**2.2 Route of infection**

For UPEC to cause infection, the ultimate origin of it is the intestinal tract of the human host which finally acts as a fecal reservoir. Principally apparent in women, the first step is the bacterial colonization of the vaginal introitus and periurethral meatus. Notably, colonization takes place in parallel with the loss of protective vaginal *Lactobacillus* species. This follows ascension into the bladder and adherence to bladder epithelium (uroepithelium). This is followed by UPEC internalization by umbrella cells (it is the outermost layer of the uroepithelium). Inside the bladder cells, most of the bacteria are exocytosed while the minority of them will evade this mechanism gain entrance into the cytosol to form IBCs (intracellular bacterial communities). When these intracellular bacteria stop replicating, they enter another stage known as QIR (quiescent intracellular reservoir) and are behind recurrent UTI episodes.

In this manner, infection of the lower urinary tract has the power to advance to kidneys and enter the bloodstream to cause urosepsis (**Figures 1** and **2**) [3].

#### **Figure 1.**

*Structure of the urinary bladder and urothelium. The urothelium (transitional epithelium) is believed to form vital and essential hurdle to infection that includes mucus glycosaminoglycans retarding adherence of UPEC, infection-resistant umbrella cells and glycoprotein plates known as uroplakins.*

#### **Figure 2.**

*UPEC pathogenesis. UPEC expresses pili systems (Fim H) for adherence to the epithelial cells of the bladder. It follows invasion into the host cell which initiates replication to form IBCs and a subpopulation also undergoes cell elongation (filamentation). Ultimately the epithelial cell is overloaded and UPEC escapes, rupturing open the host cell releasing motile short and elongated cells which can infect neighboring host epithelia to continue the infective cycle.*


*Article* **Swelled Mechanism of Crumb Rubber and Technical Properties of Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen**

**Hongbin Zhu 1 , Min Zhang 2 , Yuanyuan Li 1,\* , Yingxue Zou 3 , Anqi Chen 3,\*, Fu Wang 1 , Langrun Liu 1 , Dengjun Gu 1 and Shaoyun Zhou 1**

**Abstract:** Crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRMB) has excellent high-temperature performance and fatigue resistance, and is widely used in asphalt pavement to cope with increasing traffic axle load and changing climate. Under conventional preparation conditions, the swelling degree of CR can directly impact the comprehensive properties of CRMB; however, physical and chemical properties research on swelling crumb rubber (SCR) and crumb rubber recycled bitumen (CRRB) in CRMB is relatively lacking. In this paper, the working performance of CRMB and CRRB in high-temperature and lowtemperature conditions were studied through physical and working performance testing of bitumen. The CR and SCR were tested by scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), and particle size distribution (PSD) tests to study the physicochemical behavior and microscopic effects before and after CR swelling. The results showed that CR dosage was in the range of 10%, 15%, and 20%, as well as that CR dosages have a positive effect on the high- and low-temperature performance, storage stability, and elastic recovery of bitumen. The high-temperature PG grades of bitumen were directly improved by four grades, and the elastic recovery rate increased by 339.9%. CR improved the ultra-low temperature crack resistance of bitumen. Due to the absorption of lighter components by CR, the relative content of the heavy component of bitumen increased; however, its low-temperature performance decreased significantly. After swelling, the CR particle size increased and the range became wider, the surface complexity of CR became higher, and the specific surface area was larger. At the same time, CR carried out the transformation process from large and medium molecules to small molecules. During the swelling process, a new benzene ring structure appeared in the CR, and the C–C bond and C–S bond of CR broke, forming part of the C=C bond.

**Keywords:** crumb rubber (CR); bitumen; swelled mechanism; light component


*3.9. Optimal Process Parameters Values*

After the optimization experiments and basic cell culture tests had been completed, the optimal processing parameters for PCL scaffold printing were established (see Table 3) once the methodology had been applied to set each optimal parameter for cell cultures and for future experiments with CSCs culture enrichment using PCL scaffolds.

**Table 3.** Optimal processing parameter values to be used for PCL scaffold printing.

#### **4. Discussion**

In this work, a methodology to optimize the processing parameters for PCL scaffold production using a RepRap 3D printer has been developed. By using an optimization flowchart, PCL scaffolds suitable for cell culture were manufactured (Figure 3). The optimal processing parameters determined are closely related to those defined in other studies using the same technology and material. Domingos et al., (2013) set up an 80 ◦C printing temperature, 10 mm/s velocity, an approximately 0.3 mm filament diameter and a layer height of 0.28 mm [15]. A previous study by the same research group used an extrusion temperature of 70 ◦C and a speed of 8 mm/s [1]. These small variations support the idea of using a single, common methodology (Figure 3) to optimize the processing parameters. Compared with previous work in the literature, the flowchart provided here makes it

easier to adjust scaffold design features and processing parameters according to cell line characteristics. Several case studies were run to validate the flowchart depicted in Figure 3. Results show how cell culture is improved by using scaffolds which allow cell cultures to be created in 3D conditions and optimized based on the cells' features. In addition, process parameters were also evaluated using cell culture experiments. All scaffold culture experiments presented sterility resulting from the sterilization procedure described here. Both 60◦ and 45◦ scaffolds showed adequate design parameters for the MCF-7 cell cultures. In particular, the 60◦ scaffold design displayed the highest percentage of cell attachment, and exhibited good biocompatibility for the MCF-7 breast cancer cells. In contrast, the NIH/3T3 fibroblast cells presented a more homogeneous growth along the three scaffold designs. However, the 90◦ scaffold showed the highest cell proliferation value. Therefore, different kinds of cells may prefer different scaffold architectures, further demonstrating the need of a common procedure to find the optimal values. Moreover, a tumor and a non-tumor cell line were tested, showing the flexibility of the flowchart described here.

