**Acknowledgements**

The authors would like to thank the Royal Netherlands Embassy in collaboration Victoria Institute for Research on Environment and Development (VIRED) International for funding this project. The LVEMP (Lake Victoria Environment Management Program) Project additional financial support is greatly appreciated. The authors also extend their gratitude to Mr. Lewela of Moi University, Chemical Analysis laboratory for his invaluable assistance in sample collection and analysis of PTEs.


**Author details**

Tatiana Bojňanská\*, Alena Vollmannová, Judita Lidiková and Janette Musilová Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak Republic

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Use of Common Buckwheat in the Production of Baked and Pasta Products DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101960*


**5.3 Stimulus-control therapy**

418 Progress in Hemodialysis – From Emergent Biotechnology to Clinical Practice

Regular sleep-wake schedule is important. Get up and go to bed the same time every

Regular exercise improves sleep but most people should refrain from exercise at least 4

Develop sleep rituals (listening to musicetc.). It is important to give your body cues that

Only use your bed for sleeping and intimacy. Refrain from using your bed to watch TV

Stay away from caffeine-containing beverages foods and medications nicotine and

Have a light snack before bed with a glass of milk which contains sleep-promoting

Take a hot bath 90 min before bedtime. A hot bath will raise your body temperature but

 Make sure your bed and bedroom are quiet and comfortable. Use appropriate curtains ear plugs or a white noise machine if necessary. A cooler room is recommended. Use a

These suggestions often combine several methods and may sound trivial. Compliance with such advice is still relatively poor however as it frequently requires changes in persistent "bad" habits which are ingrained (Morin et al., 1999). Building a regular sleep schedule and creating an appropriate sleeping environment as well as regular physical activity are very important in combating insomnia or insomnia-like presentations in RLS/PLMD

In terms of sleep hygiene for RLS/PLMD, there are a two main points that bear highlighting. First, the avoidance of alcohol, caffeine and nicotine may be underscored because of their potential contribution to RLS symptoms and/or PLMs. Second, other sleep hygiene practices may or may not have any utility for patients with RLS. Particularly when sleep hygiene is provided to patients as a handout or pamphlet, there is no indication that this helps promote sleep in any patient group. (Martin, 2000; Pigeon &Yurcheshen, 2009).

Relaxation and biofeedback techniques for treating insomnia are based on the assumption that insomnia patients are overly aroused and anxious, and this interferes with their ability to initiate and/or maintain sleep (Lacks, 1993). Relaxation techniques are designed simply to teach patients to relax, and thus improve their ability to sleep. Of several relaxation methods, none has been shown to be more efficacious than the others. Progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training and electromyographic biofeedback seek to reduce somatic arousal (e.g., muscle tension), whereas attention-focusing procedures such as imagery training and meditation are intended to lower presleep cognitive arousal (e.g., intrusive

 In general, biofeedback training is an effective treatment for some insomnia patients, and is as effective as other non-pharmacologic interventions (Morin et al., 1999). If patients can train themselves to relax before sleep or at night after an awakening, they are more capable or falling asleep and staying asleep. It is believed that the beneficial effects of these methods extend beyond the sleep problems in that they facilitate better coping skills in general

it is the drop in body temperature that may leave you feeling sleepy.

day even on weekends.

it is time to slow down and sleep.

alcohol at least 4–6 hr before bedtime.

humidifier if the air is too dry.

**5.2 Relaxation and biofeedback techniques**

thoughts, racing mind) (Spielman et al., 1987).

(Martin, 2000).

(Montgomery & Dennis, 2004).

hr before bedtime.

or work.

tryptophan.

Stimulus-control therapy is a behavioral approach based on the premise that some sleep disturbances are behaviorally conditioned, so that the patient associates the bedroom environment with arousal. The main objective of stimulus control therapy is to reassociate the bed and bedroom with the rapid onset of sleep.

Below are summarized instructions for stimulus-control therapy (Martin, 2000).

