#### **2. Decisional variables**

#### **2.1 Career indecision and indecisiveness**

The career indecision construct is used in the literature to underline the problems that can arise during career decision-making (Gati et al., 1996). The construct is designed to explain why some individuals experience uncertainty about their educational and vocational future while others are more involved and confident in making their own choices (Wanberg & Muchinsky, 1992).

From a theoretical point of view, different approaches can be used to examine different aspects of indecision (Kelly & Lee, 2002). The vocational interests approach, supported by Holland and Holland (1977), holds that indecision results from difficulties in personal and vocational identity and from insufficient crystallization of interests. Holland's (1959) theory

Emotional Intelligence: A New Variable in Career Decision-Making 53

Regarding lack of readiness, three specific subcategories of difficulties can be identified: lack of motivation (low willingness to make a decision), indecisiveness (general difficulty in making a decision) and dysfunctional beliefs (distorted perception of careers and the decision-making process, irrational expectations and dysfunctional thoughts about the

Regarding lack of information, four specific subcategories of difficulties can be identified: lack of information about the decision-making process (lack of knowledge on how to make a decision appropriately and, particularly, on the steps in the career decision-making process); lack of information about the self (where individuals feel they do not have enough information about themselves, for example about their career preferences, their abilities, and so on); lack of information about occupations (lack of information on career options, for example what alternatives exist and the characteristics of these alternatives); lack of information about ways of obtaining information and getting help with career decision-

Regarding inconsistent information, three specific subcategories of difficulties can be identified: unreliable information (where individuals feel they are getting contradictory information about themselves and possible occupations); internal conflicts (an internal state of confusion that arises from the difficulty in reaching compromises on incompatible factors that individuals consider important); external conflicts (the gap between individual preferences and those of significant others, or the differing opinions of significant others).

In recent decades, a gradual shift has occurred from economic and probabilistic decisionmaking models to decision maker characteristics (Arroba, 1977; Harren, 1979; Mann et al., 1997; Scott & Bruce, 1995). The early normative models that characterized the study of decision-making processes (Edwards, 1954; Luce & Raiffa, 1957; Von Winterfeldt & Edwards, 1986; Von Neumann & Morgenstern, 1947) have gradually been replaced by research on how the problem and the situation influence decision-making (Kleindorfer et al., 1993; Payne, Bettman, & Jhonson, 1993), and also by research on the influence of personal factors in choice modalities (Brew et al., 2001), suggesting therefore the existence of different types of decisional styles (Arroba, 1977; Harren, 1979; Janis & Mann, 1977; Jepsen, 1974;

In the debate on decisional styles, attention swung from task and decisional situation variables (Driver et al., 1990; Scott & Bruce, 1995) to more cognitive, individual variables (Andersen, 2000; Hunt et al., 1989; Keegan, 1984; Mckenny & Keen, 1974; Mitroff, 1983) until a more timely and integrated decisional style definition could be formulated (Thunholm,

In the literature, the concept of decisional style was first used to indicate the primary mode employed by individuals to resolve decisional conflict (Janis & Mann, 1977; Mann et al., 1997; Radford et al., 1993). Decisional style was subsequently defined as individuals' habitual pattern of making decisions (Driver, 1979) or as the typical way of perceiving and

responding to individual decision-making tasks (Harren, 1979).

process).

making.

2004).

**3.1 Decisional styles**

Mann et al., 1997; Scott & Bruce, 1995).

categorizes individuals into six personality types that correspond to specific professional areas (RIASEC). Accordingly, individuals who belong simultaneously to two or more types could be more undecided about which career path to take. Individuals with low scores in all personality types could also have interests that are not sufficiently defined to lead to a clear career choice. Another possibility is that individuals with high scores in all personality types could have so many interests that they cannot come to a clear decision. Finally, individuals with a wide range of skills could have difficulties in choosing among the various alternatives (Holland, 1959).

According to Super's approach (1953), indecision can correspond to a normal stage of career development. Osipow (1999) supports the thesis, developed earlier by Super (1953), that indecision should not necessarily be considered a persistent problem but rather a normal stage that all people go through during their lifetime. It is possible to distinguish between evolutive indecision (indecision), which corresponds to a normal stage in life in terms of development, and chronic or generalized indecision, known as indecisiveness, which is a personality characteristic that manifests itself in the difficulty that certain individuals have in taking decisions in any contexts of their lives. More recently, Savickas (2004) distinguished between undecided individuals (characterized by a momentary inability to choose but having the potential to make decisions based on their development level, the availability of information, and their decisional training and social support), and indecisive individuals (characterized by chronic anxiety and lack of problem-solving abilities).

#### **3. Career decision-making difficulties**

The theoretical and applicative relevance of the career indecision construct is underlined and contextualized by Gati et al. (1996) who state that the increasing rate of change in the world of work increases the number of individual transitions from one job to another during the lifetime of a person. A primary purpose of career counseling is to facilitate the construction of the career decision-making process, particularly with regard to overcoming the difficulties encountered during the process.

The research on career decision-making has devoted considerable attention to the categorization of the various facets of career indecision. Tinsley (1992) argues that, historically, two lines of research have been established: one purely theoretical and one empirical, that is characterized by attempts to devise measures to detect career indecision. However, the two lines of research were developed independently of each other, and, in an attempt to integrate them, Gati et al. (1996) proposed and empirically tested a taxonomy of difficulties individuals may experience. The career decision-making process can be subdivided into different components each of which involves different types of difficulties (Gati et al., 1996). Thus, the various difficulties that individuals may encounter during the career decision-making process can be classified into different categories, and difficulties with the same characteristics can be allocated to the same categories (Campbell & Cellini, 1981). According to Gati et al. (1996), a 'tree' can be used to list the difficulties: the two main groups of difficulties can be distinguished temporally − those that may be encountered before (lack of readiness) and those that may be encountered after the start of the decisionmaking process (lack of information, inconsistent information). The three main categories of difficulties (lack of readiness, lack of information, inconsistent information) each have a number of subcategories, giving a total of ten subcategories.

Regarding lack of readiness, three specific subcategories of difficulties can be identified: lack of motivation (low willingness to make a decision), indecisiveness (general difficulty in making a decision) and dysfunctional beliefs (distorted perception of careers and the decision-making process, irrational expectations and dysfunctional thoughts about the process).

Regarding lack of information, four specific subcategories of difficulties can be identified: lack of information about the decision-making process (lack of knowledge on how to make a decision appropriately and, particularly, on the steps in the career decision-making process); lack of information about the self (where individuals feel they do not have enough information about themselves, for example about their career preferences, their abilities, and so on); lack of information about occupations (lack of information on career options, for example what alternatives exist and the characteristics of these alternatives); lack of information about ways of obtaining information and getting help with career decisionmaking.

Regarding inconsistent information, three specific subcategories of difficulties can be identified: unreliable information (where individuals feel they are getting contradictory information about themselves and possible occupations); internal conflicts (an internal state of confusion that arises from the difficulty in reaching compromises on incompatible factors that individuals consider important); external conflicts (the gap between individual preferences and those of significant others, or the differing opinions of significant others).

#### **3.1 Decisional styles**

52 Emotional Intelligence – New Perspectives and Applications

categorizes individuals into six personality types that correspond to specific professional areas (RIASEC). Accordingly, individuals who belong simultaneously to two or more types could be more undecided about which career path to take. Individuals with low scores in all personality types could also have interests that are not sufficiently defined to lead to a clear career choice. Another possibility is that individuals with high scores in all personality types could have so many interests that they cannot come to a clear decision. Finally, individuals with a wide range of skills could have difficulties in choosing among the various

According to Super's approach (1953), indecision can correspond to a normal stage of career development. Osipow (1999) supports the thesis, developed earlier by Super (1953), that indecision should not necessarily be considered a persistent problem but rather a normal stage that all people go through during their lifetime. It is possible to distinguish between evolutive indecision (indecision), which corresponds to a normal stage in life in terms of development, and chronic or generalized indecision, known as indecisiveness, which is a personality characteristic that manifests itself in the difficulty that certain individuals have in taking decisions in any contexts of their lives. More recently, Savickas (2004) distinguished between undecided individuals (characterized by a momentary inability to choose but having the potential to make decisions based on their development level, the availability of information, and their decisional training and social support), and indecisive

individuals (characterized by chronic anxiety and lack of problem-solving abilities).

The theoretical and applicative relevance of the career indecision construct is underlined and contextualized by Gati et al. (1996) who state that the increasing rate of change in the world of work increases the number of individual transitions from one job to another during the lifetime of a person. A primary purpose of career counseling is to facilitate the construction of the career decision-making process, particularly with regard to overcoming

The research on career decision-making has devoted considerable attention to the categorization of the various facets of career indecision. Tinsley (1992) argues that, historically, two lines of research have been established: one purely theoretical and one empirical, that is characterized by attempts to devise measures to detect career indecision. However, the two lines of research were developed independently of each other, and, in an attempt to integrate them, Gati et al. (1996) proposed and empirically tested a taxonomy of difficulties individuals may experience. The career decision-making process can be subdivided into different components each of which involves different types of difficulties (Gati et al., 1996). Thus, the various difficulties that individuals may encounter during the career decision-making process can be classified into different categories, and difficulties with the same characteristics can be allocated to the same categories (Campbell & Cellini, 1981). According to Gati et al. (1996), a 'tree' can be used to list the difficulties: the two main groups of difficulties can be distinguished temporally − those that may be encountered before (lack of readiness) and those that may be encountered after the start of the decisionmaking process (lack of information, inconsistent information). The three main categories of difficulties (lack of readiness, lack of information, inconsistent information) each have a

alternatives (Holland, 1959).

**3. Career decision-making difficulties**

the difficulties encountered during the process.

number of subcategories, giving a total of ten subcategories.

In recent decades, a gradual shift has occurred from economic and probabilistic decisionmaking models to decision maker characteristics (Arroba, 1977; Harren, 1979; Mann et al., 1997; Scott & Bruce, 1995). The early normative models that characterized the study of decision-making processes (Edwards, 1954; Luce & Raiffa, 1957; Von Winterfeldt & Edwards, 1986; Von Neumann & Morgenstern, 1947) have gradually been replaced by research on how the problem and the situation influence decision-making (Kleindorfer et al., 1993; Payne, Bettman, & Jhonson, 1993), and also by research on the influence of personal factors in choice modalities (Brew et al., 2001), suggesting therefore the existence of different types of decisional styles (Arroba, 1977; Harren, 1979; Janis & Mann, 1977; Jepsen, 1974; Mann et al., 1997; Scott & Bruce, 1995).