Three-dimensional cell culture on scaffolds may also be improved by other fabricationindependent parameters such as polarity of cell culture plates, culture media and time [26], as well as different cell culture types, including a dynamic model [27]. This optimization will be the focus of further studies as we attempt to improve cell attachment percentages. Furthermore, CSC population enrichment by cell culture on scaffolds will be evaluated using different approaches.

To date, most of the work related to scaffold production focuses on optimizing design features and forgets about improving fabrication parameters [1,9,16]. In this work, a flowchart to optimize the parameters of the whole process has been proposed (Figure 3) to help with their selection. In addition, this methodology may be further used to set up scaffold manufacturing (both the design features and the fabrication parameters) when using a RepRap 3D printer or any other AM technologies and/or materials.

#### **5. Conclusions**

In this work, the design features and fabrication parameters of scaffolds and the RepRap 3D printer were optimized to produce PCL scaffolds suitable for three-dimensional cell cultures. The optimization was performed following a detailed and unidirectional flowchart, thus providing some procedural guidelines with great potential for other popular manufacturing technologies and materials. The contribution of this paper is for scaffolds made with PCL materials. However, this experiment was only carried out to validate the methodology developed as a valuable method for future cell cultures. Often, physicians work with 2D cell cultures, but, as seen here, 3D cell cultures appear to be good method of improving cell culture enrichment. Furthermore, as the design features and manufacturing parameters need to be set for the different cell lines used each time, this methodology will help physicians and other operators to do just that.

Moreover, the scaffolds produced were proven to allow cell attachment and cell growth. The 60◦ scaffold design mainly worked for the MCF-7 cells and the 90◦ for the NIH/3T3 fibroblasts. Three-dimensional cell cultures with PCL scaffolds fabricated with a 3D printer offer both researchers and clinics a set of novel applications for the future. The flowchart developed represents a new tool with which to quickly manufacture scaffolds for a wide range of applications, including cell cultures and tissue engineering. For instance, the use of 3D cell cultures can boost CSC populations to study new therapeutic treatment.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, J.C. and T.P.; Methodology, J.C.; Validation, A.J.G. and M.R.; Formal Analysis, M.R., J.M. and E.P.; Writing-Original Draft Preparation, J.C.; Writing-Review & Editing, M.R., E.P. and A.J.G.; Supervision, T.P. and J.C.

**Funding:** This research was funded by Spanish Grants: Fundación Ramón Areces, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI1400329) and Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (DPI2016-77156-R), and through the support of the Catalan Government (2014SGR00868) and the University of Girona (MPCUdG2016/036).

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The sponsors had no role in the design of the study, in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data, in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.


are the current demands in the Park frame before the fault.

4

5 4

(36)

the amplitude of the current flowing into the central point ( #) must be √3 times those in the healthy phases: ⎧ # = √2 #c + 2 3 + 7 − #s + 2 3 + 7 In Equation (36), *i* # *d* , *i* # *q* are the current demands in the Park frame before the fault. The subscripts *x f* , *y f* , and *w f* indicate the healthy and the isolated phases, while *m* is an integer number defined by the values in Table 1.

4

5 4 −

 # = 0

2

3 −


**9. Results**

What follows is the group of categories that retrieve the meaningful codes about teaching knowledge of good or memorable teachers, from the perspective of students in their narratives.

## **9.1. Teaching knowledge of memorable teachers**

In this category, the teaching knowledge of memorable teachers is brought to light through the integration of six codes that describe a good teacher from the memories of the student. This category represents a recognition of the good performance, and the teaching knowledge of memorable teachers, their abilities, and dedication to applying effective teaching strategies are remembered: "My teacher's name was Angelica, she was a very good teacher because she utilized very good and interesting ways to work" (Na17 UV, in **Table 1**).

On the other hand, when calling a teacher *"memorable,"* it is implied that there is a recognition, admiration, and respect for his or her knowledge, in addition to gratefulness for the efforts of the teacher employed in the formation of the student, the kindness, and the good heart shown by the memorable teacher, who combines expert knowledge and didactic abilities with an interpersonal touch that has left a mark in the formation of the student: "The only teacher that has left a mark in me was a teacher named Xóchitl, this was during my high school years. Besides from being my teacher, she was my tutor for two years and a half. She was a strict teacher but a very good one, with a great heart" (Na11 UV, in **Table 1**); this memorable remembrance describes the practices of a teacher that was able to modify the formation path of the student and therefore attains the level of a memorable teacher (**Figure 1**).

his or her student very well to the point where the teacher was memorable to them, as it was expressed in one of the narratives: "I had several teachers whom I love and respect, but there was one teacher that gained my admiration, and he has my respect and affection, his name: Jorge Cabrera Cruz, he was always supporting me and not just me, also all of my school

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Finally, when remembering the name of a memorable teacher, it is done in a warm and evocative manner: "Teacher Betty…She is very kind, she understands the life of the students, she tries for you to understand as a group or personally. She is always available for any doubts that you might have" (Na 20 UV, in **Table 1**). In this last passage, the recognition of the commitment and dedication to the personalized learning process of the students on behalf the

This category integrates codes whose meaning recognizes the outstanding ability of teachers in the knowledge of how to teach, i.e., the gift of teaching. This set of codes refers to a very significant characteristic of good teachers, who maintain as their knowledge the capacity to simplify a complex topic for the easy understanding on behalf of their students. This knowledge or gift of knowing how to teach is associated in a direct manner to the mastery of their subject. In addition, this categorization is concerned with the presence of a teaching ability in the management of information and the ordering of the content presented to the students; this ability is shown by very good teachers, and they manage to be admired and taken as an

**9.2. Teaching knowledge: category of the ability to explain—gift of teaching**

mates" (Na 14 UV, in **Table 1**).

