle breeding, and build a community industrial park and ecological experience through land transfer. The village

collective exerts its own functions, organizes and guides villagers to find employment in the park, actively cooperates with enterprises and attracts investment from them, expands publicity to attract consumers, builds the village brand, achieves an effective connection between agriculture and the secondary and tertiary industries, and forms a modernized agricultural industry chain. -2 Element chain. Each business entity in the community industrial park establishes the buying and selling relationship of agricultural production materials and services by signing contracts, urges the close binding of business activities and continuously explores the establishment of a traceability system for the whole process of agricultural product origin, growth, production, and processing, forming a modern agricultural element chain. -3 Interest chain. Investing enterprises provide agricultural production materials to the industrial park and purchase agricultural products to solve the problem of shortage of funds. Villagers invest in labor to solve the problem of the labor shortage. The village collective coordinates agricultural professional enterprises to solve the problem of backward technology. Each subject exerts its respective advantages to ensure the rational operation of the industrial park, so as to obtain stable profits and form a chain of interests.

**Figure 7.** Action network of village integration–scale operation mode.

As a result of the translation of the network of actors, various actors promote the organic integration of new subjects, new industries, and new layouts in Xingdian village. With the support of policies, engineering construction and the participation of villagers, Xingdian village, based on village integration, gathers the originally scattered villages into the central village and conducts professional and comprehensive renovations of vacated land, homesteads, and idle land. Using the policy of linking increase and decrease to obtain financial funds, the village has realized the large-scale operation of the community, which not only effectively reduces the rate of homesteads, construction land, and abandoned cultivated land, but also builds an agricultural industry complex, changes the economic structure, and provides local employment for villagers. Large-scale management not only improves the efficiency of land use but also forms the industrial chain to enhance the collective economic benefits of the village. The increase in income is conducive to attracting the local population to return home for employment and the foreign population and enterprises to invest in suitable industries. Economic construction has also led to positive spiritual civilization and construction. Population, land, industry, organization, and culture form a positive interaction. The degree of hollowing out of the village is reduced and the transformation from a hollow village to a solid village is gradually realized. However, in village governance, it is difficult for farmers and village collectives to play a dominant role. On the one hand, in the early stages of village governance, village collectives and

farmers are passive recipients of various measures. On the other hand, after the merger of villages, due to the increased community population, follow-up management and supporting facilities are not timely in place, the grassroots management is unstable, and the satisfaction of the masses is reduced to a certain extent.

#### 4.2.3. Operating Mechanism of Village Intensive–Idle Land Revitalization Mode

The intensive and idle land revitalization mode in the village is a hollow village governance model that retains governance. That is, based on the original village site, through the repair of the original houses and infrastructure, the idle land is sorted out, and the integrated land is transferred to improve land-use efficiency and develop the collective economy. It applies to villages far from towns. With the support of the two committees and policies of the village, Zhengniu village carries out the hollow village governance action of idle land revitalization in the village intensive mode. The actor–network construction and role transformation are as follows:

(1) Construction of the network of actors: the network of actors under this mode recruits other actors with the two committees of Zhengniu village as key actors. -1 Administrative recruitment. According to the various standards specified by the Yucheng City government and the Fangsi Town government, villagers are encouraged to participate in the integration of existing resources of the village and attract enterprises to join the actor– network by attracting investment. -2 Recruitment of housing and land. Zhengniu village introduced construction companies through bidding to repair the houses in the village. The compensation standard of CNY 200 per house encourages villagers to withdraw from more homesteads and arrange 100 mu of idle land and formulate reasonable land transfer and reuse schemes. The land was registered for confirmation and contracted to villagers through cooperatives, and the villagers were encouraged to work independently. -3 Recruitment of industrial development. Zhengniu village, around the town's construction of the economic forest belt and high-quality line work deployment, made full use of the reclaimed land by planting 5000 persimmon and peach trees to create the 'Wanshiruyi Zhengniu village' brand. -4 Recruitment of environmental remediation. The village uses the special governance funds allocated to harden village roads, construct basic societal needs such as domestic garbage and sewage treatment equipment, configure public service facilities such as health and entertainment, and plant 3000 green seedlings such as cherry trees, crabapples, and holly to improve the natural environment and living environment of the village (Figure 8).

(2) The change of actors' roles: with the implementation and preliminary completion of the mode, the OPP of the actor–network turned to the development of farming and the construction of green villages. In the actor–network, the village collective, as the leader, cultivates the characteristic planting industry through the transformation of the old village. After the economic trees show benefits, the village collective and the villagers are distributed in proportion. For non-human actors, tomato planting is used as a means to establish an industrialization development model to build a green countryside. -1 Product ecosphere. With villagers as the main body, the village takes the development of green agricultural product brands as the center, actively explores the management mode of 'village collective + farmers + market', gives full play to the role of village collective bridges, and links and vigorously promotes the unified purchase, planting, management, sales, and other 'four unified' planting modes to realize standardized planting. -2 Village ecosphere. Through animal and plant production and microbial transformation, the balanced ecosystem can be restored, the small ecological cycle within the village area can be realized, the carrying capacity of the rural ecological environment can be improved, and the foundation for building ecological sightseeing agriculture in the future can be laid.