In the debate on decisional styles, attention swung from task and decisional situation variables (Driver et al., 1990; Scott & Bruce, 1995) to more cognitive, individual variables (Andersen, 2000; Hunt et al., 1989; Keegan, 1984; Mckenny & Keen, 1974; Mitroff, 1983) until a more timely and integrated decisional style definition could be formulated (Thunholm, 2004).

In the literature, the concept of decisional style was first used to indicate the primary mode employed by individuals to resolve decisional conflict (Janis & Mann, 1977; Mann et al., 1997; Radford et al., 1993). Decisional style was subsequently defined as individuals' habitual pattern of making decisions (Driver, 1979) or as the typical way of perceiving and responding to individual decision-making tasks (Harren, 1979).

Emotional Intelligence: A New Variable in Career Decision-Making 55

emotions, motives and behaviours, and to use them to act optimally. In 1966, Leuner coined the term emotional intelligence, and, in 1988, Bar-On came up with the term Emotional Quotient (EQ). The emotional intelligence construct has elicited increasing interest since the nineties, especially from psychologists and researchers who have developed different

An early proposition of emotional intelligence was articulated by Mayer et al. (2000) who distinguished between mental ability models and mixed models: the first defined emotional intelligence in terms of individual cognitive abilities in processing emotional information, and the second conceptualized emotional intelligence as a construct that included a mix of

A second proposition of emotional intelligence called into question the different measures of emotional intelligence arguing that the type of measurement rather than the theory itself determines the nature of the different EI models (Petrides & Furnham, 2000, 2001). In line with this view, Petrides and Furnham (2000, 2001) distinguish between the trait EI (or the trait emotional self-efficacy) and the ability EI (formally defined as information-processing EI). This distinction is not linked to the ability model and the mixed model discussed earlier: Petrides and Furnham's proposition is indeed based on the method of measuring the construct (self-report *vs* maximum performance), and it sees the assessed construct as qualitatively different. Trait EI represents a constellation of emotion-related self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality. Information-processing emotional intelligence, on the other hand, concerns emotional abilities (e.g. the ability to identify, express and label emotions). Trait EI is thus assessed through self-reported measures while informationprocessing emotional intelligence refers to objective maximum performance measures

Finally, a further distinction regarding emotional intelligence should be considered, namely that the various models in the literature are distinguished according to whether they are focused on specific abilities or on the overall integration of these abilities (Mayer et al., 2008). Mayer et al. differentiate between specific-ability approaches that concentrate on a particular ability or abilities that can be considered fundamental to emotional intelligence; integrative-model approaches that consider emotional intelligence an overall ability; and the

The empirical studies that will be discussed later in this chapter deal in particular with Bar-On's (1997, 2002) theoretical model of emotional intelligence and also with the model by

In Bar-On's (1997, 2002) model, emotional intelligence is conceptualized as a multifactorial construct where emotional, personal and social competencies converge and determine the modalities through which individuals relate with themselves and with others and that support them in coping effectively with environmental demands and pressures. Emotional intelligence develops over time, it changes in an individual's life and it can be improved through training programmes. Bar-On's (1997) model is hierarchical and includes a global dimension of emotional intelligence, five principal dimensions and fifteen subdimensions. The principal dimensions and their fifteen subdimensions are the following: 1) intrapersonal emotional Intelligence, which refers to awareness of one's own emotions and ability to express one's own feelings and communicate own's one needs. It concerns: self-regard,

mixed-model approaches that include a wide range of non-cognitive factors.

Salovey and Mayer (1990, Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

cognitive abilities with other characteristics such as aspects of personality.

models and definitions.

(Petrides & Furnham, 2000).

The term decisional style was also often used synonymously with cognitive style (Andersen, 2000; Hunt et al., 1989; Keegan, 1984; Mckenny & Keen, 1974; Mitroff, 1983), a term which, in the career decision-making field, refers to the procedures for selecting and processing information that are central to understanding the decision-making process (Hunt et al., 1989). Driver et al. (1990), however, refer to decisional style as learned habit and state that the key difference between styles is the amount of information considered during the decision-making process as well as the number of alternatives identified in the decisionmaking: in this case, the task and context clearly influence individual differences on how meaning is attributed to the collected data.

Scott and Bruce (1995, p. 820) further defined decisional style as ''the learned habitual response pattern exhibited by an individual when confronted with a decision situation. It is not a personality trait, but a habit-based propensity to react in a certain way in a specific decision context". The role of habit and situational factors as predictors of decisional behaviour is thus highlighted.

More recently, Thunholm (2004, p. 941) formulated a more integrated definition of decisional style as a ''pattern of response given by an individual in a decisional situation. This pattern of response is determined by the decisional situation, by the decisional task and by the same decider''. The deciders demonstrate individual differences in habits as well as in basic cognitive abilities such as information processing, self-evaluation and selfcontrol, which impact consistently on the pattern of response in different tasks and situations.

Interest in different types of decisional styles also gradually developed (Arroba, 1977; Harren, 1979; Janis & Mann, 1977; Jepsen, 1974; Mann et al., 1997; Mann et al., 1989; Scott & Bruce, 1995). The model by Scott and Bruce (1995) identifies five decisional styles in behavioural terms: the rational style, characterized by extensive information research and a systematic evaluation of identified alternatives; the intuitive style, characterized by confidence in one's own intuition and feelings; the dependent style, characterized by seeking the advice and opinions of others before deciding; the avoidant style, characterized by an attempt to avoid decision-making as far as possible; the spontaneous style, characterized by immediate intuition and the desire to reach a decision as quickly as possible.

Mann et al.'s (1997) taxonomy identifies four decisional styles: avoidance, which refers to the tendency to avoid conflict by giving others the responsibility for making a decision; vigilance, which refers to the careful and involved clarification of the goal to be reached through the decision-making process and the thorough evaluation of each option prior to deciding; procrastination, which refers to the tendency to postpone confronting a decisional problem; hypervigilance, which refers to the tendency to attempt, frenetically, to resolve a conflict that arises from having to make choices.

#### **4. Evolution of the emotional intelligence construct**

Emotional intelligence is considered a relatively new and growing research area, which has attracted interest at various levels (Zeidner et al., 2004). Emotional intelligence as a construct was first defined by Thorndike in 1920 as the ability to perceive one's own and others'

The term decisional style was also often used synonymously with cognitive style (Andersen, 2000; Hunt et al., 1989; Keegan, 1984; Mckenny & Keen, 1974; Mitroff, 1983), a term which, in the career decision-making field, refers to the procedures for selecting and processing information that are central to understanding the decision-making process (Hunt et al., 1989). Driver et al. (1990), however, refer to decisional style as learned habit and state that the key difference between styles is the amount of information considered during the decision-making process as well as the number of alternatives identified in the decisionmaking: in this case, the task and context clearly influence individual differences on how

Scott and Bruce (1995, p. 820) further defined decisional style as ''the learned habitual response pattern exhibited by an individual when confronted with a decision situation. It is not a personality trait, but a habit-based propensity to react in a certain way in a specific decision context". The role of habit and situational factors as predictors of decisional

More recently, Thunholm (2004, p. 941) formulated a more integrated definition of decisional style as a ''pattern of response given by an individual in a decisional situation. This pattern of response is determined by the decisional situation, by the decisional task and by the same decider''. The deciders demonstrate individual differences in habits as well as in basic cognitive abilities such as information processing, self-evaluation and selfcontrol, which impact consistently on the pattern of response in different tasks and

Interest in different types of decisional styles also gradually developed (Arroba, 1977; Harren, 1979; Janis & Mann, 1977; Jepsen, 1974; Mann et al., 1997; Mann et al., 1989; Scott & Bruce, 1995). The model by Scott and Bruce (1995) identifies five decisional styles in behavioural terms: the rational style, characterized by extensive information research and a systematic evaluation of identified alternatives; the intuitive style, characterized by confidence in one's own intuition and feelings; the dependent style, characterized by seeking the advice and opinions of others before deciding; the avoidant style, characterized by an attempt to avoid decision-making as far as possible; the spontaneous style, characterized by immediate intuition and the desire to reach a decision as quickly as

Mann et al.'s (1997) taxonomy identifies four decisional styles: avoidance, which refers to the tendency to avoid conflict by giving others the responsibility for making a decision; vigilance, which refers to the careful and involved clarification of the goal to be reached through the decision-making process and the thorough evaluation of each option prior to deciding; procrastination, which refers to the tendency to postpone confronting a decisional problem; hypervigilance, which refers to the tendency to attempt, frenetically, to resolve a

Emotional intelligence is considered a relatively new and growing research area, which has attracted interest at various levels (Zeidner et al., 2004). Emotional intelligence as a construct was first defined by Thorndike in 1920 as the ability to perceive one's own and others'

meaning is attributed to the collected data.

conflict that arises from having to make choices.

**4. Evolution of the emotional intelligence construct**

behaviour is thus highlighted.

situations.

possible.

emotions, motives and behaviours, and to use them to act optimally. In 1966, Leuner coined the term emotional intelligence, and, in 1988, Bar-On came up with the term Emotional Quotient (EQ). The emotional intelligence construct has elicited increasing interest since the nineties, especially from psychologists and researchers who have developed different models and definitions.

An early proposition of emotional intelligence was articulated by Mayer et al. (2000) who distinguished between mental ability models and mixed models: the first defined emotional intelligence in terms of individual cognitive abilities in processing emotional information, and the second conceptualized emotional intelligence as a construct that included a mix of cognitive abilities with other characteristics such as aspects of personality.

A second proposition of emotional intelligence called into question the different measures of emotional intelligence arguing that the type of measurement rather than the theory itself determines the nature of the different EI models (Petrides & Furnham, 2000, 2001). In line with this view, Petrides and Furnham (2000, 2001) distinguish between the trait EI (or the trait emotional self-efficacy) and the ability EI (formally defined as information-processing EI). This distinction is not linked to the ability model and the mixed model discussed earlier: Petrides and Furnham's proposition is indeed based on the method of measuring the construct (self-report *vs* maximum performance), and it sees the assessed construct as qualitatively different. Trait EI represents a constellation of emotion-related self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality. Information-processing emotional intelligence, on the other hand, concerns emotional abilities (e.g. the ability to identify, express and label emotions). Trait EI is thus assessed through self-reported measures while informationprocessing emotional intelligence refers to objective maximum performance measures (Petrides & Furnham, 2000).