**Figure 1.** Category: teaching knowledge of memorable teachers.

memorable teacher is shown.

example for appropriating this content (**Figure 2**).

The act of naming, using first names and surnames, a memorable teacher denotes a fine admiration on behalf of the student; the memory is a strong one and has left a mark in the career path, and hence the memorable teacher has become a role model [37].

This happens even as it was identified that the teacher used traditional but effective teaching strategies. This is to say, the memorable teacher has left a formative impression in the memory of the pupil; notwithstanding, if he or she was a constructivist or traditional teacher, he taught

**Table 1.** Decoding in empirical citations.

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**Figure 1.** Category: teaching knowledge of memorable teachers.

**9. Results**

**Table 1**).

(**Figure 1**).

**Table 1.** Decoding in empirical citations.

**9.1. Teaching knowledge of memorable teachers**

196 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

What follows is the group of categories that retrieve the meaningful codes about teaching knowledge of good or memorable teachers, from the perspective of students in their narratives.

In this category, the teaching knowledge of memorable teachers is brought to light through the integration of six codes that describe a good teacher from the memories of the student. This category represents a recognition of the good performance, and the teaching knowledge of memorable teachers, their abilities, and dedication to applying effective teaching strategies are remembered: "My teacher's name was Angelica, she was a very good teacher because she utilized very good and interesting ways to work" (Na17 UV, in

On the other hand, when calling a teacher *"memorable,"* it is implied that there is a recognition, admiration, and respect for his or her knowledge, in addition to gratefulness for the efforts of the teacher employed in the formation of the student, the kindness, and the good heart shown by the memorable teacher, who combines expert knowledge and didactic abilities with an interpersonal touch that has left a mark in the formation of the student: "The only teacher that has left a mark in me was a teacher named Xóchitl, this was during my high school years. Besides from being my teacher, she was my tutor for two years and a half. She was a strict teacher but a very good one, with a great heart" (Na11 UV, in **Table 1**); this memorable remembrance describes the practices of a teacher that was able to modify the formation path of the student and therefore attains the level of a memorable teacher

The act of naming, using first names and surnames, a memorable teacher denotes a fine admiration on behalf of the student; the memory is a strong one and has left a mark in the career

This happens even as it was identified that the teacher used traditional but effective teaching strategies. This is to say, the memorable teacher has left a formative impression in the memory of the pupil; notwithstanding, if he or she was a constructivist or traditional teacher, he taught

(Na1 UV) Narrative 1: student of the Faculty of Pedagogy 14/10/2016 (first workshop session) (Na11 UV) Narrative 11: student of the Faculty of Pedagogy 14/10/2016 (first workshop session) (Na14 UV) Narrative 14: student of the Faculty of Pedagogy 14/10/2016 (first workshop session) (Na17 UV) Narrative 17: student of the Faculty of Pedagogy 15/10/2016 (second workshop session) (Na20 UV) Narrative 20: student of the Faculty of Pedagogy 15/10/2016 (second workshop session)

path, and hence the memorable teacher has become a role model [37].

**Code Decoding Date**

his or her student very well to the point where the teacher was memorable to them, as it was expressed in one of the narratives: "I had several teachers whom I love and respect, but there was one teacher that gained my admiration, and he has my respect and affection, his name: Jorge Cabrera Cruz, he was always supporting me and not just me, also all of my school mates" (Na 14 UV, in **Table 1**).

Finally, when remembering the name of a memorable teacher, it is done in a warm and evocative manner: "Teacher Betty…She is very kind, she understands the life of the students, she tries for you to understand as a group or personally. She is always available for any doubts that you might have" (Na 20 UV, in **Table 1**). In this last passage, the recognition of the commitment and dedication to the personalized learning process of the students on behalf the memorable teacher is shown.

#### **9.2. Teaching knowledge: category of the ability to explain—gift of teaching**

This category integrates codes whose meaning recognizes the outstanding ability of teachers in the knowledge of how to teach, i.e., the gift of teaching. This set of codes refers to a very significant characteristic of good teachers, who maintain as their knowledge the capacity to simplify a complex topic for the easy understanding on behalf of their students. This knowledge or gift of knowing how to teach is associated in a direct manner to the mastery of their subject. In addition, this categorization is concerned with the presence of a teaching ability in the management of information and the ordering of the content presented to the students; this ability is shown by very good teachers, and they manage to be admired and taken as an example for appropriating this content (**Figure 2**).

sequences and strategies, which results in actions, to the movement inside the classroom, to applying dynamics to the session, and then following the class becomes an agile activity, not tedious. The interesting class involves being trapped by the plot and interest of the topic; we could then not move in an interesting class, but it does not become dynamic

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On the other hand, this category refers to the procedural characteristics of good teachers; whereby, in their class, they encourage the whole group of students to participate, and they stimulate cooperation, the integration, and exercises using teamwork. They acknowledge the points of view of the students, and they integrate different perspectives. Therefore, they are

Finally, this category includes the code-named organization for work, which recognizes the teaching knowledge related to organization and systematization [26] and in addition the methodological rigor in addressing the contents and activities of learning. When recognizing that a teacher was organized and strict conveys the idea that the teacher was meticulous in her mastery of her subject and carefulness when delivering topics, in an attempt to be faithful to

This category encompasses the codes that are related to the personality traits belonging to the teacher, which are integrated to their knowledge; here, there is an example which is very commonly expressed to be a characteristic of good teachers: their kindness, which enables them to connect with the students; their smile, the joy to be teaching in the classroom; and their

able to achieve learning in their students after rigorous interactive exercises.

the contents of the discipline and the level of learning that is demanded.

