*2.5. Fatty Acids*

GC–MS analyses allowed us to determine around thirty fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), ranging from methyl hexanoate to methyl tetracosanoate, in dried samples from *P. noctiluca* (Table 1). With some exception, probably due to amounts below the detection limit, these FAMEs were common to each sample group, namely bells and oral arms of female and male specimens.

From a quantitative point of view, the main fatty acid classes varied depending on specimens' body part rather than sex. In fact, saturated fatty acids (SFAs), representing 70% ca. in bells and 65% ca. in oral arms, respectively; monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), accounting for 15% ca. in all samples (*p* > 0.05); and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), constituting 14% ca. in bells and 19% ca. in oral arms (*p* < 0.05). Only slight and nonstatistically significant differences (*p* > 0.05) could be attributed to the specimen's sex. For example, SFAs were slightly more abundant in male than female bells (70.6 vs. 69.5%, *p* > 0.05); MUFAs were slightly higher in female than male oral arms (15.8 vs. 14.6%, *p* > 0.05); and PUFAs content was slightly lower in male than female bells (13.8 vs. 15.4%, *p* > 0.05) and female than male oral arms (18.4 vs. 19.2%, *p* > 0.05).

It was not possible drawing conclusions on the distribution of single fatty acids according the organism's anatomical part or sex. The only exception was represented by PUFAs of the ω6 and ω3 series, which showed to be constantly more abundant in oral arms than bells, regardless of the sex (Table 1).  As can be seen in Table 1, the ω6/ω3 ratios determined in all samples were close to 1:1 (Table 1).

**Table 1.** Fatty acid methyl esters determined in the bells and oral arms of female and male specimens from *Pelagia noctiluca*. Data are reported on a dw basis, as average Gas Chromatography-flame ionization detector ( GC-FID) peak area percent ± standard deviation (*n* = 3).

a–c: Different superscript letters in the same row indicate significantly different values (*p* < 0.05 by post hoc Tukey's HSD test). Same superscript letters in the same row indicate not significantly different values (*p* > 0.05 by post hoc Tukey's HSD test).

### *2.6. Major and Trace Element Profiles*

The contents of four major elements (Na, Mg, K, and Ca), five essential trace elements (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, and Se), and five nonessential/potentially toxic trace elements (Cr, Ni, As, Cd, and Pb), were evaluated by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) in male and female jellyfish bells and oral arms, on a dw basis (Table 2).

**Table 2.** Elemental signatures of male and female jellyfishes' bell and oral arms revealed by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Contents of major elements (mg 100 g−1) and trace elements (μg 100 g−1) are expressed as mean ± SD (*n* = 3) on a dw basis.

a–c: Different superscript letters in the same row indicate significantly different values (*p* < 0.05 by post hoc Tukey's HSD test). Same superscript letters in the same row indicate not significantly different values (*p* > 0.05 by post hoc Tukey's HSD test).

Table S5 reports data of the validation procedure carried out by means of reference standards. The ICP-MS method showed good linearity for all the elements, with coefficients of correlation between 0.994 and 0.999. Acceptable recoveries between 93.49% (Ni) and 103.31% (Cr) were obtained. Evaluated in terms of RSD%, precision (intraday repeatability) and intermediate precision (interday repeatability), resulted to be within the range of 2.02 to 6.53%, and below 8.52%, respectively.

Major element signatures varied most in dependence of the organ rather than sex (Table 2). Overall, these metals appeared to bioaccumulate mainly in bells than the respective oral arms (*p* < 0.05) by the decreasing order of Na > Mg > Ca ≈ K, regardless of female and male sex (*p* > 0.05). As a result, Na was characterized by the highest levels (6544–8079 mg 100 g−1 for bells; 3877–3740 mg 100 g−1 for oral arms); while K was the less abundant one, showing contents inferior by one order of magnitude (196–229 mg 100 g−1 for bells; 126–143 mg 100 g−1 for oral arms) (Table 2).

Dealing with essential trace elements, they were found in the decreasing order of Fe > Cu > Zn > Mn > Se, in both male and female bells and oral arms. Fe was characterized by a behavior similar to major elements, since it was more abundant in bells (1309–1465 μg 100 g−1) than oral arms (854–1085 μg 100 g−1) (*p* < 0.05), regardless of specimens' sex. However, Cu, Zn, Mn, and Se completely inverted such trend, showing to be more abundant in oral arms than bells (*p* < 0.05). Also, Zn and Mn contents showed a slight dependence on the specimens' sex, though in a nonstatistically significant manner (*p* > 0.05), since males showed to most bioaccumulate such elements than females in both bell and oral arms. Being not yet determined in any jellyfish species, Se levels ranged from 31.2 to 46.2 μg 100 g−1 in bells and from 100 to 115 μg 100 g−1 in oral arms (Table 2).

