1.1 The outline of textile materials

The textile materials include various raw fiber materials which are used in textile and various products processed from textile fibers, such as the one-dimensional yarn, thread, rope, and so on; two-dimensional and shape-based fabrics, textile nets, flakes, and so on; and three-dimensional and form-based clothing, braids, utensils, and its reinforced composites. The basic textile processing process is shown in Figure 1.

As shown in Table 1, the textile materials are essentially different from traditional engineering materials; moreover, textile materials are flexible, easy to change their shape, and generally light weight; these characters can largely compensate the defects of engineering materials. According to the form, textile materials can be divided into fibers, yarns, flat fabrics, and three-dimensional fabrics. The fibers are spun to form the yarns, which are then weaved into the fabrics by weaving technology or knitting technology. In addition, the nonwoven fabrics are formed directly by winding the fibers.

#### 1.1.1 Fiber

The shape of fibers is flexible and elongate, with length (Figure 2) and diameter ratio (Figure 3) of more than 103 . Theoretically speaking, the fibers have round and

1.1.2 Yarn

1.1.3 Fabric

properties.

Figure 4.

the yarn.

Figure 5.

181

called the "thread" (Figure 4).

Electromagnetic Function Textiles

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85586

The yarn is an elongated body having a certain strength and toughness, in which the fibers are arranged in parallel and are cohered or entangled by twisting or other methods. The yarn is an intermediate product of textile processing. A number of short fibers or filaments are arranged in an approximately parallel state and twisted in the axial direction to form an elongated object having a certain strength and linear density, which is called the "yarn." The strand of two or more single yarns is

A two-dimensional object having thin thickness, large length, and wide width formed by interweaving and interlacing textile fibers and yarns by a certain method is the flat fabric. There are a variety of fabrics (as shown in Figure 5); they could

According to the forming methods, the fabrics can be divided into woven fabric, knitted fabric, and nonwoven fabric. The woven fabric is composed by warp and weft yarns arranged perpendicularly to each other according to some organization rules. The knitted fabric is formed by the yarns bent into a loop. Nonwoven fabrics

Traditional textile materials are mostly dielectric materials and are important electrical insulation materials. The electromagnetic properties of textile materials include electrical conductivity, dielectric properties, electrostatic and magnetic

The morphology of one kind of the yarn. (a) The appearance of the yarn and (b) The distribution of fibers in

The type of the fabric. (a) Woven fabric; (b) Knitted fabric and (c) Nonwoven fabric.

have various materials, forms, colors, structures, and formation methods.

are reinforced by oriented or randomly arranged fiber webs.

1.2 Electromagnetic properties of textile materials

#### Figure 1.

Basic process of textile processing.

Table 1.

The difference between textile materials and traditional engineering materials.

#### Figure 2.

#### Figure 3.

The cross-sectional morphology of natural fibers. (a) Wool fiber; (b) Cotton fiber; (c) Silk fiber; (d) Hemp fiber.

slender bodies with the continuous homogeneous internal structure. But actually, they have a wide variety of cross-sectional shapes, and section shape changing along the length, heterogeneous internal structure, with the porosity form. According to the source of the fibers, they can be divided into natural fibers and chemical fibers. Fibers such as cotton, hemp, silk, and wool are the natural fibers with the longest history.

Electromagnetic Function Textiles DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85586


**2. Publications Statistics**

The summary of the call for papers for this Special Issue on the seven manuscripts submitted: rejected (two; 29%) and published (five; 71%). The published manuscripts come from various continents and countries; the results are summarized in Table 1. The continental breakdown of authors is 61% from North America (USA and Canada), and 39% from Europe (Spain, Greece and Denmark). The average number of authors per manuscript was less than three.

**Citation:** Salmerón-Manzano, Esther. 2021. Laws and Emerging Technologies. *Laws* 10: 46. https:// doi.org/10.3390/laws10020046

Received: 2 June 2021 Accepted: 3 June 2021 Published: 7 June 2021

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

**Table 1.** Statistics of authors by country.

## **3. Authors' Affiliation**

The authors come from eight different affiliations. Table 2 summarises the authors and their affiliations.

## **4. Topics**

The research carried out by the authors in this Special Issue is summarized in Table 3 below. This table identifies the broad areas of law and new technologies that they address. They have been grouped into three main lines of research: Legaltech, New Technologies and Privacy Protection, and New Technologies and Recruitment. Table 4 summarizes the keywords used by all the manuscripts in the Special Issue. It can be seen that there is no repetition of keywords, with the exception of law firms and large law firms, and that in general the keywords are mostly combined.