Finally, a further distinction regarding emotional intelligence should be considered, namely that the various models in the literature are distinguished according to whether they are focused on specific abilities or on the overall integration of these abilities (Mayer et al., 2008). Mayer et al. differentiate between specific-ability approaches that concentrate on a particular ability or abilities that can be considered fundamental to emotional intelligence; integrative-model approaches that consider emotional intelligence an overall ability; and the mixed-model approaches that include a wide range of non-cognitive factors.

The empirical studies that will be discussed later in this chapter deal in particular with Bar-On's (1997, 2002) theoretical model of emotional intelligence and also with the model by Salovey and Mayer (1990, Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

In Bar-On's (1997, 2002) model, emotional intelligence is conceptualized as a multifactorial construct where emotional, personal and social competencies converge and determine the modalities through which individuals relate with themselves and with others and that support them in coping effectively with environmental demands and pressures. Emotional intelligence develops over time, it changes in an individual's life and it can be improved through training programmes. Bar-On's (1997) model is hierarchical and includes a global dimension of emotional intelligence, five principal dimensions and fifteen subdimensions. The principal dimensions and their fifteen subdimensions are the following: 1) intrapersonal emotional Intelligence, which refers to awareness of one's own emotions and ability to express one's own feelings and communicate own's one needs. It concerns: self-regard,

Emotional Intelligence: A New Variable in Career Decision-Making 57

paths (Young et al., 1996). Young and Valach (1996) argue that career development is closely connected to emotions and that, therefore, the awareness of one's emotions is essential to building one's career path. In support of the importance of emotions in career decisionmaking, Cooper (1997) argues that those who trust their feelings and allow themselves to be guided by them have more successful career paths. In studying the role of emotions in the career choice process, emotional intelligence is introduced as a critical variable for career success (Brown et al., 2003; Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008a, 2008b, 2009; Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003). People with high emotional intelligence generally have greater awareness of their emotions and have a greater capacity to integrate emotional experience with their thoughts and actions (Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003). Emmerling and Cherniss (2003) consequently stress the key role that emotional intelligence plays in the processes of career exploration and career decision-making. Brown et al. (2003) state that individuals with greater emotional intelligence will probably place more trust in their own capacity to confront tasks related to career decision-making. Emmerling and Cherniss (2003) argue that people with high emotional intelligence are more aware of their own interests and professional values and that they can communicate these interests and values more efficiently during career counseling. The authors similarly believe that such people are better able to manage their own emotional response to career decisionmaking. Emmerling and Cherniss (2003) conclude that people who are better able to understand and manage their own emotions will probably also be better able to predict the emotional consequences of a potential career choice and avoid jobs that imply unpleasant responsibilities and tasks for them. Instead, they will choose career options that will bring them greater job and life satisfaction. Emotional intelligence is therefore a particularly promising variable for better understanding career decision-making processes. The link between emotional intelligence and different decisional variables (career decision-making difficulties, decisional styles, indecisiveness) has been empirically analyzed (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Di Fabio & Kenny, in press; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2007, 2008a, 2009, Di

On the basis of the relationship between career decision-making difficulties, defined according to the model by Gati et al. (1996), and the EI construct according to the model by Bar-On (1997), based on the results of a study conducted on a sample of Italian interns (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008a), it appears that less emotional intelligence is associated with a greater lack of readiness regarding the difficulties that the individual may encounter before starting the decisional process; a greater lack of information in respect of the decisional process, the self, occupations (and the way to obtain such information); a greater inconsistency of information in respect of not only the lack of consistent information but also in respect of internal and external conflicts. The study also reveals that the intrapersonal dimension of emotional intelligence explains more of each of the three dimensions on the Career Decision-making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ, Gati et al., 1996) and stresses the importance of one's own emotions in the construction of one's own career. Furthermore, a study on a sample of Italian interns (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2009) − still using the career decision-making difficulties model by Gati et al. (1996), the Big Five personality model accessed through the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ, Caprara et al., 1993) and the EI model by Bar-On (1997, 2002) − showed that the dimensions of emotional intelligence add a percentage of incremental variance compared to the variance explained by personality traits in respect of each of three subdimensions of the CDDQ. The results reveal the role of

Fabio et al., submitted).

emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence and self-actualization; 2) interpersonal emotional intelligence, which refers to the ability both to establish cooperative, constructive and satisfactory relationships and to understand the feelings of others. It concerns: empathy, social responsibility and interpersonal relationships; 3) stress management, which refers to the ability to control and regulate emotions. It concerns: stress tolerance and impulse control; 4) adaptability, which refers to the ability of use emotions to implement effective strategies for problem-solving. It concerns: reality testing, flexibility and problem-solving; 5) general mood, which refers to the ability to be optimistic, to feel and express positive feelings and to draw pleasure from the presence of others. It includes: optimism and happiness. Based on the Bar-On model, the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i, Bar-On, 1997) was developed as a self-report questionnaire for detecting perceived emotional intelligence. There is also a short version (Bar-On, 2002).

The first model of Salovey and Mayer (1990) includes three categories of adaptive abilities: appraisal and expression of emotion, regulation of emotion and utilization of emotions in solving problems. The first category includes the dimension of appraisal and expression of emotion in the self and appraisal of emotion in others. The component of appraisal and expression of emotion in the self is further subdivided into verbal and non-verbal subcomponents while the appraisal of emotion in others component consists of the nonverbal perception and empathy subcomponents. The second category, regulation of emotion, consists of regulation of emotion in the self component and the regulation of emotion in others components. The third category, utilization of emotions, includes the flexible planning, creative thinking, redirected attention and motivation components. Mayer and Salovey (1997) later revised their EI model by focusing more on the cognitive aspects of the construct. The revised model includes four components that develop over time ranging from basic psychological processes to higher and more integrated processes on a psychological level: 1) perceiving emotions; 2) facilitating thought; 3) understanding emotions; 4) managing emotions. According to this model, the first and the second components are part of the experiential emotional intelligence area while the third and the fourth components flow into the strategic emotional intelligence area. Based on this proposition, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT, Mayer et al., 2002) was developed for detecting ability-based emotional intelligence.

#### **5. Emotional intelligence: An innovative variable in career decision-making**

Emotions seemingly play an important role in career decision-making processes, but often this influence is not fully understood and recognized (Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003; Young, 2010). The literature on career development has increasingly focused on the role of emotions in career decision-making. Kidd (1998) maintains that emotion, in addition to cognition, is a key determining factor in career choice and career behaviour. Caruso and Wolfe (2001) argue that emotions play a crucial role in career development and selection.

According to Young et al. (1996), the role of emotion in career construction is understandable in the light of the action theory approach, which holds that career is built through the everyday actions. The authors argue that emotions are linked to the purposes, projects and needs of every individual. They accordingly advance three reasons in support of the importance of emotions in career construction: emotions motivate action, they regulate it, and they permit access to and the development of narratives about chosen career

emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence and self-actualization; 2) interpersonal emotional intelligence, which refers to the ability both to establish cooperative, constructive and satisfactory relationships and to understand the feelings of others. It concerns: empathy, social responsibility and interpersonal relationships; 3) stress management, which refers to the ability to control and regulate emotions. It concerns: stress tolerance and impulse control; 4) adaptability, which refers to the ability of use emotions to implement effective strategies for problem-solving. It concerns: reality testing, flexibility and problem-solving; 5) general mood, which refers to the ability to be optimistic, to feel and express positive feelings and to draw pleasure from the presence of others. It includes: optimism and happiness. Based on the Bar-On model, the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i, Bar-On, 1997) was developed as a self-report questionnaire for detecting perceived

The first model of Salovey and Mayer (1990) includes three categories of adaptive abilities: appraisal and expression of emotion, regulation of emotion and utilization of emotions in solving problems. The first category includes the dimension of appraisal and expression of emotion in the self and appraisal of emotion in others. The component of appraisal and expression of emotion in the self is further subdivided into verbal and non-verbal subcomponents while the appraisal of emotion in others component consists of the nonverbal perception and empathy subcomponents. The second category, regulation of emotion, consists of regulation of emotion in the self component and the regulation of emotion in others components. The third category, utilization of emotions, includes the flexible planning, creative thinking, redirected attention and motivation components. Mayer and Salovey (1997) later revised their EI model by focusing more on the cognitive aspects of the construct. The revised model includes four components that develop over time ranging from basic psychological processes to higher and more integrated processes on a psychological level: 1) perceiving emotions; 2) facilitating thought; 3) understanding emotions; 4) managing emotions. According to this model, the first and the second components are part of the experiential emotional intelligence area while the third and the fourth components flow into the strategic emotional intelligence area. Based on this proposition, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT, Mayer et al.,

emotional intelligence. There is also a short version (Bar-On, 2002).

2002) was developed for detecting ability-based emotional intelligence.

argue that emotions play a crucial role in career development and selection.