Nonessential/toxic trace elements were reported in the decreasing order of Cr ≈As > Ni > Pb > Cd. Such elements were slightly higher in oral arms than in bells (*p* > 0.05 in almost all cases), and, with the exception of Pb, marginally more bioaccumulated in male organisms than female ones (*p* > 0.05) as well. Cr and As varied respectively between 401 and 573 μg 100 g−1 and 412 and 528 μg 100 g−1 in female and male bells; while female and male oral arms reported Cr and As levels of 668 to 631 μg·100 g−1 and 690 to 663 μg·100 g−1, respectively. Contrary to Cr and As, Pb exhibited the lowest contents in both bells (140–117 μg 100 g−1) and oral arms (154–132 μg 100 g−1), with comparable values between female and male specimens (Table 2).


**2. The role of MVs/TDE regional preconditioning**

Tumor development is a multistep process that starts by cellular reprogramming of cells to acquire the hallmarks of cancer cells to gain and maintain abnormal growth and invasive capacity [8]. The complex process of tumor formation and spreading additionally requires a rewiring of the surrounding stromal cells. This can be induced by intrinsic cell events such as genetic or epigenetic aberrations or by external factors from direct or indirect cell communication [9]. In cancer, EVs especially Exo, have been shown to be essential for various steps during tumor initiation and progression. EVs disrupt signaling and gene expression regulation in the recipient cell by horizontally transferring bioactive chemicals between cancer cells and the surrounding stroma. As a result, malignant cells can change the phenotype of surrounding benign cells to one that supports tumor growth and metastasis, creating a favorable environment for cancer progression and spread. EVs play several roles in priming the surrounding environment preparing it for metastasis and invasion. The role of EVs in promoting tumor progression has been elucidated in studies on mixed populations of EVs. The function of EVs largely depends on their bioactive cargo, in particular the shuttling of tumor-specific proteins to the surrounding cells. While researchers have mainly studied the RNA content of EVs, however, the focus is starting to shift towards the EVs proteome [10].

The protein content of MVs within mixed populations of EVs was discovered to be significantly diverse from that of the Exo proteome, and is supplemented in proteins involved in microtubule, actin, and cytoskeleton networks, ARF6, its effector phospholipase D2, and parts of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport family (ESCRT-I) [11]. By transporting these molecules, MVs can impact nearby tumor cells and stromal cells.

### **2.1 MVs mediated tumor-invasion**

One example in which MVs shed by the cancer cells were shown to enhance tumor cell proliferation is in multiple myeloma. This effect was shown to be related to the amelioration of the Extracellular Matrix Metalloproteinase Inducer (EMMPRIN/CD147)

*Roles of Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Metastasis DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.103798*

on the tumor MVs. This protein is known to be overexpressed in solid tumors, some lymphomas, and leukemias [12]. Another study in breast cancer cells found that the highly glycosylated version of EMMPRIN exists in high quantities in breast cancer cellderived MVs and enhances tumor invasion through activation of p38/MAPK signaling [11]. Interestingly, it was found that MVs from patient Blood with metastatic breast cancer had a similar high-EMMPRIN expression, along with the tumor marker Mucin-1 (MUC1/CA 15-3) [11]. Additionally, the truncated oncogenic form of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), EGFRvIII, commonly expressed in aggressive brain tumor cells, is associated with pro-tumorigenic tumor–tumor crosstalk via MVs. It was discovered that EGFRvIII was present in MVs released by U373 glioma cells, allowing them to transfer malignant features from highly aggressive tumor cells to the more benign tumor cells, EGFRvIII-negative, thereby facilitating their oncogenic transformation [11]. Hence, MVs are convenient communicators within the TME, as they can either mediate the horizontal transfer of oncogenic material or activate oncogenic signaling pathways in neighboring cancer cells, enhancing their survival, proliferative, and angiogenic potential and triggering their transformation into an aggressive phenotype.


Chromosome: CHR1; chromid: CHR2. \* Genomic and Metabolics analysis software (www.genoscope.cns.fr).

**Table 3.** Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) detected in the genome of *C. metallidurans* MSR33.


Meet the editors

Dr. Zaidi is an associate professor in the Department of Physics, University of Batna 1, Algeria. He obtained a Ph.D. in Physics at the University of Annaba, Algeria, in 2014. He has published several research papers in reputed journals and written three books. He was editor in chief of the *International Journal of Materials Science and Applications* (IJMSA) as well as an editorial board member for numerous other journals and lead guest editor

of many special issues. He is also a journal peer reviewer. Dr. Zaidi has participated in many international conferences.