*Instructions for Stimulus-Control Therapy*

This method focuses primarily on shortening sleep onset, however, in the case of sleep maintenance insomnia, the instructions may be followed when the patient awakens and cannot fall back to sleep during the night. The patient should avoid lying awake in bed as much as possible and only go to bed when sleepy. No stimulating or distracting activities (e.g. reading exciting books or articles, watching television, looking at a clock) should be available. Although the patient cannot control sleep onset, wake up time should be fixed, so that a regular sleep/wake schedule will develop. Pro hibiting daytime naps is important to take advantage of the sleep deficit accumulated since the sleep period on the previous night, which in itself can shorten sleep onset. As with all psychological therapies, compliance is enhanced when the instructions and their rationales are explained to the patient.

Stimulus control therapy has been shown to be effective in shortening sleep latency compared with placebo intervention in insomnia patients (Lacks, Bertelson, Gans & Kunkel, 1996). Clinical trials have documented the efficacy of stimulus control therapy for both sleep onset and sleep-maintenance insomnia (Espie et al., 1989; Lacks et al., 1993)

### **5.4 Sleep restriction therapy**

Sleep restriction therapy, is based on the observation that many insomnia patients spend an excessive amount of time in bed in futile attempts to achieve more sleep (Spielman, Saskin, & Thorpy, 1987).. Sleep restriction therapy consists of curtailing the amount of time spent in bed to increase the percentage of time spent asleep. This improves the patient's sleep efficiency (time asleep/time in bed). For example, a person who reports staying in bed for eight hours but sleeping an average of five hours per night would initially be told to decrease the time spent in bed to five hours. The allowable time in bed per night is increased 15 to 30 minutes as sleep efficiency improves. Adjustments are made over a period of weeks

Sleep in Patients with ESRD Undergoing Hemodialysis 421

to improve sleep. This could include changes in sleep schedule and changes in the contingencies and reinforcers that promote sleep. The cognitive approach focuses on looking internally to examine, manage, or modify sleep interfering thoughts and beliefs that can interfere with sleep. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia in the routine general practice setting improved sleep quality reduced hypnotic drug use and improved healthrelated quality of life at a favorable cost in chronic insomniacs. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) report somewhat conflicting results on the effectiveness of CBT in patients with insomnia but one systematic review including six RCTs (282 people) found that group or individual cognitive behavioral therapy (including sleep hygiene stimulus control sleep restriction muscle relaxation and sleep education) significantly improved PSQI scores compared with no treatment immediately after treatment and at 3 months (*Montgomery &Dennis, 2004)*. Furthermore another meta-analysis involving 2102 patients in 59 trials found that sleep restriction and stimulus control therapies were more effective than

Considering that the most frequent sleep complaints, such as insomnia, OSAS and RLS, are related to a significant negative impact on functional health status in uraemic patients, the nephrologists should improve their recognition and treatment of these conditions to restore the quality of life of their patients. A good sleep history and, when indicated, a sleep recording, will help the clinician to make an accurate diagnosis and thus identify the best treatment. Nonpharmacologic methods such as behavioral techniques and cognitive therapyas well as pharmacologic approaches and combinations of these methods should be

Afshar, R., Emany, A. Saremi, A., Shavandi, N., & Sanavi, S. (2011). Effects of intradialytic

Allen, R. (2004). Dopamine and iron in the pathophysiology of restless legs syndrome (RLS).

Allen, R.P., Picchietti, D., Hening, W.A., Trenkwalder, C., Walters, A.S., & Montplaisi, J.

Ancoli-Israel, S., Kripke, D. F., Klauber, M. R., Fell, R., Stepnowsky, C., Estline, E., Khazeni,

Auckley, D.H., Schmidt-Nowara, W., & Brown, L.K. (1999). Reversal of sleep apnea

Benz, R.L., Pressman, M.R., Hovick, E.T. *,* & Peterson, D. D. (1999). A preliminary study of

Ballard, R. D. (2005). Sleep and medical disorders. *Prim Care,* Vol. 35, pp. 511–533.

community dwelling elderly. *Sleep,* Vol. 19, pp. 277–282.

aerobic training on sleep quality in hemodialysis patients. *Iranian Journal of Kidney*

(2003). Restless legs syndrome: Diagnostic criteria, special considerations, and epidemiology. A report from the restless legs syndrome diagnosis and epidemiology workshop at the National Institute of Health. *Sleep Med*, pp. 101–119

N. & Chinn, A.(1996). Morbidity, mortality and sleep disordered breathing in

hypopnea syndrome in end-stage renal disease after kidney transplantation. *Am J*

the effects of anemia with recombinant human erythropoietin therapy on sleep,

relaxation techniques when used alone (*Edinger & Sampson., 2003)*.

used for the treatment of sleep problems in hemodialysis patients.