**5. Emotional intelligence: An innovative variable in career decision-making**  Emotions seemingly play an important role in career decision-making processes, but often this influence is not fully understood and recognized (Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003; Young, 2010). The literature on career development has increasingly focused on the role of emotions in career decision-making. Kidd (1998) maintains that emotion, in addition to cognition, is a key determining factor in career choice and career behaviour. Caruso and Wolfe (2001)

According to Young et al. (1996), the role of emotion in career construction is understandable in the light of the action theory approach, which holds that career is built through the everyday actions. The authors argue that emotions are linked to the purposes, projects and needs of every individual. They accordingly advance three reasons in support of the importance of emotions in career construction: emotions motivate action, they regulate it, and they permit access to and the development of narratives about chosen career paths (Young et al., 1996). Young and Valach (1996) argue that career development is closely connected to emotions and that, therefore, the awareness of one's emotions is essential to building one's career path. In support of the importance of emotions in career decisionmaking, Cooper (1997) argues that those who trust their feelings and allow themselves to be guided by them have more successful career paths. In studying the role of emotions in the career choice process, emotional intelligence is introduced as a critical variable for career success (Brown et al., 2003; Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008a, 2008b, 2009; Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003). People with high emotional intelligence generally have greater awareness of their emotions and have a greater capacity to integrate emotional experience with their thoughts and actions (Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003). Emmerling and Cherniss (2003) consequently stress the key role that emotional intelligence plays in the processes of career exploration and career decision-making. Brown et al. (2003) state that individuals with greater emotional intelligence will probably place more trust in their own capacity to confront tasks related to career decision-making. Emmerling and Cherniss (2003) argue that people with high emotional intelligence are more aware of their own interests and professional values and that they can communicate these interests and values more efficiently during career counseling. The authors similarly believe that such people are better able to manage their own emotional response to career decisionmaking. Emmerling and Cherniss (2003) conclude that people who are better able to understand and manage their own emotions will probably also be better able to predict the emotional consequences of a potential career choice and avoid jobs that imply unpleasant responsibilities and tasks for them. Instead, they will choose career options that will bring them greater job and life satisfaction. Emotional intelligence is therefore a particularly promising variable for better understanding career decision-making processes. The link

between emotional intelligence and different decisional variables (career decision-making difficulties, decisional styles, indecisiveness) has been empirically analyzed (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Di Fabio & Kenny, in press; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2007, 2008a, 2009, Di Fabio et al., submitted).

On the basis of the relationship between career decision-making difficulties, defined according to the model by Gati et al. (1996), and the EI construct according to the model by Bar-On (1997), based on the results of a study conducted on a sample of Italian interns (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008a), it appears that less emotional intelligence is associated with a greater lack of readiness regarding the difficulties that the individual may encounter before starting the decisional process; a greater lack of information in respect of the decisional process, the self, occupations (and the way to obtain such information); a greater inconsistency of information in respect of not only the lack of consistent information but also in respect of internal and external conflicts. The study also reveals that the intrapersonal dimension of emotional intelligence explains more of each of the three dimensions on the Career Decision-making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ, Gati et al., 1996) and stresses the importance of one's own emotions in the construction of one's own career. Furthermore, a study on a sample of Italian interns (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2009) − still using the career decision-making difficulties model by Gati et al. (1996), the Big Five personality model accessed through the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ, Caprara et al., 1993) and the EI model by Bar-On (1997, 2002) − showed that the dimensions of emotional intelligence add a percentage of incremental variance compared to the variance explained by personality traits in respect of each of three subdimensions of the CDDQ. The results reveal the role of

Emotional Intelligence: A New Variable in Career Decision-Making 59

study by Di Fabio and Kenny (in press) on Italian high school students using the GDMS by Scott and Bruce (1995) to evaluate decisional styles, the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On EQ-i, 1997) to evaluate self-reported emotional intelligence and the Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT, Mayer et al., 2002) to evaluate ability-based emotional intelligence, revealed that self-reported emotional intelligence with respect to ability-based emotional intelligence largely explained decisional styles thus underlining the principal role of self-assessment of one's emotional skills and personal

Another study investigated the different roles that emotional intelligence could play in career indecision and indecisiveness. Research by Di Fabio et al. (submitted) on Italian university students looked at the relationship between career indecision and personality traits, career decision-making self-efficacy, perceived social support and self-reported emotional intelligence according to the Bar-On model (1997). The results showed that emotional intelligence explained a percentage of the incremental variance with respect to both personality traits and career decision-making self-efficacy and perceived social support in relation to both career indecision and indecisiveness. While career indecision was better explained by emotional intelligence, indecisiveness was better explained by personality. The study could thus investigate in depth the two constructs and highlight their convergences as

The above studies showed the possible emergence of an attractive operating scenario at various levels in educational/vocational guidance and career counseling. What makes emotional intelligence an interesting, innovative variable in the research and intervention field is that, whereas personality characteristics are considered substantially stable, there is broad consensus in the literature that emotional intelligence is an improvable characteristic (Bar-On, 1997; Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011; Mayer et al., 2002). Psychologists have also been encouraged to develop intervention programmes that promote emotional and social growth as well as academic success and career development (Walsh et al., 2002). Training programmes on emotional intelligence (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011; Kotsou et al., 2011; Nelis et al., 2009) would be particularly relevant given the links found with the decision variables (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011, in press; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2007,

An emotional intelligence training programme specifically developed according to the model by Mayer and Salovey (1997) for Italian high school students (Di Fabio, 2010) not only increased the emotional intelligence (both ability-based and self-reported) but also reduced the career decision-making difficulties and indecisiveness of the students (Di Fabio &

During the preliminary intervention phase, four classes (91 participants) were randomly chosen from the final high school year in a school system in the Province of Florence. The two classes that showed no significant differences between the mean scores of the studied variables were selected to take part in the research, which contained an experimental group and a control group for the administration of the instruments at T1 and T2. The following instruments were admistered collectively in the classroom: the MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 2002); the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS, Schutte et al., 1998); the Indecisiveness Scale (IS, Frost & Shows, 1993); and the Career Decision-Making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ, Gati et

qualities.

well as their divergences.

Kenny, 2011).

2008a, 2008b, 2009; Di Fabio et al., submitted).

personality traits as well as emotional intelligence in career decision difficulties thus demonstrating the interesting contribution that emotional intelligence can make in career decision-making. This is because personality traits are seen as stable in the literature (Costa & McCrae, 1992) whereas emotional intelligence is considered a characteristic that can be improved through specific training (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011). Furthermore, the EI dimension that best explains each of the three dimensions of the CDDQ is the intrapersonal dimension again highlighting the importance of awareness of one's own emotions.

A study on university students (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008b) using the General Decision Making Style questionnaire (GDMS, Scott & Bruce, 1995) to evaluate decisional styles and the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Short (Bar-On EQ-i:S, Bar-On, 2002) to evaluate emotional intelligence, showed 1) that the Adaptability dimension of emotional intelligence impacts positively on the Rational decisional style thus highlighting the role of the ability to use emotions in resolving problems and making use of an adaptive decisional style characterized by an attentive and rational way of proceeding; 2) that the Interpersonal dimension of emotional intelligence impacts positively on the Intuitive style suggesting that the ability to comprehend the feelings of others is central in the use of a style characterized by trusting one's own intuitions and feelings; 3) that the Intrapersonal dimension of emotional intelligence impacts inversely on the Dependent decisional style thus indicating that a limited awareness of one's own emotions is linked to a decisional style characterized by the need to entrust one's self to others for decision-making; 4) that the Intrapersonal dimension impacts inversely on the Avoidant decisional style suggesting that limited awareness of one's own emotions plays a role in the use of a decisional style characterized by the avoidance of decision-making; 5) that the Adaptability dimension of emotional intelligence impacts inversely on the Spontaneous decisional style indicating that limited competence in using emotions for problem-solving is linked to the use of a decisional style characterized by the wish to make decisions immediately and as fast as possible.

A later study (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010) on high school students using the Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire (MDMQ, Mann et al., 1997) and the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Short (Bar-On EQ-i:S, Bar-On, 2002), revealed that the Intrapersonal dimension is linked inversely to disadaptive decisional styles indicating that a lack of awareness of one's own emotions may be related to the use of inadequate decisional styles. The Adaptability dimension is strongly related to the Vigilance adaptive style highlighting the importance of the ability to use emotions to realize effective strategies in problem solving. Another study (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2007) conducted on a sample of interns using the MDMQ (Mann et al., 1997), the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ, Caprara et al., 1993) and the Bar-On EQ-i: S (Bar-On, 2002), revealed that the emotional intelligence dimensions add a percentage of incremental variance with respect to personality traits in relation to adaptive as well as disadaptive decisional styles. In particular, for the Vigilance adaptive style, the percentage of incremental variance explained by emotional intelligence is greater than the percentage of incremental variance explained by personality traits. Furthermore, in this study, the Adaptability dimension had a greater inverse influence on the Vigilance adaptive style, and the Intrapersonal dimension had a greater inverse influence on the Disadaptive decisional styles.

Concerning decisional styles, a further investigation was conducted using, simultaneously, self-reported emotional intelligence as well as ability-based emotional intelligence. The

personality traits as well as emotional intelligence in career decision difficulties thus demonstrating the interesting contribution that emotional intelligence can make in career decision-making. This is because personality traits are seen as stable in the literature (Costa & McCrae, 1992) whereas emotional intelligence is considered a characteristic that can be improved through specific training (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011). Furthermore, the EI dimension that best explains each of the three dimensions of the CDDQ is the intrapersonal

A study on university students (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008b) using the General Decision Making Style questionnaire (GDMS, Scott & Bruce, 1995) to evaluate decisional styles and the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Short (Bar-On EQ-i:S, Bar-On, 2002) to evaluate emotional intelligence, showed 1) that the Adaptability dimension of emotional intelligence impacts positively on the Rational decisional style thus highlighting the role of the ability to use emotions in resolving problems and making use of an adaptive decisional style characterized by an attentive and rational way of proceeding; 2) that the Interpersonal dimension of emotional intelligence impacts positively on the Intuitive style suggesting that the ability to comprehend the feelings of others is central in the use of a style characterized by trusting one's own intuitions and feelings; 3) that the Intrapersonal dimension of emotional intelligence impacts inversely on the Dependent decisional style thus indicating that a limited awareness of one's own emotions is linked to a decisional style characterized by the need to entrust one's self to others for decision-making; 4) that the Intrapersonal dimension impacts inversely on the Avoidant decisional style suggesting that limited awareness of one's own emotions plays a role in the use of a decisional style characterized by the avoidance of decision-making; 5) that the Adaptability dimension of emotional intelligence impacts inversely on the Spontaneous decisional style indicating that limited competence in using emotions for problem-solving is linked to the use of a decisional style

dimension again highlighting the importance of awareness of one's own emotions.

characterized by the wish to make decisions immediately and as fast as possible.

Disadaptive decisional styles.

