*Edited by Lionginas Liudvinavičius*

This edited volume *Supercapacitors - Theoretical and Practical Solutions* is a collection of reviewed and relevant research chapters, offering a comprehensive overview of recent developments in the field of electronic devices and materials. The book comprises single chapters authored by various researchers and is edited by a group of experts. Each chapter is complete in itself but united under a common research study topic. This publication aims at providing a thorough overview of the latest research efforts by international authors on electronic devices and materials and opens new possible research paths for further novel developments.

ISBN 978-1-78923-352-0

Supercapacitors - Theoretical and Practical Solutions

Published in London, UK © 2018 IntechOpen © EasternLightcraft / iStock


This Chapter frst recapitulated the key fndings of my work. Currently, my research flls two large gaps in the literature. Most work tends to focus on mainstream hip-hop (Kelley 1994; Perry 2004; Rose 1994), disparate underground groups (Ball 2009; Harrison 2006; Wang 2014), or global hip-hop (Androutsopoulos and Scholz 2003; Bennett 1999; Mitchell 2003), leaving a large portion of the culture in the USA understudied. Also, a majority of hip-hop (Kelley 1994; Perry 2004; Rose 1994) focuses on the "old school" generation, leaving a plethora of research on younger artists and listeners understudied. Thus, my research: (1) aimed to better understand the politics of independent hip-hop through the lens of artists and listeners in America today, (2) added to the current scholarship by giving a voice to the new generation in the hip-hop community concerned with issues of race, class, gender, sexuality, and oppositional consciousness, and (3) understood the historical trajectory of independent hip-hop in the postgolden era and how that affects the complex and changing nature of the culture.

Future research needs to be done to understand the current state of hip-hop and its relationship to the broader community in order to anticipate future directions in society. Artists' grievances are changing, especially as indie hip-hop acts and listeners are becoming more diverse in terms of their gender, sexuality, and racial and ethnic make up, a new generation of artists and listeners is emerging, advances in technology and media are occurring, and the political and economic context is shifting. All of these changes are likely to have important implications for the potential of independent hip-hop to inspire oppositional consciousness among its listeners.

# Important Implications

My work has various implications for academics, readers, and the hiphop community. My research provides valuable insight to the academic community and readers in three ways: (1) the emphasis on the dialectical process of cooptation and resistance, (2) a reminder of hip-hop's vitality and contribution to broader society, and (3) its potential to subvert domination and oppression by fomenting oppositional consciousness and the potential for resistance. It also contributes to the hip-hop community by explicating how it has changed and evolved since its inception. This is particularly useful for the Millennial and Generation Z population in understanding hip-hop's history when facing continued problems of racism, classism, and sexism, yet possessing new means of technology such as the Internet and social media to create a discourse about these salient issues.

#### *Research Implications*

My work highlights the importance of the continued need to study independent hip-hop, which has many complex pockets of cooptation and resistance (Rose 1994; Terkouraf 2010; Vito 2015a; Watkins 2005). A nuanced understanding of the struggles between cooptation and resistance will allow scholars to understand hip-hop as a site of contestation within the social landscape in America; particularly the contradictions among artists and listeners regarding issues of race, class, gender, and sexuality. In this current generation, much of the culture is still marred with patriarchy and heteronormativity (Harkness 2012; Kubrin 2005; Lena and Peterson 2008; Martinez 1997; Myer and Kleck 2007; Stapleton 1998). Socially conscious rappers such as Kendrick Lamar and J. Cole have ascended into the spotlight. While being touted as intellectual leaders of their generation, they still struggle to not fall into the hands of capitalism, engage in misogyny, and uphold heteronormative standards. Similarly, artists such as Frank Ocean and Young Ma helped push issues of gender and sexuality into the forefront of American culture and challenge many traditionally held notions of heteronormativity in hip-hop.

My research also supports the expanding body of literature that analyzes the diaspora of hip-hop around the world. For example, indie Iraqi act Lowkey utilizes glocalization to address issues of race and class in his local community (Vito 2015b). Lowkey has since returned from a hiatus in 2011 to continue rapping about the current sociopolitical landscape in the UK. My analysis emphasizes the complex dialectical struggle between cooptation and resistance as communities use hip-hop to address pertinent local and global social issues (Delamont and Stephens 2008; Dennis 2006; Hesmondhalgh and Melville 2002; Lin 2006; Maxwell 1994; Mitchell 2000; Omoniyi 2006). I believe that scholars need to continue to look both within the USA and globally to understand how different subcultures respond to periods of cooptation and resistance. This means that these dialectical forces must be analyzed with a strong understanding of the long history of struggle for power within the hip-hop community (Vito 2015a).

Further, scholars such as Tricia Rose (2008) have previously questioned hip-hop's vitality as it moved past the golden era. While much of the mainstream has been co-opted by major record labels and corporate culture, I argue that independent hip-hop has remained relevant and signifcantly impacts society today as artists and listeners continue to challenge the status quo and engage in critical thought. California rapper Hopsin has amassed an established fan-base in the independent hip-hop community for his critical opinions of American society. After obtaining popular success in 2012, he has continued his "Ill-Mind" song franchise and started his own label: *Undercover Prodigy*. In 2017, he signed with 300 Entertainment. New York's Marlon Craft has gained popularity on the East Coast underground scene as an unsigned act addressing many social issues Millennials and Generation Zs face today. Similar to his predecessors like Eminem and Macklemore and Ryan Lewis, Marlon Craft addresses issues of being white in a predominantly African-American and Latino scene. I believe that the new generation of acts will continue to challenge mainstream culture in various ways despite shifting conceptions of indie culture and music. Scholars must remain attuned to three trends in the industry such as the new methods of music distribution such as online mixtapes and streaming media sites, the innovative ways of garnering buzz in the digital age, and alternative deals with corporations that keep big business at arms length from their musical content, persona, and daily operations.

While I believe that artists are fnding new means of music production, distribution, and advertising that may minimize the need for record label involvement and subsequently subvert the power structure that favors large corporations, they must be aware that companies constantly attempt to forge new ways of expanding their market and regain control of these revolutionized means of production (Maher 2005; Rose 2008; Morgan and Bennett 2011). The previous generation of scholars explicated the lasting impact that CDs and P2P sharing had on the industry, but this generation is still seeing the profound effects that the Internet, social media, and even virtual reality will have for the future. I argue that scholars need to continue to study these dialectical forces to better understand the broad historical patterns that shape the current industry.

I conclude that the future of hip-hop studies remains bright. Authors such as Tricia Rose (1994, 2008), Michael Eric Dyson (2010), and Nelson George (2005) have paved the way for the new wave of hip-hop enthusiasts. This current generation of scholars must be able to analyze the complexity of the new youth movement as they fnd new ways of subverting mainstream America. Söderman (2013) discusses the process of academization in hip-hop studies in which it must both be defended and criticized. Emery Petchauer (2015) continues to advocate for a discourse of hip-hop music in the classroom as it remains a valuable tool for political engagement. Similarly, new literature is being formed around highly contested social issues in the USA ranging from race and class in hip-hop's urbanism (Jeffries 2014; Villegas et al. 2013), representations of race and masculinity (Belle 2014; McTaggart and O' Brien 2017; Oware 2011; Shabazz 2014), and the ascendance of hip-hop feminism (Durham et al. 2013) (Fig. 5.1).

Additionally, writers continue to analyze the impact that hip-hop has globally (Saunders 2016; Taviano 2016). Current research has demonstrated that hip-hop scholarship is still relevant even as it continues to

**Fig. 5.1** DJ Kuttin Kandi (*Credit* djkuttinkandi.com)

be commercialized and connects with other genres of music, television, movies, and social media. Yet the key question remains: How will the next generation interact with other forms of media, the community, and social issues?

# *Implications for the Hip-Hop Community*

As a fan and avid listener, I believe that in order to grow hip-hop must continue its affliation with racial and ethnic minority groups in the USA and globally, bridge the gap between the "old school" and "new school," and stand united in opposition to all forms of oppression and domination. Hip-hop needs to increase its affliation with minority groups in the USA and globally. For example, Fil-Ams (Filipino-Americans) continue to be marginalized in the community. Hip-hop must be inclusive of other minority groups rather than asserting that only "African-American hip-hop" is authentic and genuine. This requires an understanding of the multiple axes of oppression, which includes race, ethnicity, gender, and sexuality, to spark critical thought and encourage oppositional consciousness. California rapper Ruby Ibarra addresses these multiple axes when rapping about her experiences as a female immigrant coming from the Philippines to the USA.

I also believe that the previous generation must work with the Millennial and Generation Z population to build strong bridges between the "old school" and "new school." Some old school enthusiasts argue that the new generation has become popular music and merely reproduces dominant ideologies. I remind critics that the previous generation responded to a similar changing landscape in their era—namely—the rise of recorded music and the widespread availability of television and computers in disseminating hip-hop culture. Concordantly, the new generation has faced similar shifts in technological advancement, globalization, and unstable sociopolitical climates. While the new school has adapted to these changes, they still need to learn from the past in order to positively shape the present and future. These generations may clash in terms of their views on the true "authentic" version of hip-hop culture, but they must maintain a common ground—namely engaging in critical thinking and the opposition to oppression—to instigate social change.

Ultimately, the hip-hop community needs to stand united in its opposition to social oppression and domination. Its value lies in the ability to challenge multiple relations of domination and to support the causes of multiple types of left-leaning social movements. For example, hip-hop has played a major role in expressing the ideas, broadening the reach, and publicizing the events of various social movements such as Occupy Wall Street, Black Lives Matter, the Women's March and #MeToo, and A Day without Immigrants Movement. Yet I predict the industry is headed toward another period of commodifcation. With the releases of artists under the independent brand but still possess strong ties to major corporations, I contend that we will see major record labels and corporations taking back much of social media, the means of production, and technology. With this, I think that hip-hop will need to again revolutionize the means of production and come up with innovative ways to resist cooptation and corporatization if they are to continue challenging status quo.

# Future Research

The feld of hip-hop studies continues to expand as we explore the complex ways in which culture plays a vital role in our society. I hope to continue to contribute to this literature by interviewing and observing local independent artists in San Diego. I believe that their lyrics are a valid source of data, but interacting with them beyond their lyrics will yield valuable results.

I also intend to study a local barbershop in San Diego and their connection to the hip-hop community. Knowledge, culture, and language are disseminated at these local shops and thus act as an important source of potential resistance to mainstream America. In addition, they act as a transcultural space wherein individuals of various racial and ethnic backgrounds interact with one another in an intimate setting. In San Diego, many shops have to adapt to their local demographics, which can include forming ethnically homogenous enclaves or creating sites of multicultural production. I am particularly interested in how Fil-Ams (Filipino-Americans), particularly second and third generation Fil-Ams, negotiate their identity by incorporating hip-hop and barber shop culture into their everyday experiences. I ultimately believe that analyzing the independent hip-hop community in San Diego will allow for a rich understanding of the culture's relationship to local and global social processes (Fig. 5.2).

**Fig. 5.2** Goodfellas Barbershop Shave Parlor (*Credit* Christopher Vito)

# References

**Open Access** This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, duplication, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, a link is provided to the Creative Commons license and any changes made are indicated.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the work's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if such material is not included in the work's Creative Commons license and the respective action is not permitted by statutory regulation, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to duplicate, adapt or reproduce the material.

# Appendix A

# Intake Survey

	- a. Name
	- b. Age
	- c. Gender
	- d. Sexual Orientation
	- e. Race/Ethnicity
	- f. Contact Information (cell phone number or e-mail)
	- g. How were you referred to this intake survey and interview process?
	- a. What is an independent hip-hop listener and fan?
	- b. Are you a self-defned independent hip-hop listener and fan?
	- c. Do you have familiarity with at least 10 of the 25 independent hip-hop artists in this study?
	- d. Have you been to at least 5 hip-hop-related events, which range anywhere but not limited to concerts, talks by artists and the hip-hop community, or parties involving hip-hop events, in the past 3 years?

I, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, hereby consent to providing information on this intake survey to be used by the Principle Investigator to determine if I am a suitable candidate for this study. X \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ \_ Date:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

# Appendix B

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019 147 C. Vito, *The Values of Independent Hip-Hop in the Post-Golden Era*, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02481-9

*Interview Sample Population Demographics*

(continued)

(continued)

# Appendix C

Interview Guide

I. Demographics

	- a. How did you begin listening to hip-hop music?
	- b. How did you begin listening to independent hip-hop music?
	- c. What is the reason you began listening and currently listen to independent hip-hop music?
	- d. How do you defne an independent hip-hop listener/fan? How are you an independent hip-hop listener/fan?
	- a. What favorite artists have you previously listened to or are currently listening to?
	- b. Why did/do you listen to these particular artists?
	- c. For some of the artists or songs you enjoy the most, what general messages do you get from them?
	- d. Why are these messages important to you? How do you connect them to your general life?
	- a. What is mainstream hip-hop music? What are their main (political and social) messages? What do you believe is occurring regarding mainstream hip-hop music?
	- b. What is independent hip-hop music? What is the difference between mainstream and independent hip-hop? What are their main messages? What are the subsequent responses by independent hip-hop artists to the mainstreaming of hip-hop?
	- c. Are there messages of resistance to the corporatization or mainstreaming of hip-hip culture? If so, elaborate on them and how they might differ.
	- d. Do you believe that this can translate into social activism or social change regarding the trajectory of hip-hop culture? If so, elaborate on how.
	- a. What issues of race have appeared in the lyrics of the independent hip-hop artists you have listened to?
	- b. What meaningful messages do you obtain from independent hip-hop regarding race, racism, race relations, or race inequality?
	- d. What meaningful messages do you obtain from independent hip-hop regarding class and class relations/inequality?
	- e. What issues of gender have appeared in the lyrics of the independent hip-hop artists you have listened to?
	- f. What meaningful messages do you obtain from independent hip-hop regarding men and women (gender)?
	- g. What issues of sexuality have appeared in the lyrics of the independent hip-hop artists you have listened to?
	- h. What meaningful messages do you obtain from independent hip-hop regarding sexuality?
	- i. What does authenticity mean to you?
		- i. What is "selling out" and how does one do it?
		- ii. How do you feel about the spread of hip-hop into other ethnic groups, subcultures, and nations?
	- j. Are there any particular instances in which you changed the way you think about race, class, gender, or sexuality from listening to music?
	- k. Are there any contradictions in the messages you receive from independent hip-hop? If so, what are they?
	- VI. Oppositional Consciousness and Social Activism
		- a. Do you believe that independent hip-hop encourages artists and listeners to engage in critical thinking? If so, how? Can you cite specifc examples in your life?
			- i. Conversely, do you believe that hip-hop has created critical thinking for you? Or do you believe that you were already a critical thinker who has further engaged in it because of hip-hop?
		- b. Do you believe that independent hip-hop can change people's views on social life? If so, can you cite examples from your own experiences or people you know?
		- c. Do you believe that independent hip-hop encourages critical consciousness (or actively challenging/questioning) regarding people's social position? For example, does hip-hop allow racial minorities to gain collective consciousness? If so, how? Can you cite specifc examples in your life?