*Diseases,* Vol. 5, No. 2, Apr, pp. 119-23.

*Sleep Med,* Vol*.* 5, pp. 385-391.

*Kidney Dis*, Vol. 34, pp. 739–744.

**6. Conclusion**

**7. References**

until an optimal sleep duration is achieved. Typically, it is best to alter the bedtime and to keep the rising time constant in order to maintain a regular sleep-wake rhythm. By creating a mild state of sleep deprivation, this therapy promotes more rapid sleep onset and more efficient sleep (Hauri, 2000). To minimize daytime sleepiness, time in bed should not be reduced to less than five hours per night. Sleep restriction therapy is modified in older adults by allowing a short afternoon nap.

Lichstein and Reidel (1994) concluded that sleep restriction therapy is actually the preferred technique for insomnia in older patients. In a later study they combined sleep restriction with sleep education for older insomnia patients, comparing a self-help technique (a guiding video) with therapist guidance (Riedel et al., 1995). While the self-help technique alone showed improvement on some sleep variables, therapist guidance was superior in that it improved sleep latency, wake time after sleep onset and sleep satisfaction.

Implementation of this technique requires a high level of motivation and compliance on the patient's part, and close follow up by the clinician. Below are listed the rules for sleep restriction therapy.

### *Instructions for Sleep Restriction Therapy*


**About the Editor**

**Slobodan B. Mickovski** PhD, MSc, BSc(Hons) is a Professor of Civil Engineering and Environmental Technology at the Glasgow Caledonian University. He is an experienced academic with substantial civil and geotechnical engineering background who has worked in sectors including rail, highways, flood defence, marine, residential developments and car parks, erosion protection and forestry. He has specialist expertise in ground bio- and eco-engineering solutions and erosion protection through sustainable use of vegetation including vegetated natural or man-made slopes, nature-based solutions, and natural hazard remediation. He works with a range of clients and provides advice to senior executives and managers at a strategic level.

### *Editorial* **Sustainable Geotechnics—Theory, Practice, and Applications**

**Slobodan B. Mickovski**

Department of Civil Engineering and Environmental Management, School of Computing, Engineering and Built Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Today, modern Geotechnical Engineers, who in the past would have considered the phenomena occurring in the (primarily soil) environment, are faced with developments in environmental sciences that are becoming more and more detailed and sophisticated, with the natural phenomena and processes surrounding the civil engineering infrastructure being modelled, designed, monitored, and assessed in a more holistic way. This Special Issue aimed to bring together the state of the art in Geotechnics with a focus on sustainable design, construction, and monitoring of the performance of geotechnical assets from ground investigations through foundation and drainage design, to soil stabilization and reinforcement. Submissions from engineers and scientists working in the fields of green infrastructure, nature-based solutions, sustainable drainage, eco-engineering, hydro-geology, landscape planning, plant science, environmental biology or bio-chemistry, earth sciences, GIS, and remote sensing were solicited to highlight significant geotechnical components or applications. Case studies showcasing the application of the sustainable development principles (e.g., reuse, recycle, reduce; stakeholder engagement; public health; UN Global Sustainability Goals) in Geotechnics were also welcomed.

This Special Issue was a success in terms of engaging with geotechnical engineers and researchers worldwide who have keen interest in a wide variety of geotechnical issues and are willing to share their experience and expertise in application of the sustainable development concepts in their work. As a result, in this Special Issue, you will be able to read about potential sustainable approaches in transportation geotechnics, urban environment and water resource management.

Attempting to summarize and highlight the points made in this Special Issue, without spoiling the pleasure of reading the papers for you, I would start with a basic concept in Geotechnical Engineering—the shear strength of soils—which is the *fil rouge* which accompanies the reader through this volume.

Pham and co-authors [1] present a novel hybrid soft computing model using Random Forest and Particle Swarm Optimization for estimation of undrained shear strength of soil based on the clay content, moisture content, specific gravity, void ratio, liquid limit, and plastic limit. Applicable to the whole design range of geotechnical engineering (e.g., foundation design, earth and rock fill dam design, highway and airfield design, stability of slopes and cuts, and in the design of coastal structures), this model is based on the experimental results of 127 soil samples from a national highway project in Vietnam, and they were used to generate datasets for training and validating the model. The results of the model comparison showed that the proposed hybrid model has a high accuracy in the prediction of shear strength of soil and is superior to the single RF model without optimization. Thus, the proposed hybrid model (RF-PSO) can be used for accurate estimation of shear strength, which can be used for the suitable designing of civil engineering structures.