**Figure 8.** Action network of village intensive–idle land revitalization mode.

In order to retain governance within the village as the foundation, after finishing the homestead and village idle land, Zhengniu village was contracted to the villagers. Through the joint participation of the villagers, the abandoned homestead, idle construction land, and cultivated land in the village are effectively utilized; the main role of the village collective and the villagers' rural construction is also fully exerted and the endogenous power is actively exerted to promote the structural balance and quality improvement of the village population. At the same time, revitalizing idle land has improved land use efficiency, developed characteristic agriculture, and cultivated economic trees to improve industrial efficiency. This model also continues the village culture, repaired houses, and construction of an ecological livable governance system and cultural environment. The quality improvement and efficient utilization of land resources affect the scale of agricultural farming and the ecological environment, providing conditions for agricultural production and creating a livable living environment for villagers. The increase in production and efficiency, the improvement of the chain, and the optimization of the industrial structure have improved the level of collective economy and land value, attracting the return of the migrant population and external capital investment and helping to achieve rural revitalization. However, due to the village supporting infrastructure and public services still having room for improvement, the effect of attracting migrant workers to return home is general. At the same time, the lack of young talent in the construction of grassroots organizations also makes grassroots governance lax with a lack of innovation, and it is difficult to support the follow-up optimization operation of the industry, which severely strains the overall development of the village in the future.

4.2.4. Operating Mechanism of Original Site Optimization–Sightseeing Tourism Development Mode

The original site optimization–sightseeing tourism development mode seeks to fully tap the village landscape resources, carry out rural tourism, improve supporting facilities, support agriculture by tourism, optimize the income structure of villagers, attract the return of migrant workers, introduce enterprises and excellent talents, and inject new vitality into rural development. Relying on tourism endowments, Weizhuang village

develops landscape resources and tourism villages. The network construction and role transformation of its operational mechanism actors are as follows:

(1) Construction of the actor–network: the network of actors under this mode takes local governments as key actors and recruits other actors from bottom to top. -1 Administrative recruitment. Based on the preferential policies and financial support designated by Yucheng City, the Fangsi Town government actively joins relevant departments, including tourism departments and village collectives, as well as the network of actors, and undertakes corresponding responsibilities. -2 Recruitment of housing and land. Integration of the construction land in the village; the villagers, according to their own wishes to repair the house, run the farmhouse, homestay and conduct other tourism services, and improve the beauty of the village while increasing income sources; there is also the large-scale management of land in the village, the introduction of high-yield varieties of pears, and the establishment of a planting base. -3 Recruitment of environmental remediation. Through discussion with the Weizhuang tourism management office, a comprehensive environmental improvement scheme was determined and the water quality, roads, and public places in the village were comprehensively developed. Roads were hardened, sewage treatment stations and squares were established, and public space was increased. -4 Recruitment of landscape resources. The environmental planning company is invited to redesign landscape resources such as village buildings, optimize the landscape layout, and develop the value of the human landscape. Through offline activities such as pear garden sketching, the media of the Yucheng newspaper, and the enthusiastic attention of the Yucheng Photographers Association, there is attraction in promoting the construction of rural brands. At the same time, entertainment, accommodation, catering, and other services are gradually improved to provide employment opportunities for returning people and villagers (Figure 9).

**Figure 9.** Action network of the original site optimization–sightseeing tourism development mode.

(2) The change of actors' roles: with the implementation and preliminary completion of this model, the actor–network OPP has transformed into the construction of tourism villages, and new actors have entered the actor–network of tourism village construction under the influence of rural governance and operation concept renewal. For human actors, the government has become the supporter, followed by the original leader, giving preferential policies and publicity channels to rural areas. Low-level subjects such as tourism management offices and villagers, which were originally in a passive position, have gradually mastered the decision-making power of rural operations. The trend of rural development has attracted heterogeneous actors such as returnees and consumers to join the network. At the same time, due to the exclusion of the network itself, the old actors may withdraw from the network because of objections, such as some enterprises withdrawing from investment and a commodity exit from operations. For non-human actors, through the repair of the original houses in the village and the brand promotion of the Aidan pear garden, a cluster of ornamental consumer goods is formed. With the construction of tourism villages, the consumption space, which includes picking gardens, pear gardens, catering, and accommodation, is integrated into the characteristics of rural customs, which is endowed with more consumption characteristics.

Under the guidance of the key actors of the Yucheng City government and Fangsi Town government, the governance of the Weizhuang hollow village is based on the development of tourism, making full use of the internal landscape resources and cultural resources of the village, giving full play to the charm of rural traditional culture in order to attract tourists and enterprises, and making comprehensive use of the village land to take large-scale operations, so as to improve the efficiency of village land use, adjust the economic structure of the village, and greatly promote the diversified development of the village industry. Enterprises, as the main force in the construction of tourism villages, run through the investment, construction, and operation of villages, while villagers have the dual identity of participants and operators. They have more discourse power in the process of village governance and provide suggestions for the development of villages according to their own business conditions. Participation is high, which greatly increases the recognition and satisfaction of the masses with village governance, so as to extend the improvement of villagers' identity, sense of belonging, and satisfaction with rural culture. However, the development of tourism in the village lacks innovation and the lack of talent and villagers' professional knowledge makes it difficult to participate in the decision-making of village development. Farmers' self-management makes the role of village collectives in the distribution of decision-making interests weak; grass-roots organizations copy the experience of the construction of tourism villages with a lack of characteristics, coupled with the complex elements involved in tourism villages; it is difficult to achieve the expectations of village collective governance capacity in a short time, resulting in defects in the village tourism environment and services.

#### *4.3. Policy Implications*

Through the above analysis of the construction process and operation mechanism of the network of actors in different governance modes of hollow villages, we find that the governance of hollow villages does not refer to single governance on a certain aspect, but a comprehensive project with a comprehensive nature, which is continuously promoted in the interaction between the governance subject and the governance object. The supply of natural resources and village location conditions are important factors affecting the development direction of the village. The diversity and complexity of governance make it necessary to consume more material resources and time, which requires policymakers and key actors to comprehensively consider the existing resources and conditions of the village and the problems faced in the process of village governance when making governance decisions.