A later study (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010) on high school students using the Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire (MDMQ, Mann et al., 1997) and the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Short (Bar-On EQ-i:S, Bar-On, 2002), revealed that the Intrapersonal dimension is linked inversely to disadaptive decisional styles indicating that a lack of awareness of one's own emotions may be related to the use of inadequate decisional styles. The Adaptability dimension is strongly related to the Vigilance adaptive style highlighting the importance of the ability to use emotions to realize effective strategies in problem solving. Another study (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2007) conducted on a sample of interns using the MDMQ (Mann et al., 1997), the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ, Caprara et al., 1993) and the Bar-On EQ-i: S (Bar-On, 2002), revealed that the emotional intelligence dimensions add a percentage of incremental variance with respect to personality traits in relation to adaptive as well as disadaptive decisional styles. In particular, for the Vigilance adaptive style, the percentage of incremental variance explained by emotional intelligence is greater than the percentage of incremental variance explained by personality traits. Furthermore, in this study, the Adaptability dimension had a greater inverse influence on the Vigilance adaptive style, and the Intrapersonal dimension had a greater inverse influence on the

Concerning decisional styles, a further investigation was conducted using, simultaneously, self-reported emotional intelligence as well as ability-based emotional intelligence. The study by Di Fabio and Kenny (in press) on Italian high school students using the GDMS by Scott and Bruce (1995) to evaluate decisional styles, the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On EQ-i, 1997) to evaluate self-reported emotional intelligence and the Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT, Mayer et al., 2002) to evaluate ability-based emotional intelligence, revealed that self-reported emotional intelligence with respect to ability-based emotional intelligence largely explained decisional styles thus underlining the principal role of self-assessment of one's emotional skills and personal qualities.

Another study investigated the different roles that emotional intelligence could play in career indecision and indecisiveness. Research by Di Fabio et al. (submitted) on Italian university students looked at the relationship between career indecision and personality traits, career decision-making self-efficacy, perceived social support and self-reported emotional intelligence according to the Bar-On model (1997). The results showed that emotional intelligence explained a percentage of the incremental variance with respect to both personality traits and career decision-making self-efficacy and perceived social support in relation to both career indecision and indecisiveness. While career indecision was better explained by emotional intelligence, indecisiveness was better explained by personality. The study could thus investigate in depth the two constructs and highlight their convergences as well as their divergences.

The above studies showed the possible emergence of an attractive operating scenario at various levels in educational/vocational guidance and career counseling. What makes emotional intelligence an interesting, innovative variable in the research and intervention field is that, whereas personality characteristics are considered substantially stable, there is broad consensus in the literature that emotional intelligence is an improvable characteristic (Bar-On, 1997; Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011; Mayer et al., 2002). Psychologists have also been encouraged to develop intervention programmes that promote emotional and social growth as well as academic success and career development (Walsh et al., 2002). Training programmes on emotional intelligence (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011; Kotsou et al., 2011; Nelis et al., 2009) would be particularly relevant given the links found with the decision variables (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011, in press; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2007, 2008a, 2008b, 2009; Di Fabio et al., submitted).

An emotional intelligence training programme specifically developed according to the model by Mayer and Salovey (1997) for Italian high school students (Di Fabio, 2010) not only increased the emotional intelligence (both ability-based and self-reported) but also reduced the career decision-making difficulties and indecisiveness of the students (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011).

During the preliminary intervention phase, four classes (91 participants) were randomly chosen from the final high school year in a school system in the Province of Florence. The two classes that showed no significant differences between the mean scores of the studied variables were selected to take part in the research, which contained an experimental group and a control group for the administration of the instruments at T1 and T2. The following instruments were admistered collectively in the classroom: the MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 2002); the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS, Schutte et al., 1998); the Indecisiveness Scale (IS, Frost & Shows, 1993); and the Career Decision-Making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ, Gati et

Emotional Intelligence: A New Variable in Career Decision-Making 61

submitted). In their interventions, practitioners could determine clients' emotional intelligence abilities and use specific ways to increase these abilities. The enhancement of emotional intelligence could be a new component of interventions to promote career development and of programmes aimed at the development of young people (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011). Recognition of the role of emotional intelligence in different career decisional situations could also help define operational scenarios for different levels of prevention: a level of intervention for psycho-emotional enhancement (primary prevention) (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Hage et al., 2007; Kenny & Di Fabio, 2009); screening interventions (secondary prevention) for early specific training in emotional intelligence (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011; Dulewicz & Higgs, 2004; Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003); career counseling intervention (tertiary prevention) for the identification of specific paths for clients who could benefit from programmes on specific aspects of emotional intelligence. Guidance and career counseling could be enriched by identifing clients with difficulties in perceiving and working with emotions in order to calibrate specific types of intervention. Preventive services and interventions in support of career development could help prevent dysfunctions and minimize social costs related to career indecision and psychological stress (Fouad et al., 2006). The costs associated with providing preventive interventions could reduce future demands for more expensive health and social services (Swisher et al., 2004). Increasing attention is being given to the role of individual variables in career decisionmaking in an attempt to develop more effective and individualized interventions (Bernaud, 2008). From this perspective, emotional intelligence appears to be a very promising variable in terms of research and intervention. Here it should be remembered that many counselors believe that emotions play a significant role in career decision-making (Young, 2010). The importance of reintroducing the study of emotions and doing more research on their role in career decision-making processes has rightfully been emphasized as a new challenge in the

American College Health Association. (2004). *Healthy Campus 2010*. Retrieved from

Andersen, J. A. (2000). Intuition in managers: Are intuitive managers more effective? *Journal of Managerial Psychology*, Vol. 15, No. 1, (2000), pp. 46-67, ISSN 0268-3946 Arroba, T. (1977). Styles of decision making and their use: An empirical study. *British Journal of Guidance and Counselling*, Vol. 5, No. 2, (July 1977), pp. 149-158, ISSN 0306-9885 Bar-On, R. (1988). *The development of a concept of psychological well-being.* Unpublished

Bar-On, R. (1997). *The Emotional Intelligence Inventory (EQ-I): Technical manual*, Multi-Health

Bar-On, R. (2002). *Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Short. Technical manual*, Multi-Health

Bernaud, J.-L. (2008). International seminar *Counseling and guidance in employment services*,

Brew, F. P., Hesketh, B., & Taylor, A. (2001). Individualist-collectivist differences in

adolescent decision making and decision styles with Chinese and Anglos. *International Journal of Intercultural Relations*, Vol. 25, No. 1, (January 2001), pp. 1-19,

field of guidance and career counseling (Young, 2010).

Systems, Toronto, Canada.

Systems, Toronto, Canada

ISSN 0147-1767

http://www.acha.org/info\_resources/hc2010.cfm

Doctoral Dissertation, Rhodes University, South Africa.

Medici-Riccardi Palace, Florence, Italy (December, 2008)

**7. References**

al., 1996). Di Fabio and Kenny's (2011) study showed that the intervention was effective not only in improving emotional intelligence, both ability-based and self-reported, but also in reducing indecisiveness and career indecision with effects that remained a month after the intervention (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011). This further underlined the link between emotional intelligence and decisional variables.

#### **6. Conclusions**

The literature review earlier in the chapter, which focused on the links between emotional intelligence and career decisional variables, identified promising innovations in the field of research and intervention. Current prevention models recognize the need to reduce risks and increase resources and strengths (Kenny & Hage, 2009; Kenny et al., 2009). Here, it is particularly important to identify variables that may represent strengths for the individual and that can be used in specific interventions. In this regard, emotional intelligence is seen as a particularly promising variable in the literature (Bar-on, 1997; Kotsou et al., 2011; Mayer et al., 2002; Nelis et al., 2009). The importance of developing interventions that support career development and career decision-making is underlined by research that documents the links between career decision-making difficulties, psychological distress, low levels of psychological well-being and school problems (American College Health Association, 2004; Fouad et al., 2006; Multon et al., 2001).

Recent research suggests that interventions that strengthen emotional intelligence could well promote progress in professional development (Ellis & Ryan, 2005). The importance of emotional awareness and abilities in managing emotions is receiving increasing recognition in the literature on career development (Brown et al., 2003; Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003; Kidd, 1998; Young, 2010). The studies cited in this chapter also highlight the relationship between the emotional intelligence construct and career decision-making difficulties (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008a, 2009, Di Fabio et al., submitted), decisional styles (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Di Fabio & Kenny, in press; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2007, 2009) and indecisiveness (Di Fabio et al., submitted). It could be argued that interventions to improve emotional intelligence could also reduce career indecision and indecisiveness (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011).

It should, however, be noted that the studies discussed in this chapter cannot summarily be generalized as the results were obtained from non-representative samples of participants. Future research should therefore use more representative samples of the Italian population and also verify the results in other national contexts. A further limititation in most of the reviewed studies was the exclusive use of self-report measures for assessing emotional intelligence. As suggested (Di Fabio & Kenny, in press) with regard to decisional styles defined according to the GDMS model by Scott and Bruce (1995), it might be interesting to use instruments that can detect both ability-based emotional intelligence and self-reported measures. This would help clarify aspects of overlap and the specificity of the ability-based emotional intelligence model and the self-reported emotional intelligence model regarding different decisional variables.

Despite these limitations, emotional intelligence seems to be a particularly promising variable in respect of decisional issues in the career field (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011, in press; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2007, 2008a, 2008b, 2009; Di Fabio et al., submitted). In their interventions, practitioners could determine clients' emotional intelligence abilities and use specific ways to increase these abilities. The enhancement of emotional intelligence could be a new component of interventions to promote career development and of programmes aimed at the development of young people (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011). Recognition of the role of emotional intelligence in different career decisional situations could also help define operational scenarios for different levels of prevention: a level of intervention for psycho-emotional enhancement (primary prevention) (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Hage et al., 2007; Kenny & Di Fabio, 2009); screening interventions (secondary prevention) for early specific training in emotional intelligence (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011; Dulewicz & Higgs, 2004; Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003); career counseling intervention (tertiary prevention) for the identification of specific paths for clients who could benefit from programmes on specific aspects of emotional intelligence. Guidance and career counseling could be enriched by identifing clients with difficulties in perceiving and working with emotions in order to calibrate specific types of intervention. Preventive services and interventions in support of career development could help prevent dysfunctions and minimize social costs related to career indecision and psychological stress (Fouad et al., 2006). The costs associated with providing preventive interventions could reduce future demands for more expensive health and social services (Swisher et al., 2004). Increasing attention is being given to the role of individual variables in career decisionmaking in an attempt to develop more effective and individualized interventions (Bernaud, 2008). From this perspective, emotional intelligence appears to be a very promising variable in terms of research and intervention. Here it should be remembered that many counselors believe that emotions play a significant role in career decision-making (Young, 2010). The importance of reintroducing the study of emotions and doing more research on their role in career decision-making processes has rightfully been emphasized as a new challenge in the field of guidance and career counseling (Young, 2010).