Without adequate shear strength of the soil, the effects of climate change, combined with the urbanization and other anthropogenic effects, will adversely affect the stability of natural and man-made infrastructure, as demonstrated in the study by Bezzera et al. [2], who used sustainable techniques for mapping landslides in an urban area in Brazil. Landslides are part of the natural processes occurring on the Earth's surface, and their occurrence is accelerated and triggered by anthropic interference. Inadequate occupation of areas

**Citation:** Mickovski, S.B. Sustainable Geotechnics—Theory, Practice, and Applications. *Sustainability* **2021**, *13*, 5286. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su13095286

Received: 4 May 2021 Accepted: 7 May 2021 Published: 9 May 2021

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

highly susceptible to landslide processes is shown to be the principal cause of accidents on Brazilian urban slopes, especially those occupied by settlements and slums. In their study, Bezzera and co-workers showed that the existence of areas with steep and densely occupied slopes makes the entirety of the municipality area susceptible to landslides. In this context, their study aimed to map the risk of landslides in an urban area using a quali-quantitative model which applies a multicriteria analytical hierarchy process (AHP) to a Geographic Information System (GIS), 11 risk indicators were submitted to pairwise comparisons by 10 risk management specialists in order to determine the relative importance (weighting) for each of these factors as a function of their contribution to the risk. The weightings obtained were combined to produce the final risk map of the study area, using a map algebra framework. The results showed that there is an existing critical risk for the resident population, and to the sustainability in general, primarily related to the possibility of a landslide, with potentially negative economic, environmental, and mainly social impacts.

To improve the strength of the soil and minimize the risks of such natural disasters, novel, sustainable materials are needed. Liu and co-workers [3] used calcium sulfoaluminate cement (CSA) to stabilize a type of marine soft soil in China. They tested the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of CSA-stabilized soil and compared it to ordinary Portland cement (OPC); meanwhile the influence of amounts of gypsum in CSA and cement contents in stabilized soils on the strength of stabilized soils were investigated. X-ray diffraction (XRD) tests were employed to detect generated hydration products, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was conducted to analyze microstructures of CSAstabilized soils. The results of their study, while offering an insight into the micro-structure of stabilized soils, also showed that UCS of CSA-stabilized soils firstly increased and then decreased with contents of gypsum increasing from 0 to 40 wt.%, and CSA-stabilized soils exhibited the highest UCS when the content of gypsum equaled 25 wt.%. Similarly, Cislaghi et al. [4] present a case for biodegradable geogrids leading towards more sustainable materials for geo-environmental engineering. While plastic materials are widely used in geotechnical engineering, especially as geosynthetics, the use of plastic-based products involves serious environmental risks caused by their degradation. The research presented here was focused on biodegradable polymers of natural origin, especially on polylactic acid (PLA), to reduce the use of plastics. Their study aimed to explore the potentiality of biopolymers for the production of geogrids, measuring the chemical and mechanical characteristics of raw materials and of prototype samples, similar to those available on the market. First, chemical composition and optical purity were determined by hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) and polarimetry. Furthermore, samples of uniaxial and biaxial geogrids were custom-molded using a professional 3D printer. Mechanical properties were measured both on the filament and on the prototype geogrids. The results of this study showed that the maximum tensile resistance for the neat-PLA filament was smaller than the one for uniaxial prototype geogrids produced with PLA-based polymers mixed with titanium dioxide. PLA-based materials showed higher tensile properties than polypropylene (PP), the most common petroleum derivative. Conversely, such biomaterials seem to be more brittle and have a scarce elongation rate with respect to PP. Nonetheless, the results of this study are encouraging and can support the use of PLA-based materials for innovative biodegradable geosynthetics production, especially if used sustainably in combination with live plants.

However, sustainable materials contributing to the increase in soil strength would have little value without appropriate planning and design procedures and strategies. On those lines, Al-Janabi et al. [5] offer a case study for experimental and numerical analysis for earth-fill dam seepage, while Wallace et al. [6] demonstrate how adopting erosion control measures can reduce the land required to accommodate temporary and permanent sustainable drainage measures.