(1) In terms of governance objects, governments should first improve the financial system of village governance to meet their long-term capital needs. On the one hand, villages should be clear about the use of special funds approved by the state finance for the governance of hollow villages, establish a strong supervision mechanism for the use of the funds and record and disclose the funds needed by all parties involved in the

governance of hollow villages, so as to fundamentally eliminate their misuse. At the same time, the governance subjects should actively carry out market-oriented operations, encourage multi-party forces to participate in investment, continuously strengthen the construction of the village's collective economy, expand the rural business market, fully tap the rural resources and potential resources, and accumulate, restructure, and operate the assets of hollow villages, so as to obtain benefits, realize the self-accumulation and selfdevelopment of villages, and provide strong support for the development of hollow villages. Secondly, it is necessary to establish a long-term security and management mechanism, carry out long-term management and protection for the development of hollow villages, and formulate rules, regulations, and supervision systems for environmental protection and public facilities maintenance so as to protect the improvement of the production and living environment of the village and strengthen the operation mechanism of labor security, especially the problem of land loss and unemployment of some villagers in the relocation and merger management mode. The government should strengthen employment training for villagers so that they can find their own employment. Finally, it is important to pay attention to the construction of the rural public cultural service system. In the process of hollow village governance, it is necessary to clarify whether the improvement of material life or the enrichment of spiritual life is an indispensable part of hollow village governance. It is necessary to pay attention to the development of the economy and not neglect the construction of culture. The main body involved in the governance of hollow villages should clarify the rich connotation of rural culture. On the one hand, it includes landscape resources, spatial texture, village buildings, production tools, and other material aspects of culture, but also includes folk customs, traditional crafts and arts, and village regulations and conventions, especially values, moral values, and simple rural customs. On the other hand, it is necessary to innovate new ideas of cultural construction and reshape rural public cultural service projects and public cultural service spaces by means of digitalization and networking, especially for the relocation of merged villages. It is necessary to enrich the cultural atmosphere of villages through cloud libraries, online cultural lectures, and other information technologies, and improve villagers' sense of belonging and identity.

(2) In terms of governance subjects, first of all, villagers are the owners and participants of the governance results of the hollow village. Therefore, in the governance of the hollow village, governments should adhere to a people-oriented principle. Whether it is the village merger or village planning, it should respect the wishes of farmers, effectively protect their vital interests, and give them enough time to understand the relevant policies and regulations and respect their choices in line with their own interests. In addition, encouraging migrant farmers to return home and start a business is an important way to give full play to the dominant position of villagers in the governance of hollow villages. Encouraging them to participate in the governance of hollow villages can enhance villagers' recognition. In terms of governance methods, the government should choose the way that is suitable for the current situation of the village, try to achieve democratization and diversification, highlight the main feelings of the masses in participating in the governance of hollow villages, and expand the main force of rural governance. Secondly, governments should improve the governance level of village cadres, strengthen the construction of the talent team in rural grassroots organizations, broaden the way of selecting village officials, and encourage college students and migrant workers with abilities and good management to join the village cadres. Innovation of grassroots governance, through the Internet and other technical means to open rural affairs, takes initiative to accept the supervision of villagers and large numbers of migrant workers; it is difficult to participate in village-level activities and villagers' meetings in a timely manner so that villagers have a convenient understanding of grassroots governance and their sense of identity and trust in grassroots organizations is enhanced. Finally, according to the actor–network theory, the government, villagers, enterprises, and other social forces should play their own advantages in accordance with the law and communicate, coordinate, and cooperate with each other in order to achieve the goal of hollow village governance, which requires a

variety of ways to stimulate the initiative of the governance subject and give full play to the resultant force between the various subjects. In the process of governance, governments should pay full attention to the interests of all parties, minimize the damage to interests as much as possible, and fully mobilize the initiative of multiple governance subjects. In particular, villages should use multiple methods, such as introducing preferential policies and reducing loan interest rates, to encourage enterprises to play an economic leading role in rural construction. Governments should use enterprise projects to expand industries and improve villagers' incomes by providing jobs, village-enterprise cooperation, and land transfer. At the same time, governments can learn from the combination of urban management and methods with the development path of hollow villages, so that enterprises can promote their governance while simultaneously ensuring their economic benefits and enhancing the motivation of enterprises to participate in investment and governance.

#### **5. Discussion**

#### *5.1. Hollow Village Governance Mechanism*

Hollow villages exist in the complex rural internal and external environment and socio-economic network. The governance of hollow villages is rooted in the constraint framework of behavioral objects such as rural internal space, economy, and society, and embodies the game, competition, and cooperation relations among stakeholders such as the government, enterprises, and village collectives.

In terms of governance object, the economic, spatial, and social subsystems in the village's internal system constitute the behavior object of hollow village governance. The interaction of each subsystem and its elements shapes the single-dimensional and multidimensional appearance and morphological characteristics of the hollow village and exerts an important influence on the governance mode, operation mode, and actor input of hollow village governance. The formation process of hollow villages is a phased process in which low-quality solid villages finally form hollow villages. The formation of hollow villages can be seen as the current conditions and development level of villages that find it difficult to meet the needs of farmers for living conditions and quality. Farmers leave the village to seek a better life, or the material and spiritual needs that can be provided within the village continue to decrease, leading to the decline of the village. According to the influencing factors on the formation of hollow village force direction, it is divided into a core driving force and a foreign aid pulling force. On the one hand, in the core system of rural areas, the changes in agricultural production development, social and cultural changes, public service facilities, road construction, and the diversified transformation of farmers' livelihoods affect the adjustment and change of the rural economy, space, and ecology, and play a fundamental and endogenous role in promoting the evolution and development of rural hollowing. In particular, due to factors such as regional position and the natural conditions of some rural areas, the poor conditions and economic benefits are low. Under the influence of factors such as the lack of employment opportunities, low income levels, and low quality of education, farmers will have the psychological orientation of separating from rural areas and integrating into urban and non-agricultural industries. On the other hand, during the accelerated development of industrialization and urbanization, the pulling force of the rural foreign aid system is the dominant driving force for the formation of hollow villages. The main performance is industrialization, and the urbanization process of the modern agricultural industry is to replace agricultural labor and land investment; the attraction of urban rich jobs provides a driving force for the transfer of the rural population, as well as to meet the farmers' access to quality education, public service resources, and improve the quality of life needs, fundamentally making the rural population hollow. The reform and innovation of the land-use system have brought about a change in land management mode and an increase in farmers' income, and the lag of land management policy, social and cultural changes, and inheritance have jointly promoted the hollowization of rural land. In addition, the urban bias of the national policy system and the allocation of funds have long ignored the development of rural areas, blocked the flow of urban and rural