**9.4. Teaching knowledge: good attitudes of the teacher**

**Figure 3.** Category: teaching knowledge—strategies.

(**Figure 3**).

**Figure 2.** Category: ability to explain—gift of teaching.

This category focuses on the set of skills acquired by the teacher in regard to knowing how to simplify and convey in a straightforward way the topics of their subject and this way facilitating the complete understanding by the students; this superior ability of "knowing how to explain well" [38] concentrates on the characteristic of having explanatory resources to address complex contents and deconstruct them for their students in a clear and easily understandable approach, to which the student reacts in a very positive manner, expressing a joy for the way the good teacher is able to convey ideas, which even when the methods are traditional, they are adapted to what the student needs to learn by the very good teacher. "This teacher had the talent to explain the processes needed to solve this kind of problems, she was able to make me understand so well, that I even began to like mathematics" (Na1 UV, in **Table 1**). As can be seen from this narrative, being able to explain topics so well not only facilitates the full comprehension of the subject, but also it stimulates the enthusiasm on behalf of the students, and this has an influence on the future career paths chosen by students.

#### **9.3. Teaching knowledge: strategies**

In this category, teaching knowledge is concerned with the mastery of teaching strategies; whereby, the codes that are part of this categorization refer to the ability of good teachers to make their classes very dynamic. The category focuses on the teaching knowledge that is expert in the management of students, groups, and the content being taught, integrating strategies that are able to spark the participation of the group and arrive to the construction of learning [25].

The effect of this teaching knowledge being put into practice is the dynamism given to the classes on behalf of the good teachers, keeping in mind that a dynamic class is not the same to an interesting class; the dynamic class is more related to the active usage of didactic sequences and strategies, which results in actions, to the movement inside the classroom, to applying dynamics to the session, and then following the class becomes an agile activity, not tedious. The interesting class involves being trapped by the plot and interest of the topic; we could then not move in an interesting class, but it does not become dynamic (**Figure 3**).

On the other hand, this category refers to the procedural characteristics of good teachers; whereby, in their class, they encourage the whole group of students to participate, and they stimulate cooperation, the integration, and exercises using teamwork. They acknowledge the points of view of the students, and they integrate different perspectives. Therefore, they are able to achieve learning in their students after rigorous interactive exercises.

Finally, this category includes the code-named organization for work, which recognizes the teaching knowledge related to organization and systematization [26] and in addition the methodological rigor in addressing the contents and activities of learning. When recognizing that a teacher was organized and strict conveys the idea that the teacher was meticulous in her mastery of her subject and carefulness when delivering topics, in an attempt to be faithful to the contents of the discipline and the level of learning that is demanded.

#### **9.4. Teaching knowledge: good attitudes of the teacher**

This category focuses on the set of skills acquired by the teacher in regard to knowing how to simplify and convey in a straightforward way the topics of their subject and this way facilitating the complete understanding by the students; this superior ability of "knowing how to explain well" [38] concentrates on the characteristic of having explanatory resources to address complex contents and deconstruct them for their students in a clear and easily understandable approach, to which the student reacts in a very positive manner, expressing a joy for the way the good teacher is able to convey ideas, which even when the methods are traditional, they are adapted to what the student needs to learn by the very good teacher. "This teacher had the talent to explain the processes needed to solve this kind of problems, she was able to make me understand so well, that I even began to like mathematics" (Na1 UV, in **Table 1**). As can be seen from this narrative, being able to explain topics so well not only facilitates the full comprehension of the subject, but also it stimulates the enthusiasm on behalf of

the students, and this has an influence on the future career paths chosen by students.

In this category, teaching knowledge is concerned with the mastery of teaching strategies; whereby, the codes that are part of this categorization refer to the ability of good teachers to make their classes very dynamic. The category focuses on the teaching knowledge that is expert in the management of students, groups, and the content being taught, integrating strategies that are able to spark the participation of the group and arrive to the construction of learning [25]. The effect of this teaching knowledge being put into practice is the dynamism given to the classes on behalf of the good teachers, keeping in mind that a dynamic class is not the same to an interesting class; the dynamic class is more related to the active usage of didactic

**9.3. Teaching knowledge: strategies**

**Figure 2.** Category: ability to explain—gift of teaching.

198 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

This category encompasses the codes that are related to the personality traits belonging to the teacher, which are integrated to their knowledge; here, there is an example which is very commonly expressed to be a characteristic of good teachers: their kindness, which enables them to connect with the students; their smile, the joy to be teaching in the classroom; and their

**Figure 3.** Category: teaching knowledge—strategies.

expression of good attitude and spirit of service toward the subjects of learning. Kindness and a friendly treatment create favorable conditions for the learning environment and the relationship among peers in class [11]. When the teacher treats his or her students with kindness, they will be in a condition to learn better. Likewise, this category reflects an affectionate condition present in very good teachers, who offer trust and warmth in the relationship between them and their students [39], which leads to friendship relationships between the students and the teacher, without them affecting or demeriting the professional function of support and educational facilitation from the teacher (**Figure 4**).

understood as the mastery of a teaching method or techniques for addressing learning objectives. They know how to put arguments forward, to show, to demonstrate, to experiment, to expose, to make conclusions, and to synthesize knowledge with the appropriate usage of

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This category distinguishes itself from the knowledge on strategies that has already been mentioned; the former is concerned with ways to articulate or coordinate learning activities. Didactic knowledge, on the other hand, is not a particular knowledge to coordinate different strategies, but is a knowledge on how to conduct in an all-inclusive manner the process of teaching; the category includes a constant practice on behalf of memorable teachers, offering pedagogical or staging help in the disposition of resources or gradual exercises for each type of student as he or she requires them [17], and although, as it has already been established, didactic knowledge is concerned primarily with knowing the application of methods and procedures, it is also related to the application of teaching strategies in a creative manner, giving freedom to the students to display, with learning autonomy and their proposals, and

Creativity in the classroom represents innovation and development of thought in order to find optimum results through different pathways. This category also refers as to how good or memorable teachers make use of fun or entertaining resources that make a class session pleas-

There is another concept or code which has been included in this category which has been named *pedagogical care*. This code refers to the attention and care given to reach a goal and achieve learning in the performance of the student; it involves a professional trait of focusing

ant and enjoyable so that learning becomes an engaging activity for the student [23].

auxiliary, material, or technological resources (**Figure 5**).

developing the learning activity creatively.

**Figure 5.** Category: didactic knowledge.

Good attitude of the teacher as a category also alludes to a personality feature on behalf of the teacher toward his or her professional functions, the good attitude, a willingness for service, a capacity for patience, and to be polite, demonstrating and encouraging all the time a positive personality that facilitates the participation of students and motivates them to express their own ideas and proposals in class. The good attitudes of memorable teachers will be an encouraging factor for the disposition of students toward learning of their subject.

Finally, the category establishes a feature of good teachers, the level of trust that they have gained from their students, which manifests itself mutually and denotes a personal passion on behalf of the teacher for the good academic performance of their students [37]; this trait in a good teacher is perceived naturally by the student and gains their trust.

#### **9.5. Didactic knowledge**

This crucial category defines outstanding teachers and memorable teachers by their distinctive nature. They all have as a strength a great didactic knowledge [38]. Didactic knowledge is

**Figure 4.** Category: good attitude of the teacher.

understood as the mastery of a teaching method or techniques for addressing learning objectives. They know how to put arguments forward, to show, to demonstrate, to experiment, to expose, to make conclusions, and to synthesize knowledge with the appropriate usage of auxiliary, material, or technological resources (**Figure 5**).

This category distinguishes itself from the knowledge on strategies that has already been mentioned; the former is concerned with ways to articulate or coordinate learning activities. Didactic knowledge, on the other hand, is not a particular knowledge to coordinate different strategies, but is a knowledge on how to conduct in an all-inclusive manner the process of teaching; the category includes a constant practice on behalf of memorable teachers, offering pedagogical or staging help in the disposition of resources or gradual exercises for each type of student as he or she requires them [17], and although, as it has already been established, didactic knowledge is concerned primarily with knowing the application of methods and procedures, it is also related to the application of teaching strategies in a creative manner, giving freedom to the students to display, with learning autonomy and their proposals, and developing the learning activity creatively.

Creativity in the classroom represents innovation and development of thought in order to find optimum results through different pathways. This category also refers as to how good or memorable teachers make use of fun or entertaining resources that make a class session pleasant and enjoyable so that learning becomes an engaging activity for the student [23].

There is another concept or code which has been included in this category which has been named *pedagogical care*. This code refers to the attention and care given to reach a goal and achieve learning in the performance of the student; it involves a professional trait of focusing

**Figure 5.** Category: didactic knowledge.

expression of good attitude and spirit of service toward the subjects of learning. Kindness and a friendly treatment create favorable conditions for the learning environment and the relationship among peers in class [11]. When the teacher treats his or her students with kindness, they will be in a condition to learn better. Likewise, this category reflects an affectionate condition present in very good teachers, who offer trust and warmth in the relationship between them and their students [39], which leads to friendship relationships between the students and the teacher, without them affecting or demeriting the professional function of support

Good attitude of the teacher as a category also alludes to a personality feature on behalf of the teacher toward his or her professional functions, the good attitude, a willingness for service, a capacity for patience, and to be polite, demonstrating and encouraging all the time a positive personality that facilitates the participation of students and motivates them to express their own ideas and proposals in class. The good attitudes of memorable teachers will be an

Finally, the category establishes a feature of good teachers, the level of trust that they have gained from their students, which manifests itself mutually and denotes a personal passion on behalf of the teacher for the good academic performance of their students [37]; this trait in

This crucial category defines outstanding teachers and memorable teachers by their distinctive nature. They all have as a strength a great didactic knowledge [38]. Didactic knowledge is

encouraging factor for the disposition of students toward learning of their subject.

a good teacher is perceived naturally by the student and gains their trust.

and educational facilitation from the teacher (**Figure 4**).

200 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

**9.5. Didactic knowledge**

**Figure 4.** Category: good attitude of the teacher.

attention on the student and on his or her learning needs; it requires listening attentively, to provide help and resources, to explain again topics more than one time if needed, to go over the exercise again with the student, etc. It is also included in this category the *emphasis given to relevancy* as a separate code, which constitutes a practical teaching knowledge that refers to the ability of the teacher to connect the learnings and knowledge proposed to the students in the classroom, with real-life applications and current events. Relevancy in learning is always present in the teaching knowledge of good teachers, and they will use this tool often.

On the other hand, the didactic knowledge category includes a code that has been named *narrative teacher* [33], which describes a type of teacher that shares, through the use of pedagogical narratives, his or her life experiences, which then become learning scenarios for their students; in this sense, each narrated scenario is linked and supported by the employment of the imagination in each of the minds of the students, and, hence, imagination and learning take place in a didactic situation [24]. In addition, other codes belonging to this category involve the synthesizer teacher, where it is recognized as a valuable teaching knowledge the ability to offer a synthesis of the activities that took place and the topics that were addressed in integrated and summarized manner, establishing a complete vision of what was covered and learned. This way, the students presented with a panoramic vision of the session and are able to capture elements of learning that could not have been presented in a segmented fashion or were not fully comprehended when covered individually.

In addition to knowing how to make use of didactic resources appropriately, an important code to highlight this category is *teaching knowledge: reformulate teaching approaches according to different learning styles*. This code comprises teaching knowledge on behalf of teachers who are dedicated to and expert in what corresponds to an ability to personalize teaching strategies in accordance with the different styles of learning that students display. The reformulation of teaching approaches, made on the fly, reveals an expert teaching knowledge which can be developed changing teaching styles and adapting them to the circumstances of the level and style of learning that corresponds to the student.

The students value this kind of professional knowledge, which represents all the teaching technical and professional works previous to the class session, namely, to the pedagogic planning. Additionally, this category expresses a valuable ability that is perceived by the students on behalf of their good teachers, that of a teaching knowledge that is exceptional, and the ability to know how to properly evaluate and leave their students satisfied, to the point where the students recognize the objectivity and fairness of the mechanics and procedures of evaluation employed by good teachers. This expert teaching knowledge, knowing how to evaluate, illustrates how the said evaluation process always becomes an active learning

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Finally, as part of this category, the code refers to the ability of the teacher to manage and organize the information and contents presented to the students. This skill is displayed by very good teachers, helping them gain the admiration of the students and being taken as an

This category is comprised of four codes that involve the knowledge of demanding strict adherence to the method, to the discipline, and to the format with accuracy and style. According to this category of teaching knowledge: rigor-format-tidiness, teaching is a strict process in terms of raising the quality standards of the work being presented in the classroom. Consequently, very good teachers or memorable teachers are not involved in pedagogic practices where laxity and slackness are part of the development of learning activities (**Figure 7**).

process [40].

example when appropriating the said content.

**Figure 6.** Teaching knowledge: planning and evaluation.

**9.7. Teaching knowledge: rigor-format-tidiness**

#### **9.6. Teaching knowledge: planning and evaluation**

This categorization is constituted of five codes or concepts that refer to a kind of technical and pedagogical knowledge closely related to the management of the process of teaching-learning, that is, the planning and evaluation of class sessions by the teacher, [40] where the teaching knowledge of organization and systematization are highlighted, together with the methodological meticulousness when addressing the contents and activities of learning (**Figure 6**).

The category, teaching knowledge: planning and evaluation, was created after narratives affirmed that teachers were good, organized, and strict which reveals a certain mastery of the discipline and carefulness when teaching it on behalf of the teacher, always attempting to be faithful to the contents of the topics and to the level of learning that is demanded. Hence, this corresponds to the systematization and design of each session of classes; the richness of the design and planning of each class is revealed in sessions rich with information, resources, materials, graphics, ordered sequences, systematizing and closely following the objectives and goals, etc.

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**Figure 6.** Teaching knowledge: planning and evaluation.

attention on the student and on his or her learning needs; it requires listening attentively, to provide help and resources, to explain again topics more than one time if needed, to go over the exercise again with the student, etc. It is also included in this category the *emphasis given to relevancy* as a separate code, which constitutes a practical teaching knowledge that refers to the ability of the teacher to connect the learnings and knowledge proposed to the students in the classroom, with real-life applications and current events. Relevancy in learning is always

On the other hand, the didactic knowledge category includes a code that has been named *narrative teacher* [33], which describes a type of teacher that shares, through the use of pedagogical narratives, his or her life experiences, which then become learning scenarios for their students; in this sense, each narrated scenario is linked and supported by the employment of the imagination in each of the minds of the students, and, hence, imagination and learning take place in a didactic situation [24]. In addition, other codes belonging to this category involve the synthesizer teacher, where it is recognized as a valuable teaching knowledge the ability to offer a synthesis of the activities that took place and the topics that were addressed in integrated and summarized manner, establishing a complete vision of what was covered and learned. This way, the students presented with a panoramic vision of the session and are able to capture elements of learning that could not have been presented in a segmented fash-

In addition to knowing how to make use of didactic resources appropriately, an important code to highlight this category is *teaching knowledge: reformulate teaching approaches according to different learning styles*. This code comprises teaching knowledge on behalf of teachers who are dedicated to and expert in what corresponds to an ability to personalize teaching strategies in accordance with the different styles of learning that students display. The reformulation of teaching approaches, made on the fly, reveals an expert teaching knowledge which can be developed changing teaching styles and adapting them to the circumstances of the level and

This categorization is constituted of five codes or concepts that refer to a kind of technical and pedagogical knowledge closely related to the management of the process of teaching-learning, that is, the planning and evaluation of class sessions by the teacher, [40] where the teaching knowledge of organization and systematization are highlighted, together with the methodological meticulousness when addressing the contents and activities of learning (**Figure 6**).