In the former study, earth-fill dams, which are the most common and most economical type of dam, but also more vulnerable to internal erosion and piping due to seepage problems, which are the main causes of dam failure, are analyzed in terms of seepage

using physical, mathematical, and numerical models. The results from the three methods revealed that both mathematical calculations and the numerical model have a conjectured seepage line compatible with the observed seepage line in the physical model. However, when the seepage flow intersected the downstream slope and when piping took place, the use of numerical modelling to calculate the flow rate became obsolete as it was unable to calculate the volume of water flow in pipes. This was revealed by the big difference in results between physical and numerical models in the first physical model, while the results were compatible in the second physical model when the seepage line stayed within the body of the dam and low compacted soil was adopted. Numerical seepage analysis for seven different configurations of an earth-fill dam (four homogenous dams and three zoned dams) was conducted at normal and maximum water levels to find the most appropriate configuration among them. This revealed that if a sufficient quantity of silty sand soil is available around the proposed dam location, a homogenous earth-fill dam with a medium drain length of 0.5 m thickness is the best design configuration. Otherwise, a zoned earth-fill dam with a central core and 1:0.5 Horizontal to Vertical ratio (H:V) would be preferable.

In the latter study, Wallace et al. [6] demonstrate the development of a methodological Framework for estimating temporary drainage capacity to inform land requirements for a highway construction project in Scotland. Silt pollution generated during major highway construction projects can prove detrimental to the water environment and the aquatic species that depend on it. Construction activities can leave many kilometers of exposed soil susceptible to erosion from surface water runoff, which can result in silt pollution and degradation of ecologically sensitive watercourses if appropriate mitigation is not in place. In Scotland, assurances need to be provided during scheme development to demonstrate that there is sufficient space to accommodate temporary drainage. In response, a methodological framework has been developed that can be applied before construction commences to estimate the required capacity of settlement ponds, including runoff and soil loss volume estimation. The application of the framework as a case-study demonstrated the potential applicability of the approach and highlighted where further refinements can be made to increase the robustness for future applications by improving the accuracy of input parameters to address site-specific conditions. Furthermore, it demonstrated how adopting erosion control measures can reduce the land required to accommodate sustainable drainage measures, such as temporary settlement ponds.

Bearing in mind that the geographical spread of the research presented in this Special Issue includes Asia, South America, and Europe, it is clear that there is solid awareness of the sustainability in Geotechnical Engineering worldwide, and the geotechnical engineers and researchers work tirelessly to provide innovative solutions for the infrastructure, which should resist the effects of climate change and can be applied worldwide. However, to successfully combat the growing climate change challenges and work towards sustainable and healthy communities, geotechnical engineers should embrace the sustainability approaches (e.g., green infrastructure, nature-based solutions, ground bio-engineering, sustainable drainage; Mickovski [7]) while aiming for the achievement of multiple sustainable development goals. Ending this Editorial, I would encourage you to browse through this Special Issue and thank you for continuing support of sustainability in Geotechnics.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declares no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

*Article*


**6. Social skills training**

Social skills have a significant place in diagnosis of autism. Children with autism experience difficulties in using non-verbal behavioural social skills such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures and gestures to regulate social interaction; failure interaction with peers, problems on sharing enjoyment, interests or achievements with other people and problems in social–emotional reciprocity and may require support as of early ages. Individuals with autism have difficulty in understanding nuances and informal rules, which are sponta‐ neously used during communication. Such social interaction problems may lead to indiffer‐ ence, teasing or bullying. Social interaction efforts of many individuals with autism result in negative experiences as the individual is over stimulated or confused and negatively effects the social engagement of individual. Studies report that negative reactions against individuals with autism from their environment are more challenging that their communication problems [130]. Difficulties in social skill behaviours observed in individuals with autism are defined with neuropsychological models such as the theory of mind [131, 132], executive functions [133, 134] and weak central coherence [135, 136].

**5.1. Assessment**

176 Autism Spectrum Disorder - Recent Advances

their interventions.

**5.2. Intervention**

[129].