#### 154 Appendix C

	- i. What are your experiences with social activism or participation in social movements in general? How has hip-hop reinforced or challenged your activity in social activism and social movements?

# References

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019 155 C. Vito, *The Values of Independent Hip-Hop in the Post-Golden Era*, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02481-9

People Under the Stairs. 2002a. "Acid Raindrops." *OST*. Om Records.

# Index

#### **0–9**

*3:16 The 9thEdition*, 27. *See also* MURS 300 Entertainment, 120, 136. *See also* Fetty Wap; Migos; Quality Control 360 Degree contracts, 74, 76–80, 83, 84, 87, 89, 90

50 Cent, 113

### **A**

A&R. *See* Artist & Repertoire (A&R) Activism, 9, 13, 21, 23–25, 91. *See also* Social movements ADA. *See* Alternative Distribution Alliance (ADA) Adams, Teri, 8, 20 Adorno, Theodor, 6 Advances, 29, 34, 35, 78, 80, 85, 92, 101, 113, 114, 118, 124, 133, 134 Advertising, 35, 77, 78, 81, 83, 84, 92, 133, 136. *See also* Media and Press Aesop Rock, 27, 59, 62, 63, 106, 119 Affliating, 113, 121, 133 African-American culture, 15, 16, 19, 24, 136 youth, 24 Aftermath Entertainment, 114. *See also* Anderson Paak; Dr. Dre; Eminem AGC Productions, 102, 106. *See also* Colon, Anthony Alim, Samy, 19, 22, 111 Alridge, Derrick, 3, 8, 10, 23 Alternative Distribution Alliance (ADA), 27, 121, 122 American Society of Composers, Artists, and Publishers (ASCAP), 81 Anderson Paak, 114 Andrews, Catherine, 114, 119, 124 Androutsopoulos, Jannis, 5, 18, 35, 134 ANTI-/Epitaph, 27. *See also* Sage Francis *A Piece of Strange*, 27. *See also* Cunninlynguists Apple Music Inc., 122

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019 175 C. Vito, *The Values of Independent Hip-Hop in the Post-Golden Era*, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02481-9

AD Deals. *See* Artist Development Deals (AD Deals) Artist & Repertoire (A&R), 34, 78, 81–83, 92, 120, 133 Artist Development Deals (AD Deals), 72, 75, 92 Artistic direction and relations. *See* Artist & Repertoire (A&R) Asante, Molef Kete, 15, 63 ASCAP. *See* American Society of Composers, Artists, and Publishers (ASCAP) Atlantic Records, 116. *See also* Big Three Atmosphere, 27, 53, 59, 62, 77 A-Trak, 99, 100 Authenticity, 5, 14, 17–19, 34, 62, 63, 100–102, 104, 107, 108, 110, 111, 124, 132, 133

### **B**

Babygrande Records, 27. *See also* Jean Grae Bad Boy Records, 12, 73. *See also* Notorious B.I.G.; Puff Daddy; Ma\$e; The Lox Balaji, Murali, 4, 8, 10, 20 Ball, Jared, 3, 5, 12, 14, 35, 50, 55, 91, 134 Barber shops, 139 Bars, 28, 29 Battle Axe, 27, 61, 88, 90. *See also* Swollen Members Beats by Dre. *See* Dr. Dre *Below the Heavens*, 27. *See also* Blu and Exile Bennett, Dionne, 3, 5, 9, 10, 14, 18, 21, 106, 134, 136 *Bettie Rubble: The Initiation*, 27. *See also* Mykki Blanco Big Daddy Kane, 62

Big Three Sony Music Entertainment, 26 Universal Music Group, 26 Warner Bros. Music Group, 26 Billboard, 27, 85, 87, 88, 115, 123 Binary Star, 27, 47, 48, 50, 51, 54, 57, 63, 74, 76, 77, 81–83, 91 Biz Markie, 62 Blackalicious, 27, 48 Black culture, 16 Black Panthers, 11, 62. *See also* Social movements Blair, Elizabeth, 6 Blavatnik, Len, 117 *Blazing Arrow*, 27. *See also* Blackalicious Bling-Bling Era, 47 Blu and Exile, 27, 48, 52, 57, 77, 80, 82, 86 Blue Scholars, 27, 63, 86, 131 Blues music, 87 Blurry lines of Hip-Hop, 5 Bobby Shmurda, 114 *Born Like This*, 27. *See also* MF Doom Brandt, Mark, 16 Breakdancing, 10, 25, 61. *See also* Dance Brother Ali, 27, 60, 62, 119, 121 Bush, G.H.W., 16, 55 Butts, Reverend Calvin, 16

# **C**

Cakes the Killa, 27 California, 31, 32, 100, 136, 138 Capitalism, 6, 10, 29, 60, 135 Carris, Lauren Mason, 19 Cash Money Records, 121. *See also* Big Three Chance the Rapper, 120, 122 Chang, Jeff, 10, 12, 24, 73 Chief Keef, 114 Choc Quib Town, 18

Ciphers, 11, 21, 23, 56 City of Dreams, 27. *See also* Yonas Clark Gable, 76, 77 Clay, Andreana, 10, 25 Clear Channel. *See* Iheart Music Clinton, Bill, 16 Collins, Patricia Hill, 7–9, 20 Colon, Anthony, 102 Common, 3, 33, 51, 115 Complex, 90, 114 Connell, Raewyn, 7, 8 Conscious Rap, 13, 14 Content analysis, 1, 4, 5, 19, 24, 25, 31, 33, 34, 132. *See also* Methodology Copyright, 5, 12, 73, 78, 81 Corporate control, 5, 55, 77, 82, 83, 92, 105 of the Hip-Hop industry, 113 of the music industry, 78 Corporations, 2, 5, 11–14, 16, 25, 29, 34, 45–48, 50, 51, 53, 54, 58, 59, 61, 64, 72–74, 76, 77, 80, 81, 84–92, 101, 102, 104, 106, 113, 114, 117, 118, 121–123, 132, 133, 136, 139 Cosigns, 86, 120 Critical Hip-Hop, 22. *See also* KRS-One Critical Race Theory, 1, 6, 132. *See also* Theory Cunninlynguists, 27

### **D**

Dance, 11, 107 DatPiff, 89, 120 Davey D., 2 Dead Prez, 14, 91 Death Row Records, 73. *See also* Tupac Shakur Dedman, Todd, 25

Defnitive Jux, 27, 59, 115. *See also* Aesop Rock; MURS Def Jam Records, 113. *See also* Logic Del the Funky Homosapien, 115 Dennis, Christopher, 11, 18, 19, 135 DeVault, Marjorie, 33 Diaspora of Hip-Hop, 135 Dimaggio, Paul, 17 DIY (Do It Yourself) ethic, 55, 88, 89, 120, 121, 123 DJ(ing), 10, 18, 51, 52, 59, 61, 99 Dr. Dre, 73, 102, 110, 114 Dyson, Michael Eric, 2, 8, 15, 54, 137

#### **E**

Elektra Records, 52. *See also* Del the Funky Homosapien; KMD; MF Doom Elektrik, 112 Eminem, 17, 21, 73, 136 Envy, 112 Esoteric, 17 *The Eulogy*, 27, 112. *See also* Cakes the Killa *The Evil Jeanius*, 27. *See also* Jean Grae Exploitation, 5, 29, 34, 35, 46, 72, 74, 78, 83, 84, 87, 89, 91, 92, 132, 133 economic, 5, 6, 29, 34, 35, 72, 78, 87, 91, 92, 132, 133

# **F**

Facebook, 119, 120 Fetty Wap, 120 Fil-Ams. *See* Filipino-Americans Filipino-Americans, 138, 139 Folami, Akilah, 108 Fools Gold Records, 99, 115. *See also* Killer Mike

Forbes magazine, 89 Forman, Murray, 10, 16, 18, 25, 62, 87–89, 102, 109 Forwards. *See* Advances Fox, Mark, 104, 118 Fraley, Todd, 17 Frank Ocean, 135 *Full Circle*, 27, 55. *See also* Hieroglyphics Fuller, Douglas, 8, 14, 20 Funk Volume, 123. *See also* Ritter, Damien

# **G**

Gangster rap, 13, 47, 48, 50 Gender, 2–10, 15, 19, 21, 31, 33–36, 100, 101, 108, 111, 112, 124, 132–135, 138 black stereotypes, 15 Generation Z, 134, 136, 138 George, Nelson, 11, 12, 24, 73, 87, 137 Glocalization, 18, 19, 135 Glory Boyz Entertainment, 114. *See also* Chief Keef God-des and She, 112 *God Loves Ugly*, 27, 53. *See also* Atmosphere Golden Era, 12, 46–48, 55, 72, 117, 136 Golden Era of Hip-Hop, 1, 14, 25, 34, 35, 46, 64, 72, 73, 87, 88, 100, 132–134 Goodfellas Barbershop Shave Parlor, 139 Graffti, 10, 61, 62. *See also* Taki 183 Grainge, Lucian, 117 Gramsci, Antonio, 6, 7, 9, 10, 22 Grind Time Offcial, 115. *See also* Killer Mike Griswold, Wendy, 26 Grouch and Eligh, 118

Grounded theory, 28, 29, 33. *See also* Theory Gupta-Carlson, Himanee, 20, 111

# **H**

Harkness, Geoff, 2, 3, 8, 15, 20, 55, 91, 107, 112, 132, 135 Harrison, Anthony, 3, 5, 11, 13, 35, 59, 86, 106, 115, 134 Hegemonic masculinity, 7, 8, 19, 111. *See also* Collins, Patricia Hill *The Heist*, 2, 27, 61, 86. *See also* Macklemore and Ryan Lewis Hesmondhalgh, David, 18, 19, 55, 135 Hess, Mickey, 15, 17, 56, 114, 115 Heteronormativity, 7, 101, 108, 135 Hibbett, Ryan, 59, 103 Hidden transcripts, 22, 56 Hieroglyphics, 27, 47, 48, 55, 57, 79, 90 Hieroglyphics Imperium Recordings, 115. *See also* Hieroglyphics Hill, Marc Lamont, 15, 22, 23, 25, 33, 56 Hip-Hop activism, 23, 24 Afro-Columbian, 18 artists, 4, 6, 8, 23, 28, 31, 32, 34–36, 46, 64, 72, 87, 91, 133 Bay Area and San Francisco, 25 commercialization of, 14 commodifcation of, 56, 101, 133 cooptation and resistance of, 134, 135 corporatization of, 46, 51, 63, 72 culture, 1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 17, 18, 22, 25, 29, 31, 35, 47, 48, 51, 62, 100–102, 108, 110, 112, 124, 132, 138

European, 135 Hong-Kong, 18 music, 1–3, 10, 12, 18, 24, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 58, 60, 61, 73, 100, 111, 137 Muslim, 21 Nigerian, 18 origins, 10, 15, 34, 61, 64, 132 Philadelphia, 33 popular culture and music, 7 UK (Grime), 25, 88, 135 *Hip*-*Hop Lives*, 27. *See also* KRS-ONE *Hip*-*Hop Matters*, 2, 102. *See also* Watkins, S. Craig Hodgman, Matthew, 17, 62, 63 Homogenization of Hip-Hop Music, 46 Hopson, 136 Horkheimer, Max, 6 Hunter, Margaret, 20, 111

### **I**

Ice-T, 16 *The Idea of Beautiful*, 27. *See also* Rapsody Iheart Music, 85 Immortal Technique, 16, 27, 45, 50, 52, 56, 57, 75, 80–84, 89, 91, 107, 109, 118, 124 Independent (indie) hip-hop albums, 1, 4, 5, 26–28, 31, 33, 46 alternative culture, 29, 58, 60 cultural politics, 5 culture, 3–5, 10, 15, 34 economic politics, 5 movements, 21 Instagram, 119 Internal colonialism, 24. *See also* Mansbridge, Jane; Morris, Aldon Interscope Records, 2, 73, 114. *See also* Dr. Dre; Iovine, Jimmy;

Macklemore and Ryan Lewis; Mos Def Intersectional Feminist Theory, 6. *See also* Theory Interviews, 1, 4–6, 25, 29, 31–33, 35, 81, 100, 101, 103, 105–108, 110, 112, 124, 132, 133. *See also* Methodology Iovine, Jimmy, 2, 53, 73, 79, 84 iTunes, 51, 76, 85, 87, 118. *See also* Apple Music Inc. Iwamoto, Derrick, 8, 19

# **J**

J. Cole, 135 Jackson, Nigel, 13, 47 Jamla, 27, 74, 85, 91. *See also* Rapsody Jay-Z, 83, 110 Jean Grae, 20, 27 Jedi Mind Tricks, 27 Johnson, Christopher, 11, 12, 46, 72 Jones, Quincy, 52 Jones, Steve, 55, 105, 119 Juice Crew, 62