**Table 3.** Topics for Laws and Emerging Technologies.

**Table 4.** Topics for Laws and Emerging Technologies.

**Funding:** This research was not funded.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable. This study not involving humans or animals.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** Not applicable.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declares no conflict of interest.

## **References**

Caserta, Salvatore. 2020. Digitalization of the Legal Field and the Future of Large Law Firms. *Laws* 9: 14. [CrossRef]

Salmerón-Manzano, Esther. 2021. Legaltech and Lawtech: Global Perspectives, Challenges, and Opportunities. *Laws* 10: 24. [CrossRef]


**Author details**

John Ringson Department of Social Work and Community Development, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**3.1 Field observations (case histories)**

This section provides a brief review of case histories. This can help to appropriately understand the phenomena involved and to identify important aspects of pile-soil-interaction behaviour. These case histories are primarily from the past 50 to 60 years, which describes the observed of some of the damaged piled foundations from the literature (see **Table 1**).

Iwasaki [51] reported the results of investigations on seismic damages to highway bridges during major eight earthquakes in Japan (occurred in 1923 to 1983). Their observation described that many of reinforced concrete buildings, highway bridges and other structures sustained considerable damage due to liquefaction of sandy soils (e.g., Showa Bridge 1964, Yuriage Bridge 1978, Shizunai Bridge 1982, Gomyoko Bridge 1983). The Showa bridge collapse has been a case history of interest in many publications and it was as an iconic example of the detrimental effects of liquefaction-induced lateral spreading on the ground. Hamada [2] argued that a more plausible explanation could be offered based on the ground displacements suffered due to liquefaction induced lateral spreading. In this respect, the JRA code [27] tried to formalise this research and presented methods of estimating the loading due to lateral spreading ground on pile foundations. This problem was revisited by Yoshida et al. [52] and they collated a number of eye-witness accounts to establish the timing of the bridge collapse as well as the lateral spreading of the river banks. It was suggested that lateral spreading of the surrounding ground started after the bridge had collapsed. Madabhushi and Bhattacharya [21] reanalysed the bridge and showed that lateral spreading hypothesis could not explain the failure of the bridge. A similar explanation was reported by Kerciku et al. [53]. As a final remark, Bhattacharya et al. [12, 54] and Mohanty et al. [55] suggested that the Showa Bridge could have collapsed because of bending, buckling, and combined action of bending of pile foundations.

The Niigata Family Court House building was a four-storey building constructed on concrete pile foundations. Hamada [2] suggested that one pile suffered relatively modest damage, as it did not penetrate into the deeper, non-liquefied ground. Madabhushi et al. [56] concluded that the laterally spreading ground around the piles caused the observed distress in these piles.

Further example on the probability of identifying collapse mechanisms is the Kandla Port one of the largest ports in India, located in the western state of Gujarat. Following the Bhuj earthquake of 2001, there was some damage to the port facilities [49]. Dash et al. [57] used conventional analysis of a single pile or a pile group to predict collapse. They concluded that the foundation mats over the non-liquefied crust shared a considerable amount of load of the superstructure and resisted the complete collapse of the building.

**191**

**Case history** Building on Higashinada-ku

1995 Kobe

6.9

Prestressed concrete piles

0.4

12

5

Cracks on piles at near the pile head, in the middle and the bottom of the liquefied layer.

Tokimatsu et al. [48]

Harbour Master's building, Kandla

2001 Bhuj

7.7

Reinforced concrete

0.4

25

15

Piles performed poor.

Miaoziping Bridge

**Table 1.**

2008 Wenchuan

7.9 *Summary of case histories on pile foundation performance in past earthquakes (adapted from Bhattacharya et al. [33]).*

Reinforced concrete

—

100

45

One approach bridge span

collapsed.

**Earthquake event**

**Magnitude (ML)**

**Pile type**

**Pile diameter (m)**

**Pile length (m)**

**Pile length in liquefiable soil (m)**

**Pile performance**

**References**

*The Dynamic Behaviour of Pile Foundations in Seismically Liquefiable Soils: Failure…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94936*

Madabhushi et al. [49]

Kawashima

et al., [50]

*Earthquakes - From Tectonics to Buildings*


**3.6 Microbes-assisted salt tolerance**

Microorganisms such as bacteria, mycorrhiza, and fungi are mostly used agents in mitigation of salt stress of *Brassica* inhabited in either the host plant or rhizosphere through promoting the growth of particular hosts [140; **Table 9**]. For instance, plantgrowth-promoting bacteria *Pseudomonas fluorescens* inoculation in *B. napus* proved to be an effective approach in mitigation of salt stress in *Brassica* crops, as the inoculated seedling under salt stress gave higher plant biomass, RWC, and Pro content for better osmoregulation during stressful conditions [142]. In saline soil, recovery of damaged *B. napus* was recorded by Latef et al. [146] as a consequence of *Azotobacter chroococcum* inoculation, whereas microbes not only improved plant morphological and physiological characteristics but also reduced Pro, MDA, and H2O2 contents to protect salt-induced cell damage. Additionally, the activities of antioxidant enzymes, namely SOD, POD, APX, were also augmented after inoculation conferring salt tolerance while reducing Na+ level within the plants [146]. *Rhizobium* strains capable to produce ACC-deaminase improved nutrients (N, P and K) uptake of *B. napus* in salt-induced condition and thereby, growth parameters, such as plant height, DW, stem diameter, LN, and RWC, were also increased conforming salt tolerance to *B. napus* [143].