**6. Social skills training**

Play is what children to do and they expend considerable social, cognitive and motor resources while playing, therefore play assessment may provide very meaningful insights about a child's interests, functional abilities and behaviours [113-115]. The selection of a play assessment will vary depending upon the developmental status of the child, the purpose of the assessment and the intervention plan. Test of Playfulness [114], Knox Preschool Play Scale [115], Play History [116-118] and Trans-disciplinary Play-based Assessment [119], My Child's Play [120, 121] tests are among the common standardized tests used to plan occupational therapy interventions for the improvement of play skills [117]. Furthermore, occupational therapists frequently refer to Observations of Factors Influencing Playfulness Form [121, 122] to plan

Occupational therapists frequently use sensory integration framework where sensory differ‐ ences of individuals are taken into account in improving play skills of children with autism. Developmental approaches like Dr. Stanley Greenspan's "Floor Time" method which aims to turn the relation between children and their families into a play with mutual interaction that contains trust and pleasure and philosophy of "Follow the child's lead" [123-126]. Addition‐ ally, virtual reality studies are also included under play interventions [127]. During occupa‐ tional therapy interventions, in addition to therapeutic use of play, occupational therapists play an effective role in the organization of play environment and parent education with the

It's important for the occupational therapists to implement therapy programs designed according to sensory integration framework, under the leadership of child in structured environments for the improvement of motor skill, social-emotional well-being, cognitive process, praxis, attention, intimacy, interaction expression, use of feelings/ideas and logical thinking development of child with autism in play based occupational therapy interventions

Social skills have a significant place in diagnosis of autism. Children with autism experience difficulties in using non-verbal behavioural social skills such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures and gestures to regulate social interaction; failure interaction with peers, problems on sharing enjoyment, interests or achievements with other people and problems in social–emotional reciprocity and may require support as of early ages. Individuals with autism have difficulty in understanding nuances and informal rules, which are sponta‐ neously used during communication. Such social interaction problems may lead to indiffer‐ ence, teasing or bullying. Social interaction efforts of many individuals with autism result in negative experiences as the individual is over stimulated or confused and negatively effects the social engagement of individual. Studies report that negative reactions against individuals

consideration of developmental level, challenges and strengths of child [128].

Theory of mind is defined as the capacity of interpreting, deducing and explaining the underlying mental situations in other's behaviours. Preschool children are expected to have developed their theory of mind skills. Insufficient development of theory of mind are reported to lead to difficulties in interpreting emotional status from voice tone and facial expression and in social skills and negatively affects empathy skill of individual [131, 132]. Theory of mind is used to describe the major deficits in social functionality and communication in autism [132].

Dynamic and complicated nature of information process in brain reveals definition of highlevel cognitive functions and concept of executive functions. This theory covers skills such as self-regulation of behaviour sequence, flexibility, response inhibition, planning and organiza‐ tion of behaviour. Executive functions where prefrontal cortex play a central role provides that an individual thinks about himself/ herself and defines what can happen in future and how they can be affected [133]. Executive functioning in autism is an approach studied fort he last 20 years. Studies on executive functioning and frontal lobe functions report that performances of children with autism in executive functions are lower than expected [133, 134]. Social skill deficits, namely executive function disorders or stereotypical behaviours, which are consid‐ ered to be caused by their deficits, are observed in individuals on the spectrum and in their relatives [132-134].

According to weak central coherence model, information received from different sources cannot be integrated in autism [135]. Meaningful and consistent meronymy relation cannot be established from stimulus perceived due to information processing deficit. Weak central coherence can be associated with disadvantages experienced by individuals with autism in areas such as learning, social, language and cognitive skills etc. and it's reported to be the reason for behavioural deviations in these areas [136].

Different disciplines commonly agree that autism is centrally a social skill deficit and therefore this area should be the first area to be targeted in training [137]. In social skill studies for children with autism, attainment of basic skills such as eye contact, using expressions like hello, thank you which are the basics for social communication, answering questions like how are you, playing with peers and getting in line in plays etc. are targeted with priority [137, 138].

There are many advanced social skills that should be attained by a child with autism after the attainment of basic social skills. These social skills can be classified under four main groups; communication skills: self introduction, asking proper questions to meet someone new, starting a conversation, involving in a conversation, not deviating from topic of the conversation, listening in a proper position, not keeping the talk too long, changing the topic properly, using voice tone, facial expression and body posture according to the topic of the conversation [139-141].