factors and the lack of physical, human, and technical capital to promote rural development, resulting in insufficient internal development momentum in rural areas, weak governance capacity, backward cultural technology, a short industrial chain, and low added value; as a consequence, rural industry, organization, and culture hollow out. At the same time, in the process of the evolution of the rural regional system, the whole rural system will deviate from the evolution track if it encounters unexpected or unpredictable events or phenomena, such as floods, geological and other natural disasters, or major project construction, major pollution, and other human events, which is manifested as the rapid development of village hollowing or from hollowing to solidifying.

In terms of the main body of village governance, areas with a high level of nonagriculturalization or rich resource endowments have strong demand for construction land, relatively open ideas of farmers and a strong driving force for the implementation of hollow village governance. In regions with a low level of non-agriculturalization, there is a single industrial type; the income source of farmers is mainly agriculture, farmers are highly dependent on land and the driving force of hollow village governance is insufficient. In addition, the comprehensive effects of village location conditions, development orientation, information level, and other factors also affect the choice of the hollow village governance mode, such as convenient transportation, small and agglomeration villages, large idle land areas, and agriculture-based industrial structure villages. It is suitable to adopt an integrated village model to realize the integration of the population and residents through the relocation of scattered villages and the construction of new communities. Located in the urban fringe area or around the central town, the livelihood of farmers is mainly reliant on the villages that work outside. It is suitable to adopt the urbanization-led model, and the focus of governance is to solve the matching problem between employment and housing in rural towns. At the same time, the internal and external environments of the village have a great influence on the operation mode of the governance organization of the hollow village. For example, the villages around the town or with a high non-agricultural output value will obtain higher economic benefits through rural governance. The enthusiasm of enterprises to participate in governance is high, and multiple financing mechanisms and organizational operation modes are formed. The hollow villages with a single industry, which are far away from the central town, are dominated by the government and the village committees. Hollow village governance involves local government and relevant departments, developers, construction or investment enterprises, villagers' committees, farmers, and other stakeholders. Each group has different goals and interests and forms a hollow village governance action subject system through communication and coordination. The power operation of the government, the capital operation and development behavior of enterprises, the coordination behavior of the two committees of the village, the individual willingness of farmers, and the game and cooperation among various stakeholders jointly affect the governance mode of hollow villages and promote the change of land and space of hollow villages.

To sum up, the external environment derived from urban and rural development in the process of urbanization, such as technological progress, policy change systems, and development planning and positioning, provides the necessity and possibility for the governance of hollow villages. At the same time, the internal population–land–industry–organization– culture and other morphological representations of hollow villages provide the basis for their classified governance. Hollow village governance refers to the process of intervention and adjustment of the behavior object based on the planning and design, financing, organization, and implementation of the governance model after the comprehensive evaluation of the internal and external environment of the village by the behavior subject, so as to achieve the goal of rural industry prosperity, affluent life, ecological livability, rural civilization, and effective governance (Figure 10).

**Figure 10.** Governance mechanism of a hollow village based on action network.


(2010). Matrix metalloproteinases. Curr Med Chem. 17(31):3751-68. **Section 2**

**Clinical Manifestations and Complications of Celiac Disease**

68 Celiac Disease – From Pathophysiology to Advanced Therapies

Zitka, O., Kukacka, J., Krizkova, S., Huska, D., Adam, V., Masarik, M., Prusa, R. & Kizek, R.

**4**

*1,2,3Poland 4UK*

**Celiac Disease and Diabetes Mellitus Type 1**

*1Clinic of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Children's Memorial Health Institute, Warsaw,*

A significant increase in autoimmune disease morbidity has been observed in recent years, including disorders manifesting in childhood, concurrent with decreased age of patients at the time of diagnosis. Autoimmune diseases can involve almost every organ system but the endocrine, connective tissue and gastrointestinal systems are the most

In terms of epidemiology, autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD) and diabetes type 1 (T1DM) come to the fore among autoimmune diseases related to the endocrine system, whereas among those unrelated to the endocrine system celiac disease (CD) is one of the more common. These diseases, apart from bronchial asthma, are among the most frequent chronic

Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy syndrome (APS) or polyglandular autoimmune diseases (PGAD) concern primary deficits in two or more endocrine glands and manifest themselves, except for Graves' disease, as organ hypofunction. The main autoimmune endocrinopathies are: type 1 diabetes mellitus, autoimmune thyroid diseases, autoimmune adrenal failure (Addison disease), hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (premature ovarian failure), autoimmune hypoparathyroidism, and pituitary defects (lymphocytic hypophysitis) 5, 6, 7

Those syndromes are often associated with other non-endocrine autoimmune diseases 5, 6, 7. For descriptive purposes three to four different types of APS or PGAD have been described. Addison disease is a common element of the first two types i.e. APS-1 Blizzard syndrome, APS-2 Schmidt's syndrome (Carpenter's syndrome). APS-3, on the other hand, is characterised by the presence of autoimmune thyroid disease and diabetes type 1 (3a), pernicious anaemia (3b) or vitiligo, alopecia or other organ specific autoimmune disease

Some authors also distinguish type 4 disease/syndrome, which comprises varied combinations of autoimmune diseases with the exception of those mentioned above as types

1 and 2. A patient with diagnosed T1DM and CD can be included in this group 5, 6, 7.

diseases affecting infants and children and often occur together 1, 3 , 4.