The category, teaching knowledge: planning and evaluation, was created after narratives affirmed that teachers were good, organized, and strict which reveals a certain mastery of the discipline and carefulness when teaching it on behalf of the teacher, always attempting to be faithful to the contents of the topics and to the level of learning that is demanded. Hence, this corresponds to the systematization and design of each session of classes; the richness of the design and planning of each class is revealed in sessions rich with information, resources, materials, graphics, ordered sequences, systematizing and closely following the objectives and goals, etc.

present in the teaching knowledge of good teachers, and they will use this tool often.

ion or were not fully comprehended when covered individually.

202 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

style of learning that corresponds to the student.

**9.6. Teaching knowledge: planning and evaluation**

The students value this kind of professional knowledge, which represents all the teaching technical and professional works previous to the class session, namely, to the pedagogic planning. Additionally, this category expresses a valuable ability that is perceived by the students on behalf of their good teachers, that of a teaching knowledge that is exceptional, and the ability to know how to properly evaluate and leave their students satisfied, to the point where the students recognize the objectivity and fairness of the mechanics and procedures of evaluation employed by good teachers. This expert teaching knowledge, knowing how to evaluate, illustrates how the said evaluation process always becomes an active learning process [40].

Finally, as part of this category, the code refers to the ability of the teacher to manage and organize the information and contents presented to the students. This skill is displayed by very good teachers, helping them gain the admiration of the students and being taken as an example when appropriating the said content.

#### **9.7. Teaching knowledge: rigor-format-tidiness**

This category is comprised of four codes that involve the knowledge of demanding strict adherence to the method, to the discipline, and to the format with accuracy and style. According to this category of teaching knowledge: rigor-format-tidiness, teaching is a strict process in terms of raising the quality standards of the work being presented in the classroom. Consequently, very good teachers or memorable teachers are not involved in pedagogic practices where laxity and slackness are part of the development of learning activities (**Figure 7**).

**Figure 7.** Category: teaching knowledge—rigor-format-tidiness.

In this sense, according to the category being analyzed, lax teachers, lacking in rigor and discipline in the teaching process, are shown with little regard by the students, and hence there is a positive recognition to strict but effective approaches to teaching, mutually agreed on by the teachers and their students, where discipline and rigor in teaching are expressed in good teachers as being "a strict teacher" and this without having any sign of disapproval. However, another code that belongs to this category points to a teaching knowledge that revolves around being rigorous and strict toward the execution and performance of a learning activity but at the same time provides understanding and resources that will help the students; this articulated knowledge is proper to very good teachers and is thus recognized by students in this category.

*Offer opportunities*: This code represents the openness, patience, and kindness of good teachers for whom there is no lost student or that is incapable of learning. These attitudes to help and offer solidarity to the subjects of learning [29] are features of an optimist teacher who is convinced and believes in the possibilities of improvement, in the results of the learning process

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*Dedication to their students*: The dedication of a teacher to their work is a background trait that refers to the learning practices that are performed using extra time, and because of that, they define the dedication of memorable teachers. The students value this devotion to their duty on behalf of good teachers as they understand that this extra time could be spent by the teachers with their families or to themselves and hence this extra effort by teachers is highly

*Equality of treatment and fairness*: This code alludes to a good teacher being a figure of justice and authority in the classroom. The teacher must treat all the students with justice and equality; indeed, it is all lost if there is a great pedagogue in any disciplines, but which is no longer recognized by the student because he or she received an unjust treatment in the classroom. Academic justice and equality of good teachers, in terms of values, are the crown jewels of the

*Making us part of it*: This code involves the pedagogic principle which is put into practice and takes into account the students and their learning needs. Teachers owe their work to students, and they are the reason for being a teacher; therefore, making them part of their designs considering their opinions, preferences, and points of view in the learning process to achieve

by students as part of good teacher's dedication to work.

**Figure 8.** Category: teaching knowledge—human-patience-comprehension.

good results is a feature of memorable teachers.

of any student.

professional competencies.

In addition, as part of this category, there is a summary of systematic practices that are adjusted to a precise method, followed by a procedure and rigorous system [30]. Furthermore, it is considered as a mastery and execution of solid disciplinary knowledge, an ample scientific preparation, beyond any doubts and following common sense. The teacher is recognized for his expert knowledge [41], with two kinds of well-defined rigor: the methodological and that concerned with the subject. Finally, a code in this category refers to the competency of tidiness and carefulness in the elaboration of learning exercises and activities keeping a clean and precise format; good teachers strictly demand cleanliness and adherence to the format in learning activities, and excellent knowledge should not only manifest itself in terms of content, but also present itself in the tidiness of format.

#### **9.8. Teaching knowledge: human-patience-comprehension**

This category addresses a knowledge to assign value that is profoundly pedagogic [20]. It is a knowledge of comprehending the human condition; it touches knowledge on the emotional realm from the teacher, and the students recognize the kindness and comprehension of memorable teachers, in accordance with the following codes (**Figure 8**).

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**Figure 8.** Category: teaching knowledge—human-patience-comprehension.

In this sense, according to the category being analyzed, lax teachers, lacking in rigor and discipline in the teaching process, are shown with little regard by the students, and hence there is a positive recognition to strict but effective approaches to teaching, mutually agreed on by the teachers and their students, where discipline and rigor in teaching are expressed in good teachers as being "a strict teacher" and this without having any sign of disapproval. However, another code that belongs to this category points to a teaching knowledge that revolves around being rigorous and strict toward the execution and performance of a learning activity but at the same time provides understanding and resources that will help the students; this articulated knowledge is proper to very good teachers and is thus recognized by students in this category. In addition, as part of this category, there is a summary of systematic practices that are adjusted to a precise method, followed by a procedure and rigorous system [30]. Furthermore, it is considered as a mastery and execution of solid disciplinary knowledge, an ample scientific preparation, beyond any doubts and following common sense. The teacher is recognized for his expert knowledge [41], with two kinds of well-defined rigor: the methodological and that concerned with the subject. Finally, a code in this category refers to the competency of tidiness and carefulness in the elaboration of learning exercises and activities keeping a clean and precise format; good teachers strictly demand cleanliness and adherence to the format in learning activities, and excellent knowledge should not only manifest itself in terms of con-

This category addresses a knowledge to assign value that is profoundly pedagogic [20]. It is a knowledge of comprehending the human condition; it touches knowledge on the emotional realm from the teacher, and the students recognize the kindness and comprehension of

tent, but also present itself in the tidiness of format.