Social interaction skills (friendship): These are the skills like touching properly, ringing, answering a call, helping a friend properly, asking for help, spending time together, acting at a proper distance depending on the type of relation, respecting ideas of others, not feeling uncomfortable with changes in rules etc. [140].

Social interaction skills (playing): These are the skills like engagement in play, sharing toys, playing games with rules, getting into a line during play, coping with winning and defeat [140, 141].

Emotion recognition and management skills: They include skills like awareness on emotions, consoling a sad person, anger control and expressing anger properly, accepting criticisms, coping with mocking, sharing happiness, coping with making mistakes, not feeling uncom‐ fortable when trying new things. [140, 142].

Social skill training is not a routine part of occupational therapy interventions for individuals with autism. Occupational therapy interventions play an important role in designing inter‐ vention programs for the assessment and improvement of insufficient social initiations and responses against any occupational performance of the individual with autism at home, school or in society, and in enhancing social participation of individual [130].

In social skill studies with children with autism, skills are tried to be taught face to face or in groups or some skills are taught during playtime with parents or peers [140, 141]. It's reported that a shift can be made from individual works to group works for the development of empathy skill [139]. These working principles are also taken into consideration in occupational therapy interventions [16].

Among the studies on improvement of social skills in children with autism, there are research‐ ers who think that "theory of mind" is the problem [133, 142, 143], and studies, which refer to, structured training programs [140, 144] or developmental approaches [145]. More than one technique is used in some studies. For instance various techniques like scenarios, social skill groups, self-control, class interventions, video modelling, social plays, peer training, peer mediation and circle of friends are used together [146-148]. There are also studies where a single technique is used like social stories [149], peer mediation etc. [150]. It's reported that social skill training of children with autism is more effective in communication with other children in a natural group setting [151].

In a study where 79 studies on children with autism under the age of 12 were reviewed, it was noted that modeling and reinforcement, approach, peer training, scenarios and social stories were used [138]. It's further noted that programs designed with techniques of approaches to learn social skills in groups or socially are more effective in children with autism [138, 152].

#### **6.1. Assessment**

In occupational therapy, social skills of individuals with autism are assessed with observatio‐ nal standardized tests and checklists [153]. Standardized tests helps assessment of social skills and daily living skills of an individual with autism. Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scale [83] and Social Skills Rating System [154] can be given as an example of such tests.

Occupational therapists may make structured interviews with parents and caregivers in addition to the standardized tests, and make observations in the natural settings and structured play settings of the child. During the assessment, informal rating scales can be used in the observation of social skills of the child such as spontaneously engaging in communication, imitation, socially responding, eye contact, game playing, asking for help/ helping, adjusting voice tone, using body language, expressing emotions verbally and non-verbally, giving proper responses, distance with others during communication and interaction [16, 128, 155].

#### **6.2. Intervention**

a proper distance depending on the type of relation, respecting ideas of others, not feeling

Social interaction skills (playing): These are the skills like engagement in play, sharing toys, playing games with rules, getting into a line during play, coping with winning and defeat

Emotion recognition and management skills: They include skills like awareness on emotions, consoling a sad person, anger control and expressing anger properly, accepting criticisms, coping with mocking, sharing happiness, coping with making mistakes, not feeling uncom‐

Social skill training is not a routine part of occupational therapy interventions for individuals with autism. Occupational therapy interventions play an important role in designing inter‐ vention programs for the assessment and improvement of insufficient social initiations and responses against any occupational performance of the individual with autism at home, school

In social skill studies with children with autism, skills are tried to be taught face to face or in groups or some skills are taught during playtime with parents or peers [140, 141]. It's reported that a shift can be made from individual works to group works for the development of empathy skill [139]. These working principles are also taken into consideration in occupational therapy

Among the studies on improvement of social skills in children with autism, there are research‐ ers who think that "theory of mind" is the problem [133, 142, 143], and studies, which refer to, structured training programs [140, 144] or developmental approaches [145]. More than one technique is used in some studies. For instance various techniques like scenarios, social skill groups, self-control, class interventions, video modelling, social plays, peer training, peer mediation and circle of friends are used together [146-148]. There are also studies where a single technique is used like social stories [149], peer mediation etc. [150]. It's reported that social skill training of children with autism is more effective in communication with other

In a study where 79 studies on children with autism under the age of 12 were reviewed, it was noted that modeling and reinforcement, approach, peer training, scenarios and social stories were used [138]. It's further noted that programs designed with techniques of approaches to learn social skills in groups or socially are more effective in children with autism [138, 152].

In occupational therapy, social skills of individuals with autism are assessed with observatio‐ nal standardized tests and checklists [153]. Standardized tests helps assessment of social skills and daily living skills of an individual with autism. Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scale [83]

Occupational therapists may make structured interviews with parents and caregivers in addition to the standardized tests, and make observations in the natural settings and structured

and Social Skills Rating System [154] can be given as an example of such tests.

or in society, and in enhancing social participation of individual [130].

uncomfortable with changes in rules etc. [140].

178 Autism Spectrum Disorder - Recent Advances

fortable when trying new things. [140, 142].

children in a natural group setting [151].

[140, 141].

interventions [16].

**6.1. Assessment**

Occupational therapy interventions for improvement of social skills in individuals with autism should be client-centred, with concrete narrations, supporting active engagement in coopera‐ tion with family and teachers in the natural settings of the individual and should consider emotional differences. Individuals with autism may experience significant difficulties in implementing the social rules despite having memory skills that facilitate repeating and memorizing these rules. Occupational therapists can give social skills training with creatively referring to the routine daily activities of the individual with autism during the sessions. A therapy program which starts with individual works of 30-90 minutes where necessary considerations and modifications are made over an activity related with the occupations of the individual with autism in his/her life and progresses with group works is considered as an ideal occupational therapy intervention. Adult-mediated or peer-mediated activities can be used in intervention. Teaching that the same response would not be proper in every social situation with the consideration of social hierarchy and group work principles during the intervention is an important detail of the intervention [16, 128, 155].

Social Stories and Social Autopsies, Social Skills Lessons and Activities, Jump Starters, Social Skills Activities for Special Needs, and Walker Social Skills Curriculum: The Accepts Pro‐ gramme, Do-Watch-Listen-Say" Framework, Video Modeling methods are frequently used in occupational therapy interventions [156-158].

Occupational therapy interventions designed to improve occupational performance in line with the basic principles given above may help in the development of social skills in individ‐ uals with autism and can increase their social engagement levels.


**4.5. Developmental disorders**

Developmental disorders are ones in which the child develops slower than peers in areas such as motor function, social skills, and cognitive ability. Developmental disorders include Austism, Asperger's Syndrome, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Rett Syndrome, and stereotypic movement disorder, to name a few. Gene expression profiling has been used extensively in Austism and genes involved in neuronal action potential, myelina‐ tion, axon ensheathment, cellular development, and cellular proliferation have been found to be differentially expressed in autistic children [153]. Another study, using an *in vitro* model of Autism found expression differences in genes involved in cell proliferation, neuronal differ‐ entiation, and synaptic assembly [154]. Similarly, a gene expression study in Rett Syndrome [155], which is a rare variant of Austism, has identified genes involved in mitochondrial functions, cellular protein metabolic processes, and RNA processing and DNA organization to be differentially regulated.

In addition to the applications listed here, gene expression profiling can be used in number of other human disorders such as diabetes, hypertension, psychiatric disorders, and infectious diseases.


Abstract

Coastal area is in serious danger from land reclamation in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. This is because of land expansion activities such as urban development. Landscape reclamation is intended for urban city expansion, road construction, housing project, crude oil exploration and sand mining. Reclamation is carried out by both government and private developers. The government sometimes forcefully acquires coastal areas from the native community, remove the mangrove forest and sand fill the area in other to establish projects beneficial to the public. Private investors reclaim coastal areas to execute private business that would boost their economic fortunes. Oil companies clear coastal forest and set up oil wells and pipelines in swampy locations. Increasing population in small communities had also led to the reclamation of coastal areas to create room for the construction of houses to accommodate more people. However, many land reclamation activities are not development-centered, but business-centered. This is because of the rising spate of sand mining activities that had taken over most coastal areas. Sand mines are often abandoned after some years of operation. Reclamation is done without proper environmental impact assessment. This situation had led to the loss of many species.

Keywords: Niger Delta, urbanization, invasive species, hydrocarbon pollution, mangrove, exploration, seismic activities, oil spillages, pipelines