#### **7. References**

60 Emotional Intelligence – New Perspectives and Applications

al., 1996). Di Fabio and Kenny's (2011) study showed that the intervention was effective not only in improving emotional intelligence, both ability-based and self-reported, but also in reducing indecisiveness and career indecision with effects that remained a month after the intervention (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011). This further underlined the link between emotional

The literature review earlier in the chapter, which focused on the links between emotional intelligence and career decisional variables, identified promising innovations in the field of research and intervention. Current prevention models recognize the need to reduce risks and increase resources and strengths (Kenny & Hage, 2009; Kenny et al., 2009). Here, it is particularly important to identify variables that may represent strengths for the individual and that can be used in specific interventions. In this regard, emotional intelligence is seen as a particularly promising variable in the literature (Bar-on, 1997; Kotsou et al., 2011; Mayer et al., 2002; Nelis et al., 2009). The importance of developing interventions that support career development and career decision-making is underlined by research that documents the links between career decision-making difficulties, psychological distress, low levels of psychological well-being and school problems (American College Health Association, 2004;

Recent research suggests that interventions that strengthen emotional intelligence could well promote progress in professional development (Ellis & Ryan, 2005). The importance of emotional awareness and abilities in managing emotions is receiving increasing recognition in the literature on career development (Brown et al., 2003; Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003; Kidd, 1998; Young, 2010). The studies cited in this chapter also highlight the relationship between the emotional intelligence construct and career decision-making difficulties (Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2008a, 2009, Di Fabio et al., submitted), decisional styles (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Di Fabio & Kenny, in press; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2007, 2009) and indecisiveness (Di Fabio et al., submitted). It could be argued that interventions to improve emotional intelligence could also reduce career indecision and indecisiveness (Di Fabio &

It should, however, be noted that the studies discussed in this chapter cannot summarily be generalized as the results were obtained from non-representative samples of participants. Future research should therefore use more representative samples of the Italian population and also verify the results in other national contexts. A further limititation in most of the reviewed studies was the exclusive use of self-report measures for assessing emotional intelligence. As suggested (Di Fabio & Kenny, in press) with regard to decisional styles defined according to the GDMS model by Scott and Bruce (1995), it might be interesting to use instruments that can detect both ability-based emotional intelligence and self-reported measures. This would help clarify aspects of overlap and the specificity of the ability-based emotional intelligence model and the self-reported emotional intelligence model regarding

Despite these limitations, emotional intelligence seems to be a particularly promising variable in respect of decisional issues in the career field (Di Fabio & Blustein, 2010; Di Fabio & Kenny, 2011, in press; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2007, 2008a, 2008b, 2009; Di Fabio et al.,

intelligence and decisional variables.

Fouad et al., 2006; Multon et al., 2001).

**6. Conclusions**

Kenny, 2011).

different decisional variables.

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**4**

Michel Hansenne

*Belgium*

*University of Liège, Department of Psychology*

**Clinical Perspectives in Emotional Intelligence**

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognize and express emotions in yourself, and the ability to understand the emotions of others (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Research devoted to EI has now split off into two distinct perspectives. Both perspectives share the idea that cognitive abilities are not the unique predictor of successful adaptation but that emotional competencies have to be taken into consideration. However, these perspectives markedly differ regarding their conceptualization of such emotional competencies and their assessment. On the one hand, ability models (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) conceive EI as an ability encompassing four dimensions: (a) emotions identification; (b) emotions utilization; (c) emotions understanding; and (d) emotions regulation. In this ability perspective, EI is assessed via intelligence-like tests which comprise correct and wrong responses. On the other hand, trait models (Petrides & Furnham, 2001) consider EI as a multifaceted construct encompassing 13–15 (depending on the model) emotion-related behavioral dispositions thought to affect the ways an individual would cope with demands and pressures (e..g, self-control, well-being, emotional sensibility and sociability). In this trait perspective, EI is evaluated via personality-like questionnaires. While ability tests capture maximal performance like intelligence tests, trait tests aim to capture typical performance (Petrides & Furnham, 2003). Therefore, one can say that ability EI

Recently the scientific community becomes interested in EI, in order to discern what is true among the huge number of claims on this topic. Indeed, there is still controversy about whether EI represents an entity that differs from what psychologists in the field of intelligence, personality, and applied psychology already know under other names. But now, several lines of evidence suggest the existence of the influence of EI on quality of life, educational attainment, and occupational success. Therefore, since the theoretical foundations of EI are now well recognized, clinical researches are of interest. In this chapter, the main results concerning the relationships between EI and well-being will be reported. After that, some findings on EI and both anxious and depressive states will be developed. Finally, some recent data supporting the possibility to increase EI with specific interventions

A vast amount of research has documented a positive association between trait EI and wellbeing related variables (Zeidner et al., 2009), even if as for other outcomes, it is important to

assess what an individual could do, and trait EI what he really do.

**1. Introduction**

will be presented.

**2. Emotional intelligence and well-being**

### **Clinical Perspectives in Emotional Intelligence**

#### Michel Hansenne

*University of Liège, Department of Psychology Belgium*

#### **1. Introduction**

66 Emotional Intelligence – New Perspectives and Applications

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Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-27304-6, New York

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognize and express emotions in yourself, and the ability to understand the emotions of others (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Research devoted to EI has now split off into two distinct perspectives. Both perspectives share the idea that cognitive abilities are not the unique predictor of successful adaptation but that emotional competencies have to be taken into consideration. However, these perspectives markedly differ regarding their conceptualization of such emotional competencies and their assessment. On the one hand, ability models (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) conceive EI as an ability encompassing four dimensions: (a) emotions identification; (b) emotions utilization; (c) emotions understanding; and (d) emotions regulation. In this ability perspective, EI is assessed via intelligence-like tests which comprise correct and wrong responses. On the other hand, trait models (Petrides & Furnham, 2001) consider EI as a multifaceted construct encompassing 13–15 (depending on the model) emotion-related behavioral dispositions thought to affect the ways an individual would cope with demands and pressures (e..g, self-control, well-being, emotional sensibility and sociability). In this trait perspective, EI is evaluated via personality-like questionnaires. While ability tests capture maximal performance like intelligence tests, trait tests aim to capture typical performance (Petrides & Furnham, 2003). Therefore, one can say that ability EI assess what an individual could do, and trait EI what he really do.

Recently the scientific community becomes interested in EI, in order to discern what is true among the huge number of claims on this topic. Indeed, there is still controversy about whether EI represents an entity that differs from what psychologists in the field of intelligence, personality, and applied psychology already know under other names. But now, several lines of evidence suggest the existence of the influence of EI on quality of life, educational attainment, and occupational success. Therefore, since the theoretical foundations of EI are now well recognized, clinical researches are of interest. In this chapter, the main results concerning the relationships between EI and well-being will be reported. After that, some findings on EI and both anxious and depressive states will be developed. Finally, some recent data supporting the possibility to increase EI with specific interventions will be presented.

#### **2. Emotional intelligence and well-being**

A vast amount of research has documented a positive association between trait EI and wellbeing related variables (Zeidner et al., 2009), even if as for other outcomes, it is important to

Clinical Perspectives in Emotional Intelligence 69

efforts are allocated to ameliorate well-being in normal subjects. This recent interest comes from the development of positive psychology (Peterson, 2006; Wood et al., 2010). There are two main approaches to the study of well-being: the subjective well-being (SWB) approach and the psychological well-being (PWB) one (Ryan & Deci, 2001). First, SWB is defined in relation to life experiences that make the life either enjoyable or unpleasant. In another words, some life experiences are more favorable to induce and maintain well-being. SWB is strongly associated to individual differences related to positive and negative affect, or more particularly to the affective style described by Davidson (2004). A positive affective style means a positive bias towards life experiences and emotional experiences in which individuals allocate more automatic and controlled attention in the direction of positive life experiences and positive emotions (e.g., more recall of positive personal experiences or positive rather than negative words in a free recall test and more positive projection in the future), and this affective style is associated with higher left frontal brain activity as compared to right frontal brain activity. In contrast, individuals with a negative affective style are characterized by a negative bias towards personal life and emotional experiences,

and exhibited higher right frontal brain activity as compared to left frontal one.

controlling for personality and demographic measures (Burns & Machin, 2010).

more positive than negative emotions, which play a role to a better well-being.

activity recorded in the frontal areas was significantly associated with EI.

Second, PWB is considered as a predictor of the strength and the duration of the SWB, and comprises some characteristics that favor the SWP, as self-acceptance, life's goals, environmental mastering, autonomy, supportive relationships, and personal growth (Cloninger, 2004). Recent findings showed that PWB is a strongly predictor of SWB after

There are four ways to consider a link between EI and well-being (Zeidner & Olnick-Shemesh, 2010). First, since individuals with higher EI are more aware of their emotion and that they are more able to regulate their emotion, they should exhibit lower distress and therefore higher well-being. Second, since these individuals report greater social skills and higher social network quality, this can help them to improve their well-being. Third, understanding our emotions and those of others induce a better environmental and social adaptation, leading to a higher well-being. Finally, individuals with higher EI experience

Mikolajczak et al. (2010) investigated the link between affective style and EI among a sample of young adults. Affective style was assessed by the alpha power band of the electroencephalogram recorded over frontal electrodes. More precisely, an asymmetry index was created from the five frontal electrodes pairs (right/left) by subtracting the natural logarithm of the right site from the natural logarithm of the left homologous site. The results revealed that individuals with higher trait EI as assessed by the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue, Petrides & Furnham, 2003) had significantly higher left-sided mean frontal asymmetry scores than individuals with lower trait EI. This result was mainly explained by the factor sociability and to a lesser extent by factors self-control and wellbeing. Therefore, according to the hypothesis, the pattern of resting electroencephalographic

Zeidner and Olnick-Shemesh (2010) point out that the significant relationships found between EI and well-being measures are limited to trait EI measures and that the results obtained with ability EI measures are not conclusive. As Mikolajczak et al. (2008) argued, ability EI assess what an individual could do, and trait EI what he really do. Consequently,

distinguish theoretically and replicated findings from anecdotal ones (Matthews et al., 2002). More particularly, interpersonal abilities are expected to be related to better social and personal relationships, whereas intrapersonal skills are expected to be related to life satisfaction and subjective well-being. Indeed, a better emotional regulation should lead to lower perception of stress and a better quality of life, and subjects with higher EI should report elevated psychological well-being and happiness. Some data demonstrated that subjects that can manage others' emotions seem to respond less intensively to stressful situations, they express more empathy and they have a better social support that protects them from negative feelings. In addition, positive correlations between EI and subjective happiness and life satisfaction were found.