Dr. C. Shekhar is an assistant professor in the Department of Physics, Amity School of Applied Sciences, Amity University Haryana, India. He obtained a Ph.D. from the Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in 2012 and thereafter worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada. He obtained his MSc in Physics

and MTech in Materials Science from Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India. Dr. Shekhar has published thirty-seven research papers in national and international journals and conference proceedings, filed one Indian patent, and presented papers at numerous conferences. His research interests include phase equilibria and thermodynamic properties of ceramics and alloys; CALPHAD modelling, nanostructured thin films for gas sensors, photovoltaics, and dielectric properties of materials.

Contents

**Preface XI**

**Chapter 1 1**

**Chapter 2 5**

**Chapter 3 17**

**Chapter 4 39**

**Chapter 5 65**

**Chapter 6 85**

Materials for Photovoltaics: Overview, Generations, Recent Advancements

*by Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Maria Malik, Wajeehah Shahid,*

Outdoor Performance of Perovskite Photovoltaic Technology *by Esteban Velilla Hernández, Juan Bernardo Cano Quintero, Juan Felipe Montoya, Iván Mora-Seró and Franklin Jaramillo Isaza*

*by Akin Olaleru, Eric Maluta, Joseph Kirui and Olasoji Adekoya*

Binary Semiconductors Thin Films Characterization for Solar Cells

Introductory Chapter: Thin Films Photovoltaics

*Syed Zaheer Ud Din, Nadia Anwar, Mujtaba Ikram*

Kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4-xSex Thin Film Solar Cells *by Kaiwen Sun, Fangyang Liu and Xiaojing Hao*

*by Beddiaf Zaidi and Chander Shekhar*

*by Kenza Kamli and Zakaria Hadef*

Hybrid Perovskite Thin Film

and Future Prospects

*and Faryal Idrees*

Applications

## Contents

Preface

Silicon-based monocrystalline and multicrystalline solar cells are by far the most widely used solar cells today. Thin film technologies in general, and cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) in particular, are increasingly being employed. Other solar cells based on dyes or organic materials are still in their infancy but promise a bright future for more efficient photovoltaic technologies.

high-efficiency silicon cells, which are manufactured from bulk wafers hundreds of micrometers thick. Thin films sacrifice some light-gathering efficiency but use less material. In copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) solar cells, the efficiency tradeoff is less severe than in silicon. The record efficiencies for thin film CIGS cells are slightly less than those of CIGS for lab-scale top performance cells. In 2008, CIGS efficiency was by far the highest compared with those achieved by other thin film technologies such as CdTe photovoltaics or amorphous silicon (a-Si). CIS and CGS solar cells offer total area efficiencies of 15.0% and 9.5%, respectively. In 2015, the gap with the other thin film technologies was closed, with record cell efficiencies

In photovoltaics, "thinness" generally refers to so-called first-generation,

in laboratories of 21.5% for CdTe (FirstSolar) and 21.7% for CIGS (ZSW).

ABX3 where A and B are cations of different sizes and X is an anion.

these technologies is around 10% and remains relatively stable.

Thin film-based solar cells that have the common processes for deposition of

One material with a larger bandgap than Si is perovskite, which has been researched since 2009 for use in thin film solar cells. Starting with a 4% cell efficiency, perovskites have shown rapid progress, demonstrating a 10.9% efficient cell mid-2012 and increasing to as much as 17.9% in 2014. Perovskites are materials following the formula

semiconducting materials with low thickness on different substrates giving uniform appearance produce modules of slightly lower efficiency. The market share for all

**Beddiaf Zaidi**

Batna, Algeria

Haryana, India

**Chander Shekhar** Department of Physics,

Faculty of Matter Sciences, Department of Physics, University of Batna 1,

Amity School of Applied Sciences, Amity University Gurgaon,


**Abstract**

Emerging contaminants (ECs) include both natural and man-made compounds that have recently been found to be present in wastewater and have a harmful effect on human health and aquatic environment. Several ECs such as pharmaceuticals, antibacterial, hormones, synthetic dyes, flame retardants are directly or indirectly discharged from hospitals, agricultural, industrial and other sources to the environment. Strategies have been developed to overcome the challenges faced by contaminated water treatment technologists. Advanced treatment technologies such as physical, chemical, and biological methods have been studied for ECs removal as well as for reduction of effluents levels in discharged water. Techniques such as membrane filtration, adsorption, coagulation-flocculation, solvent extraction, ion exchange, photodegradation, catalytic oxidation, electrochemical oxidation, ozonation and precipitation, etc., have been investigated. Based on past research, these techniques significantly remove one or more pollutants but are insufficient to remove most of the toxic contaminants efficiently from wastewater. Nanomaterial incorporated technologies may be a proficient approach for removing different contaminants from wastewater. These technologies are costly because of high-energy consumption during the treatment of wastewater for reuse on large scale. Consequently, comprehensive research for the improvement of wastewater treatment techniques is required to obtain complete and enhanced EC removal by wastewater treatment plants.