**1. Introduction**

(3c).

commonly affected 1, 2, 3.

*3Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Warsaw Medical University, 4Sport and Exercise Medicine, Oxford Deanery, Nuffield Orthopaedic Centre, Oxford,*

Mieczysław Szalecki1,2, Piotr Albrecht3 and Stefan Kluzek4

*2Faculty of Health Sciences, Jan Kochanowski University, Kielce,*


**6. Recommendations and Discussions**

## *6.1. Building a Community Around the Heritage Site*

A community, geographically defined, which is involved in preserving the heritage associated with a monument, is characterized by the diversity of its stakeholders, as well as the nature and impact of their contributions (Figure 3).

**Figure 3.** Stakeholders from the tourism industry. A key actor in a local heritage community. Example of the founder of a Destination Management Company (DMC)-Fontainebleau, France.

The first occurrence of the heritage lottery brought members (general public) into a loosely defined community, with a common interest: getting a chance to win than contributing to the restoration. An interesting illustration of successfully engineering community is the one of Adopte un Château (Adopt a Castle). Established in 2015, this French association aiming at restoring castles has laid-out a very specific strategy for collecting funds, intensifying donors' involvement into the project, and, last but not least, attracting stakeholders into the site, or during the restoration phase, or after its completion. With its crowdfunding platform named Dartagnans, the NGO offers to the general public in France and overseas the opportunity to sponsor the restoration of monument from a list of selected sites. This initiative is remarkable in many aspects.

First, the overall communication strategy relies on rich contents (video footages filmed from a drone, etc.) made widely available via video-sharing platforms and abundantly commented by national media. More importantly perhaps, the promise made to the donor is very different from the usual tax-deductible donation scheme: Adopte un Château offers the opportunity to become the owner, amongst many others, of the castle to be restored. Each individual donor is therefore symbolically more profoundly engaged into the restoration project:

"I did not want to let 'my' castle down, the castle from my childhood." (A local resident, during a visit organized by Adopte un Château. Château de l'Ebaupinay: http://bit.ly/2RtI0wV, accessed on 26 April 2019).

By turning donors into committed owners, Adopte un Château carves around each project a community: participation to the restoration, taking part into events aimed at attracting visitors:

"We will do our best to restore [the castle], and organize events, like in the Middle Age (A local resident, future owner, during a visit organized by Adopte un Château." Château de l'Ebaupinay: http://bit.ly/2RtI0wV accessed on 26 April 2019).

The community is expected to play a large and long lasting role: finance and volunteer restoration work, activities and events to attract visitors. For such communities, bringing back a castle to its original function and attractiveness is as important as restoring it. The relationship between heritage and tourism is well established [28] and it is generally assumed that culture and tourism are interdependent.

The growing interest in cultural resources is likely to benefit culturally rich destinations, and simultaneously to provide the tourism industry with challenges of managing heritage facilities and attractions. Tourism is also an opportunity to generate income for the local community while simultaneously supporting the preservation of its heritage [29].

Stakeholders from the tourism industry are therefore meant to be an important part of such local communities, contributing to the preservation and protection of heritage, whilst incorporating the latter into tourism products and attracting visitors, local or foreign. With local knowledge, expertise and resources, they work in the design and implementation of events, activities, tours, transportation and program logistics.

Together with local chapters of Fondation du Patrimoine (offering the advantage of guaranteeing tax rebates to donor), stakeholders of the tourism industry have a vested interest in the preservation of local cultural heritage, as illustrated in the exhibit above. Another category of stakeholder of the tourism industry are companies managing heritage sites: with the responsibility of bearing the cost of preserving the site, they lay out business models with tourism as the main source of revenue. As an illustration, the company managing the Vaux le Vicomte castle offers a very wide array of events and attractions throughout the year, as well as unique venues for the organization of private events.

The relationship between heritage and tourism is frequently characterized by contradictions and conflicts whereby conservationists perceive heritage tourism as compromising conservation goals for profit [28]. However, the importance of preserving cultural heritage through tourism is receiving increasing attention and has been discussed in relation to sustainable tourism (ibid.). Fostering heritage tourism throughout an extended territory (nationwide) is also likely to efficiently address the rising issue of overtourism and related perverse impacts (tourismphobia and anti-tourism movements) in major cities.

### *6.2. Community Based Heritage as a Tool to Reduce Tourismphobia, Anti-Tourism Movements*

The relationship between heritage and the identity of a community makes it possible to address some issues of modern tourism. Here, we talk about the problems related to tourist pressure and its effects.

Public participation in the management of cultural heritage can solve some social conflicts [30] and it also helps to define the meaning of heritage in which the visions of experts and communities are often different [31,32]. As stated by Yung & Chan [31], in recent years the meaning of heritage has shifted from national to local importance, based on cultural value rather than on architectural or historical value.

It must also be said that the management of cultural heritage has evolved [33] by making public participation an essential element in the decision-making process [34]. Active participation at local level and social relevance are, therefore, dominant characteristics of cultural heritage practice of the recent years [35]. The participation of local communities in heritage management and in planning should extend the involved scientific expertise by adding local experiences that allows to recognize the importance of social judgement [36]. Therefore, the participation of local communities is essential for their involvement in the decision-making process. This allows them not only to express their opinions, but also to actually take part in the processes of planning and managing heritage conservation. Local communities are those that are closely linked to cultural heritage. Heritage conservation

should be for local communities and they should have the right to decide what and how to maintain and manage.