A study reported by Ciarrochi et al. (2001) investigated the relationship between trait EI as assessed by the Schutte's scale (Schutte et al., 1998) and different outcomes theoretically linked to EI among a large sample of adolescents. The results showed first that trait EI, as expected, was positively correlated to self-esteem and negatively with trait anxiety. Second, the authors reported positive associations between EI and the amount of social support, the satisfaction with social support and parental warmth. Interestingly, when self-esteem and trait anxiety were controlled, the relationships remained significant except for parental warmth, meaning that EI explained over these variables some important outcomes. In addition, the amount of social support from friends and extended family was more related to EI than the amount of social support from parents and siblings. The question of the direction of these associations is still open: are individuals with higher EI able to develop and maintain strong social support, or are individuals with relevant social support become better in EI?

The same findings, in addition with health-related measures, were found in a large sample of young adults (Austin et al., 2005). EI was assessed by the revised version of the scale of Schutte (Austin et al., 2004), which proposes three factors: optimism/mood regulation, appraisal of emotion, and utilisation of emotion. The results showed that total EI score was positively correlated with the social network size, the satisfaction with social support, the temporal satisfaction with life, and negatively correlated with the units of alcohol per week, but that EI was not associated with self-rated heath compared to others and nor with the number of visits to family doctor the last six months. Moreover, total EI score was negatively correlated with alexithymia. Regression analyses showed that when personality was controlled EI was a significant predictor of social network size, but didn't play a role as a significant predictor for other outcomes. In sum, the finding showed that EI has limited incremental validity, only for social network size, although other studies have reported incremental validity of EI over personality for life satisfaction and loneliness (Palmer et al., 2002; Saklofske et al., 2003). More recently, findings from a study reported by Austin et al. (2010) showed that lower scores of EI were associated with higher level of stress among undergraduate students assessed at the start of the semester and before the pre-exam period, and that EI mediated the effects of personality on stress and subjective well-being.

Another field of investigation of the association between EI and psychological outcomes involves well-being in itself. Last years, substantial literature extends the concept of wellbeing outside the domain of ill-being state (Cavanagh et al., 2011). Indeed, the majority of previous studies were focused on the therapeutic strategies developed to increase wellbeing in depressive or anxious patients as well as in diverse somatic disorders, but now

distinguish theoretically and replicated findings from anecdotal ones (Matthews et al., 2002). More particularly, interpersonal abilities are expected to be related to better social and personal relationships, whereas intrapersonal skills are expected to be related to life satisfaction and subjective well-being. Indeed, a better emotional regulation should lead to lower perception of stress and a better quality of life, and subjects with higher EI should report elevated psychological well-being and happiness. Some data demonstrated that subjects that can manage others' emotions seem to respond less intensively to stressful situations, they express more empathy and they have a better social support that protects them from negative feelings. In addition, positive correlations between EI and subjective

A study reported by Ciarrochi et al. (2001) investigated the relationship between trait EI as assessed by the Schutte's scale (Schutte et al., 1998) and different outcomes theoretically linked to EI among a large sample of adolescents. The results showed first that trait EI, as expected, was positively correlated to self-esteem and negatively with trait anxiety. Second, the authors reported positive associations between EI and the amount of social support, the satisfaction with social support and parental warmth. Interestingly, when self-esteem and trait anxiety were controlled, the relationships remained significant except for parental warmth, meaning that EI explained over these variables some important outcomes. In addition, the amount of social support from friends and extended family was more related to EI than the amount of social support from parents and siblings. The question of the direction of these associations is still open: are individuals with higher EI able to develop and maintain strong social support, or are individuals with relevant social support become

The same findings, in addition with health-related measures, were found in a large sample of young adults (Austin et al., 2005). EI was assessed by the revised version of the scale of Schutte (Austin et al., 2004), which proposes three factors: optimism/mood regulation, appraisal of emotion, and utilisation of emotion. The results showed that total EI score was positively correlated with the social network size, the satisfaction with social support, the temporal satisfaction with life, and negatively correlated with the units of alcohol per week, but that EI was not associated with self-rated heath compared to others and nor with the number of visits to family doctor the last six months. Moreover, total EI score was negatively correlated with alexithymia. Regression analyses showed that when personality was controlled EI was a significant predictor of social network size, but didn't play a role as a significant predictor for other outcomes. In sum, the finding showed that EI has limited incremental validity, only for social network size, although other studies have reported incremental validity of EI over personality for life satisfaction and loneliness (Palmer et al., 2002; Saklofske et al., 2003). More recently, findings from a study reported by Austin et al. (2010) showed that lower scores of EI were associated with higher level of stress among undergraduate students assessed at the start of the semester and before the pre-exam period, and that EI mediated the effects of personality on stress and subjective well-being. Another field of investigation of the association between EI and psychological outcomes involves well-being in itself. Last years, substantial literature extends the concept of wellbeing outside the domain of ill-being state (Cavanagh et al., 2011). Indeed, the majority of previous studies were focused on the therapeutic strategies developed to increase wellbeing in depressive or anxious patients as well as in diverse somatic disorders, but now

happiness and life satisfaction were found.

better in EI?

efforts are allocated to ameliorate well-being in normal subjects. This recent interest comes from the development of positive psychology (Peterson, 2006; Wood et al., 2010). There are two main approaches to the study of well-being: the subjective well-being (SWB) approach and the psychological well-being (PWB) one (Ryan & Deci, 2001). First, SWB is defined in relation to life experiences that make the life either enjoyable or unpleasant. In another words, some life experiences are more favorable to induce and maintain well-being. SWB is strongly associated to individual differences related to positive and negative affect, or more particularly to the affective style described by Davidson (2004). A positive affective style means a positive bias towards life experiences and emotional experiences in which individuals allocate more automatic and controlled attention in the direction of positive life experiences and positive emotions (e.g., more recall of positive personal experiences or positive rather than negative words in a free recall test and more positive projection in the future), and this affective style is associated with higher left frontal brain activity as compared to right frontal brain activity. In contrast, individuals with a negative affective style are characterized by a negative bias towards personal life and emotional experiences, and exhibited higher right frontal brain activity as compared to left frontal one.

Second, PWB is considered as a predictor of the strength and the duration of the SWB, and comprises some characteristics that favor the SWP, as self-acceptance, life's goals, environmental mastering, autonomy, supportive relationships, and personal growth (Cloninger, 2004). Recent findings showed that PWB is a strongly predictor of SWB after controlling for personality and demographic measures (Burns & Machin, 2010).

There are four ways to consider a link between EI and well-being (Zeidner & Olnick-Shemesh, 2010). First, since individuals with higher EI are more aware of their emotion and that they are more able to regulate their emotion, they should exhibit lower distress and therefore higher well-being. Second, since these individuals report greater social skills and higher social network quality, this can help them to improve their well-being. Third, understanding our emotions and those of others induce a better environmental and social adaptation, leading to a higher well-being. Finally, individuals with higher EI experience more positive than negative emotions, which play a role to a better well-being.

Mikolajczak et al. (2010) investigated the link between affective style and EI among a sample of young adults. Affective style was assessed by the alpha power band of the electroencephalogram recorded over frontal electrodes. More precisely, an asymmetry index was created from the five frontal electrodes pairs (right/left) by subtracting the natural logarithm of the right site from the natural logarithm of the left homologous site. The results revealed that individuals with higher trait EI as assessed by the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue, Petrides & Furnham, 2003) had significantly higher left-sided mean frontal asymmetry scores than individuals with lower trait EI. This result was mainly explained by the factor sociability and to a lesser extent by factors self-control and wellbeing. Therefore, according to the hypothesis, the pattern of resting electroencephalographic activity recorded in the frontal areas was significantly associated with EI.

Zeidner and Olnick-Shemesh (2010) point out that the significant relationships found between EI and well-being measures are limited to trait EI measures and that the results obtained with ability EI measures are not conclusive. As Mikolajczak et al. (2008) argued, ability EI assess what an individual could do, and trait EI what he really do. Consequently,

Clinical Perspectives in Emotional Intelligence 71

In addition to the abovementioned studies, Martinez-Pons (1997) showed that EI correlated positively with life satisfaction, but negatively with depressive symptoms, suggesting that individuals with higher EI report greater life satisfaction and fewer depressive-related symptoms than those with lower EI. Saklofske et al. (2003) also reported negative correlations corresponded to theoretical expectations between EI and social, family, and romantic loneliness as well as between EI and depression-proneness (i.e., the tendency towards developing depressive feelings), and positive correlations between EI and subjective happiness and temporal, past and concurrent life satisfaction among undergraduate students. The persistence of significant associations with these measures when personality is controlled suggests that EI displays incremental validity, implying some degree of explanatory power for these measures over and above those provided by personality trait scores. Schmidt and Andrykowski (2004) demonstrated that EI was associated with lower distress and lower avoidance of the disease among a sample of women with breast cancer, and that higher EI could act as a buffer against the negative impact of a toxic social environment. Moreover, Brown and Schutte (2006), when examining the relationship between EI and subjective fatigue among university students, demonstrated that higher EI was associated with less fatigue, probably because EI allows individuals to develop coping strategies, such as healthier mood, as well as more adaptive ways of interpreting the world and a better social support to ameliorate the effects of physical stresses. Finally, Extremera and Fernandez-Berrocal (2006) using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS) reported that low levels of emotional clarity (i.e., understanding owns emotions) and mood repair (i.e., emotional regulation) were related to high levels of depression, but that in contrast, high level of emotional attention (i.e., amount of attention toward owns

