*2.2. TA-ChNFs Preparation*

The suspension of TA-ChNFs was prepared by a procedure proposed by Shao et al. [18]. In brief, the pH was first adjusted to 8.0 by dropwise adding Tris bu ffer solution into 150 cc of ChNFs suspension (∼1 wt.%). After that, 0.51 g of TA was loaded into the ChNFs suspension. The suspension was then magnetically stirred for 6 h at room temperature to coat the surface of ChNFs with TA. Next, the suspension was purified by a repeated centrifugation, followed by redispersing in distilled water. By doing so, the color of the suspension was changed from white to brown. The TA-ChNFs suspension was then sealed and cryopreserved at 4 ◦C.


**3. Synthesis of QDs: aqueous route and mechanism**

The effective synthesis of QDs is a challenging task. Research is warranted in the mechanism of synthesis, leading to the reproducibility of size and shape of QDs, so that the growth of QDs at the time of nucleation can be controlled effectively [22–26]. There are several methods of synthesis of QDs: molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), vapor phase epitaxy (VPE), metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), radio frequency sputtering (RFS), electron beam lithography (EBL), optical ablation, Ball milling, quenching methods, reduction with microorganisms or plants [14] and chemical method [27–34]. Among all, chemical method is the most widely used method for the synthesis of QDs due to its better accuracy and large scale production [35–56]. Various reducing agents such as sodium borohydride, hydrazine hydrate, etc. are used during the chemical reduction synthesis. These methods are broadly divided into non-aqueous and aqueous-mediated reactions. Non-aqueous method have received first remarkable development from Bawendi, Alivisatos and Peng [57–62], popularly known as TOP-TOPO (trioctylphosphine for TOP and TOP oxide) or hot injection method in 1990s. Although the reaction developed by Murray et al. [57] for the synthesis of cadmium chalcogenides is probably the first ever controlled synthesis of semiconducting CdE (E = S, Se, Te) QDs. However, due to the highly toxic, pyrophoric and unstable nature of main precursor dimethyl cadmium [(CH3)2Cd] at room temperature, the method was not preferred [63–67]. Peng et al. [68, 69] contributed a comparatively greener method for the synthesis of CdE, as the first most efficient process of synthesizing highly fluorescent QDs with excellent morphological uniformity. The formed QDs in this high temperature method involved long chain organic solvents with high value of boiling point. Resultant QDs were found to be less defective due to effective surface passivation by TOP/TOPO. Both, the choice of ligand as well

#### *Aqueous-Mediated Synthesis of Group IIB-VIA Semiconductor Quantum Dots: Challenges… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82891*

as the growth temperature, allowed the lattice morphology to be modified in a better way toward the synthesis of QDs. Hot injection method processes through two steps, i.e., rapid nucleation, while the reaction is heated up to the utmost temperature, followed by slow growth of colloidal nano crystals (CNCs) due to the addition of another precursor, with much lowered temperature. Though this method was observed to be suitable for the synthesis of the CNCs/QDs, there are some unexpected drawbacks, which lead the scientists to rethink about this particular process, before they could propose this method for the up gradation of the end products at the industrial level. The primary issues with this method are (a) use of non-ecofriendly organic solvents, (b) cannot be scaled up for mass production, which require several and repetitive reactions to achieve the desired amount of product, (c) non-biocompatibility, as water is not a suitable solvent for them to get solubilized, (d) difficult purification and extraction methods of the QDs from its mother liquor, (e) high cost of solvents as well as the process and (f) non-cooperation of green chemistry principles, which leads the whole process of synthesis into an environmentally challenging problem. Adoption of non-water soluble surface passivators (i.e., TOP/TOPO) confirms the nonbiocompatibility mode for these high temperature synthesis methods; therefore the concept of biocompatible aqueous phase QDs synthesis is warranted. Aqueous route of synthesis have all the positive aspects and most importantly, they are easy to carry out and are environmentally benign. Additionally, one can use high fluorescent nature of QDs in various bio-medications due to their water solubility. One can modify the surface of the QDs as required, with the help of water soluble chiral capping molecules to make the dots size dependent chiral optical property enhancer [70, 71]. Moreover, utilization of short water soluble ligands boost the optoelectronic applications (including photodetectors, solar cells and photocatalysis) too, by reducing dielectric barrier and inter dot separation distances in a solid QD film. Hence the objective of preparation of QDs reach to another domain of methodology, i.e., water-mediated or water soluble routes of synthesis. In early 1980s, Brus [72] and Henglein [3] and their co-workers first pioneered the aqueous synthesis route. They reported the change of band gap of QDs with their size. Vossmeyer et al. presented their work on CdS QDs. They reported the variation of UV-vis absorption spectrum with the change of size of CdS QDs. However, none of them discussed the photoluminescence property. First aqueous based synthesis with fluorescence properties of QDs was introduced by Weller et al. [73]. They have reported the water based synthesis of CdTe QDs under reflux condition at 96°C for prolonged hours, to obtain photoluminescence emission. After that, several approaches have been made toward the aqueous synthesis of CdSe and CdTe QDs. Although, they have achieved a mile stone, but as the research progressed, researchers tried to find the best route of synthesis in which they were able to synthesize the same or better quality CNCs. In the way of harvesting betterment and refinement of the existing methodologies, present day world scientists are trying to reach to a mile stone, in which the QDs are prepared as multiuse molecules. Hence, the aqueous synthesis method is still under investigation and modification. Therefore warrants systematic studies under variable conditions. Presently, global scenario speaks about the understanding of the reaction mechanisms and the suitable greener conditions involved during the synthesis of better quality QDs with easy, cost effective and most importantly greener technological way. However, achievement is still under the margin.


**5.3.8 Genomic instability**

It is generally thought that a major cause of DNA damage that leads to mutations is reactive oxygen species, which are generated as a normal part of oxygen metabolism but are also produced by ionising radiation, metabolism of exogenous compounds (Hussain et al., 2003; Finkel, 2003). It has been shown that endogenous mitochondrial oxidative stress can induce many types of DNA damage including double strand breaks, end-to-end fusions, base and sugar modifications, DNA-protein cross-links, and gross chromosomal rearrangements (Ragu et al., 2007; Samper et al., 2003).

Therefore, the hypothesis predicts that the enhanced oxidative stress may cause genomic instability during meiosis and/or early phase of ontogeny, producing increased rates of random point mutations and/or structural variants of the nuclear genome in the

Therefore, the hypothesis predicts that the risk of preeclampsia, eclampsia, or stillbirth may be increased in the birth of patients with schizophrenia as well as in the pregnancies of women with schizophrenia. Indeed, an excess of stillbirths and neonatal deaths among women with schizophrenia has been reported by several investigators (Sobel, 1961; Rieder et

Furthermore, there has been a body of evidence for an increased risk of obstetric complications in the birth of patients with schizophrenia (Dalman et al., 1999; Cannon et al., 2002). A meta-analysis of population-based data (Cannon et al., 2002) found significant estimates for three main categories of obstetric complications: (1) complications of pregnancies, (2) abnormal fetal growth and development, and (3) complications in delivery. Among all, preeclampsia was the strongest individual risk factor detected in the largest

Although obstetrical events in schizophrenia are often considered as having a direct causative effect, none of the available data can refute the hypothesis that they are merely markers of some other causal process (Rapoport et al., 2005), such as mitochondrial

Since the positive selection of the schizophrenia-associated alleles mentioned above occurs only in the predisposed matrilineal pedigrees, a ubiquitous subpopulation in humans, frequencies of those alleles may not be so high in the general population as if the selection

Thus, the hypothesis predicts that every schizophrenia-associated nuclear gene shows an apparent signature as if it had been subject to a positive selection in the recent evolutionary history of humans. Recent two reports (Lo et al, 2007; Crespi et al., 2007) seem to be in line

On the other hand, the nuclear genome model predicts that every schizophrenia-associated nuclear gene shows an apparent signature of negative selection due to the strong negative