The presence of a community and its relation with the heritage could develop also a wellbeing condition. Power & Smyth [37] argue that it is important understanding the space that is created by community-based heritage groups and whether it is likely to promote social welfare. Gleeson [38] state that in the era of globalization and ecological risk it is certainly understandable that there is a new desire for social values based on community, belonging and place. That is what Gleeson call the new social yearning: the desire for a safe place in a social networks based on reciprocity, trust and mutual respect [37].

All those elements represent the formal condition to a social and economic development under sustainable condition. In this sense the tourism could be managed in a sustainable form. The importance of the relationship between community and sustainable tourism has been clearly recognized in the last two decades through studies on community-based tourism (CBT). These communities aim to create a more sustainable tourism industry by focusing on hospitality in terms of planning and maintaining tourism development. This idea came to the fore in the 1990s, with Pearce [39] suggesting that CBT represents a way to provide a fair flow of benefits to all those interested in tourism through consensus-based decision-making and local control of development. The CBT, therefore, proposes a symbolic or reciprocal relationship in which the tourist is not given central priority but becomes an equal part of the system [40]. According to Salazar [41] the most promising niche to develop CBT programs is cultural tourism, one of the major growth markets in global tourism.

Communities can also be based on heritage. Power & Smyth [37] state that the preservation of community-based cultural heritage refers to the increasingly popular activity of uniting with community members to research local historical "assets". It involves the development of a stronger relationship with your local area and is potentially open to everyone, regardless of location.

Unfortunately, participatory protection and enhancement are often linked only to high-value cultural assets. In relation to the low value attributed to local and less important sites and buildings, there is a tendency to separate communities from their local history. Furthermore, oral traditions and local knowledge which in the past supported a sense of place and it was often associated with specific sites and monuments, it has been eroded by the socio-economic and demographic discontinuities that have occurred in both rural and urban communities over the past years.

In many countries, participatory approaches to heritage conservation and management have had success and are more culturally and socially sustainable than using top-down approaches. Experiences of community involvement are related to the integration among urban planning, conservation and public involvement in the field of heritage, also with a growing role in the decision-making process of the voluntary and community sector [31]. These communities are able to support the tourist pressure and the negative impacts of the overtourism. Actually, the concept of overtourism is not easy to define. Recently, the *European Parliament's Committee* on Transport and Tourism (*TRAN*) [42] defined overtourism as "the situation in which the impact of tourism, at certain times and in certain locations, exceeds physical, ecological, social, economic, psychological, and/or political capacity thresholds".

As highlighted by Seraphin et al. [43], local communities are being aware of negative effects caused by overtourism. Therefore, they are increasingly interested in their quality of life rather than simply in the additional income generated by the tourism industry [43]. The consequences of overtourism are witnessed in various forms, namely pollution; littering; destruction of amenity of a place; degradation of landscapes; congestion; vandalism; disorders and anxiety among the local population [44]. Overtourism also causes risks to the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) World Heritage status of some destinations; negative impacts on the quality of life, loss of identity, etc. [2]. Finally, it is important to remember the crowding out effects between residents' and tourism needs related to high pressure on touristic destinations. That said, Moscardo et al. [45], argued that conflicts between residents and visitors can contribute to the development of

social capital among local residents who gather within organizations or associations (anti-tourism movements) to defend their shared values and their sense of community and identity.

By involving local communities in heritage management, the benefits can be generated not only for the communities themselves, but also for society as a whole. At social level, community life can be improved. Community participation helps communities to build a sense of identity offering common identity, history and heritage.

Furthermore, social inclusion, cohesion and understanding can be strengthened by promoting a sense of shared responsibility towards the places where people live. Social capital and trust between people and government can be increased [46]. Furthermore, the relationships between not only within the communities but also between generations can be improved. And, above all, it helps the heritage to continue and maintain the value of the heritage of the past in the current life of local communities [47]. In addition to social impacts, through the involvement of local communities, it is possible to create more job opportunities for them. The economic profits of historical tourism can also go directly to the communities. Finally, the fact of being involved in heritage is good for health issues, which is a significant component.

Overall, we can therefore state that a community based heritage is characterized by the fact that it is the same community that has control over the management of tourism and receives a significant part of the benefits generated by this activity [48]. Therefore, this type of tourism has emerged as a possible solution to the negative effects of mass tourism and overtourism, allowing it to simultaneously become a strategy for social organization for the local community.

### **7. Conclusions**

## *7.1. Key Findings*

Despite the good intention behind Mission Patrimoine, the success could be considered to be mitigated by the fact that apart form the financial aspect, the project has failed to foster a sense of community, hence, the importance of the recommendation formulated in this research. The sense of community developed through the development and fostering of social capital is very important. The key findings of this research are directly related to the topic of sustainability.

### *7.2. Theoretical Implications*

Carlisle et al. [49] are arguing that when multi-stakeholders are collaborating on a project, it often leads to innovation and success, which means that they are putting together resources and more importantly a shared vision. They took the example of academic institutions working with private and public sector organisations to support their view. Indeed, they argued that this collaboration led to knowledge creation; innovation; and growth in knowledge-based firms. In particular, they used the Triple Helix model [49] to theorise their findings. 'At the heart of this triangulation is the transfer of knowledge and knowledge management to promote the diffusion of ideas from universities adding value to the private sector via innovation' ([49], p. 62). Furthermore, 'the triple helix model is being widely used as a source of inspiration for policies and programmes aimed at fostering innovation. This is evolving across the range of policymaking at geographical scales, as well as independently of the geographies of context that determine different framework conditions for promoting innovation' ([50], p. 1675). The Helix model has also proven to be a suitable leverage tool particularly in less developed countries [49–51]. The case of Mission Patrimoine, support the fact that the collaboration between the government, locals and tourism (triple helix), can be beneficial for each stakeholders and contribute to the creation of a theoretical and practical dialogical space. In other words, a space (Figure 4) that would create positive relationships between the three groups, what might prevent issues like tourismphobia and anti-tourism movements [4].

