**4. Factors that affected the freeze/thaw resistance**

Susceptibility to freeze/thaw damage is affected by the concrete's composition, permeability, porosity, type, moisture content, age, air-entraining admixtures, workability, exposure environment, and aggregate type. Where it observed that the key factors relevant to freeze/thaw durability are the air void characteristics especially in the case of using admixtures, they should compatible, in concrete and high quality of aggregate. As well as mix design limitations according to BS EN 206:2013 + A1:2016 [17] are to be considered necessary [18].

Yet not sufficient conditions for achieving high frost resistance of concrete, especially when exposed to severe frost, wet conditions, and high levels of de-icing agents. Thus, following the principles transpiring from the literature's observations during the design of freeze/thaw resistance concrete can be highly beneficial. Some of these observations have been concluded as [11]:

• High-quality aggregate should be used featuring appropriate frost resistance tested in NaCl solution and water, high resistance to fragmentation, continuous grading, and minimal water requirement.

*Concrete Performance in Cold Regions: Understanding Concrete's Resistance… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99968*

• When specifying admixtures like Supplementary cementing materials, to concrete it is necessary to check their compatibility by valuating the air void characteristics in hardened concrete, and this concerns in particular airentraining and water-reducing admixtures.

The severity of freezing (minimum temperature); rate of fall of air temperature (rate of freezing); change of air temperature during periods of freezing; the number of freeze/thaw cycles and the presence of de-icing salts is the major environmental aspects and critical factors that are participated in the developing of freeze/thaw damage.


**Acknowledgements**

in some cases. Of course, the presence of superstructure facilitates the galvanic phenomena more. However there is limited knowledge on this matter and definitely further research is required in this topic while the development of guidelines for clinicians to minimize intraoral corrosion of dental implants might have a beneficial effect on longevity of implant-retained

**Couple Potential**

**Couple Potential**

(Ti)/(60Au–24Pt–15Pd) 0.210 (Ti)/(85.5Au–6.5Pt–4.8Pd–1.5Ag) 0.175 (Ti)/(51.5Au−38.4Pd–8.5In–1.5Ga) 0.148 (Ti)/(65Ag–23Pd–6.4Cu–2In) 0.099 (Ti)/(68.5Au–11.7Cu–11Ag–3.8Pd–3.5Pt–1.5Zn) 0.097 (Ti)/(71Au–14.5Cu–9Ag–2Pd–2Pt–1.5Zn) 0.088 (Ti)/(63Ni–21.7Cr–10.8Mo–1.8Fe–1.5Si–1W) −0.132 (Ti)/(65.2Ni–21.6Cr–10.5Mo1.3Si–0.7Fe–0.5Mn–0.2Yt) −0.167 (Ti)/(79.2Ni–14.5Cr–6Mo–0.3Co) −0.191 (Ti)/(77.5Ni–13.3Cr–3.1Mo–2Ti–1.5Be–1Si–0.5Co) −0.229 (Ti)/(78.4Ni–13.Cr–4.5Mo–3.4Al–0.6Fe) −0.274

**Table 7.** Difference in potential between Ti and dental alloys in Fusayama reagent with pH 5 at 37°C [21].

composition, oxide type and electrochemical properties of Ti implants.

from that of ANO where the electrochemical properties are enhanced.

**•** Surface roughening techniques significantly affect the roughness, morphology, elemental

**•** Electrochemical properties of dental implants are inferior compared to untreated cpTi apart

(Ti)/(68.9Ag–26Pd26–4Cu–0.9Au–0.1In–0.1Zn) −0.09 (Ti)/(76.5Au–12Ag–8Cu–2Pd–1.5Pt) −0.14 (Ti)/(66.5Ni–22Cr–9Mo–1.6Si0.5Fe–0.4Ce) −0.22 (Ti)/(67Co–28.5Cr–4.5Mo) −0.31

**Table 6.** Difference in potential between Ti and dental alloys in artificial saliva at 37°C [12].

**(V)**

**(V)**

restorations.

164 Dental Implantology and Biomaterial

**5. Conclusions**

This chapter was supported financially by Vice Deanship of scientific research and research chairs, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia


**4.4 Hepatitis B**

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a viral infection that can be transmitted through contact with infected body fluids (i.e. infected blood) [44, 45]. Hepatitis B surface antigens (HBsAg) and envelope antigens (HBeAg) are recognized clinical indicators used in the diagnosis of HBV [45]. Therefore, the accurate and rapid detection of HBsAg and HBeAg antigens is essential for the clinical diagnosis of HBV. Gold nanoparticles (GNP) coated with streptavidin (SA − GNP conjugate pad), biotin and antibody (Bio − GNP − Ab conjugate bed) have been employed to advance the sensitivity of LFA in the detection of HBV [46]. However, the expensive synthesis of GNPs, the dependence of the LFA on the localized surface plasmon resonance effect of GNPs [47] and their low sensitivity towards HBsAg have resulted in the exploration of QDs for HBV detection [48]. The ease in size tuning, biocompatibility and stable fluorescence has further advantaged QDs over other nanoparticles in LFA development. Several studies have reported the effect of GNPs size on the sensitivity and reproducibility of LFA [45, 46, 49, 50]. For optimum performance of LFA and for enhanced LFA sensitivity, the narrow size distribution of GNPs has been proposed. Kim et al., 2016 [45] reported a reduction in signal intensity with increased GNP size. The group attributed the results to reduced conjugation efficiency of GNP at sizes >42.7 ± 0.8 nm. In another study, Chotithammakul et al., 2021 [49] reported the synthesis of single and mixed-size GNPs for LFA detection of Albumin. Their results showed mixed-sized GNP conjugates exhibited enhanced signals with higher stability and narrower resonance peaks than GNPs with 20 nm sizes. The results suggest that the combination of different sizes of GNP can affect their plasmon resonance. Moreover, in the study, the conjugated mixed-size GNPs - antibodies (anti-BSA) accumulated at the test spot, which improved localized surface plasmon transduction resulting in enhanced optical labelling in the LFA.