**Table 9.** *Microbes-assisted tolerance in Brassica under salt stress.* Inoculation of growth-promoting rhizobacterial strains *Pseudomonas* in regulation of salt mitigation activities of *B. juncea* has been confirmed by recording their positive role in increased GP, growth factors, ACC-deaminase activity, and aminolevulinic acid production even under high salt concentration [44]. Additionally, this microbe also takes part in auxin production, ETH reduction through ACC activity, and nutrient solubilization and so provides better establishment of *B. juncea* against extreme salt exposure [44].

The impaired growth of salt-induced *B. napus* can be ameliorated by applying mycorrhizae (*Glomus macrocarpium*), as inoculation of these microbes increases K+ /Na+ in plant compared with salt-stressed plant alone, and so further abatement of salt damage was recorded in increased growth and yield parameters of *B. napus* with improved nutrient contents as well [148]. The amino acid and fatty acid profile also showed better performance in mycorrhizal inoculated plant under salt exposure in comparison with uninoculated stressed *B. napus* [148]. Moreover, proteins that are involved in cell function, leaf photosynthesis, redox potential, and amino acid metabolism are more prevalent in bacteria applied salt-stressed *B. napus* compared with salt-stressed seedling alone, and this is an important indication of salt tolerance mechanism induced by bacteria [142]. *B. napus* seed inoculation with *Arthrobacter globiformis* benefits higher GP with better seedling growth in high level of salt exposure, and this plant-microbe interaction also facilitates in higher phenolic compounds together with phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and SOD activities and more Pro accumulation as well to counteract salt-stressed damage in salt sensitive plants also [147].


*2.9. Sterility of the Experimental Set-Up (Positive Control)*

To prove the sterility of the different experimental set-ups, the air-powder-water spray was directed to blood agar plates (two per group, six in total). The sterility of the nutritional solution was proved by breeding it at 37 ◦C for 24 h, and then spreading it on a blood agar plate. The agar plates were incubated at 37 ◦C for 24 h, and then CFUs were counted.

#### *2.10. Quality of Biofilm (Negative Control)*

To prove the quality of the biofilm, two test implants from each group (12 in total) served as the negative control and were not cleaned. After biofilm formation, the nutritional solution was rinsed away with sterile water. One implant per group (six in total) was rinsed with sterile water (Aqua ad injectabilia, Braun, Melsungen, Germany) and dried in air for 24 h. The usual fixation in ethanol was not done, to avoid washing-out of the matrix. The samples were gold-coated and examined using a Philips SE XL30 (LaB6 cathode) scanning electron micrograph (SEM) with 20 kV power and a spot size 4 to check biofilm formation and quality. One implant per group (six in total) was incubated in an Eppendorf tube with 1.5 mL nutritional solution and bred at 37 ◦C for 24 h. In anticipation of floating bacteria, the nutritional solution was spread on blood agar and bred at 37 ◦C for 24 h. Colony forming units (CFUs) were then counted (Figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Bacterial growth with the nutritional solution of the negative control (not treated). Dilution grade 1:1,000,000.

### *2.11. Vitality of Bacteria after Cleaning*

To prove the vitality, the waste from both cleaning methods (electrolytic and PSS) was spread on blood agar and bred at 37 ◦C for 24 h. Then CFUs were counted.

#### *2.12. Counting Colonies*

The number of colonies that had grown on the blood agar plates were manually counted using the ImageJ (version 1.51u) software.

#### *2.13. Statistics*

The number of colonies that had grown on the blood agar plates after a dilution to 1:1,000,000 where manually counted and processed by the ImageJ (version 1.51u) software.

Continuous variables are reported as mean ± standard deviation. All groups were tested for normality by the Shapiro-Wilk test. Comparisons between the two cleaning methods were performed with the paired sample *t*-test. Comparisons between the surface and material groups for AirFlow were performed with the Kruskal-Wallis test.

A two-sided *p*-value of ≤0.05 was considered statistically significant. Statistical analysis was performed with R (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria).