For the Civil Protection authorities, the protection of communities and cities is not only a duty, it is also an opportunity for reducing the social and economic losses related to disasters, and to progress towards building more resilient and equal societies.

This perspective is strictly connected with the pillars of the Sendai Framework, as well as with the Seven Global Targets. The following objectives have to be reached as a starting point to improve and increase resilience:

The achievements of the goals require an effort at national and international levels to improve the collaboration and, in this direction, the Sendai Partnerships 2015–2025 for Global Promotion of Understanding and Reducing Landslide Disaster Risk is a key initiative.

Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the International Consortium on Landslides for its efforts in supporting the authorities in disaster risk reduction; the scientific and research communities that work and support the activities of civil protection with a special effort addressed to cope the user needs and operative requirements, and all the institutions, organizations and the actors involved who spend resources and effort to promote and improve the actions towards a strategy addressed to disaster risk reduction.

#### References

Guzzetti F (2000) Landslide fatalities and evaluation of landslide risk in Italy. Eng Geol 58:89–107

http://www.protezionecivile.gov.it/

http://iononrischio.protezionecivile.it

http://drmkc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ March 2016—Newsletter #2

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# Landslide Dynamics: ISDR-ICL Landslide Interactive Teaching Tools (LITT)

Kyoji Sassa, Fausto Guzzetti, Hiromitsu Yamagishi, Željko Arbanas, Nicola Casagli, Binod Tiwari, Ko-Fei Liu, Alexander Strom, Mauri McSaveney, Eileen McSaveney, Khang Dang, and Hendy Setiawan

#### Abstract

The International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) and ICL supporting organizations jointly established the ISDR-ICL Sendai Partnerships 2015–2025 which is the voluntary commitment to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. As the core activity of the Sendai Partnerships, ICL has created "Landslide Dynamics: ISDR-ICL Landslide Interactive Teaching Tools", which are always updated and continuously improved, based on responses from users and lessons during their application. This paper describes the aim, outline, the contents of Text tools, PPT tools for lectures and PDF tools including already published reference papers/reports, guidelines, etc. Core parts of two fundamentals of the Teaching Tools, namely 1. Landslide types: description, illustration and photos, and 2. Landslide Dynamics for Risk Assessment are introduced.

#### Keywords

International consortium on landslides (ICL) International strategy for disaster risk reduction (ISDR) Landslide dynamics Landslide types Capacity development

#### K. Sassa (&)

International Consortium on Landslides (ICL), Kyoto, Japan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
#### F. Guzzetti

Istituto di Ricerca per la Protezione Idrogeologica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, via Madonna Alta 126, 06128 Perugia, Italy

e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
#### H. Yamagishi

Asian Institute of Spatial Information, Shiroishi-Ku, Hongodori 2chome Kita 3-10, Sapporo, 003-0025, Japan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
#### Ž. Arbanas

Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 3 Rijeka 51000, Rijeka, Croatia e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
#### N. Casagli

Department of Earth Sciences, University of Firenze, Via La Pira 4, 50212 Florence, Italy e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
#### B. Tiwari

Civil & Environmental Engineering Department, California State University, Fullerton, 800 N State College Blvd., E-419, Fullerton, CA 92831, USA e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
#### K. Liu

National Taiwan University, No.1, Roosevelt Road, Chinese Taipei, 10617, Taiwan, Republic of China e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
M. McSaveney E. McSaveney GNS Science, PO Box 30368, Lower Hutt, 5040, New Zealand e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
E. McSaveney e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
H. Setiawan Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Uji, 611-0011, Japan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
#### A. Strom

Geodynamics Research Centre—branch of JSC "Hydroproject Institute", Volokolamsk Highway 2, Moscow, 125993, Russia e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
K. Dang International Consortium on Landslides, Kyoto, Japan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
K. Dang VNU University of Science, Hanoi, Vietnam

#### © The Author(s) 2017 K. Sassa et al. (eds.), Advancing Culture of Living with Landslides, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59469-9\_17

### Aim of Landslide Dynamics: ISDR-ICL Landslide Interactive Teaching Tools

The International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) proposed the ISDR-ICL Sendai Partnerships 2015–2025 for global promotion of understanding and reducing landslide disaster risk at a session of "Underlying risk factors" of the 3rd WCDRR on the morning of 16 March 2015. The partnership was proposed as a voluntary commitment to the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, Sendai, Japan, 2015, and also as tools for implementing and monitoring the Post-2015 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and the Sustainable Development Goals. It was approved and signed by 16 global stakeholders in the afternoon of the same day in Sendai, Japan, and the Secretary-General Mr. Petteri Taalas of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) signed it on 16 April 2016. The number of current ICL members (as of 30 November 2016) that are a part of the Sendai Partnerships is 64. The number will be updated every year. The signatory organizations may increase at the high-level panel discussion and the round-table discussion during the Fourth World Landslide Forum in Ljubljana, Slovenia in 2017. The Sendai Partnerships is being updated during the period.

The Sendai partnerships acknowledge that

• At a higher level, social and financial investment is vital for understanding and reducing landslide disaster risk, in particular social and institutional vulnerability, through coordination of policies, planning, research, capacity development, and the production of publications and tools that are accessible, available free of charge and are easy to use for everyone in both developing and developed countries.

Landslide science and technologies have continuously been developed to be more reliable, precise or cost-effective for landslide disaster risk reduction over the world. However, this scientific and technological progress has not been shared equally over the world. The gap between the available level of science and technologies and the practical use of those in many countries, regions and communities is very wide. To fill this gap, ICL has created Landslide Interactive Teaching Tools, which are always updated and continuously improved, based on responses from users and lessons during their application. All text books gradually become outdated. To avoid this problem, ICL plans to upload the latest teaching tools in the WEB of Teaching Tools and print text tools periodically.

#### Landslide Dynamics

A landslide is a downslope movement of rock, soil or both (Cruden 1991, 1996). Landslide disasters are caused by exposure to hazardous motions of soil and rock that threaten vulnerable human settlement in mountains, cities, coasts, and islands, as stated in the Sendai Partnerships. Understanding "Landslide dynamics" is the very basis of landslide disaster risk reduction.

#### Organizations Contributing Teaching Tools

Each teaching tool will be submitted by the teaching tool contributing organization as shown in the list of contribution organizations. Each organization has its own Teaching Tool Identifying Number consisting of telephone number of the country and the registered number within the country (Table 1). The involvement of organization as well as individual researcher is better to keep quality and updating of each tool.

### Outline of the ISDR-ICL Landslide Interactive Teaching Tools

The teaching tools are classified in five major parts. The part number is included in each teaching tool identifier.

	- (1) Landslide Types: Description, illustrations and photos
	- (2) Landslide Dynamics for risk assessment
	- (1) Basic Mapping
	- (2) Site Prediction Using GIS
	- (3) Field Guidelines
	- (1) Remote Sensing Techniques for Landslide Monitoring
	- (2) Monitoring System Instrumentation
	- (3) Rainfall Threshold for Landslide Prediction
	- (4) Landslide Time Prediction from Pre-failure Movement Monitoring
	- (5) Guidelines for Landslide Monitoring and Early Warning Systems
	- (1) Numerical Modeling and Simulation
	- (2) Physical and Mathematical Modeling
	- (3) Laboratory Soil Testing for Landslide Analysis
	- (4) Analysis and Assessment of Landslides

Table 1 List of contributing organizations with identifier number and email of leader

Table 1 (continued)

	- (1) Landslide Risk Management
	- (2) Community Risk Management
	- (3) Country Practices.

The teaching tools consist of three types of tools.

The second and the third type of tools are supplementary tools of the text tools (text books).

Each teaching tool has its own identifier. The identifier of each tool consists of three parts:

The following tables (Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4) present the list of contributing organizations and the list of contents of the teaching tools.

#### Fundamentals of the ISDR-ICL Landslide Interactive Teaching Tools (LITT)

All tools include visual explainations with many full color illustrations and photos. The tools start from two fundamental tools (TXT Tool 0.001-2.1 and TXT Tool 0.081-1.1). To present examples and illustration and photos used in LITT and also present an overview of the content of two fundamental aspects, some selected illustrations and photos are presented below.

#### Landslide Types: Descriptions, Illustrations and Photos

All figures and captions are copied from TXT Tool 0.001-2.1. Fig. 1.

The definitions of landslides were not uniform around the world before the United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) 1990–2000. Landslide disasters are one of the major disasters to be tackled in IDNDR. The united definition of landslides forms the basis for investigations and statistics of landslide disasters, through IDNDR as its base. The International Geotechnical Societies and UNESCO Working Group for World Landslide Inventory (Chair: David Cruden) was established. The landslide was then defined to be "the movement of a mass of rock, debris or earth down a slope". The types were explained in detail in "Landslides-investigation and mitigation", edited by A Keith Turner and Robert L, Schuster, Special Report 247 of the National Research Council (U.S.) Transportation Research Board in 1996. In order to disseminate this definition of landslides, including debris flows, rock falls and others, Lynn Highland and Peter Bobrowsky implemented the IPL 106 Best Practice handbook for landslide hazard mitigation (2002–2007) to create a handbook on landslides and published its result as "The Landslide Handbook—A guide to Understanding Landslides" (USGS Circular 1325) (Highland and Bobrowsky 2008). This book was well evaluated and translated into several languages. This project was awarded an "IPL Award for Success" at the Second World Landslide Forum at FAO Headquarters, Rome, October 2011. This definition, which includes debris flows, rock falls and other different types of landslides, is the basis of landslide science and it is the base of the International Journal "Landslides" founded in 2004. TXT Tool 0.001-2.1 (Highland and Bobrowsky 2017) presents many photos and illustrations to explain this definition by IDNDR,

#### Table 2 Contents of text tools

Landslide dynamics: ISDR-ICL landslide interactive teaching tools Vol. 1 fundamental, mapping and monitoring Kyoji Sassa, Fausto Guzzetti, Hiromitsu Yamagishi, Zeljko Arbanas, Nicola Casagli, Mauri McSaveney, Khang Dang Editors

Table 3 Contents of PPT tools and video tools

as the major contribution from the global landslide community.

#### Landslide Dynamics for Risk Assessment (TXT-Tool 0.081-1.1)

The following four types of landslides: Falls (falls and topples), Slides (rotational and translational), Spreads and Flows (debris flow and debris avalanches) are explained using illustrations and photo examples in Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5.

All figures and captions are copied from TXT-Tool 0.081-1.1.

#### Table 4 Contents of PDF tools

Fig. 1 This graphic illustrates commonly-used labels for the parts of a landslide. The image shows a rotational landslide that has evolved into an earthflow (modified from Varnes, 1978)

Figure 6 presents three major types of tests to measure the shear strength of soils: (1) Direct shear tests (shear box tests) in which a sample is sheared until failure in the drained condition in a shear speed control test, (2) Triaxial compression tests in which a sample is compressed until failure, either in either a drained condition or undrained condition, in either a stress control or speed control test, 3. Ring shear test in which a sample is sheared until a residual strength is obtained after failure in the drained condition during a speed control test.

Figure 7 presents the new undrained dynamic loading ring shear test which can simulate the initiation and the motion of landslides, by loading normal and shear stress in the field, including seismic stress loading and pore-pressure increase during rainfall. The most important feature of this new apparatus is the ability of to maintain an undrained condition and the measurement of pore-water pressure changes near the sliding surface (zone). The most important

Fig. 2 Illustrations and photos of an example of Falls. a Schematic illustration of rockfall. Note that rocks may roll and bounce at potentially great distances depending on a number of factors. b A large rockfall due to the May, 2008 Wenchuan, China Earthquake. Photo by

factor for the landslide disaster risk assessment is the estimation of velocity and the travel distance, and the moving area of landslides. The velocity and hazard area of a landslide is controlled by shear resistance mobilized in the sliding surface of the landslide. The resistance is regulated by the pore water pressure generated during initiation and motion, as well as seismic shaking. The water leakage from the gap between the upper shear box and the lower shear box is prevented by a rubber edge. The contact stress of the rubber edge to the upper ring shear box is controlled to be higher than the generated pore water pressure in the servo-control system. Two sets of new apparatuses (ICL-1 and ICL-2) were donated to Croatia and Vietnam from the

Dave Wald, U.S. Geological Survey. c Schematic illustration of a topple. d A topple in the vicinity of Jasper National Park, British Columbia, Canada. Photo by G. Bianchi Fasani

Government of Japan through the SATREPS project (Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development). The system was developed to be practical toly maintain,ed even in developing countries.

Figure 8 illustrates the great effect of pore water pressure. During rainfalls, the ground water level is increased in a soil layer on the bed rock (stable) layer of the slope. The mobilized shear resistance on the sliding surface is affected by the effective weight of the soil layer.

B illustrates a block inside a pool. A necessary horizontal force to move this block is decreased when a the water table will increases and the effective weight of the block is decreased by the buoyant force due to water. If the density of

Fig. 3 Illustrations and photos of examples of slides. a Schematic of a rotational landslide. b A photo of a rotational landslide, showing the Dainichi-san landslide triggered by the October 23, 2004 Mid-Niigata Prefecture earthquake (Sassa 2005). c Schematic of a translational

Fig. 4 Illustration and photo of an example of a spread. a Schematic of a lateral spread. b Lateral spreads at Hebgen Lake near West Yellowstone, Montana (USA), due to the effects of the Magnitude 7.3 Hebgen Lake earthquake, on August 18, 1959. Photo by R.B. Colton, U.S. Geological Survey

(parallel to slope) landslide. d The Minami-Aso Landslide shows a translational landslide in a steep slope. The landslide was triggered by the Kumamoto Earthquake of 2016 in Japan (Dang et al. 2016). Photo taken from UAV by Khang Dang and Kyoji Sassa

the block is similar to water, the block is almost floated floating in the water, and the necessary horizontal force to move this block is zero. Namely, the shear resistance between the block and the bottom of this pool is zero. The most difficult part is to know the function of pore water pressure.

Figure 9 illustrates the landslide initiation mechanism. Two figures show the normal stress and the shear stress relationships working on the sliding surface of a potential landslide. The left top shows a soil column within a slope. The mass of the soil column imparts a load (mass and gravity—mg) to the sliding surface. The shear stress component is mgsinh and the normal stress component is mgcosh. From this relationship, the initial stress is expressed as point I in this normal stress-shear stress chart, assuming no pore water pressure. When the ground water table is increased during rain, pore water pressure (u) is increased. In this case, the effective normal stress (normal stress minus pore water pressure) is decreased. Namely, the stress point in this chart will move to the left direction by u from the point I. When the stress point reaches the failure

Fig. 5 Illustrations and photos of examples of flows Debris flows and debris avalanches are introduced as a major group of flow types of landslides. a Schematic illustration of a debris flow. b A photo of the July 20, 2003 debri flow which occurred in Minamata City, Kyushu

line of this soil, the soil will fail. This is the initiation of landslide by the mechanism of rainfall.

The right figure illustrates the initiation of landslide by pore water pressure plus earthquake loading. In the case of slope layer that includes a certain height of ground water table, as shown in Fig. 8, the initial stress before the earthquake is located at A in Fig. 9. When an earthquake strikes this area, seismic stress is loaded. The direction and the stress level will differ depending on the earthquake acceleration and its direction, but the stress point moves from A to somewhere. If the stress point reaches the failure line, the soil layer will fail and a landslide is initiated. This is the mechanism of an earthquake-induced landslide. Whether the landslide will be initiated or not can be simulated using the undrained ring shear apparatus by loading the seismic stress (an example test result is shown in Fig. 17).

Island, Japan, resulting in 14 deaths and 15 houses destroyed (Sassa et al. 2004). c Schematic of a debris avalanche. d A debris avalanche that buried a village in Guinsaugon, Southern Leyte, Philippines, in February, 2006 (Photo by University of Tokyo Geotechnical Team)

Figure 10 illustrates two cases of the undrained dynamic loading ring shear tests for the initiation of a landslide and the movement of a the landslide. A sample will be taken from the potential shear zone or the soil layer or a layer which is estimated to have the same mechanical properties. The ring shear test will be conducted to determine whether a landslide will be initiated or not as shown in Fig. 9. The initiated landslide mass will move to the lower slope or onto the alluvial deposit, as shown in the right figure of Fig. 10. The shear surface will be formed within the deposit. A sample will be taken from the deposit on which the landslide mass now loadsrests on. A dynamic stress simulating the undrained loading by the moving landslide mass is given applied to the sample in the ring shear testing. The stress necessary stress to shearing the deposit and the generated pore water pressure and mobilized shear resistance Fig. 6 Major three types of shear test to measure the shear strength of soils. A and B (Direct shear and Triaxial compression tests) are to measure the shear strength at failure. C (Ring shear test) is to measure the residual shear strength after failure

during loading and motion will be measured. Normally two tests are necessary to assess the initiation of landslide and the motion of landslides.

Figure 11 shows the setup (Nos. 1–6) of the undrained ring shear apparatus of ICL-2. Within this photo:

No. 1 is the computer and its two monitors (one for the test control system and one for the recording system).

No. 2 is the control unit, including the amplifiers for various monitoring sensors and the four servo-control amplifiers (Normal stress, shear stress, gap control and pore water pressures).

No. 3 is the main body of the undrained ring shear apparatus, including loading shear stress and speed control motor and gap control motor, normal stress loading system, the vertical and shear displacement measuring sensors, and pore pressure sensors (shown in Fig. 7).

No. 4 is the electricity supply and control system box. No. 5 is pore pressure supply and control system.

No. 6 is the de-aired water supply system with a vacuum pump, vibration control system, and a vacuum tank to produce the sample fully saturated by de-aired water.

Figure 12 illustrates the concepts of the integrated landslide simulation model (LS-RAPID). A soil column is taken from the landslide mass, and all forces (self-weigh of soil column, the seismic forces, the lateral pressure, shear resistance on the bottom and the normal stress on the bottom) acting on this column are summed. The sum of force should accelerate the soil mass of the column. The change of pore water pressure and the resulting shear resistance on the bottom during the seismic loading, dynamic loading and shearing are obtained from testing using the undrained dynamic loading ring shear apparatus. The development of the undrained dynamic loading ring shear test has enabled the development of an integrated landslide simulation model applicable from the initiation of the motion until the termination of motion. Examples of the simulation results are shown in Figs. 13, 14 and 15.

SchemaƟc figure of the undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus

Fig. 7 An undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus. The left figure presents the schematic figure of the latest version of undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus (Sassa et al. 2016). The right photo shows the shear box of the apparatus. A Shear box; B Normal stress loading piston; C A pair of two shear stress sensors; D Loading

Photo of shear box and normal stress loading piston and shear stress sensor

cap; E Hanging frame to lift the loading cap; F Pore-pressure sensor; G Connection to the pore-pressure control system; H One-touch plug for the water drainage from the shear box; I One-touch plug for the de-aired water supply from the bottom of the shear box

Fig. 8 Illustration of the initiation mechanisms of shallow and deep landslides due to rainfall

Landslide-initiation mechanism by the combined effect of earthquake and pore pressure rise

Landslide-initiation mechanism due to groundwater rise / pore-water pressure rise

Fig. 9 Illustration of the mechanism to trigger failure within a slope by the triggering factors of rain (left) and the pore pressure plus earthquakes (right)

Fig. 10 Schematic figure of concept of an undrained dynamic-loading ring-shear apparatus

$$am = (W + F\nu + Fx + F\nu) + (\frac{\partial P\_x}{\mathfrak{A}\_{\text{Mu}}} \Delta x + \frac{\partial P\_y}{\mathfrak{A}\_{\text{Mu}}} \Delta y) + R$$

Figures 13, 14 and 15 are show the application of LS-RAPID (Fig. 12) using the test results of the from an undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus (Figs. 8 and 11). Figure 13 is shows the application of the model to the Leyte landslide in Guinsaugon in the southern Leyte, Philippines in February 2006 (introduced in the bottom of Fig. 5). The landslide was triggered by a small nearby earthquake after a long period of rainfall (Sassa et al. 2010). Figure 13 and its caption explains the simulation result in the time series figure. For the initial two figures of A and B, the loaded initial pore water ratio due to rain and the loaded seismic stress calculated from the seismic record are shown.

Figure 14 is a photo of the Yagi and Midorii area of Hiroshima city, Japan (Doan et al. 2016). Both areas and the surrounding areas were struck by debris flows which came from the many of shallow landslides from the top of slopes during a local heavy rain. In all 74 people were killed in the urbanized residential areas. Figure 15 shows the result of the LS-RAPID computer simulation using the landslide dynamics parameters obtained from the testing using the

Fig. 13 Simulation results of the Leyte landslide. A ru rises to 0.15 and the earthquake will start, but there is no motion. B Continued earthquake loading triggers a local failure, as shown by the red color mesh, C An entire landslide block is formed and moving, D The top of

landslide mass moves onto alluvial deposits. E Deposition. Mesh size is 40 m; the area is 1960 3760 m; contour interval is 20 m; there is 3 m of unstable deposits on the alluvial deposit area (blue balls)

Fig. 14 Photo of the Yagi-area and Midorii in the 2014 Hiroshima landslide-debris flow disaster

undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus. For the triggering factors, the 10-minute rainfall record was used. The initiation and the motion of landslides and the landslide hazard areas are reasonably reproduced by this simulation.

Figures 16, 17, and 18 present a study of the 1792 Unzen Mayuyama landslide using undrained ring shear testing and the integrated computer simulation. Figure 16 shows the Google view of the landslide. The urban area is Shimabara city and the sea is the Ariake Sea on Kyushu island of Japan. The mountain is a part of Unzen volcano. This 1792 Unzen Mayuyama landslide-and-tsunami-induced disaster is both the largest landslide disaster and also the largest volcanic

Fig. 15 Result of LS-RAPID simulation (Sassa et al. 2014)

Fig. 16 Overview of the 1792 Unzen-Mayuyama landslide

Fig. 17 Undrained seismic loading test on Sample 1 (S1). BD = 0.94, Seismic wave: 2008 Iwata-Miyagi Earthquake record, 5 times slower speed

disaster in Japan, and also one of greatest tsunami disasters in Japan. The landslide mass entered into the Ariake Sea. Currently there are still some islands which are parts of the landslide mass deposited in the Ariake Sea. S1 is the sampling point to study landslide initiation behavior and S2 is the sampling point to study the motion of the landslide. All the area of the moving landslide mass area is now covered by heavily developed urban building. A sample was taken from the outside of the landslide moving area. Figure 17 is an example of the undrained ring shear testing, which involved (1) loading the initial shear stress and the normal stress, (2) loading pore water pressure before the earthquake, (3) loading the seismic stress using the seismic acceleration record of the 2008 Iwate-Miyagi Earthquake, which triggered a large-scale landslide (67 million cubic meters) (Miyagi et al. 2010). The earthquake was not recorded in 1792, but the acceleration was estimated based on detailed investigation of the damage to the houses and the tomb stones in Shimabara city. The test results indicate a steady-state shear resistance of 157 kPa and a friction angle during motion of 41°. Pore water pressure is built up during seismic loading and the pressure was very much increased in the progress of shearing.

Figure 18 is the simulation result of this landslide from its initiation to the motion into the sea. The initial landslide started from the middle of the source area (17 s) and the progressive failure expanded to the top of the landslide source area (26 s) and the total mass moved into the sea (64 s) and stopped after 226 s. The length of the deposit area from the simulation is rather close to the area determined by field investigation by the Unzen Restoration Office.

Figures 19, 20, and 21 present the most advanced study of the landslide-induced tsunami, which was published online (April 2016) and in print (Sassa et al., Landslides Vol. 13, No. 6, 2016). Figure 19 presents the historical record of the landslide-induced tsunami disaster in the 1792 Unzen Mayuyama landslide and tsunami. In this disaster, 15,153 people were killed.

The central disaster is the concept of the landslide-induced-tsunami simulation model (LS-Tsunami). The basic concept of this model is that the landslide-induced tsunami will be simulated using the well-established and widely used model (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) (1997). The basic equation is shown below in Fig. 20. As the triggering factor of the tsunami, the landslide simulation results of LS-RAPID are used. Two steps are completely separated. Interactive shear forces between the landslide mass and the water is neglected. It is assumed that the vertical uplift of the sea floor by the moving landslide mass lifts the water mass above the landslide mass vertically. Figure 21 is the result of the landslide simulation, landslide-induced tsunami simulation, and the

Fig. 18 LS-RAPID simulation result of the 1792 Unzen-Mayuyama landslide

tsunami motion over the sea, including reflection from the opposite shore. The first figure at 0 m 20 s shows the initiation of landslide. The second figure at 0 m 35 s shows the landslide mass reaching the coast, the third figure at 1 m 25 s shows the tsunami wave induced by the landslide mass, the fourth figure and the fifth figures at 5 m 55 s and 10 m 45 s show the expansion of the tsunami wave. The final two figures present the reflected wave from the opposite bank (Kumamoto Prefecture) attached the Shimabara Peninsula again. The red color tsunami wave is more than 5 m above sea level and the blue color tsunami wave is more than 5 m below sea level. The detailed tsunami height records at 5

Fig. 19 Records of the Unzen landslide-and-tsunami disaster (by Unzen Restauration Office 2003). The total number of deaths is 15,153 persons. The size of circles is proportional to the number of human fatalities in the area. The legend for the number of deaths is show in the right-top corner. A Disasters around Ariake Sea and monuments by the Shimabara-Taihen, Higo-Meiwaku. The "Catastrophe" in Shimabara Area and "Annoyance" or "adversely affected" in Higo (Kumamoto) Region. B The numbers of deaths are shown in the circles (the largest is 500 persons). C The greatest number of deaths are in Shimabara town around the castle (5251 persons). D The second largest number of

deaths are in the southern part of Shimabara Peninsula (around 3500 persons). E, F and G Tsunami-Dome-Ishi (A stone showing the tsunami reaching that point) were set to record the tsunami by the communities in Kyodomari (E), Umedo (F) and Otao (G) of the Higo (Kumamoto) Han area. The Tsunami-Dome-Ishi in Kyodomari was moved for the construction of a road, but its former location is marked on the road retaining wall (by the regional education committee). The Tsunami-Dome-Ishi is limited in Higo (Kumamoto) Han area. These tsunami records are reliable. H, I Stone pillars for memorial services for deaths by tsunami in Futsu (H) and Mie (I) in Shimabara Han area

locations on land and those estimated by this computer simulation were compared. The values are rather similar in 4 locations.

ICL called for cooperation for the ISDR-ICL Landslide Interactive Teaching Tools soon after the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR) in Sendai Japan and the establishment of the ISDR-ICL Sendai Partnerships for global promotion of understanding and reducing landslide disaster risk 2015–2025 on 16 March 2015. Many ICL members have offered their cooperation and contributed

a = ∆ + ∆ + ( ) Where a: Acceleration of water column mw: Water mass in a column R (Manning): Manning's basal resistance

Fig. 20 Basic principles of the landslide-induced tsunami simulation model

many teaching tools. ICL asked editors to evaluate those submitted tools. Tools and editors are changing during the process of producing these teaching tools. The final number of accepted teaching tools are 97 in two volumes (the total page number is 1700) and there are 11 cooperating editors. Firstly ICL appreciates all authors and their organizations which contributed teaching tools. The planned teaching tool set is not fixed, but continually evolving—it will be continuously updated, improved and enhanced by the interaction between authors and users.

The initial version of ISDR-ICL Landslide Interactive Teaching Tools will be published before the Fourth World Landslide Forum in May 2017. The tools are expected to be improved and enhanced toward the Fifth World Landslide Forum, as well as the Sendai Partnerships mid-term conference in Japan 2020. It will be very much appreciated if voluntary contributing organizations and individuals join this initiative.

between water and ground

All ICL member organizations and all World Centres of Excellence for Landslide Disaster Reduction (WCoEs) and non-ICL cooperating organizations are requested to contribute to capacity building using the ISDR-ICL teaching tools and to improve these living tools as better, wider and more practical resources for landslide disaster risk reduction.

Fig. 21 LS-Tsunami simulation result for the 1792 Unzen-Mayuyama landslide-induced tsunami disaster

Acknowledgements Acknowledgement and call for cooperation for the development of the ISDR-ICL Sendai Partnerships 2015–2025 contributing to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030.

#### References

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# Progress of the World Report on Landslides

Biljana Abolmasov, Teuku Faisal Fathani, KoFei Liu, and Kyoji Sassa

#### Abstract

The IPL World Reports on Landslides (WRL) database is created as a cooperation platform for sharing landslide case studies and the best practice in the global landslide community. ICL and IPL wishes to promote and publish global landslide information using the ICL/IPL network for the ISDR-ICL Sendai Partnership 2015–2025 and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 through WRL activities were assigned as one of priority action. World Report on Landslides data base contains 40 submitted reports on landslide cases over the world. The best rating reports are accessible for world-wide landslide community as open access data, as well as all basic reports. In this paper results of ICL/IPL World Report on Landslides Commeetee members and related activities from 2010 to 2016 are presented.

#### Keywords

Landslides ICL IPL Sendai partnership UNISDR

#### Introduction

The International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) and International Program on Landslides (IPL) created web data base and web cooperation platform for sharing information about landslide case studies in the global landslide community. The idea of World Report on Landslides (WRL) was

B. Abolmasov (&)

Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Djusina 7, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
T.F. Fathani University of Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
K. Liu

Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University, Chinese Taipei, Taiwan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
#### K. Sassa

International Consortium on Landslides, 138-1, Tanaka Asukaicho, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8226, Japan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© The Author(s) 2017

K. Sassa et al. (eds.), Advancing Culture of Living with Landslides, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59469-9\_18

first examined in the ICL-IPL Secretariat meeting held on January 2010 in Kyoto, Japan. The WRL web portal and the instruction for authors were launched before the ICL-IPL meeting in November 2010. The portal and Instruction for authors were further examined in the ICL-IPL meeting during 2nd World Landslide Forum in Rome, Italy, 2011. The idea of Sendai Partnership 2015–2030 at 3rd World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR) as well as Beijing Declaration during 3rd World Landslide Forum 2014 were built and ICL coordinator for WRL was elected. After ICL Steering Committee meeting KoFei Liu started to manage WRL with Faisal Fathani as web moderator in October 2014. At the 3rd WCDRR which was convened by the United Nations and hosted by Japan in Sendai from 14 to 18 March 2015, the ICL and its IPL, besides The Sendai Partnership 2015–2030 for Global Promotion of Understanding and Reducing Landslide Disaster Risk, contributed further to the UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction with additional three main types of activities:

– Publication of ICL Landslides Journal to communicate frontier of Landslide Science and Technology

ICL and IPL wishes to promote and publish global landslide information using the ICL and IPL network for the ISDR-ICL Sendai Partnership 2015–2025 and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 through WRL activities were assigned.

Progress of WRL activities was reported on ICL-IPL Kyoto Conference in March 2016 and followed by activities with Kyoji Sassa during March–October 2016. The Chair of WRL Committee was replaced by Biljana Abolmasov (University of Belgrade, Serbia) and Deputy Chairs are KoFei Liu (National Taiwan University, Chinese Taipei) and Teuku Faisal Fathani (University of Gadjah Mada, Indonesia). Core members of WRL are Khang Dang (ICL research promotion officer, Kyoto University, Japan) and Miloš Marjanović (University of Belgrade, Serbia). The WRL activities were presented and examined during ICL-IPL UNESCO Conference 15–18 November 2016 within ICL members.

In this paper results of ICL/IPL World Report on Landslides Commeetee members and related activities from 2010 to 2016 are presented.

#### World Report on Landslides

The IPL World Reports on Landslides (WRL) database is created as a cooperation platform for sharing landslide case studies and the best practice in the global landslide community. The reports may be used for research and capacity development in landslide risk reduction activities in the frame of the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). Generally, everyone is welcome to contribute landslide case studies in this WRL database as the reporter. Landslide experts of ICL members and colleagues are invited to contribute landslide cases over the World Reports on Landslides at IPL web page http:// iplhq.org/ls-world-report-on-landslide/ (Fig 1).

#### Instruction for Authors

This instruction provide explanation of items in Data Sheet for World Report on Landslides. Every report should be prepared according to the unified data information:

In addition, the reporter is asked to provide further information on landslide case as attachment files such as photo, map, plan and cross section, figures or simulation video.

Fig. 1 Screenshot of world report on landslides web page http://iplhq.org/ls-world-report-on-landslide/

Instruction for authors is available at http://iplhq.org/icl/wpcontent/uploads/2016/02/1.-Instruction-for-WRL-Final.doc.

#### Guide to Submit Report

Before reporting landslide cases, authors need to register with the registration form. The system will send ID and password via email. After registration, authors need to login to input data for reporting landslide. After login, reporter will be redirected to landslide report submission form. To submit landslide report, reporter have to fill in the Report Form personal information (Email address, First Name, Last Name, Country and Institution) and landslide data (Landslide name, Landslide Case Identifier and other relevant data). After filling in the necessary fields, reporter have to submit report to save into database. On successful submission reporter will see success notification within green box on top of the page.

Guidelines on report submission are available at http:// iplhq.org/icl/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/2.-Guide-tosubmit-reports.docx.

#### Rating and Accessibility

Each report is rated by 7 components (basic information, plan/section, reference, graphics and other resources) attached to the report (Table 1). WRL report is rated by the total rating points from 1 to 7, so that each component brings 1 point. Each report is categorized from ★1 to ★7, depending on the sum of rating points. ICL earning points are then calculated as a total sum of all accepted reports given by one reporter. Reporter earns accessibility to other reports by earning sufficient amount of these ICL points. However, ★1 report is open for everyone, while access to other reports from ★2 to ★7 requires ICL earning points obtained by accepted reports, except open access reports (high category reports assigned by the WRL Committee). Report can be submitted by one or maximally two reporters, and their names are shown in the ICL-WRL web portal. In the case of two authors, both will obtain the same amount of ICL points (from one to seven) for their report. It is important to notice that is necessary to obtain signed authorisation sheet from both reporters to avoid any plagiarism of WRL report.

Rating and accessibility of WRL is available at http:// iplhq.org/icl/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/3.-Rating-and-Accessibility-of-WRL-16.10.20.doc.

#### Progress of the World Report on Landslides

Web platform and data base of IPL World Report on Landslides are functionally operated since 2010, but during 2016 additional improvements of visibility and more

functionality are established. The Instruction for Authors, Guide to Submit Report and Rating and Accessibility information were revised and in the revised version linked to IPL web page. The procedure for submitting, revision and publishing responsibilities were discussed during autumn 2016. Summary report of those activities was presented on ICL/IPL meeting in UNESCO, Paris in November 2016.

Up to now (December 15 2016), the World Report on Landslides database contains 40 submitted reports on landslide cases over the world (Fig. 2). Seventeen of these reports are still not published (waiting for authorization), while 23 of them are available on the web platform (Table 2). The most of reports are rated as more than ★5, which means that almost all components are included in the report. One published report is rated as ★1 which means that only basic landslide information is provided. The simple analysis of reported landslides and their distribution according to the obtained rating points are given in Fig. 3.

The analysis of reports by country origin shows that the highest number of WRL (uploaded or published) originated from Japan (45%), (http://www.iplhq.org/) and (Fig. 3). Four of reports with highest obtained points ★7 and ★6 are also from Japan, two with point ★6 are from Serbia and Croatia, and one with rating ★5 is from Vietnam, respectively (Table 2 and 3).

The main idea of Committee members is to share landslide basic information from landslide reports with rating points ★1 for everyone. The best rating reports in the WRL data base are free accessible for everyone too, as an example of best practice and support for promotion and cooperation activities between ICL members and world landslide community. The list of open access WRL reports are listed in Table 3.

An example of free access of World Report on Landslides is 1792 Unzen-Mayuyama landslide which killed around 15.000 people by landslide and landslide induced tsunami. The following Figures shows geographical position of landslide (Fig. 4); cross section of landslide (Fig. 5); testing data from samples taken from landslide (Fig. 6) and Screenshot of video simulation results (Fig. 7) uploaded on YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GwAWjdXXNbk.

Fig. 2 Total of uploaded reports distribution by country

Table 2 The list of published world report on landslides on IPL web platform

Fig. 3 Number of published reports and their rating

Table 3 The list of open access world report on landslides on IPL web platform

Fig. 4 Google earth kmz. file of Unzen landslide area, Japan

Fig. 6 Testing results from samples taken from 1792 Unzen-Mayuyama landslide

Fig. 7 Screenshot of simulation results video from 1792 Unzen-Mayuyama landslide uploaded on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= GwAWjdXXNbk

Open communication with society through integrated research and knowledge transfer are initial fields of cooperation in research and capacity building in the UNISDR-ICL Sendai partnership 2015-2025 Resolution. The ICL/IPL WRL data base and web platform are one of three major types of global ICL/IPL activities within voluntary commitment to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.

ICL members and other landslide experts colleagues are invited to contribute landslide cases over the World Reports on Landslides at IPL web page.

Committee members support landslide reporting with a goal to:

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to ICL members for comments and suggestion and reporters for their contribution in IPL WRL activities. The authors would also like to thank Khang Dang, Ha Nguyen Duc and Pham Tien from Kyoto University, DPRI, Japan, and Miloš Marjanović from University of Belgrade, Serbia for their extensive help.

#### References

http://www.iplhq.org/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GwAWjdXXNbk

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

Highland LM, Bobrowsky P (2008) The landslide handbook-a guide to understanding landslides: Reston, Virginia, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1325, 129 p

Part II

International Programme on Landslides (IPL)

# International Programme on Landslides (IPL): Objectives, History and List of World Centres of Excellence and IPL Projects

Qunli Han, Kyoji Sassa, Feng Min Kan, and Claudio Margottini

#### Abstract

The initial stage of IPL project which was managed by ICL started in 2002 at the same time of ICL foundation. The first IPL project was publication of International Journal of Landslides at this stage. The current second stage of IPL was defined by 2006 Tokyo Action Programme on Landslides as an international programme managed by IPL Global Promotion Committee consisting of ICL and ICL supporting organizations (UNESCO, UNISDR and others). IPL includes IPL Projects conducted by ICL member organizations, the triannual World Landslide Forum and the World Centres of Excellence on Landslide Risk Reduction (WCoE). This paper describes those activities and the list of WCoE since 2008 and the list of IPL projects both in the initial stage of IPL projects (2002–2008) and the second stage of IPL projects (2008–present).

#### Keywords

International programme on landslides (IPL) World centres of excellence on landslide risk reduction (WCoE) International consortium on landslides (ICL) International strategy for disaster risk reduction (ISDR)

#### Objectives and Management

The objectives of the International Programme on Landslides (IPL) are to provide international authorization and advice to the projects proposed and implemented by ICL members. ICL was initially planned to create an International Programme on Landslides, namely a version focusing on the study on landslides of the UNESCO-IUGS joint project, International Geological Correlation Programme (IGCP).

#### Ecological and Earth Sciences, UNESCO, Paris, France e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Q. Han F.M. Kan C. Margottini IPL Global Promotion Committee, Kyoto, Japan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
C. Margottini e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© The Author(s) 2017 K. Sassa et al. (eds.), Advancing Culture of Living with Landslides, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59469-9\_19

The implementation of IGCP-425 "Landslide Hazard Assessment and Mitigation for Cultural Heritage Sites and Other Locations of High Societal Value" provided a higher evaluation and greater fund raising for most of the thirty-one subproject members. They are very active in research, but suffer from lower evaluations and funding because landslide research is a minor or a very marginal study within the organizations they belong to, and also within established scientific fields in funding programmes. The IGCP project will terminate within 5 years. Continuation is not easy, and a

K. Sassa International Consortium on Landslides (ICL), Kyoto, Japan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>F.M. Kan

UNISDR Asia-Pacific Office in Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand

C. Margottini ISPRA-Italian Institute Form Environmental Protection and Research, Varese, Italy

Q. Han (&)

number of landslide projects will not be adopted in IGCP (a very wide Geoscience Programme). The funding of IGCP425 was around 4000 USD per year, which was shared among 31 subproject leaders as partial travel support fees. The aim of the International Programme on Landslides (IPL) is not to support research funding itself, but provide partial travel fees for members to attend ICL-IPL meetings, propose projects, evaluate projects, report project results, and terminate or continue the projects. The membership fee funds the sustainable and basic financial resources. All management of projects, including proposal, evaluation, and decision on ongoing status is implemented by the IPL Global Promotion Committee of ICL (IPL-GPC). The committee consists of all ICL member organizations and IPL partner organizations (UNESCO, UNISDR, WMO, FAO, UNU, ICSU, WFEO and IUGS). During the first phase from 2008 to 2013, the Chair of IPL-GPC was Salvano Briceno (Former Director of UNISDR for 2001–2011), and the Deputy Chairs were Badaoui Rouhban (Former Director of Section for Disaster Reduction, UNESCO) and Kyoji Sassa (Executive Director of ICL). For the current phase from 2014 to the present, the Chair of the Committee is Qunli Han, Director of Ecological and Earth Sciences, UNESCO, and Deputy chairs are Feng Min Kan, Chief of UNISDR Asia-Pacific Office in Bangkok and Claudio Margottini (Vice President of ICL).

#### Development of International Programme on Landslides (IPL)

The initial stage of IPL was from the First Board of Representatives (BOR) meeting in 2002 to the First World Landslide Forum in 2008. When the initial thirty-three ICL members gathered in this first BOR meeting, IPL projects were classified in two categories. One category is coordinating projects which are planned by ICL multiple members, e.g., the whole ICL project to found a new landslide journal: IPL C100: Landslides: Journal of the International Consortium on Landslides, and the project succeeding the IGCP-412: C101: Landslide risk evaluation and mitigation in cultural and natural heritage sites. One subproject of C101 was C101-1: Landslide investigation and capacity building in Machu Pichu—Aguas Calientes area. Another category is member projects proposed by a single member organization together with its partners.

Initially the ICL board decided to allocate 2000 USD for IPL projects proposed by developing countries, funded by membership fees from developed countries. However, the research result was not cost-effective for the initial three years' experiences. In the Steering Committee meeting in Kyoto just before the UN World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe, 2005, how to use the limited funds effectively was initially examined. The concept was to provide research funds, but to give authorization to each project, and ICL-IPL will evaluate each project at each World Landslide Forum and give an IPL Award for Success in one to three projects. The Award (3000 USD) for one project will be given to its leader. The IPL Award for Success is not an award for the best IPL project, as funding, research facilities and research infrastructure differ in various countries. The award will be given to those projects with success within the given social, technical and financial conditions.

This award was approved in Tokyo, 2008 and applied in the Second World Landslide Forum in Rome, 2011.

The IPL Awards for Success were given at the Second World Landslide Forum at FAO Headquarters, Rome, October 2011, to:

(1) Lynn Highland: U.S. Geological Survey, and Peter Bobrowsky: Geological Survey of Canada (Publication)

IPL 106 Best Practice handbook for landslide hazard mitigation (2002–2007)

#### The IPL Awards for Success were given at the Third World Landslide Forum at China National Convention Center, Beijing, China, 2014, to:

(1) Wei Shan: Research Center of Cold Regions Landslide, China

IPL-132 Research on vegetation protection system for highway soil slope in seasonal frozen regions (2008-present)

IPL-167 The effect of freezing-thawing on the stability of ancient landslide of North-Black highway (2009– present)

(2) Ogbonnaya Igwe: Department of Geology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria IPL-150 Capacity building and the impact of climate-driven changes on regional landslide distribution, frequency and scale of catastrophe (2010–present) IPL-183 Landslides in West Africa: impacts, mechanism and management (2012–present).

#### The Second Stage of the International Programme on Landslides (IPL)

The Round Table Discussion, Strengthening Research and Learning on Earth System Risk Analysis and Sustainable Disaster Management within UN-ISDR as Regards "Landslides", was co-organized by ICL, UNESCO, WMO, FAO, UNISDR, UNEP, UNU and Kyoto University at United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan on 18–20 January 2006. This discussion aimed to implement the 2005 Letter of Intent agreed at thematic session 3.8 New International Initiatives for Research and Risk Mitigation of Foods (IFI) International programme on Landslides (IPL) at the 2nd United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction in 2005. During this Round Table Discussion, the 2006 Tokyo Action Plan on Landslides was adopted. This plan defined the International Programme on Landslides (IPL) as a programme of ICL for the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), which is managed by the IPL Global Promotion Committee consisting of ICL and ICL partners. To promote the 2006 Tokyo Action Plan and to implement the International Programme on Landslides, ICL exchanged Memorandums of Understanding with UNESCO, WMO, FAO, UNISDR, UNU, ICSU and WFEO in 2006. The IPL logo then included those organizations.

New initiatives under the Tokyo Action Plan were to identify the World Centre of Excellence on Landslide Risk Mitigation and to organize a triannual World Landslide Forum. In addition, two categories of IPL (Coordinating Project and Member project) were combined and it was termed as IPL-101, 150, and 200.

#### World Landslide Forum

In order to report and disseminate the activities and achievements of ICL, a World Landslide Forum (WLF) shall be convened once every three years by inviting ICL Members and ICL Supporting organizations, individual members within those organizations, and all levels of co-operating organizations and individual researchers, engineers and administrators. The World Landslide Forum will receive reports on ICL's activities and provide a forum for open discussion and new initiatives from all participants. This role of the meeting was defined as a General Assembly. The first General Assembly was organized at Keck Center of the National Academy of Sciences in Washington DC on 12–14 October 2005. The second General Assembly was organized as the First World Landslide Forum.

#### World Centres of Excellence

The World Centres of Excellence on Landslide Risk Reduction were established by the 2006 Tokyo Action Plan; the Global Promotion Committee (GPC) of the International Programme on Landslides (IPL) will identify at the World Landslide Forum, organized every 3 years, eligible organizations such as universities, institutes, NGOs, government ministries and local governments, contributing to "Risk Reduction for Landslides and Related Earth System Disasters". An independent Panel of Experts, set up by the Global Promotion Committee of International Programme on Landslides (IPL-GPC), endorses the WCoEs. Twelve World Centres of Excellence (WCoEs) 2008–2011 were identified at the First World Landslide Forum in November 2008 at UNU in Tokyo, Japan. Fifteen WCoEs for 2011–2014 were identified at the Second World Landslide Forum in October 2011 at FAO, Rome, Italy. Fifteen WCoEs for 2014–2017 were identified at the Third World Landslide Forum in June 2014 at Beijing, China. Certificates of WCoEs were awarded in Beijing to each leader of the WCoEs by Ms. Irina Bokova, UNESCO Director General.

#### Objectives of WCoE

To strengthen the International Programme on Landslides (IPL) and IPL Global Promotion Committee;

To create "A Global Network of entities contributing to landslide risk reduction";

To implement the ISDR-ICL Sendai Partnerships 2015– 2025 for global promotion of understanding and reducing landslide disaster risk; and

To improve the global recognition of "Landslide Risk Reduction" and its social-economic relevance, and entities contributing to this field.

#### Criteria for WCoE Candidates

Governmental and non-governmental entities such as universities, agencies, and other institutions, and their subsidiary entities (faculties, departments, centres, divisions or others) which meet the following two conditions:

#### Guidelines for WCoE

IPL Global Promotion Committee, based on the activities carried out as a WCoE.

#### Procedure for Identification of WCoEs

Acknowledgements Organizations and individuals supporting the development of ICL and IPL: A programme of ICL were acknowledged in this book at the end of Section 1.3-1 International Consortium on Landslides, although it could not cover all cooperating organizations and individuals. At the end of this article, the record of activities which could be implemented thanks to their strong support is attached with thanks as an Appendix.

#### Appendix

Figure 1 and Tables 1, 2.

Fig. 1 The geographical distribution of World Centres of Excellence and IPL projects

Table 1 The chronological order of all World Centres of Excellence, including both past and ongoing WCOEs

#### List of World Centres of Excellence

IPL Projects (2002–2016)

#### Table 2 The chronological order of all IPL Projects, including past and ongoing projects

No. Title Organization Country Leader Year Status The initial stage of the International Programme on Landslides (IPL: 2002–2008) under support from UNESCO Coordinating projects (C by multiple members) and Member projects (M by a single member)

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Cooperation Programme for Landslides and Water-Related Disaster Risk Management

Kaoru Takara and Kyoji Sassa

#### Abstract

UNITWIN is the abbreviation for the university twinning and networking scheme. This UNESCO programme was established in 1992. During ICL foundation meeting in January 2002, participants from UNESCO advised to link the planned International Programme on Landslides (IPL) to one of UNESCO Programme for the promotion and the authorization. Then, ICL applied for UNITWIN programme to UNESCO soon after the foundation of ICL in 2002. UNITWIN-UNESCO/KU/ICL Landslides Mitigation for Society and Environment Cooperation Programme was established in 2003 at Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan. In 2010, the UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Cooperation Programme was extended to "Landslide and Water-Related Disaster Risk Management" to include more participants dealing with rainfall-induced landslides on slopes, as well as flood, sediment and debris flows in river systems. This paper describes its progress and the activities of capacity development including the list of students and post-doctoral researchers within this programme.

#### Keywords

UNESCO UNITWIN programme International programme on landslides (IPL) International consortium on landslides (ICL) Kyoto university

#### Introduction

During the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) (1990–1999), which was a UN-designated decade for promotion of disaster prevention and mitigation activities, the Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI) of Kyoto University conducted a number of international cooperative research projects with Asian countries such as China, Indonesia and the Philippines. One

K. Takara (&)

UNITWIN Cooperation Programme, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
K. Takara Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan

of them was a research project on the Lishan Landslide in Xi'an, China, to assess the landslide hazard and protect a cultural heritage site, the Lishan Resort Palace from the Tan Dynasty (618-907), located at the foot of Lishan Slope. No landslide has occurred in this slope since the Tan Dynasty, but landslide experts in Japan and China indicated the necessity of detailed monitoring and testing, by mobilizing the most advanced technologies and establishing new landslide hazard assessment technology to protect this cultural

K. Sassa UNITWIN Cooperation Programme from ICL, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
K. Sassa International Consortium on Landslides, 138-1 Tanaka-Asukai Cho, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8226, Japan

© The Author(s) 2017 K. Sassa et al. (eds.), Advancing Culture of Living with Landslides, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59469-9\_20

heritage. Based on the results of this Japan-China joint research, in parallel, UNESCO-IUGS Joint Programme IGCP (International Geological Correlation Programme) sought the development of IGCP from "Geological Correlation" to "Geoscience for the Society". Our project was evaluated to be a good example of "Geoscience for the Society". This project was submitted to IGCP, and IGCP-425: "Landslide Hazard Assessment and Cultural Heritage" (1998–2004) was approved. Note that it is renamed as the International Geoscience Programme but still keeps its original abbreviation IGCP; currently it is a part of the International Geoscience and Geoparks Programme (IGGP), which was approved officially on 17 November 2015 at the General Conference of UNESCO.

As a part of the activities of IGCP-425, the DPRI, Kyoto University (KU), organized a UNESCO-Kyoto University Joint Symposium in Kyoto, Japan in 2002, which included participants from UNESCO, UNISDR, WMO, and Japanese ministries such as MOFA (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology). At this occasion, the International Consortium on Landslides was officially established and UNESCO proposed the establishment of a UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Network to support the International Programme on Landslides (IPL), which is considered a scientific programme contributing to UNISDR. This manuscript outlines the development of the UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Network since its official establishment in March 2003.

#### UNESCO UNITWIN Programme

The UNITWIN programme is explained in the UNITWIN-UNESCO-Chair Programme WEB at: http://en. unesco.org/unitwin-unesco-chairs-programme as follows:

"UNITWIN" is the abbreviation for the university twinning and networking scheme. This UNESCO programme was established in 1992, in accordance with a resolution adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO at its 26th session (1991). The UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme consists of the establishment of UNESCO Chairs and UNITWIN Networks in higher education institutions. This UNESCO programme serves as a prime means of building the capacities of higher education and research institutions through the exchange of knowledge and sharing, in a spirit of international solidarity. Thus it promotes North-South, South-South and triangular cooperation as a strategy to develop institutions. These institutions work in partnership with NGOs, foundations and public and private sector organizations and play an important role in the field of higher education. The UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme opens avenues for the higher education and research community to join forces with UNESCO to contribute to the implementation of its programme and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme covers training, research and exchange of academics and offers a platform for information sharing in all fields within the competence of UNESCO. The majority of the projects are interdisciplinary and intersectoral and involve all the programme sectors of UNESCO, with the active cooperation of its field Offices, Institutes and Centres. National Commissions play an important role by helping to promote the programme nationally, facilitating its execution and evaluating its impact. Because it is totally multidisciplinary in nature, the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme is one of the Organization's most intersectoral programmes".

Currently 50 UNITWIN networks from 24 countries are ongoing as of 1st December 2016. UNITWIN Networks in the fields of Disaster Risk Reduction (only two) and sustainable development (six) are introduced below from the UNITWIN-UNESCO-Chair Programme WEB (many French titled networks are included, but they are not introduced here).

Each UNITWIN cooperation programme has its own logo. Figure 1 is the logo of the UNESCO-KU-ICL UNI-TWIN Cooperation Programme.

#### The First Phase of the UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Cooperation Programme

In March 2003, the UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Network was agreed upon and signed at the Office of the President of Kyoto University among UNESCO, Kyoto University (KU) and ICL (Fig. 2); the name chosen for the network was the "Landslide Risk Mitigation for Society and the Environment Cooperation Programme." The joint network for landslide risk mitigation of UNESCO/KU/ICL is to carry out education, research and capacity building in the field of landslide risk mitigation. The activities are jointly conducted by Kyoto University (especially, the Research Centre on Landslides, which was established in 2003 in the Disaster Prevention Research Institute, and other groups in Kyoto University), ICL and ICL Supporting Organizations. The Integrated Disaster Risk Management group (NEXUS IDRiM), established in 2005 with its secretariat in DPRI, Kyoto University, has joined this network.

The UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Cooperation Programme was established in 2003 to be hosted in Kyoto University. The application to construct the UNITWIN headquarters building as its secretariat was approved by Kyoto University. ICL organized its international symposium on landslide risk mitigation and protection of cultural and natural heritage on 21–24 January in 2004. During this symposium, a memorial meeting of the establishment of the headquarters of UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Cooperation Programme was organized, inviting UNESCO, UNISDR, MEXT, Japan Meteorological Agency representing the WMO, and a representative from the Italian Embassy, as well as ICL members, in the main building of Kyoto University, together with President Kazuo Oike (bottom left photo of Fig. 3). The left panel of Fig. 3 is a symbol of the UNITWIN headquarters building. Prof. Oike composed a haiku—"Eyebrow moon in the sky of Andes, Realm of Landslides". The main IPL project at the beginning of ICL was "Landslides threatening World Heritage Machu Picchu, Peru". The background of this figure is the Machu Picchu citadel. The Andes Mountains are similar to the Japanese archipelago; both are affected by active faults and earthquakes and are full of landslides. All haiku include a key word symbolizing one of four seasons as a rule. Eyebrow moon is a key word of Autumn, and also symbolizes an initial stage of development to the full moon, with a wish for the development of ICL and IPL and UNITWIN. The panel is displayed in the UNITWIN headquarters building (top-right photo of Fig. 3). The building has three rooms, for joint research, the journal and a meeting room. The right-bottom photo presents the opening ceremony of UNI-TWIN Headquarters Building held in the central meeting room on 3 September 2004.

The President of Kyoto University (Dr. Kazuo Oike), three delegates from UNESCO (Dr. Wolfgang Eder, Director of the Division of Earth Sciences, Ms. Winsome Gordon, Section Head of Higher Education, Dr. Badaoui Rouhban, Section Head of Disaster Reduction), the Rector of UNU (Dr. Hans van Ginkel), officers from the Japanese Cabinet Office (Dr. Satoru Nishikawa) and the MEXT (Mr. Nakamura and Mr. Kasuo Akiyama), and the Peruvian Ambassador (Luis J. Macchiavello,), as well as DPRI colleagues, including Director at that time Kazuya Inoue, attended its opening ceremony (Fig. 3).

The ICL organized the 2006 Tokyo Round Table Discussion "Strengthening Research and Learning on Earth System Risk Analysis and Sustainable Disaster Management within UN-ISDR as Regards Landslides" towards a dynamic global network of the International Programme on Landslides (IPL) at the United Nations University (UNU), Tokyo, Japan on 18th to 20th January 2006. This international conference adopted the 2006 Tokyo Action Plan on the International Programme on Landslides (IPL). It proposed the global cooperation network of the IPL, and established the IPL Global Promotion Committee and the IPL World Centre as its secretariat to coordinate and support

Fig. 1 Logo of the UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN cooperate programme

Fig. 2 Signing at the office of Kyoto University President

Fig. 3 UNITWIN headquarters building constructed in Uji Campus, Kyoto University in 2004

Fig. 4 Signing ceremony between UNESCO and ICL in Tokyo on 22 August 2006

implementation of the IPL to formulate a framework for cooperation and to identify focus areas for reducing landslide disaster risk worldwide. It was further agreed that the 2006 Tokyo Action Plan would be implemented within the scope of the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005– 2015, "Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters", adopted at the United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction held in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan in January 2005.

The ICL exchanged Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) with a number of international organizations, such as UNESCO, WMO, FAO, UNISDR, UNU, ICSU and WFEO, to promote the 2006 Tokyo Action Plan. Figure 4 shows a snapshot at the signing ceremony between Mr. Koïchiro Matsuura, the Director-General of UNESCO, and Mr. Kyoji Sassa, the President of ICL. The UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Cooperation Programme has strengthened its cooperation. Based on such activities, the ICL organized the First World Landslide Forum in Tokyo on 18-21 November 2008, of which its objectives were:

This World Landslide Forum (WLF) was succeeded by the Second WLF in Rome in 2011 and the ThirdWLF in Beijing in 2014. The Fourth WLF will be held in the Cultural and Congress Centre in Ljubljana, Slovenia in 2017. The Fifth WLF is currently planned to assemble at the International Conference Center, Kyoto on 2–6 November 2020.

#### The Second Phase of the UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Cooperation Programme

In 2010, the UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Cooperation Programme was extended from its original research area "Landslide Risk Mitigation" to "Landslide and Water-Related Disaster Risk Management" to include more participants dealing with rainfall-induced landslides on slopes, as well as flood, sediment and debris flows in river systems. UNESCO, Kyoto University and ICL renewed the MoU for the UNITWIN programme as an Amendment to the Agreement, which was made on 18 March 2003, at the UNESCO Headquarters in Paris on 16 November 2010. Figure 5 shows the signing by Mr. Paolo Canuti (ICL President), Ms. Sonia Bahri (UNESCO Higher Education Division) and Mr. Norio Okada (Kyoto University DPRI Director) with witnesses: Mr. Kyoji Sassa (ICL Former President), Mr. Badaoui Roubhan (UNESCO Disaster Management Section) and Mr. Salvano Briceno (UNISDR Director-General).

In this second phase, Prof. Kaoru Takara has been playing an important role in capacity building. As show in Table 1, he introduced many international scientists and graduate students to his laboratory at the Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI), Uji Campus Kyoto University. During 2010–2016, he produced eighteen Ph.D.s from nine countries (Brazil 2, China 4, Croatia 2, India, Indonesia 2, Japan 3, Laos PDR, Malaysia 2, Vietnam) at the Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, in which Prof. Takara also has a position as professor in the Civil and Earth Resources Engineering Department of the graduate school.

#### International Journal "Landslides"

One of the most important activities of this UNITWIN Cooperation Programme is the publication of an international journal. In cooperation with Springer, a world-renowned publisher, in 2004 the ICL started a journal "Landslides" in full color.

The Springer home page (http://link.springer.com/journal/ 10346) introduces this journal as follows.

As catastrophic events, landslides can cause human injury, loss of life and economic devastation, and destroy construction works and cultural and natural heritage. The journal Landslides is the common platform for publication of integrated research on all aspects of landslides. The journal publishes research papers, news of recent landslide events and information on the activities of the International Consortium on Landslides.

Coverage includes landslide dynamics, mechanisms and processes; volcanic, urban, marine and reservoir landslides; related tsunamis and seiches; hazard assessment and mapping; modeling, monitoring, GIS techniques; remedial or preventive

Fig. 5 Signing ceremony among UNESCO, Kyoto University and ICL in Paris on 16 November 2010

measures; early warning and evacuation and a global landslide database.

Landslides has been accepted at Thompson ISI for coverage in Science Citation Index Expanded, Current Contents/Physical Chemical and Earth Sciences and Current Contents/Engineering Computing and Technology.

The journal already has published 13 volumes (52 issues) since 2004, including 839 articles as of December 2016. Its Impact Factor (IF) is 3.049, which indicates the quality of this journal. In addition to this regular journal, the ICL publishes books at the occasions of the World Landslide Forums as irregular publications, also from Springer. The editorial work on these publications is implemented at the UNITWIN Headquarters Building at the Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI) in Uji Campus, Kyoto University. Further information is reported in the article "Landslides: Journal of International Consortium on Landslides" by Sassa and Arbanas in this volume (Fig. 6).

#### UNITWIN Laboratory in the Main Campus of Kyoto University, Kyoto Japan

The UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Network group proposed two SATREPS (Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development) projects, jointly funded by the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). New undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatuses (ICL-1 and ICL-2) were developed by these two projects.