#### **4.5 Tuberculosis**

Tuberculosis (TB) is recorded as the deadliest infectious communicable disease caused by *Mycobacterium tuberculosis* and has become a significant public health problem worldwide. Experienced physicians use chest radiographs in clinical practice to detect TB [51, 52]. The clinical diagnosis at reduced time and low cost via LFA is still very underdeveloped for TB diagnosis. Detection of *mycobacterial free tuberculosis* proteins (fprA) using QDs conjugated to two monoclonal antibodies has been reported. The fluorescent QDs were conjugated to the antibodies via a biotin-streptavidin bridge. In this specific LFA, the antibodies were used as capture probes and immobilized onto the test lines of the nitrocellulose strip. The double-antibody sandwich LFA format allowed recombinant fprA protein detection at ~12.5 pg./μL. Compared to traditional immune-based testes (i.e. dot immunobinding assay and Elisa), the antibody labeled QDs LFIA improved the sensitivity, speed (results within 10 min) and simplicity [53]. In another study, Kabwe et al., 2022 [54] explored a paper-based lateral for detecting anti-mycolic acid antibodies. The group used mycolic acid (MA) coated CdSe QDs as a luminescent probe to detect anti-MA antibodies, biomarkers for tuberculosis. The study's results supported test stripbased immunoassays for TB at low-cost and optimum speed.


**Abbreviations**

HIF-1: hypoxia inducible factor-1; MG132: Z-Leu-Leu-Leu-al; Hsp90: heat-shock protein 90; VHL: Von Hippel-Lindau; Akt: oncogene from AKR mouse thymoma; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; mTOR: mammalian target of rapamycin; p70S6K: p70 S6 kinase; 4E-BP1: initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1; RPS6: ribosomal protein S6; eIF4E: eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; STAT3: signal transducer and activator of transcription-3; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; ERK: extracellular-signal-related kinase; LC3: light chain 3.


3.1.2. Driving Force Distribution

At the bottom of the pin, the pressure between the plastic metal is an important driving force for the flow of the plastic metal. Furthermore, the shear action of the tool against the plastic metal is also one of the driving forces for the flow of the plastic material. Therefore, the combined effect of pressure and shear stress on the plastic material directly affects the fluidity of the material. In order to investigate the distribution of the pressure and shear stress, a series of measurement points were set at the bottom of the pin, as shown in Figure 7. In Figure 7, the distance from the end face of the pin is 0.02 mm, 0.05 mm, 0.08 mm, 0.1 mm, 0.12 mm, 0.15 mm, and 0.18 mm, respectively.

**Figure 7.** Distribution of test points at the root of the weld.

Figure 8a shows the distribution of pressure at the root of the weld. In Figure 8, as the depth increases, the pressure reduces. Furthermore, there is a low-pressure zone near the center line on the RS side, and the lowest pressure is reached at y = −0.5. The uneven distribution of pressure near the center line causes the plastic metal to flow from both sides of AS and RS to the center of the weld, which is consistent with the velocity distribution in Figure 5. However, at the low-pressure zone, the pressure is not enough to fully mix the material from both sides of AS and RS, leading to the weak connection.

Figure 8b shows the distribution of shear stress at the root of the weld. In Figure 8b, near the weld center line (y = 0), it can be found that the shear stress is close to 0 when the distance from the bottom surface of the pin is too short (0.02–0.05 mm) or too long (0.15–0.18 mm). However, when the distance is moderate (0.08–0.12 mm), the shear stress reaches a relatively high level. Therefore, plastic metal near the bottom surface of the pin and the bottom surface of the workpiece has poor fluidity, while the plastic metal between these has strong fluidity. According to Figure 5, it can be found that the location of the left-leaning line of the "S line" is at the depth of 0.08–0.12 mm, and this is consistent with the depth range of the high shear stress, which indicates that the formation of the left-leaning line is related to the change of the shear stress. In Figure 8c, it can also be found that the difference of shear stress between y = −0.5 and y = 0 is smaller when the depth is in the range of 0.08–0.12 mm. Furthermore, combined with Figure 8a,b and Figure 5, it can be found that at the Zone II (h > 0.15 mm), the pressure and shear stress are relatively lower than that at Zone I, which is consistent with the velocity distribution at Zone II, as shown in Figure 5.

*Metals* **2020**, *10*, 913

**Figure 8.** Distribution of the driving force at a different distances from the end face of the pin (1000 rpm, 120 mm/min). (**a**) Pressure distribution; (**b**) shear stress distribution; (**c**) partial enlargement of (b).


**5.1 Harmonic response of reservoir**

Two-dimensional dam-reservoir systems subjected to horizontal harmonic ground accelerations *i t a ae* in the upstream direction were studied. For simplicity, here the dam was assumed to be rigid.


**5. Licorice root**

Licorice is the name applied to the roots and stolons of Glycyrrhiza species. Licorice roots extract contains Glycyrrhizol A, a compound that has strong antimicrobial activity against cariogenic bacteria,. Two pilot human studies indicate that a brief application of Licorice roots extract lollipop led to a marked reduction of cariogenic bacteria in oral cavity among most human subjects tested (Hu et al 2011).