**Keywords:** wastewater treatment, membrane filtration, available technologies, effluents, emerging contaminants, nanotechnology, adsorption, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, aquatic environment

### **1. Introduction**

Wastewater is the water having surplus substances that may be dissolved or suspended solid particles or organic and inorganic substances or other impurities that critically influence its quality and make it unsuitable for use [1]. Wastewater

composition varies and is highly dependent on major sources of generation as industries, commercial and residential areas, agricultural sources, etc. [2]. In developing countries, the risk of consumption of contaminated water and its sanitation problem is increasing day by day.

Water covers about 70% of the earth's shells and is essential for all living organisms to survive and also for various manufacturing industries. About 3% of the total water on earth is fresh water of 0.01% is available for human use. The discharge of untreated contaminants from various industries directly to groundwater hinders the favorable use of water in normal operations of the ecosystem and causes water scarcity. Water deficiency is considered one of the most significant alarms for humanity and sustainable development [3]. According to the UNO report, about 1.2 billion people are affected by severe water scarcity due to the increasing world population and in future, 1.8 billion citizens are predicted to be affected by water insufficiency. Beyond water scarcity, water pollution also poses a greater threat to human health and aquatic life as well as the environment. Several new compounds recently detected in drinking, ground, and surface water have a major effect on water parameters. Water is a universal solvent and water quality is affected due to contamination by toxic substances dissolved in it which causes water pollution [4]. Water requirement is increasing due to adaptation in atmosphere, industrialization, increase in population, and obliteration of the surroundings [5]. The occurrence of organic and inorganic pollutants in wastewater is a major challenge to recycle water sources. To determine small amounts of unknown pollutants in the evaluation of emerging contaminants, the latest modern treatment techniques are still limited [6].

Currently, various analytical methods have been developed for different kinds of emerging pollutants. The separation of these toxic pollutants from water becomes important before the discharge of industrial wastewater into the aquatic environment. For this purpose, the development of proficient techniques has been a major area of environmental research. In general, traditional clean-up methods are classified as biological, physical, and chemical. Biological treatment is of low cost and simple, but not effective for synthetic dyes as they are resistant to aerobic biodegradation. Chemical treatments produce toxic by-products and are low efficient, while physical treatment is usually effective. For treating these organic pollutants present in water, several techniques such as membrane filtration, coagulation-flocculation, solvent extraction, ion exchange, catalytic oxidation, electrochemical oxidation, precipitation, etc. have been tested. However, these techniques are less effective, very expensive, and do not eliminate the contaminants from polluted water which makes this issue more challenging for the researchers. Besides these techniques, adsorption and photocatalytic degradation are considered the most potential approaches to removing wastewater contaminants [7].

The current chapter focuses on classification, potential sources, occurrence, prevention, control, and elimination of emerging contaminants. The major objective of this section is to study available technologies currently used for the removal of ECs from wastewater. This chapter also focuses on selecting the best available technology for removing emerging contaminants from wastewater. A schematic representation of treatment technologies, their principal advantages, performance efficiency, and limitations are discussed in the present study. Furthermore, future research opportunities are examined to provide more suitable and strategic recommendations for ECs removal from the aquatic environment.


**Abstract**

Continuous demands for growth in agricultural productivity and modern demands for the sustainable agricultural approach are bringing farmers into a new technological era. With all the limitations and risks, precision agriculture and other related technologies show great potential in solving the challenges of sustainable and more efficient agricultural production. Nowadays, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are able to perform a wide range of agricultural tasks, from data collection to smart spraying. This chapter presents the concept of a modular autonomous robotic system that, based on available technologies, materials, and system components, can be produced and applied in precision agriculture. The primary purpose of such a system, which consists of a multirotor UAV and docking station, is to save the time required to perform the task and to reduce environmental and soil pollution. Several problems have been addressed, which affect performance and energy consumption, for example, of spraying a field crop.

**Keywords:** precision agriculture, multirotor UAV, modular system, smart spraying task