Fisher et al. (2010) investigated the relationship between EI as assessed by the TMMS and both arousal and apprehensive anxieties as well as depression within an emotion-word Stroop task. In addition, Event-Related Brain Potentials (ERPs) were recorded to assess the temporal information processing of the emotional words (see Hansenne, 2006 for a review on ERPs). From a behavioral point of view, the authors reported that both clarity and repair but not attention facets of the TMMS were negatively correlated with both anxious apprehension and arousal as well as with anhedonic depression. Hierarchical regressions showed that only anxious arousal accounted for the variance in clarity and that anhedonic depression was the only predictor for the variance of mood repair. ERPs results showed that P200 amplitude (i.e., an index of automatic attention) was related to attention of emotion and to apprehensive anxiety without an effect of the valence of the word: individuals with higher scores of attention of emotion and with higher apprehensive anxiety exhibited higher P200 amplitude, meaning more attentional allocation to the stimuli. P300 latency (i.e., an index of the time of stimulus conscious processing) was related to emotional clarity and apprehensive anxiety for the negative word, meaning that individuals with higher scores of emotional clarity and with higher apprehensive anxiety processed slower negative words. Taken together, these results demonstrated that attention to emotion and apprehensive anxiety are associated with enhanced automatic processing of information, and that emotional clarity and apprehensive anxiety are associated with increased time to categorize the negative stimuli. In other words, some facets of EI in combination with apprehensive but neither arousal anxiety nor anhedonic depression modify the processing of emotional

emotions) was related to depression.

stimuli.

knowing what is better to do doesn't allow an individual to improve his or her well-being. In their prospective study, Zeidner and Olnick-Shemesh (2010) demonstrated that ability EI is not related to either cognitive or affective facets of SWB.

#### **3. Emotional intelligence in depression and anxiety**

Despite the link between EI and well-being, few studies have examined the relationship between EI and both depression and anxiety. However, a better emotional regulation should have direct implications to prevent depressive states since EI is associated with higher psychological well-being and happiness (Austin et al., 2005; Furnham & Petrides, 2003). Therefore, it could be postulated that EI should be reduced in depressive patients. Moreover, some findings among normal (non-depressed) subjects suggest such an association between depression and EI.

When developing the first measure of EI based on a comprehensive model of EI, Schutte et al. (1998) reported on a large group of university students and adults significant positive correlations between EI score and optimism, and negative ones between pessimism and depressive tendencies. Moreover, Dawda and Hart (2000) assessed the convergent validity of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) and found, logically based on EI construct, that EI exhibited strong negative correlations with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and more particularly the intrapersonal EQ composite score (i.e., the ability to express and experience emotions). Ciarrochi et al. (2002) showed also that subjects that can manage others' emotions seem to respond less intensively to stressful situations and exhibit less suicidal ideation, less depression, and less hopelessness. Moreover, they express more empathy and they have better social support that protects them from negative feelings. In contrast, subjects higher on emotional perception reported greater depression, hopelessness, and suicidal ideation.

This later finding implying that some facets of EI (i.e., emotion perception) could be considered as a vulnerability factor for depression was replicated in a further study examining the link between EI and depression as regards to cultural variables (Fernandez-Berrocal et al., 2005). These authors assessed the cultural influences on the relationship between EI and depression, and more particularly the influence of individualistic/collectivistic cultures and Masculinity/Femininity dimension. Indeed, individualistic cultures are characterized by greater relevance of own emotions and higher quality of live (i.e., greater positive than negative emotions), while in collectivistic cultures less attention is allocated to the emotional dimension of the individual. Moreover, feministic nations reported more emotional expression than the masculinity ones. The results showed that emotional perception was positively associated with the BDI score, but that emotional regulation was correlated negatively with depression, and that these associations were more intense in feministic countries. In contrast, the individualistic/collectivistic division didn't influence the results. In other words, emotional perception without regulation has rather negative consequences. This finding was extended to job performance (Quoidbach & Hansenne, 2009). Indeed, in this study health care quality of nursing teams was positively correlated with emotion regulation of the team, but emotion appraisal was negatively correlated with the health care quality provided by teams.

knowing what is better to do doesn't allow an individual to improve his or her well-being. In their prospective study, Zeidner and Olnick-Shemesh (2010) demonstrated that ability EI

Despite the link between EI and well-being, few studies have examined the relationship between EI and both depression and anxiety. However, a better emotional regulation should have direct implications to prevent depressive states since EI is associated with higher psychological well-being and happiness (Austin et al., 2005; Furnham & Petrides, 2003). Therefore, it could be postulated that EI should be reduced in depressive patients. Moreover, some findings among normal (non-depressed) subjects suggest such an

When developing the first measure of EI based on a comprehensive model of EI, Schutte et al. (1998) reported on a large group of university students and adults significant positive correlations between EI score and optimism, and negative ones between pessimism and depressive tendencies. Moreover, Dawda and Hart (2000) assessed the convergent validity of the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) and found, logically based on EI construct, that EI exhibited strong negative correlations with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and more particularly the intrapersonal EQ composite score (i.e., the ability to express and experience emotions). Ciarrochi et al. (2002) showed also that subjects that can manage others' emotions seem to respond less intensively to stressful situations and exhibit less suicidal ideation, less depression, and less hopelessness. Moreover, they express more empathy and they have better social support that protects them from negative feelings. In contrast, subjects higher on emotional perception reported greater depression, hopelessness,

This later finding implying that some facets of EI (i.e., emotion perception) could be considered as a vulnerability factor for depression was replicated in a further study examining the link between EI and depression as regards to cultural variables (Fernandez-Berrocal et al., 2005). These authors assessed the cultural influences on the relationship between EI and depression, and more particularly the influence of individualistic/collectivistic cultures and Masculinity/Femininity dimension. Indeed, individualistic cultures are characterized by greater relevance of own emotions and higher quality of live (i.e., greater positive than negative emotions), while in collectivistic cultures less attention is allocated to the emotional dimension of the individual. Moreover, feministic nations reported more emotional expression than the masculinity ones. The results showed that emotional perception was positively associated with the BDI score, but that emotional regulation was correlated negatively with depression, and that these associations were more intense in feministic countries. In contrast, the individualistic/collectivistic division didn't influence the results. In other words, emotional perception without regulation has rather negative consequences. This finding was extended to job performance (Quoidbach & Hansenne, 2009). Indeed, in this study health care quality of nursing teams was positively correlated with emotion regulation of the team, but emotion appraisal was negatively

is not related to either cognitive or affective facets of SWB.

correlated with the health care quality provided by teams.

association between depression and EI.

and suicidal ideation.

**3. Emotional intelligence in depression and anxiety**

In addition to the abovementioned studies, Martinez-Pons (1997) showed that EI correlated positively with life satisfaction, but negatively with depressive symptoms, suggesting that individuals with higher EI report greater life satisfaction and fewer depressive-related symptoms than those with lower EI. Saklofske et al. (2003) also reported negative correlations corresponded to theoretical expectations between EI and social, family, and romantic loneliness as well as between EI and depression-proneness (i.e., the tendency towards developing depressive feelings), and positive correlations between EI and subjective happiness and temporal, past and concurrent life satisfaction among undergraduate students. The persistence of significant associations with these measures when personality is controlled suggests that EI displays incremental validity, implying some degree of explanatory power for these measures over and above those provided by personality trait scores. Schmidt and Andrykowski (2004) demonstrated that EI was associated with lower distress and lower avoidance of the disease among a sample of women with breast cancer, and that higher EI could act as a buffer against the negative impact of a toxic social environment. Moreover, Brown and Schutte (2006), when examining the relationship between EI and subjective fatigue among university students, demonstrated that higher EI was associated with less fatigue, probably because EI allows individuals to develop coping strategies, such as healthier mood, as well as more adaptive ways of interpreting the world and a better social support to ameliorate the effects of physical stresses. Finally, Extremera and Fernandez-Berrocal (2006) using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS) reported that low levels of emotional clarity (i.e., understanding owns emotions) and mood repair (i.e., emotional regulation) were related to high levels of depression, but that in contrast, high level of emotional attention (i.e., amount of attention toward owns emotions) was related to depression.

Fisher et al. (2010) investigated the relationship between EI as assessed by the TMMS and both arousal and apprehensive anxieties as well as depression within an emotion-word Stroop task. In addition, Event-Related Brain Potentials (ERPs) were recorded to assess the temporal information processing of the emotional words (see Hansenne, 2006 for a review on ERPs). From a behavioral point of view, the authors reported that both clarity and repair but not attention facets of the TMMS were negatively correlated with both anxious apprehension and arousal as well as with anhedonic depression. Hierarchical regressions showed that only anxious arousal accounted for the variance in clarity and that anhedonic depression was the only predictor for the variance of mood repair. ERPs results showed that P200 amplitude (i.e., an index of automatic attention) was related to attention of emotion and to apprehensive anxiety without an effect of the valence of the word: individuals with higher scores of attention of emotion and with higher apprehensive anxiety exhibited higher P200 amplitude, meaning more attentional allocation to the stimuli. P300 latency (i.e., an index of the time of stimulus conscious processing) was related to emotional clarity and apprehensive anxiety for the negative word, meaning that individuals with higher scores of emotional clarity and with higher apprehensive anxiety processed slower negative words. Taken together, these results demonstrated that attention to emotion and apprehensive anxiety are associated with enhanced automatic processing of information, and that emotional clarity and apprehensive anxiety are associated with increased time to categorize the negative stimuli. In other words, some facets of EI in combination with apprehensive but neither arousal anxiety nor anhedonic depression modify the processing of emotional stimuli.

Clinical Perspectives in Emotional Intelligence 73

vulnerability factor as some dimensions of personality (e.g., the dimension of harm avoidance, Hansenne & Bianchi, 2009). Nevertheless, the introduction of a therapeutic strategy designed to enhance the ability to maintain a positive mood and to reduce a negative one could be very important during the depressive episode, as suggested by Palmer et al. (2002). Training of this type might help to prevent future depressive relapses,

> **Depressive Inpatients**

**regulation** 41.1 + 4.8 45.4 + 4.8 0.01 **Appraisal of emotions** 33.4 + 7.7 34.9 + 6.3 NS **Utilisation of emotions** 18.6 + 3.6 19.2 + 3.8 NS **EI total** 134.8 + 18.4 144.5 + 16.8 0.02 Table 2. Comparisons of EI between depressed patients and remitted depressive patients