**Figure 4.** Mission Patrimoine as a dialogical space.


**2. Considerations for choosing intercropping system**

The success of intercropping depends on different considerations before and during cultivation as because crops grown in mixture may compete spatially and temporally amongst species for available resources. An efficient intercropping system in terms of economic benefits depends on adaptation of planting geometry and choice of compatible and suitable crops. The features of an intercropping system differ with soil and climatic conditions, economic situation and preferences of the farmers. In cereal-legume intercropping system, choice of crop species, density of planting, planting geometry, time of planting and maturity of crops are the key considerations and the success of the system largely depends on these factors.

## **2.1 Choice of crops**

Choice of crops is important in intercropping, because severe competition in mixed culture may not be beneficial and even harmful if proper plant species are not chosen. In this way competition amongst plants can be minimized and better utilization of available resources can be assured. The combination of cereal and legume is considered an ideal because cereals can utilize a portion of biologically fixed nitrogen by legumes. In maize based intercropping system, groundnut is chosen as intercrop maize in South East Asia and Africa [5]. Maize can provide shade to associated legumes and the legume species should be to some extent tolerant to shade. Legume species like black gram (*Vigna mungo*), cowpea (*Vigna unguiculata*), groundnut (*Arachis hypogea*) and green gram (*Vigna radiata*) have much less effect on maize and these are tolerant to maize shade [6, 7]. Cereal-legume intercropping is very common in the continents of Asia, Africa and South America [8], however, in tropical countries, maize based intercropping is practiced with a preference to cowpea [9]. In Central and South America and parts of East Africa intercropping of maize and bean is widely practiced [10]. Maize and dwarf red gram intercropping combination is known as a suitable option in managing cereal component [11].

#### **2.2 Maturity of crop**

Maturity of crop is another important consideration in adoption of intercropping. Generally, crops grown in intercropping should have different peak period of growth, otherwise there will be competition amongst the crop species for available resources. The complementary effects benefit the system and these are reflected into yield advantage when the component species in intercropping have different

**105**

**2.4 Time of planting**

*Potential and Advantages of Maize-Legume Intercropping System*

growing period for major demands on available resources. Therefore crops with different duration maturity are chosen to get complementary effects. Maize has been recognized as a common crop in cereal-based intercropping and treated as base crop in additive series and dissimilar legumes are preferably considered as intercrop. In maize-based intercropping system choosing short duration legumes as intercrops is an ideal option. For example, in maize + green gram intercropping system, initial growth of maize is slow and it reaches at knee-height stage after 6–7 weeks and peak light demand starts from 55 to 60 days after sowing and by this period green gram sown at the same time will be in reproductive stage or in close to harvest. In this way green gram completes its major growth period and maize starts the same and thus

Optimum plant stand is synonymous to optimum yield. But in intercropping system two or more crops are accommodated in the same land at the same time and thus there may be reduction in population of crops compared to pure stand of individual species. On the basis of plant density, intercropping may be categorized into two groups, namely, additive series and replacement series. The additive series is comprised of addition of intercrop within fullest population of base crop. Another crop known as intercrop and it is sown into the base crop population by adjusting row spacing or changing planting geometry. Sometimes, paired row planting of maize is done to accommodate greater space for intercrops. But in replacement series of intercropping, there is not the concept of base crop and the crops (two or more) considered are termed as component crops or intercrops. In such type of intercropping, introduction of a component crop is made by replacing another and none of the component crops are sown with 100% population as recommended in their pure stands. It is very clear that certain proportion of population of one crop component is sacrificed and another component is introduced in that place. In many intercropping situations with replacement series, yield advantages are maximized by increasing population density in excess than their recommended population in the sole cropping. Here, the competition is relatively lesser in between component crops as compared to additive series. As maize is widely spaced crop and generally row spacing ranges between 60 to 90 cm and intercrops can easily be raised in uniform rows of planting. The planting geometry, particularly, paired row planting of maize may enhance the efficiency of growth parameters as well as yield of maize and associated legumes by efficient accommodation of crops. Prasad and Brook [12] observed an enhanced LAI per unit area with increase in plant population of maize in maize-soybean intercropping system. Under the major demand for resources at different times of system duration, the long duration cereal crop maize can recover its resource needs in combination with short duration legumes during remaining

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91722*

high level of complementarity is observed.

**2.3 Plant density and maturity of component crops**

phase of growth that is after harvest of legumes [13].

Maize is recognized as a very common crop in intercropping system in which legumes can be sown easily. Generally, in maize based intercropping systems, as maize has slower initial growth rate up to knee height stage (6–7 weeks of sowing), if short duration legumes are sown simultaneously can reach into their reproductive stage can start their reproductive period and hence competition for common natural resources do not appear at the same period. Maize has diverse use and if maize is considered as fodder in intercropping, competition does not come into figure because of enhance biomass yield and mixture of grass-legume combination enhances the

*Potential and Advantages of Maize-Legume Intercropping System DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91722*

*Maize - Production and Use*

**2.1 Choice of crops**

**2.2 Maturity of crop**

as considerations, advantages and limitations.

**2. Considerations for choosing intercropping system**

Maize (*Zea mays* L.), also termed as 'corn' and 'queen of cereals', is the third most important cereal of the world, ranks at third position amongst the cereals after rice and wheat and it is a member of Poaceae family. The very cereal has been a staple food for many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa. In Europe and rest of the North America, maize is grown mostly as animal feed. Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world having a production of 1147 million tonnes [4]. In various cropping systems as well as in intercropping maize can be fit due to its wider adaptability in different seasons and agro-climatic conditions. Maize is a widely spaced crop and offers ample scope for adoption of intercropping and combination of maize legume in intercropping benefits the agricultural production system by many ways with enhancement of productivity from unit area [2]. This chapter focuses on different aspects of maize based intercropping system, such

The success of intercropping depends on different considerations before and during cultivation as because crops grown in mixture may compete spatially and temporally amongst species for available resources. An efficient intercropping system in terms of economic benefits depends on adaptation of planting geometry and choice of compatible and suitable crops. The features of an intercropping system differ with soil and climatic conditions, economic situation and preferences of the farmers. In cereal-legume intercropping system, choice of crop species, density of planting, planting geometry, time of planting and maturity of crops are the key considerations and the success of the system largely depends on these factors.

Choice of crops is important in intercropping, because severe competition in mixed culture may not be beneficial and even harmful if proper plant species are not chosen. In this way competition amongst plants can be minimized and better utilization of available resources can be assured. The combination of cereal and legume is considered an ideal because cereals can utilize a portion of biologically fixed nitrogen by legumes. In maize based intercropping system, groundnut is chosen as intercrop maize in South East Asia and Africa [5]. Maize can provide shade to associated legumes and the legume species should be to some extent tolerant to shade. Legume species like black gram (*Vigna mungo*), cowpea (*Vigna unguiculata*), groundnut (*Arachis hypogea*) and green gram (*Vigna radiata*) have much less effect on maize and these are tolerant to maize shade [6, 7]. Cereal-legume intercropping is very common in the continents of Asia, Africa and South America [8], however, in tropical countries, maize based intercropping is practiced with a preference to cowpea [9]. In Central and South America and parts of East Africa intercropping of maize and bean is widely practiced [10]. Maize and dwarf red gram intercropping combination is known as a suitable option in managing cereal component [11].

Maturity of crop is another important consideration in adoption of intercropping. Generally, crops grown in intercropping should have different peak period of growth, otherwise there will be competition amongst the crop species for available resources. The complementary effects benefit the system and these are reflected into yield advantage when the component species in intercropping have different

**104**

growing period for major demands on available resources. Therefore crops with different duration maturity are chosen to get complementary effects. Maize has been recognized as a common crop in cereal-based intercropping and treated as base crop in additive series and dissimilar legumes are preferably considered as intercrop. In maize-based intercropping system choosing short duration legumes as intercrops is an ideal option. For example, in maize + green gram intercropping system, initial growth of maize is slow and it reaches at knee-height stage after 6–7 weeks and peak light demand starts from 55 to 60 days after sowing and by this period green gram sown at the same time will be in reproductive stage or in close to harvest. In this way green gram completes its major growth period and maize starts the same and thus high level of complementarity is observed.

## **2.3 Plant density and maturity of component crops**

Optimum plant stand is synonymous to optimum yield. But in intercropping system two or more crops are accommodated in the same land at the same time and thus there may be reduction in population of crops compared to pure stand of individual species. On the basis of plant density, intercropping may be categorized into two groups, namely, additive series and replacement series. The additive series is comprised of addition of intercrop within fullest population of base crop. Another crop known as intercrop and it is sown into the base crop population by adjusting row spacing or changing planting geometry. Sometimes, paired row planting of maize is done to accommodate greater space for intercrops. But in replacement series of intercropping, there is not the concept of base crop and the crops (two or more) considered are termed as component crops or intercrops. In such type of intercropping, introduction of a component crop is made by replacing another and none of the component crops are sown with 100% population as recommended in their pure stands. It is very clear that certain proportion of population of one crop component is sacrificed and another component is introduced in that place. In many intercropping situations with replacement series, yield advantages are maximized by increasing population density in excess than their recommended population in the sole cropping. Here, the competition is relatively lesser in between component crops as compared to additive series. As maize is widely spaced crop and generally row spacing ranges between 60 to 90 cm and intercrops can easily be raised in uniform rows of planting. The planting geometry, particularly, paired row planting of maize may enhance the efficiency of growth parameters as well as yield of maize and associated legumes by efficient accommodation of crops. Prasad and Brook [12] observed an enhanced LAI per unit area with increase in plant population of maize in maize-soybean intercropping system. Under the major demand for resources at different times of system duration, the long duration cereal crop maize can recover its resource needs in combination with short duration legumes during remaining phase of growth that is after harvest of legumes [13].

#### **2.4 Time of planting**

Maize is recognized as a very common crop in intercropping system in which legumes can be sown easily. Generally, in maize based intercropping systems, as maize has slower initial growth rate up to knee height stage (6–7 weeks of sowing), if short duration legumes are sown simultaneously can reach into their reproductive stage can start their reproductive period and hence competition for common natural resources do not appear at the same period. Maize has diverse use and if maize is considered as fodder in intercropping, competition does not come into figure because of enhance biomass yield and mixture of grass-legume combination enhances the

quality of forage in terms of dietary value. Moreover, maize has higher potential for accumulation of carbohydrate, a source of energy as fodder, from unit area on daily basis. However, legumes can be planted in maize at the same time can also register higher growth attributes because of wider spacing of maize as grain crop.


**5. Conclusion**

The supervised and semi-supervised machine learning techniques are applied in the main three PV group activities; detection of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and signal detection, individual case safety reports (ICSRs) identification, and ADRs prediction. Furthermore, it helps in analyzing large data sources, such as social media and literature, to predict and detect ADRs, accordingly, it complements the drawbacks of spontaneous reporting. Moreover, ML techniques are efficient in terms of accuracy and saving time when compared to human experts.

#### **Knowledge gaps**

The supervised learning technique is currently used in PV activities, which has a problem with the scarcity of labeled data [16], so the first knowledge gap is how to apply the unsupervised technique in PV activities.

The second knowledge gap is that PV activities are legally regulated [22], therefore, a regulation should be developed to manage the risk of false-negative detected results.

*Machine Learning Applications in Pharmacovigilance: Scoping Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107290*

The third knowledge gap: further research is needed to assess the attitude, knowledge, and practice of PV personnel regarding the applicability of the ML techniques in PV daily practice.