#### **K**

Kandi, DJ Kuttin, 137 Kanye West, 21 Karubian, Sara, 15, 76, 89, 113, 114, 119, 124 Kazaa, 76 Keeping (Keepin') it Real, 19, 61–63. *See also* Authenticity Kelow, 112 Kendrick Lamar, 135 Kevin Gates, 123 *Killer*, 27. *See also* Tech N9ne Killer Mike, 115 Kitwana, Bakari, 3 Klatch, Rebecca, 32

Kleck, Christine, 2, 3, 11, 12, 46, 51, 73, 104, 110, 132, 135 KMD, 52, 53. *See also* MF Doom Koch Records, 27. *See also* KRS-ONE KRS-ONE, 22, 27, 48, 56, 88 Kubrin, Charis, 3, 19, 26, 27, 132, 135

#### **L**

*Labor Days*, 27, 59. *See also* Aesop Rock Lady Gaga, 76 Lashua, Brett, 23, 56 Leard, Diane, 23, 56 Lee, Jooyoung, 19 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGTBQ), 5 Lex, 52. *See also* MF Doom LGBTQ. *See* Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ) *Li(f)e*, 27. *See also* Sage Francis Lin, Angel, 18, 135 Live Nation, 83, 123 Living Legends, 118 Logic, 84, 113, 123 *The Long March*, 27, 86. *See also* Blue Scholars Lopes, Paul, 15, 87, 89, 117 Love of the Music, 59, 61, 63, 64. *See also* Authenticity Low, Bronwen, 23 Lowkey, 135 The Lox, 73 Ludacris, 84 Lupe Fiasco, 116

### **M**

Ma\$E, 73 Mac Dirrty. *See* Sanchez, Carlos Macklemore and Ryan Lewis, 2, 27, 53, 61, 73, 74, 79, 84, 86, 87, 90, 111, 120–122, 136

Macklemore LLC-ADA, 27. *See also* Macklemore and Ryan Lewis Mac Miller, 89, 114 Madonna, 76, 83 MadVillain, 27 *Madvillainy*, 27. *See also* MadVillain Maher, George Ciccariello, 3, 14, 21, 24, 55, 59, 91, 136 Mainstream Hip-Hop culture, 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 12–14, 16, 17, 22, 24, 34, 45, 46, 48, 50, 55, 56, 62, 64, 87, 106, 132 major corporations, 5, 13 major radio stations, 46 major record label artists, 46 major record labels, 2 popular culture, 6, 13, 59 Mansbridge, Jane, 1, 4, 6, 9, 22, 24, 112, 132 Marginalization, 8, 50, 57 of urban youth, 23 Marlon Craft, 136 Martinez, Theresa, 2, 3, 21, 27, 132, 135 Masculinity, 7, 17, 19 hegemonic masculinity, 7 hyper-masculinity, 8, 19 whiteness, 17 Massline, 27. *See also* Blue Scholars Master P, 110 *Masters of the Universe*, 27, 47. *See also* Binary Star MC Angel, 112 MCA Records, 27. *See also* Blackalicious McLaren, Malcolm, 12 McTaggart, Ninochka, 137 McWhorter, John, 25 Media and Press, 78 Merchandise, 77, 78, 83, 84, 89 Merton, Robert, 33 Method. *See* Methodology Methodology, 1, 25

MF Doom, 15, 21, 52, 53 Migos, 120 Millennial generation, 134, 138 Mindie rappers, 123 Minor leagues, 15, 114 Mishka Records, 112. *See also* Cakes the Killa Misogyny, 21, 63, 110, 135. *See also* Gender Mixed methods. *See* Methodology Mixed space, 112, 117, 123, 124. *See also* Blurry Lines Mixtapes, 14, 16, 89, 91, 113, 136 *Monsters in the Closet*, 27, 61. *See also* Swollen Members Moore, Ryan, 55, 104, 116 Moras, Amanda, 16, 19 Morgan, Marcyliena, 9, 10, 14, 18, 21, 62, 106, 136 Morris, Aldon, 1, 4, 6, 9, 22, 24, 112, 132 Morris, Doug, 117 Mos Def, 117 Mr. Life, 16 Multiple Rights Deals. *See* 360 Degree Contracts MURS, 27, 116, 118 Music industry, 3, 11, 13, 15, 18, 26, 34, 46, 47, 51, 54, 55, 58, 60, 64, 74–76, 78, 80, 85, 87–92, 101, 110, 119, 121, 122, 124, 133 Myer, Letrez, 2, 3, 11, 12, 46, 51, 73, 104, 110, 132, 135 Mykki Blanco, 27, 111 MySpace, 119

#### **N**

Napster, 76 Nas, 115 National Public Radio (NPR), 121 Neal, Marc Anthony, 18

Neo-Marxist, 1, 6, 9, 132. *See also* Theory New School Hip-Hop, 138 Nichols, Denise, 20 Nielson, Erik, 25, 119 Nipsey Hussle, 105 No Limit Records, 121 Notorious B.I.G., 73 NPR. *See* National Public Radio (NPR) NVivo, 28, 33

### **O**

Objectifcation of women, 19, 101, 108. *See also* Gender Old School Hip-Hop, 62 Omi, Michael, 7, 8 Omoniyi, Tope, 18, 135 Om Records, 27, 57, 60. *See also* People Under the Stairs Oppositional consciousness, 1–6, 9, 10, 22, 25, 35, 36, 112, 132– 134, 138. *See also* Mansbridge, Jane; Morris, Aldon Organic intellectuals, 9, 10, 22. *See also* Gramsci, Antonio OST, 27. *See also* People Under the Stairs Ostrove, Geoffrey, 15, 76, 80, 83, 89, 114, 115, 123 Oware, Matthew, 10, 13, 15, 17, 28, 110, 114, 115, 132, 137

# **P**

Pandora, 76, 118 Paramore, 76 Patriarchy, 13, 19, 135. *See also* Gender Pay for Play, 12. *See also* Payola Payola, 50, 84–86 Pennycook, Alastair, 19

People Under the Stairs, 60 Perkins, William, 11, 87 Perry, Imani, 2, 3, 5, 16, 17, 35, 55, 134 Petchauer, Emery, 23, 137 The Pirate Bay, 76 Pitchfork, 86 Post-Golden Era, 1, 2, 4, 5, 12–16, 34, 35, 46, 47, 54, 64, 72, 73, 82, 87, 88, 100, 102, 110, 132–134. *See also* Golden Era Prison industrial complex, 11, 62 *The Proven Theory*, 27. *See also* Yonas Puff Daddy, 73, 110 Punk music, 88 Pussycat Dolls, 76

# **Q**

QN5/L.A. Underground, 27, 80. *See also* Cunninlynguists Quality Control, 120 Quayle, Dan, 16 Queen Latifah, 24, 110 Queen Pen, 112 Queer Theory, 7, 8. *See also* Theory

### **R**

Race, 2–10, 15–19, 21, 25, 31, 33–36, 52, 62, 87, 100, 101, 108–112, 124, 132–135, 137, 138 Racism, 11, 15–18, 21, 23, 52, 56, 107–109, 117, 135 *Radio and Records*, 20 Radio stations, 12, 14, 34, 35, 46, 50, 51, 64, 85, 89, 91, 92, 119, 132, 133 Rainbow Noise, 112. *See also* Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ)

Rap, 10, 13, 17, 20, 28, 47, 48, 50–55, 57, 59–61, 63, 74–77, 79–82, 86–88, 90, 104–107, 112, 115, 119, 121, 124 Rap Genius, 57 Rapsody, 27, 51, 63, 74, 85, 91 Rawkus Records, 117. *See also* Mos Def Reagan, Ronald, 24 "Real" or "Straight" Talk, 22. *See also* Authenticity Rebollo-Gil, Guillermo, 16, 19 Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), 27, 76 Record labels, 2, 3, 6, 12, 26, 34, 35, 45, 46, 52, 54–56, 58, 63, 64, 72, 74, 80, 83, 85–87, 90, 91, 110, 113, 123, 132, 133, 136, 139 Religion, 21 REMember Music, 114. *See also* Mac Miller Resistance to domination, 22, 132. *See also* Social movements *Revolutionary Vol. 2*, 27. *See also* Immortal Technique Reyna, Christine, 16 Rhymesayers Group, 27. *See also* Atmosphere, Brother Ali RIAA. *See* Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) Rick Ross, 72 Ritter, Damien, 123 Roc-A-Fella Records, 121. *See also* Jay-Z Rock the Bells, 118 Rose, Tricia, 136, 137 Rostrum Records, 114. *See also* Mac Miller RoxXxan, 112 Royalty(ies), 77, 80, 81, 83, 85, 90

Ruben, Rick, 12 Run the Jewels, 115. *See also* Killer Mike; Ruthless Records Ruthless Records, 88

#### **S**

Sage Francis, 27 Sanchez, Carlos, 22, 103 San Diego, CA, 31, 32, 102, 139 Schiele, Jerome, 13, 47 Scholz, Arno, 5, 18, 35, 134 "Selling out", 50, 91, 106, 118, 153. *See also* Authenticity Sex, 20, 104, 111 Sexism, 17, 19, 111, 135. *See also* Gender Sexuality, 3–7, 9, 10, 16, 20, 21, 34–36, 100, 111, 124, 133–135, 138 Sexual orientation. *See* Sexuality Shazam, 118 "Shelved", 52–54 Shusterman, Richard, 6, 28 Silverman, Tom, 12 Simmons, Russell, 110 Sistah Souljah, 16 Skizzy Mars, 123 Social media, 11, 21, 27, 56, 83, 84, 90, 118–120, 123, 124, 135, 136, 138, 139 Social movements Black Lives Matter, 139 Civil Rights Movement, 8, 10, 11, 23, 24, 62 Day without Immigrants, 139 Feminist Movement, 24 Los Angeles Riots of 1992, 25 Occupy Wall Street, 10, 139 Women's March, 139 Söderman, Johan, 23, 137 SoundCloud, 89, 118–120 Sound in Color, 27, 77, 80, 82, 86. *See also* Blu and Exile

Soundscan, 31, 88 The Source, 86 Spotify, 76, 118, 122, 123 Stapleton, Katina, 2, 3, 10, 20, 22, 62, 132, 135 Stones Throw, 27. *See also* MadVillain Strachan, Robert, 88, 103 Strange Music, 27, 89, 120. *See also* Tech N9ne Street Team(s), 84, 89, 119 Subculture, 2, 3, 6, 15, 25, 55, 62, 64, 132, 135 Subterraneous Records, 27, 63. *See also* Binary Star Suhr, Hiesun, 15, 121, 123 Sullivan, Nikki, 7, 8 Sullivan, Rachel, 8, 16 Superegular Records, 27. *See also* Jedi Mind Tricks Swollen Members, 27, 61, 88, 90

# **T**

Taki 183, 62 Talib Kweli, 3, 119 Tanner-Smith, Emily, 20 Tech N9ne, 27, 52, 53, 57, 86, 89, 108, 109, 116, 120 Technology and Media cassettes, 11 CD, 11, 89, 136 digital downloads, 76 P2P, 76, 89, 136 technological advancements, 87, 119, 121 technological changes, 4, 89, 92 the Internet, 11, 119, 120, 124, 135, 136 Telecommunications Act of 1996, 85 Theory, 1, 7, 19, 29 Tickner, Arlene, 13, 17–19, 22 Tommy Boy, 88 Torrentz, 76

Touring, 5 Trapp, Erin, 24 Tucker, Deloris, 16, 53 Tunecore, 76 Tupac Shakur, 13, 16, 19, 24, 73 Twitter, 89, 119, 120

#### **U**

Underground Hip-Hop, 3, 14, 33, 87, 91, 115, 117. *See also* Independent Hip-Hop UNO Records, 27. *See also* Mykki Blanco *Us*, 60. *See also* Brother Ali

### **V**

Vibe Magazine, 86, 106 Viki, Tendayi, 16 *Violent by Design*, 27. *See also* Jedi Mind Tricks Viper Records, 27, 50, 56, 57, 75, 80–84, 89, 91, 109. *See also* Immortal Technique Visionary Music Group, 113. *See also* Logic Voodoo SoulJahs, 18

#### **W**

Watkins, S. Craig, 2, 11, 24, 47, 54–56, 131, 135 Waves of commodifcation in Hip-Hop, 101, 124, 133 Weitzer, Ronald, 19, 27 Wells-Wilbon, Rhonda, 13, 47 White(s), 7, 8, 12, 16–20, 31, 47, 51, 60, 62, 73, 108–110, 112, 136 color-blindness, 8, 17 whiteness, 17 Williams, Damian, 20 Williams, Robbie, 76 Winant, Howard, 7, 8 Wiz Khalifa, 113, 115

# **X**

XXL, 86, 121

# **Y**

YG, 105 Yo Majesty, 112 Yonas, 27 Young Lords, 11, 62 Young Ma, 135 Young Thug, 114 YouTube, 29, 119, 122


**9. Intradialytic exercise (IDE)**

In order to urge patients to be more physically active, doctors often prescribe IDE (intermittent daily encouragement). It reduces fatigue, improves sleep quality, increases exercise tolerance, raises QoL, and even improves psychological status when used correctly. Furthermore, it has been proposed that IDE can boost dialysis's efficiency, which in turn reduces inflammation and boosts bone mineral density.

Because they may combine both aerobic and anaerobic elements into a single training session, the sit-to-stand test and the 6-minute walk test have been found to increase fitness. The depressive state index dropped significantly. The results of the QoL survey, with the exception of physiological discomfort, did not demonstrate a substantial rise. There were no significant changes in dry weight, blood pressure, Kt/V, or metabolic variables except for intradialytic hypotension. According to a meta-analysis, IDE raises Kt/V and maximum oxygen consumption during physical activity, reduces depression, and enhances the physical component of quality of life (QoL). SBP and DBP could both be dramatically reduced with IDE. In the end, IDE had no effect on the mental component of QoL. The enhanced muscle blood flow and expanded capillary surface area caused by IDE, on the other hand, may help HD remove toxins more effectively. There was also less dropout and increased compliance with the IDE [94] in addition to better acceptance and adherence.

## **10. Analyses of intradialytic vs. non-clinical exercise programmes**

Home-based exercise (HBE) was found to be as effective as centre-based training in CKD patients who were not on dialysis. After 12 and 24 weeks, all of the cardiopulmonary metrics, including VO2peak, improved significantly. This was also seen during follow-up with respect to functional ability assessments. QoL and sleep both improved significantly [95].

In other research, researchers have compared the effects of IDE and HBE on the symptoms of HD. Neither their 6-minute walk test distance nor their pulse wave velocity changed significantly during the course of the study's 6-month follow-up period (which included blood pressure readings from both the peripheral and central nervous systems as well as physical activity). The second trial found that both groups' levels of physical activity grew significantly over time. While the onelegged standing test had a significant group-time interaction, the Short Physical Performance Battery, the timed up-and-go test, the STS-10 right and left hand grab, and the one-heel left leg rise all had a significant time influence. There was no change in the HRQoL score. Physical activity levels and physical function changed similarly in response to both treatments [96]. As a result, the effectiveness of IDE and HBE is comparable, and both produce positive effects.


2.3.3. Sugars and Glycosidic-Linkage Composition

The fillet sample was dialysed with a membrane cut-off of 12–14 kDa to recover the high molecular weight (HMW) compounds. Neutral sugars of the initial and dialysed samples were analysed by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID) after conversion to their alditol acetates [21,22]. The quantification was carried out using 2-deoxyglucose as internal standard. Monosaccharides were released from polysaccharides with pre-hydrolysis of the samples using 0.2 mL of 72% (w/w) H2SO4 for 1 h at room temperature followed by 2.5 h hydrolysis in 1 M H2SO4 at 100 ◦C. After hydrolysis, the reduction (NaBH4) and acetylation (acetic anhydride using methyl imidazole as catalyst) of the monosaccharides were performed. The alditol acetates were analysed using a DB-225 column (30 m, 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 μm film thickness) and a GC-FID PerkinElmer-Clarus 400 [23,24]. Free sugars were also quantified on the initial sample (not dialysed) using the same method, by omitting the hydrolysis in the abovementioned steps. The oven temperature program was as follows: 220 ◦C, hold for 7 min, to 240 ◦C at a rate of 5 ◦C/min. The temperature of injector was 220 ◦C, and the detector was 240 ◦C. Hydrogen was used as the carrier gas.

Glycosidic-linkage composition of the dialysed sample (HMW) was determined by GC-qMS of the partially methylated alditol acetates as previously described [22]. The polysaccharides were methylated using CH3I, hydrolysed (TFA 2M) and the resultant monosaccharides were reduced (NaBD4) and acetylated. The partially methylated alditol acetates (PMAAs) obtained were analysed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-qMS) on a Shimadzu GCMS-QP2010 Ultra [25]. The GC was equipped with an SGE HT5 (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA) fused silica capillary column (30 m length, 0.25 mm i.d., and 0.10 μm of film thickness).


*3.2. Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Potential of Isolates*

In this study, all seven isolates showed antibacterial activity against at least one test bacterium. All isolates inhibited MRSA strains significantly (MRSA ATCC 33591, MRSA ATCC NR-46071, and MRSA ATCC 46171), whereas showed less inhibition potential against Gram-negative bacteria *Salmonella typhi* (ATCC 25241) and *Escherichia coli* (ATCC 11775). The isolates namely S1A, SS5, SCA35, and SCA 11 inhibited *Fusarium moniliforme* (MTCC 6576) to a maximum extent (Figure 6). The minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) ranges from 15.62 to 125 μg/mL for MRSA strains, 125–500 μg/mL for Gram-negative bacteria, and 62.5–250 μg/mL for fungi (Table 4). Numerous studies have reported antimicrobial activity of actinobacterial species. Sengupta et al. [28] reported

potential antimicrobial activity of three isolates against *Pseudomonas aueroginosa*, *Enterobacter aueroginosa*, *Salmonella typhi*, *Salmonella typhimurium*, *Escherichia coli*, *Bacillus subtilis*, and *Vibrio cholera*. Satheeja and Jebakumar [29] reported isolation of *Streptomcyes* species from a mangrove ecosystem for antibacterial activity against clinical isolates of MRSA, methicillin-susceptible *Staphylococcus aureus* (MSSA), and *Salmonella typhi*. Vu et al. [30] reported antimicrobial activity of *Streptomyces cavourensis* YBQ59 against methicillin-resistant *Staphylococcus aureus* ATCC 33591 and methicillin-resistant *Staphylococcus epidermidis* ATCC 358984. Dashti et al. [31] reported the co-cultivation of *Actinokineospora* sp.EG49 and *Nocardiopsis* sp.RV163 and metabolites produced were tested for antimicrobial activity against the range of pathogens. The bioactive metabolite from *Streptomyces cyaneofuscatus* M-169 showed significant inhibition of Gram-positive bacteria with MIC value of 0.03 μg/mL [32]. It has been shown that actinobacterial isolates from Western Ghats exhibit antimicrobial activity. The *Streptomyces* species from Agumbe [33], *Streptomyces* sp. RAMPP-065 from Kudremukh [34], and *Streptomyces* sp. GOS1 isolated from Western Ghats of Agumbe, Karnataka [35] exhibited remarkable antimicrobial activity. In earlier studies, *Streptomyces* species isolated from Kodachadri were found to possess antifungal activity [33]. Each extract was evaluated for scavenging activity against DPPH and ABTS radicals for antioxidant activity. Crude extract of strain SCA11 showed potent scavenging activity against DPPH radicals with IC50 (μg/mL) 30.91 ± 0.25, whereas SCA13 showed remarkable scavenging activity against ABTS radicals with IC50 (μg/mL) 37.91 ± 0.17. Trolox as a standard showed significant activity with IC50 (μg/mL) 11.07 ± 0.06 and 9.87 ± 0.01 against DPPH and ABTS radicals, respectively (Table 5). Similar studies were carried out for the detection of compounds with antioxidant activity from *Streptomyces* spp., dihydroherbimycin A [36], 5-(2,4-dimethylbenzyl)pyrrolidin-2-one [37]. Ser et al. [38] reported antioxidant activity of pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrazine-1,4-dione, hexahydro extracted from *Streptomyces mangrovisoli*, a novel *Streptomyces* species isolated from a mangrove forest in Malaysia. Narendhran et al. [39] successfully reported antioxidant potential of phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl) in *Streptomyces cavouresis* KUV39 isolated from vermicompost samples. Tian et al. [40] reported antioxidant, antifungal, and antibacterial activity of *p*-Terphenyls isolated from halophilic actinobacteria *Nocardiopsis gilva* YIM 90087. Current findings indicated the bioactive potential of actinobacterial isolates from Western Ghats region of Karnataka. The isolates were found to possess significant antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive MRSA bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, and fungal pathogens. They also exhibited potent scavenging activity against DPPH and ABTS radicals suggesting their antioxidant potential. It is anticipated that findings of the study will be useful in the discovery of novel species of actinobacteria for a potential source of bioactive compounds from underexplored environments.

**Figure 4.** Phylogenetic analysis of isolate *Nocardioides* sp. strain SCA13. Neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree showing evolutionary relationship of selected isolate based on 16S r-RNA sequence alignments. Bootstrap values at the nodes indicate collated values based on 1000 resampleddatasets. Bar indicates 0.001 substitutions per nucleotide position.

**Figure 5.** Neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree showing evolutionary relationship between isolates S1A, SS4, SS5, SS6, and SCA35 based on 16S r-RNA sequence alignments. Bootstrap values at the nodes indicate collated values based on 1000 resampled datasets. Bar indicates 0.005 substitutions per nucleotide position.

**Figure 6.** Antimicrobial activity of actinobacterial isolates against (**A**) MRSA ATCC NR 46071, MRSA ATCC NR 46171, and MRSA ATCC 33591 (**B**) *Escherichia coli* ATCC 11775 and *Salmonella typhi* ATCC 25241, (**C**) *Fusarium moniliforme* MTCC 6576.

**Table 4.** Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC in μg/mL) of actinobacterial isolates against pathogenic test organisms.

**Table 5.** Comparison of IC50 (μg/mL) of crude extracts and trolox for DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity.


*2.1.1 Definition of coastal lagoon*

Early research surrounding coastal lagoons focused on understanding processes of coastal lagoon formation, identification of defining characteristics and the development of classification schemes within which to group water bodies that are similar in geomorphology. Coastal lagoon was described by Kjerfve [32] as: "an inland body of water, usually oriented parallel to the coast, separated from the ocean by a barrier, always connected to the ocean by one or more restricted inlets, and having depths which seldom exceed a couple of metres", although some recent definitions [33, 34] have considered deposition of sediment as well as littoral drift in an attempt to define coastal lagoon. In addition, much of the sediment present in lagoons can be cohesive in composition and will therefore flocculate (e.g., [35]) when resuspended and subsequently produce a range of floc settling velocities (e.g., [36, 37]) that will affect depositional fluxes [38, 39] throughout a lagoon and, similarly, will have an effect on both bed erodibility (e.g., [40]) and subaqueous bed form sizes (e.g., [41, 42]).


**Author details**

It was found by Indonesian scientists that total SOM was higher if the high clay and silt content was found in soil. The other factors like low pH, rainfall and higher altitude were found responsible for higher soil organic content. The organic content of peatland soil was estimated

Agricultural land of South Korea is about 174 Mt. (1 m depth) for the storage of carbon. Soil organic carbon stocks in grass and agricultural lands were as large as 88 and 68 t C ha−1,

zone [113], and the C stock of Australian topsoils was found to be around 25 Gt because of

Greenhouse effect was the natural phenomena, but humans are responsible for the escalation of it leading to the global warming and climate change (CC). Due to climate change, the natural environment is facing different types of unexpected and high-intensity weather events. Climate change mitigation or the solution of all the above problems lies in the reduction of the C concentrations in the atmosphere. There are many sinks for CS including forests, soil, oceans and crop plants. Soil CS and crop production is a better, economical and reliable option because it captures C as well as grows plants which provide food to us. C sequestration in crop lands and rangelands requires certain amounts of organic matter (OM) presence in the soil called soil organic matter (SOM). Organic amendments like animal and poultry manures, the incorporation of different crop residues, different types of compost, sugarcane bagasse, peat soils, different wood chips, B and good agricultural practices like cover crops, nutrient management, mulching, zero and no-tillage techniques, soil biota management and mulching are effectively used for this purpose. These enhance the soil organic matter and improve the soil's physical and chemical properties that help to sequester more C in the soil, which

can be found in the top 1 m. Humid forest zone contains more C than any other

is found in top 0.3 m soil layer and a total of

to be about 33.7 Gt of the 20.9 M ha area of peat soils [111].

A study in Nigeria also revealed that 20-60 t ha-1

great land mass as well as low temperature [114].

ultimately contributes towards CS and CC mitigation.

respectively [112].

26 Carbon Capture, Utilization and Sequestration

**4. Conclusions**

**Abbreviations**

B biochar

C carbon

SOM soil organic matter

CS carbon sequestration

CT conservation tillage

118 Mg C ha-1

Zia Ur Rahman Farooqi, Muhammad Sabir\*, Nukshab Zeeshan, Khurram Naveed and Muhammad Mahroz Hussain

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan


3.7 Acetylation

Various processes thereby produce a by-product which is of other important industrial use. Like in the case of biodiesel manufacturing using methanol, we get a secondary by-product called glycerol. It is a very good raw material for the process called acetylating as in this process, especially when carried out in reactive distillation column, it is reported that about 99% conversion of glycerol into triacetin is observed. This triacetin acts as an additive in compression engine fuels and reduced the knocking in the engine.


*2.1.2. Critical limb ischemia*

Critical limb ischemia (CLI) is the advanced stage of peripheral artery disease (PAD) with progressive stenosis, and ultimately the obstruction of peripheral arteries. The consequences of the markedly reduced blood flow to the lower limbs are pain at rest, nonhealing ulcers, and gangrene. The risk factors of PAD are advanced age, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and mainly diabetes. Unfortunately, amputation, in many cases, is the only therapeutic option for CLI as blood capillaries cannot be corrected, and restenosis of vessels is produced.

Preclinical studies have reported benefits of cell therapy in neovascularization in several mouse models of hindlimb ischemia. PMSC have demonstrated pro-angiogenic effects when intramuscularly injected into the ischemic region of the affected limb, improving blood flow and promoting new vessel formation [54–56]. Similar results have been described in a diabetic nude rat model [57]. Moreover, CM from the PMSC also had pro-angiogenic action in a mouse hindlimb ischemic model, comparable to the PMSC transplanted group in the same study, revealing that PMSC action resulted primarily from a paracrine action of the angiogenic factors released from the PMSC [55]. However, in another study, cells were more efficacious than cell lysate in rescuing blood flow, probably indicating the importance of prolonged paracrine effect for maximal blood flow recovery [57].

#### *2.1.3. Stroke*

Stroke is an acute focal injury of the central nervous system (CNS) by a vascular cause, including cerebral infarction, intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), and is a major cause of disability and death worldwide. Thrombolysis is the most commonly used therapeutic approach although most patients fall outside of the clinical time window for effective treatment.

Experimental data show that stem cell therapy can limit neuronal degeneration and improve the functional outcome. The neuroprotective action of PMSC has been demonstrated in a rat model of stroke. Intravenous administration of PMSC, 4 hours after the injury, resulted in a significant improvement of functional outcome and significant decrease of lesion volume, correlating with increased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in the ischemic brain compared to controls [58].