1. Risk identification and land-use planning for disaster mitigation of landslides and floods in Croatia (2009–2014) with development of a transportable compact undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus.

2. Development of Landslide Risk Assessment Technology along Transport Arteries in Viet Nam (2011–2017) with development of high-stress undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus to simulate the landslide initiation and the motion of landslides deeper than 100 m.

UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Project has applied for and accepted the use of one laboratory, UNITWIN Laboratory, since 2011. The two undrained ring shear apparatuses that were developed are installed in this laboratory and invited researchers and students have used these two apparatuses to study landslides.

Figure 7 shows the developed ICL-1 transportable undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus. The counterparts of the Croatia project are three universities in Rijeka, Zagreb and Split, and also the Geological Survey of Croatia. The undrained ring shear apparatus developed in the Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, was difficult to transport because of the difficulty of setting it up for undrained capability, as well as its size and weight. To maintain an undrained condition, the central axis must be completely vertical and shear boxes must be completely horizontal in a single plane. Once the apparatus was moved, reproducing the undrained condition was not easy. It took some months to succeed in maintaining the undrained state during rotation. ICL-1 was designed to be transportable by a SUV car, with no necessity of resetting for the undrained condition.

UNITWIN students and researchers who used this apparatus are:

Maja Ostric (Croatia Water)

School: Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan

Title of Doctoral Dissertation: Development of portable undrained ring shear apparatus and its application Date of certification: 23 September, 2013

Vivoda Prodan M—Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) School: Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia.

Title of Doctoral Dissertation: The influence of weathering process on residual shear strength of fine grained lithological flysch components.

Date of certification: 16 September 2016

Krkač M—Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D..)

School: Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.

Title of Doctoral Dissertation: A phenomenological model of the Kostanjek landslide movement based on the landslide monitoring parameters.

Date of certification: 17 July 2015

Fig. 6 Cover pages of the journal "Landslides" and an ICL book for the WLF

Fig. 7 Photo of developed transportable undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus in the factory of the producing company. (At the center front is late Takeshi Nakasono, chief designer of the apparatus, at the center in the back is Maja Ostric, invited from Croatia, who obtained her Ph.D. based on the development of this apparatus)

Figure 8 shows the developed ICL-2 "High-stress undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus" in use in the UNITWIN Laboratory. A new student who passed the Japanese Government Scholarships examination in the Japanese Embassy in Hanoi started his doctoral course study from 1st October 2016. ICL-2 was very much modified and developed to avoid trouble and damage to the apparatus by miss-handling, because severe damage occurred to break the Fig. 8 ICL-2 High-stress undrained dynamic-loading ring shear apparatus (3 MPa) in the UNITWIN laboratory, Kyoto University

central axis of 3 tons under high-stress testing by the servo-control systems for normal stress, shear stress and gap control during the training.

The apparatus was designed for use in developing countries that need equipment with low maintenance costs and technology. The apparatus was donated to the Institute of Transport Science and Technology of the Ministry of Transport in Vietnam (ITST). ITST has made a very good video manual for ICL-2. Many engineers, even without training in Japan, can handle this complicated apparatus. In September 2016, two researchers were invited to write doctoral papers for a Ph.D. During the discussion, they noted that further testing was needed. They asked engineers in ITST in Hanoi to test samples in the fully saturated state. Then, they conducted the undrained dynamic-loading ring shear test by remote control through the internet. It means that the apparatus of ICL-2 can be used from anywhere in the world, if users know how to test though the UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN network.

UNITWIN students and researchers who have used and currently using this apparatus are:

Dang Quang Khang—Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

School: Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan

Title of Doctoral Dissertation: Development of a new high-stress dynamic-loading ring-shear apparatus and its application to large-scale landslides

Date of certification: 23 September, 2015

Hendy Setiawan

School: Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan

Title of Doctoral Dissertation: Landslide Hazard Assessment on the Upstream of Dam Reservoir

Date of certification: The doctoral thesis has been submitted in December 2016, and is under examination.

Pham Van Tien (ITST, Vietnam) and Nguyen Duc Ha (VIGMR, Vietnam) are currently studying using the ICL-2 and ICL-1 to obtain Ph.D. degrees in the Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan

Lam Huu Quang (ITST, Vietnam) is testing soils taken from Vietnam in the ICL-2 that was donated from Japan to Vietnam. He studied and supervised in the UNTWIN programme in Japan and in Vietnam.

Recent papers published or submitted to the journal Landslides using ICL-2 apparatus include the following.

(2016) Mechanism of two rapid and long runout landslides in the 16 April 2016 Kumamoto earthquake using a ring-shear apparatus and computer simulation (LS-RAPID). Landslides 13(6):1525–1534

#### Acknowledgements and Call for Cooperation

The UNESCO-KU-ICL UNITWIN Cooperation programme was established at the suggestion, from six participants from the Science Sector and Cultural Sector of UNESCO at the ICL foundation meeting in January 2002, that the International Programme on Landslides (IPL), to be created by the International Consortium on Landslides (ICL), should be authorized by one of UNESCO programmes, and the UNITWIN Cooperation Programme is the best programme to support IPL. Because of this suggestion, Kyoto University and the International Consortium submitted the application form of UNITWIN Cooperation Programme to the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chair Programmes of the Education Sector of UNESCO. Thereafter, the UNESCO-KU-ICL UNTWIN Cooperation Programme obtained support from the Section of Higher Education in the Education Sector of UNESCO, as well as all of ICL member organizations.

Two new UNESCO Chairs were established within this UNITWIN Network in 2016:

These two universities, which have hosted these UNESCO Chair programmes, are active ICL member organizations. We extend our sincere appreciation to all the involved organizations and individuals and wish the successful further development of this network with strong cooperation from all those partners.

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# Landslides: Journal of the International Consortium on Landslides

Kyoji Sassa and Željko Arbanas

#### Abstract

The international journal Landslides: Journal of the International Consortium on Landslides was established in April 2004 as the core project of the International Programme on Landslides and a joint initiative of the International Consortium on Landslides and the United Nations and other global organizations. The aims of Landslides are to promote landslide science, technology, and capacity building, and to strengthen global cooperation for landslide risk reduction within the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (ISDR). The importance of landslide occurrences, as a one of the main global hazards increasing under global climate change in recent years, focused the scientists, engineers and stakeholders all over the world, especially in regions threatened by landslides, on landslide risk reduction research, with the aim of reducing their consequences. The landslide scientists recognized Landslides as the most important scientific journal in the fields of natural hazards, engineering geology, geotechnics and civil engineering related to any type of landslide research. Results of the most significant landslide research conducted last year were submitted and published in Landslides. The increasing number and quality of published manuscripts in the last years has resulted in a continuous rise of the Landslides journal impact, as expressed by the Thompson Reuters Impact Factor. The Thompson Reuters Impact Factor 2015 is 3.049; ranking No.1 in the category of Engineering, Geological journals. The aims of the Landslides Editorial Board are further improvements of manuscript quality, speed-up of the peer review process and faster publication of landslide science achievements.

#### Keywords

Landslides Journal Science Impact factor Publication

K. Sassa

International Consortium on Landslides, 138-1 Tanaka Asukai-cho, Kyoto, 606-8226, Japan e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Ž. Arbanas (&) Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 3, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© The Author(s) 2017 K. Sassa et al. (eds.), Advancing Culture of Living with Landslides, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59469-9\_21

#### Introduction

The International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) was established in January 2002 to promote landslide research and capacity building, primarily in developing countries, for the benefit of society and the environment, through the establishment of the International Programme on Landslides (IPL) (Sassa 2004). The concept of IPL was developed through discussions at the United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction held in Kobe 2005, followed by a roundtable discussion resulting to the 2006 Tokyo Action Plan (Sassa 2006). Landslide research and science have been developed and conducted within the various disciplines and fields of natural, engineering and social sciences outlined in the 2006 Tokyo Action Plan, but until 2004 there was no international journal strictly focused on landslides. The Japan Landslide Society had published an international newsletter, Landslide News, annually from 1987 to 2003 with Kyoji Sassa as chairperson of the publishing committee and editor-in-chief and with the support of Robert L. Schuster as international chief editor (Sassa et al. 2009).

At the first session of the Board of Representatives of ICL, held at the UNESCO Headquarters in Paris, 19–21 November 2002, Kyoji Sassa proposed Landslides: Journal of the International Consortium on Landslides, as the core project of the IPL which was approved as the first IPL coordinating project (IPL-C100) (Sassa et al. 2009). The proposal included development of the international newsletter Landslide News into an international journal on landslides published in full color, with no color-print charges for authors. After negotiation with several international publishers for publication of a full-color scientific journal, agreement was reached with Springer in 2003. Until Landslides, there was no full-color scientific journal in the world (Sassa et al. 2009). Figure 1 is a cover of Landslides 2016. The design has remained the same from the foundation issue of the Journal in April 2004.

The first issue of Landslides: Journal of the International Consortium on Landslides was published in April 2004 and appeared in journal citations of Thomson Reuters (Institute for Scientific Information, ISI) in 2005. The first Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Knowledge Impact Factor, released in 2008, was 0.986. After 2008 Landslides has been recognized by landslide scientists, researchers, professional engineers, international organizations, national and regional governments and other stakeholders as a high-quality specialized journal related to the scientific, technical, social and all other aspects of landside investigation and remediation in the frame of landslide risk reduction. The number of submitted and published manuscripts has continuously increased, providing Landslides' readers better and better insight into all aspects of landslide research around the world. The rate of manuscripts accepted for publishing is almost the same from the first volume until today, ensuring the established quality level of the journal, with the consequent continuous rise of the quality indicators and impact on the scientific community expressed in its Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Knowledge impact factor, which reached

Fig. 1 The cover of Landslides: Journal of the International Consortium on Landslides

3.049 for 2015 and the ranking No. 1 in geological engineering journals.

The achievements of Landslides from 2004 to 2009 were presented by Sassa et al. (2009) and from 2009 to 2013 by Sassa et al. (2013) in Landslides. In this paper we will present some achievements of Landslides from the first issue in April 2004 until the writing of this manuscript at the end of September 2016, based on data from Thomson Reuters (Institute for Scientific Information) and publisher Springer Nature.

### Impact of the Landslides Journal

#### Impact Factor

One of the most widely accepted impact indexes of a publication to the society is Impact Factor (IF), which is annually reported by Thomson Reuters (Institute for Scientific Information, ISI). The Impact Factor is calculated by dividing the number of current year citations in ISI databases to the source items published in that journal during the previous two years. The IF value is reflected by authors/scientists of published papers, not always by the practitioners/users of published papers.

The Impact Factor of Landslides after its first release in 2008 has shown an almost continuous rise, especially in the last three years, from 0.986 to 3.049 in 2015. The Impact Factor and related data necessary for Impact Factor calculation from 2008 to 2015 are presented in Table 1. There is also a clearly visible rise of citable articles in 2013, when started bimonthly publication of the Landslides journal with 100 pages per issue (Vol. 10, Issues No. 1-4) and 150 pages per issue (Vol. 10. Issues No. 4-5), and again in 2014 when increased the size to 200 pages per issue (from Vol. 11 Issue No.3). The consequence of the rise of published citable articles is also an increasing citation of published articles of 40% in 2013, 23% in 2014 and 40% in 2015.

#### Citations

Impact Factors are calculated based on the number of citations of each article published in a journal during the previous two years, or five years for the five-year Impact Factor. The most cited articles published in Landslides journal, especially in years following the publication of an article, are the most important for a value of the Impact Factor. The five-year Impact Factor indicates the general quality of published articles and it is more appropriate for journals in certain fields such as landslides, because the body of citations may not be large enough to make reasonable comparisons, publication schedules may be consistently late, or it may take longer than two years to disseminate and respond to published works. Table 2. presents the 10 most cited manuscripts published in Landslides to the end of 2015 according to Institute for Scientific Information, ISI.

The most cited article is "The rainfall intensity-duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows: an update" prepared by Fausto Guzzetti, Silvia Peruccacci, Mauro Rossi and Colin P. Stark; Landslides Vol. 5. Issue No. 1 (2008) with 256 citations.

#### The Journal Impact

The influence and impact of a journal in the world of science is quantifiable according to positon of the journal in the Thompson Reuters Journal Citation Reports® related to the achieved Impact Factor. Thompson Reuters Journal Citation Reports® offers a systematic, objective means to critically evaluate the world's leading journals, with quantifiable, statistical information based on citation data. By compiling articles' cited references, JCR helps to measure research influence and impact at the journal and category levels, and shows the relationship between citing and cited journals (http://ipscience. thomsonreuters.com/product/journal-citation-reports).

Landslides journal, according to the Thompson Reuters Journal Citation Reports®, is ranked at the top of 35 journals in the category Engineering, Geological (1/35) and 32nd of 184 journals in category of Geosciences, Multidisciplinary (32/184) (see Table 3) (http://ipscience.thomsonreuters.com/ product/journal-citation-reports).

The category Engineering, Geological, according to the Thompson Reuters Journal Citation Reports®, includes multidisciplinary resources that encompass the knowledge and experience drawn from both geosciences and various engineering disciplines (primarily civil engineering). Resources in this category cover geotechnical engineering, geotechnics, geotechnology, soil dynamics, earthquake engineering, geotextiles and geomembranes, engineering geology and rock mechanics. The much wider category Geosciences, Multidisciplinary covers resources having a general or interdisciplinary approach to the study of the Earth and other planets. Relevant topics include geology, geochemistry/geophysics, hydrology, paleontology, oceanography, meteorology, mineralogy, geography, and energy and fuels. Resources having a primary focus on geology, or geochemistry and geophysics are placed in their own categories (http://ip-science.thomsonreuters.com/mjl/ scope/scope\_scie).

Landslidesjournal has been on the top of the list of journals in the category Engineering, Geological continuously for the

Table 1 Impact factor, 5-year impact factor, number of total citable articles, total cites and cites per volume

Table 2 Ten most cited manuscript published in Landslides to the end of 2015 according to Institute for Scientific Information, ISI

Table 3 Thompson Reuters Journal Citation Reports® ranking of Landslides in the period 2007– 2015

last three years and the difference in Impact Factor between the Landslides and the second ranked Acta Geotechnica is more than 0.6. The top 20 journals, their Impact Factors and total cites in 2015 in the category Engineering, Geological are listed in Table 4. In the much wider category Geosciences, Multidisciplinary, Landslides journal is ranked as 32nd after Journal of Glaciology (IF2015 = 3.109) and before Journal of Hydrology (IF2015 = 3.043) and Geomorphology (IF2015 = 2.813) (https://jcr.incites.thomsonreuters.com/ JCRJournalHomeAction). It is important that Landslides journal has ranked in quartile Q1 for the last three years in the category Geosciences, Multidisciplinary because the position in quartile Q1 is another indicator of the quality and influence of a journal, especially in Europe. In the category Engineering, Geological the Landslides journal has been continuously in quartile Q1 from 2007, except 2008.

Table 4 Top 20 journals ranked by Impact Factor in the category Engineering, Geological in 2015 (http://ipscience.thomsonreuters. com/product/journal-citationreports)

#### Publications

The number of articles submitted and accepted for publication in the Landslides journal continuously increased from the first year of publishing until now. The Landslides journal started in 2004 as a three-monthly journal (four issues per volume) with approximately 100 pages per issue. An increased number of accepted articles accompanied a change from three to bi-monthly publication of the Landslides journal in 2013 with 100 pages per issue (Vol. 10, Issues No. 1-4). The further rise of accepted articles resulted from increasing the number of the pages per issue to 150 pages from Vol. 10. Issues No. 4-5 and to 200 pages per issue from Vol. 11 Issue No. 3 in 2014. A rise in the number of submitted articles followed the increasing Impact Factor and the number of accepted manuscripts in the second half of 2016 indicates a necessary new increase in printed pages per issue.

#### Categories of Articles

Landslides published four major categories of articles:

The categories of Original paper and Technical note are the same as in other scientific journals. The category of Recent Landslides is unique to Landslides and carries on the tradition begun by the Landslide News (1987–2003), an international newsletter published by the Japan Landslide Society (Sassa et al. 2009, 2015). The International Consortium on Landslides aims to contribute to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction through developing landslide sciences, technology, and capacity building, and strengthening global cooperation for landslide risk reduction within developed and developing countries. The ICL established the International Programme on Landslides (IPL), together with ICL supporting organizations (UNESCO, UNISDR, WMO, FAO, UNU, ICSU, WFEO, and IUGS). These activities are reported in ICL/IPL Activities (Sassa et al. 2015).

#### Classification of Articles

The submission of a manuscript to the Landslides journal should be only electronic through the Landslides Editorial Manager (EM) managed by Springer Nature. When an article needs to be submitted through the Landslides Editorial Manager, the author is requested to classify the manuscript based on a list of article classifications (see Table 5). Starting from Vol. 10 (2013), the current article classification has four major classes: Background Science,

Methodology, Application and Types of Landslides. An author can chose one or more classes for the submitted manuscript.

#### Editorial Process

Each article submitted to the Landslides journal should be uploaded in the Editorial Manger (EM) as a New assignment article. New assignment articles are passed to Executive Editors, who are requested to upload their opinions of whether the article should be passed to in-depth review or rejected without in-depth review, and whether contributed category and page length are appropriate or not.

Executive Editors organize editorial meetings every week by Skype and decide the assignment of a handling Editor for each article passed for in-depth review. The handling Editors are assigned from a database of around 100 registered Editors in Editorial Manager (EM), identifying classifications attached to their research area. The handling Editor will assign one or two Reviewers, depending on the article's category, from the database of around 950 registered Reviewers in Editorial Manager, with their personal classifications. Reviewers are searched by classification matching. The handling Editor's recommendation, based on results of conducted reviews for each article, will be uploaded to EM. The Editor-in-Chief will then make a final decision, mostly following the handling Editor's recommendations. During the peer review process, submitted manuscripts go through one or more revision stages leading up to final acceptance or rejection. The editorial status summary is presented in Table 6 (Schwarz and Mannsperger 2016). The table summarizes the activity for the journal office between January 1st and December 31st of each year, but 0nly "Original Submissions" have been taken into account. From Table 6 it is clearly visible that there has been a continuous rise in submitted manuscripts and also that the acceptance and rejection rates have been almost identical during the last three years (and before). The rejection rate for a year is calculated as the number of rejected manuscripts this year compared to the total number of decisions in the year, which is defined here as the number of rejected manuscripts plus the number of accepted manuscripts. The term Reject is used for the calculation of the acceptance and rejection rates, which includes all terms that may exist for rejection decisions: Reject before review; Reject after review; Reject, but resubmit; Reject, out of scope; and so forth. Only the papers for which the Final Disposition Date has been set are taken into account. Final disposition date means that a manuscript is fully completed (Schwarz and Mannsperger 2016).

One of important tasks for the Editorial Board is to reduce the peer review process to enable publishing of an article as soon as possible. The longest period from submission to the final decision was a maximum of around one year. The

Fig. 2 Average time between submission of a manuscript and publication in an Online Issue 2013–2015 (Schwarz and Mannsperger 2016)

Editorial Board is making efforts to reduce this period to 6 months. The average time between submission of the article and publication is presented in Fig. 2 (Schwarz and Mannsperger 2016).

It is clear in Fig. 1 that peer review time has decreased continuously during the last three years, but the time for publishing an article after Springer's Online First® is very long, although this period is becoming shorter.

The publication of accepted articles via Springer's Online First® is very important and enables internet readers to view the article soon after final acceptance. Articles published via Springer's Online First® service are final articles published online after an author has reviewed proofs and all corrections have been carried out. Metadata is sent to all relevant bibliographic services for inclusion in abstracting and indexing databases immediately after online publication. Articles are published on the SpringerLink platform in PDF format and only final pagination and the citation line are later added in the printed version. Articles are fully citable by their DOI (Digital Object Identifier) and the official publication date is the online publication date. Publication of papers through Springer's Online First® helps shorten the time between publication and citation (Schwarz and Mannsperger 2016).

#### Article Downloading

While accepted articles are available to the readers after publishing via Springer's Online First® service, article downloading is an important way for disseminating article results. The downloading of Landslides articles is rapidly increasing in last three years, which also indicates the high quality of the accepted and published articles (Fig. 3).

#### Landslides' Best Paper Award

are listed in Table 7.

The Best Paper Award for the best paper published in Landslides: Journal of the International Consortium on Landslide has been given annually, beginning with the year 2004 for the first volume (Vol. 1) of the journal. The selection of the Best Paper Award is carried out by the Best Paper Award Subcommittee. The judging and ranking of papers were based on a numerical grading system that involved three elements in the final score of the paper: (i) Scientific and technical quality of the paper (up to 50%), (ii) Impact on the profession and society (up to 30%), and (iii) Quality of figures and tables (up to 20%). The proposal of Best Paper Award should be approved by the Board of Representatives of the International Consortium on Landslides. The Landslides Best Paper Awards from the Vol. 1 to Vol. 12 are listed in Table 8.

2015, according to Institute for Scientific Information, ISI,

Acknowledgements Landslides' Editorial Board deeply appreciate the work of all Editors and Reviewers, for their voluntary contributions to editing and reviewing articles submitted to the Landslides journal. In the last 5 years, the number of articles submitted and published in Landslides has increased more than three times from 100 pages per issue and 4 issues per year to 200 pages per issue and 6 issues per year and is still increasing, and may result in more pages per issue and/or possible monthly publication of Landslides. These circumstances would increase the editorial work for Landslides' Editors and Reviewers. The main goals of the Landslides Editorial Board, Editors, Reviewers and all others included in the editorial process are further improvements of manuscript quality, speeding-up of the peer review process and faster publication of landslide science achievements to enable all types of Landslides' readers quick access to new knowledge in landslide science.

Fig. 3 Downloads of Landslides articles 2012–2015 (Schwarz and Mannsperger 2016)

Table 8 The Landslides best paper awards from the Vol. 1 to Vol. 12 (2004–2015)

#### References

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# Advanced Technologies for Landslides (WCoE 2014–2017, IPL-196, IPL-198)

Nicola Casagli, Veronica Tofani, Filippo Catani, Sandro Moretti, Riccardo Fanti, and Giovanni Gigli

#### Abstract

The Earth Sciences Department of the University of Firenze (DST-UNIFI) since 2002 has been a member of the International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) and three times it has been awarded status as a World Centre of Excellence (WCoE) for Landslide Risk Reduction (2008–2010, 2011–2013, 2014–2016). Since 2016, DST-UNIFI has established a UNESCO Chair on Prevention and sustainable management of geo-hydrological hazards. In this paper we describe the activities carried out by DST-UNIFI as a member of ICL and as WCoE in the framework of landslide risk reduction, landslide prevention and management.

#### Keywords

Italy Landslides Monitoring Remote sensing Landslide prediction Multi-sensors drone

#### Introduction

The Earth Sciences Department of the University of Firenze (DST-UNIFI) has, since 2002, been a member of the International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) and it has been awarded status as a World Centre of Excellence (WCoE) for Landslide Risk Reduction three times (2008–2010, 2011– 2013, 2014–2016).

Department of Earth Sciences, University of Firenze, Via La Pira 4, 50212 Florence, Italy

e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
V. Tofani e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
F. Catani e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
S. Moretti e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
R. Fanti e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
G. Gigli e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© The Author(s) 2017 K. Sassa et al. (eds.), Advancing Culture of Living with Landslides, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-59469-9\_22

DST-UNIFI is one of the largest centres for scientific and technological services on geohazards in Italy, and currently comprises 46 full-time employees. The group participates in research and technological development projects in several areas of the world, often in active collaboration with international, national and regional organizations and agencies. The main objective of the group is to focus on landslide studies at all scales, with an emphasis that in recent years has moved towards the application and development of new technologies for landslide disaster prevention, monitoring and early warning, with a special emphasis on remote sensing and regional landslide forecasting models.

In June 2016, the DST-UNIFI successfully established an UNESCO Chair on prevention and sustainable management of geo-hydrological hazards. Since 2002 DST-UNIFI has coordinated or has been involved in several ICL/IPL projects.

In this paper we describe the research activities carried out by DST-UNIFI as WCoE (2014–2017) and the research outcomes of two ongoing ICL/IPL projects (IPL196: Development and applications of a multi-sensors drone for geohazards monitoring and mapping, IPL198: Multi-scale

N. Casagli (&) V. Tofani F. Catani S. Moretti R. Fanti G. Gigli

rainfall triggering models for Early Warning of Landslides (MUSE)) led by DST-UNIFI.

#### WCoE (2014–2017) Activities

#### Research Activities

The objective of the WCoE has been to develop new methodologies and advanced technologies for landslide risk reduction. DST-UNIFI has carried out research and development for the prevention and management of landslides, in order to support policies and actions of risk reduction. In particular, research activity has focused on the development of advanced methodologies useful for applications to landslides as such and has been structured in the following three work packages (WPs):

Concerning WP1 the DST-UNIFI performed monitoring activities of unstable slopes in order to estimate the deformational evolution of the landslide events (in space and time) and to implement the most suitable operational early warning systems (EWS) based on different critical situations (Carlà et al. 2016; Agostini et al. 2014; Bardi et al. 2014; Intrieri et al. 2013). Several sites have been monitored in Italy (Fig. 1 reports the example of the Calatabiano landslide, which occurred in November 2016), all of them were monitored using advanced sensors and portable instruments such as ground-based synthetic aperture radar interferometer (GB-InSAR), terrestrial laser scanning (LIDAR), satellite interferometry (PS-InSAR), GPS antennas and infrared thermography and traditional instrumentation (e.g., strain gauges, inclinometers, piezometers) (Fig. 1) (Nocentini et al. 2015; Margottini et al. 2015; Di Traglia 2014a, b; Gigli et al. 2014a, b).

Each time the best-integrated uses and synergetic approaches were evaluated. Using all these monitoring activities, the DST-UNIFI performed and validated a rapid procedure (called Landslide Triage) for the unambiguous assessment of landslide risk through a specific evaluation sheet, which considers all the hazardous conditions associated with landslides.

The goal of this procedure is to assign, as quickly and objectively as possible, a level of criticality, which allows speeding up the selection of actions to take.

In WP2 the research was focused on the development of a satellite surveillance system, exploiting satellite data for the identification, mapping, monitoring and analysis of risk scenarios associated with landslides, from local to regional scale (Tofani et al. 2017; Bianchini et al. 2014; Lu et al.

• The application of satellite radar interferometry in monitoring and emergency support to areas affected by hydro-geologic instabilities threatening or involving the population and its activities;

2014). Its implementation was carried out by:

Through these issues we tried to use satellite data to increase the number, quality and accuracy of products that can be readily utilized to reduce risk in areas affected by slope instability. Some of these products are: (i) ground deformation velocity maps, (ii) damage assessments, (iii) susceptibility and (iv) risk zonation maps (Ciampalini et al. 2016a).

In particular, the development of a geodatabase dedicated to landslides allowed us to include different types of data such as pre-existing inventories (ancillary records), auxiliary data (e.g., thematic maps, DEMs, VHR optical photos) and new remote sensing SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) data (e.g. from COSMO-SkyMed constellation) and subsequently to properly link them. This makes possible the generation of high quality map products at various levels of specificity (Bianchini et al. 2016; Ciampalini et al. 2016b; Raspini et al. 2015; Tofani et al. 2014; Del Ventisette et al. 2014).

On the other hand, using remotely sensed data acquired through different SAR satellites (e.g., ERS1/2, RADARSAT1/2, ENVISAT, COSMO-SkyMed), the slope deformations of the study areas were monitored in order to promptly undertake alert procedures and to address suitable countermeasures in case of high criticalities. The long time series of displacement provided by the Persistent Scatterer SAR Interferometry (PSInSAR) technique allowed us to define the most critical unstable sectors, to update the extension of landsliding phenomena and to redefine their state of activity (Fig. 2). This was possible by comparing the ground deformation velocities measured at different times over the same target area. Usability of remote sensing data, comprising satellite, optical and ground-based data (e.g., Fig. 1 Calatabiano landslide occurred in October 2016 in Soukhern Italy and was caused by a damaged water pipe. An integrated monitoring system has been installed just after the event. a study area and landslide. b Displacements map derived from GB-Insar measurements from 11/11/2015 to 31/12/2015. (modified from Lombardi et al. 2017)

GB-InSAR) was also exploited during all the phases of the emergency management cycle: prevention, crisis, and post-crisis (Raspini et al. 2014).

In WP3 the research activities include the development of a physically-based model, called HIRESSS (Rossi et al. 2013; Mercogliano et al. 2013), for the real time prediction of shallow landslides induced by rain on large areas, predictive statistical models (SIGMA and MACUMBA models) (Martelloni et al. 2012; Lagomarsino et al. 2013; Segoni et al. 2014a, b; Rosi et al. 2016) based on the identification of rainfall thresholds for triggering landslides, and a nowcasting system which includes a forecasting and alert system valid at the national level for landslides with fast kinematics (not monitorable by satellite).

During the last year, the system of collection, storage and querying of meteorological data was implemented with the creation of an efficient database. The two statistical models have been extended to the whole national territory in order to find a peculiar rainfall threshold for the landslides initiation in each alert zone (137) outlined by the Italian Civil Protection. In particular, the thresholds calculated by the software MACUMBA were essentially improved by applying the new rainfall collecting platform created, then they were subjected to a rigid manual quality control (Segoni et al. 2014c).

The integrated nowcasting system is mainly formed by two levels of forecasting: one is managed by the MACUMBA model in its real-time and one is derived from the output of the HIRESSS physically based model (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2 The Montescaglioso landslides (Basilicata Region, southern Italy) occurred on 3 December 2013, caused by prolonged and intense rainfalls and rapid slope failure, and producing a ground displacement

SqueeSAR data (Raspini et al. 2015)

#### Capacity Development and International Cooperation

In March 2015, the DST-UNIFI successfully applied for an UNESCO Chair on prevention and sustainable management of geo-hydrological hazards (www.unesco-geohazards.unifi. it).

The mission of the Chair is to promote research and development for the prevention and management of geo-hydrological hazards, in order to support policies and actions of risk reduction.

In particular, the Chair aims at the implementation of the Sendai Partnership 2015B2025, launched at the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR) in Sendai by the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) and by the International Consortium on Landslides (ICL), for global promotion of understanding and reducing landslide disaster risk, which was also signed by UNESCO and the Italian Government, among other partners and UN organizations. Applied research for a Safer Society will be the main keyword of the Chair.

of several meters. In the figure is an analysis of the pre-event

The specific objectives of the Chair are:

Several types of activities will be carried out in the framework of the Chair, such as a postgraduate teaching programme, short-term training, research, a visiting professorship, scholarships, and institutional development. The target beneficiaries will be students, professionals, and governmental organizations.

#### ICL/IPL Projects Research Activities

DST-UNIFI is currently involved into two IPL projects, namely:

#### Development and Applications of a Multi-sensors Drone for Geohazards Monitoring and Mapping (IPL 196)

The objective of the proposed project is to test the applicability of a multi-sensors drone to the mapping and monitoring of geohazards. The project has two specific objectives: (i) development of the drone, sensors, safety and automation and (ii) application of the drone as a platform for integrated sensors (multispectral sensor, visible light camera, infrared camera and LIDAR) for the mapping and monitoring of geohazards.

The project activities are related to the two work packages:

WP1: Development of the multicopter drone, sensors, safety and automation.

WP2: Application of the multi-sensors drone for rapid mapping, 3D surface reconstruction, monitoring.

In WP1 the activities have concerned the research and development of the chassis and the flight model to improve flight range and transportable instruments weight limits. Recently a new chassis drone (SATURN) has been designed, after over 70 h of flight of the first prototype. This new chassis is stiffer and more resistant, while maintaining the same weight as the previous one, ensuring more stability and precision during flight, even with heavier instruments (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 SATURN drone

In order to avoid damage or loss of costly instruments after a possible electrical failure, a redundant safety system has been developed. This system includes redundant flight electronics, and in particular we focused on the reliability of the power supply and the GPS signal.

The multicopter drone has been equipped with a visible light and a multispectral NIR camera, while a very light hyperspectral sensor (visible and near infrared) has been specifically designed to be installed on the drone and is currently under development.

WP2 has mainly focused on the application of multi-sensor drones to selected case studies and on the validation of the multi-sensor drone acquisitions with data from ground-based instrumentation for selected test sites. In particular the activity has dealt with the application of the multicopter drone equipped with visible light camera for mapping and 3D surface reconstruction of landslides. 3D surface reconstruction with optical sensors has been carried out during multiple campaigns in order to define the volume variation in time.

The first application of the drone is in the village of Ricasoli, in Tuscany (Italy), which is strongly affected by landslide activity. In this site three survey campaigns have been carried out to determine the capability of this rising technology to characterize and to monitor landslides. High temporal frequency DEMs have been derived by the DST drone in Ricasoli village. In order to obtain a detailed reconstruction of the topography of the site, three aerial photogrammetric survey were conducted on July 2015, March 2016 and April 2016, the second and the third ones being conducted after two landslide events.

The DEMs derived from the three photogrammetric surveys were analyzed and compared with each other in order to detect any possible area affected by slope deforming processes. The volume mobilized among the three acquisitions was also computed (Fig. 5). Further information on the analysis and comparison of DEMs derived from the drone surveys of Ricasoli landslides can be found in Tanteri et al. (2017).

Fig. 5 Elevation difference between the second (March 2016) and first (July 2015) drone photogrammetric surveys in Ricasoli village

Fig. 6 a Distribution of survey points (blue and green) in Tuscany (Italy), b Borehole Shear Test elevation difference, c Tensiometer, d constant-head well permeameter Amoozemeter

#### Multi-scale Rainfall Triggering Models for Early Warning of Landslides (MUSE) (IPL 198)

The main objective of this IPL project is the enhancement of knowledge and methods to integrate landslide prediction models at different scales to build an effective operational multi-scale system for real-time early warning of rainfall-triggered mass movements. The project is structured into two work packages:

#### WP1: Soil properties variability study.

WP2: Analysis and integration of rainfall data and rainfall forecasts.

In WP1 the activity has focused on the characterization of geotechnical properties of the soil cover of the hillslopes in Tuscany (Central Italy) in order to improve the reliability of deterministic model output such as the HIRESSS (HIgh REsolution Slope Stability Simulator; Rossi et al. 2013). This software makes use of a Monte Carlo simulation technique to manage the uncertainty typical of geotechnical and hydrological input parameters, which is a common weakness of deterministic models. Uncertainty in the geotechnical input parameter values can be solved by using a frequency distribution model for the parameters. This helps to restrict the number of in situ and laboratory measurements and is crucial for reducing computation time within HIRESSS and other similar distributed numerical models at the basin scale (Fig. 6).

In the Tuscany region (22,994 km<sup>2</sup> ) 130 survey points were selected. The following in situ measurements were performed at each survey point (Fig. 6): (i) shear strength under natural conditions by means of a Borehole Shear Test (Lutenegger and Halberg 1981) jointly with the (ii) matric suction obtained with a tensiometer, (iii) saturated hydraulic conductivity (ksat) by means of a constant-head well permeameter Amoozemeter (Amoozegar 1989) and (iv) sampling of two aliquots (\*2 kg each) of the material for laboratory tests. The Borehole Shear Test allows the measure of shear strength parameters under natural in situ conditions.

In addition to the in situ measures, the grain size distribution and the relationships of phases (porosity, dry unit weight cd) are determined in the laboratory following the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) recommendations (ASTM D422-63 2007, ASTM D2217-85 1998 and ASTM D-4318 2010).

The geotechnical parameters measured have been statistically analyzed and linked to the main lithologies of the bedrock in order to define the input hydrological and geotechnical parameters for the HIRESSS model. The HIRESSS code has been applied in a selected study area located in Northern Tuscany in order to test the performance of the models with the measured geotechnical and hydrological parameters. Further applications will be carried out to test the sensitivity of the model to the variation of the model results (Tofani et al. in review).

In WP2 the system of collection, storage and querying of meteorological data was implemented with the creation of an efficient database that allows the storage of both historical records and real-time data coming from the National Radar Network and also from the rainfall network belonging to the National Civil Protection. In this way, new data can be continuously added to the already stored files in the same format through the same indexing procedures. Therefore, this reference platform was necessary to transfer the physically-based model (HIRESSS) from first an experimental scientific software to an operative system for real-time applications at a regional scale.

#### References

The San Fratello case study. Geomorphology 223:45–60. doi:10. 1016/j.geomorph.2014.06.025

Vardzia Byzantine monastery complex. Georgia Landslides 12 (1):193–204

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# Mechanisms of Landslides and Creep in Over-Consolidated Clays and Flysch (WCoE 2014–2017)

Matjaž Mikoš, Janko Logar, Matej Maček, Jošt Sodnik, and Ana Petkovšek

#### Abstract