**Figure 7.** Category: teaching knowledge—rigor-format-tidiness.

204 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

**9.8. Teaching knowledge: human-patience-comprehension**

memorable teachers, in accordance with the following codes (**Figure 8**).

*Offer opportunities*: This code represents the openness, patience, and kindness of good teachers for whom there is no lost student or that is incapable of learning. These attitudes to help and offer solidarity to the subjects of learning [29] are features of an optimist teacher who is convinced and believes in the possibilities of improvement, in the results of the learning process of any student.

*Dedication to their students*: The dedication of a teacher to their work is a background trait that refers to the learning practices that are performed using extra time, and because of that, they define the dedication of memorable teachers. The students value this devotion to their duty on behalf of good teachers as they understand that this extra time could be spent by the teachers with their families or to themselves and hence this extra effort by teachers is highly by students as part of good teacher's dedication to work.

*Equality of treatment and fairness*: This code alludes to a good teacher being a figure of justice and authority in the classroom. The teacher must treat all the students with justice and equality; indeed, it is all lost if there is a great pedagogue in any disciplines, but which is no longer recognized by the student because he or she received an unjust treatment in the classroom. Academic justice and equality of good teachers, in terms of values, are the crown jewels of the professional competencies.

*Making us part of it*: This code involves the pedagogic principle which is put into practice and takes into account the students and their learning needs. Teachers owe their work to students, and they are the reason for being a teacher; therefore, making them part of their designs considering their opinions, preferences, and points of view in the learning process to achieve good results is a feature of memorable teachers.

*Kindness and comprehension*: This code refers to the attributes given by the students to teachers that have good feelings, good and kind teachers who offer the best of their knowledge and teaching work to their students [39].

**c.** The teaching knowledge implicated in the learning process of different subjects, proper to the technical-professional realm, are present in the categorizations: didactic knowledge, the ability to explain: gift of teaching, teaching knowledge: strategies, teaching knowledge:

**d.** Generally, in the narratives and the categorizations that were constructed, bad teachers are conspicuously absent; no one remembers them by their names and last names—*and, hence, they are not memorable—*and only appears in one categorization; that of teaching knowledge: rigor-format-tidiness, in some narratives, lax and lacking on rigor teachers are reported as being bad teachers because they did not achieve significant learning in their students. In the future, it will be necessary to conduct deeper research in terms of what constitutes expert teaching knowledge and in relation to specific didactic abilities; in addition, more extensive research is needed on the topic of how to mediate between rigorous teaching knowledge and

planning and evaluation, and teaching knowledge: rigor-format-tidiness.

that oriented toward comprehension and emphatic abilities on behalf of teachers.

\*, Rubén Edel-Navarro<sup>2</sup>

[1] INEE. Estructura y dimensión del Sistema Educativo Nacional. 2015. Disponible en: http://www.inee.edu.mx/index.php/bases-de-datos/banco-de-indicadores-educativos.

[2] INEGI. Encuesta intercensal 2015. 2015. Disponible en: http://cuentame.inegi.org.mx/

[3] SEP. Perfil, parámetros e indicadores para el ingreso a las funciones docentes y técnico

[4] San Fabián JL. La voz de los estudiantes en los centros escolares. ¿Hay alguien ahí? En

[5] Nieto JM, Portela A. La inclusión de la voz del alumno en el asesoramiento para la mejora de las prácticas educativas. PROFESORADO. Revista de Currículum y Formación del profesorado. 2008;**12**(1). http://www.ugr.es/~recfpro/rev121ART5.pdf. [Accessed:

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
1 Pedagogical University of the State of Durango, Durango, Mexico

3 Ministry of Education of the State of Durango, Durango, Mexico

poblacion/habitantes.aspx?tema=P. [Accessed: May 05, 2017]

docentes en la Educación Media Superior. México: Autor; 2014

OGE N° 5 •. Septiembre-Octubre de; Universidad de Oviedo; 2008

and Yaneth Soto-Ruiz3

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**Author details**

**References**

Miguel Navarro-Rodríguez1

2 University of Veracruz, Xalapa, Mexico

[Accessed: May 05, 2017]

November 05 2017]

*Patience*: Patience is a teaching virtue and in this code is defined as an attitude favorable to the learning process, to be willing to wait and to take the time for a paused and detailed explanation, waiting and accompanying the learning rhythm of the student and using words that calm and appeal to temperance—*try one more time, don't worry, take a calmed look—*patience is a true gift of teaching.

*Humane teacher*: This code involves the ability of memorable teachers to be in an active disposition to listen and to show empathy to their students; to first understand and then comprehend their students, comprehension and empathy are essential for meaningful coexistence and warmth toward their students, to feel together with them part of them in a learning community [20].

Finally, there is the code named *sensibility to comprehend*, which is closely related to the other codes of the category to conform in this humane pedagogical knowledge and value them in the order of comprehension.