It is generally thought that a major cause of DNA damage that leads to mutations is reactive oxygen species, which are generated as a normal part of oxygen metabolism but are also produced by ionising radiation, metabolism of exogenous compounds (Hussain et al., 2003; Finkel, 2003). It has been shown that endogenous mitochondrial oxidative stress can induce many types of DNA damage including double strand breaks, end-to-end fusions, base and sugar modifications, DNA-protein cross-links, and gross chromosomal rearrangements

Therefore, the hypothesis predicts that the enhanced oxidative stress may cause genomic instability during meiosis and/or early phase of ontogeny, producing increased rates of random point mutations and/or structural variants of the nuclear genome in the

**5.3.7 An apparent signature of positive selection in schizophrenia-associated**

al., 1975; Modrzewska, 1980; Webb et al., 2005).

dysfunction which is implicated in this hypothesis.

had occurred *recently* in the general population.

**genes**

with this prediction.

selection pressure.

**5.3.8 Genomic instability**

(Ragu et al., 2007; Samper et al., 2003).

single population-based cohort study to date (Dalman et al., 1999).

predisposed population. In addition, genomic instability may be more pronounced in males due to lack of antioxidant protection by estrogen.

There have been numerous reports of associations between schizophrenia and chromosomal abnormalities including fragile sites, reciprocal translocations, inversions, insertions, deletions, disomy and trisomy in many autosomes, and sex chromosome aneuploidies (Macintyre et al, 2003). However, with an exception of 22q11 deletion, none of these have been consistently replicated, and with another exception of (1,11) (q42;q14.3) balanced translocation, none provides convincing evidence for the location of a 'susceptibility' gene (Kirov et al., 2005).

A popular explanation in the nuclear genome model may be that most of these structural variants are coincidental findings of no clinical significance. Alternatively, those alterations may indicate genomic instability in schizophrenia. An increased risk of schizophrenia in individuals with 22q11 deletion (Pulver et al., 1994; Murphy et al., 1999) might be due to haplodeficiency of presumptive resistance genes of gain-offunction type and/or presumptive facilitating genes of loss-of-function type aggregated on 22q11.

More recently, it has been reported that rare structural variants such as microdeletions or microduplications of sizes ranging from 100kb to 15MB throughout the genome are more frequent among individuals with schizophrenia than unaffected individuals (Walsh et al., 2008). While many of those structural variants duplicate or delete genes in neurodevelopmental pathways, one third of those do not disrupt genes, leaving their role in causation of the disease unwarranted. Another recent report (Xu et al., 2008) has shown that *de novo* copy number mutations are increased in sporadic schizophrenia. However, the cytobands of those copy number mutations are diverse among the affected individuals and their roles in the pathogenesis still remain unclear. Therefore, no available data can refute the possibility that those structural variants and copy number mutations are not the causes of schizophrenia but the results of the genomic instability in schizophrenia predicted by our hypothesis.

Indeed, direct measure of the de novo mutation rates shows an increased mutation rate in schizophrenia (Awadalla et al., 2010), and genomic and epigenomic instability has been suggested in schizophrenia (Smith et al., 2010). Furthermore, it has been shown that blood cells from patients with schizophrenia present a higher rate of folate-sensitive fragile sites, and that male patients exhibit twice as many fragile sites as females while there are no age effects (Demirhan et al., 2006). This sex difference may indicate that increased fragile sites expression (genomic instability) is the results of enhanced oxidative stress in patients with schizophrenia.


*4.1. One-Dimensional Modelling*

Figure 4a compares the outputs for FEFLOW and PerTy3 for transfer functions for modelling Experiments 1(1D)–6(1D). There was no perching for Experiments 1, 2 and 5. These resemble step-functions, with consistency of results between the two forms of modelling. The values of A for these experiments were 0.3, 0.75 and 0.75, respectively. The model outputs were again consistent, with Experiments 3 and 6 showing perching. The transfer function showed a step increase, followed by an apparent exponential approach to one. The model outputs for the ponded head for these experiments are also consistent (Figure 4b) and both show an exponential approach to equilibrium after a delay and an initial linear rise. The values of A for these experiments were both 1.5. The modelling outputs for Experiment 4 show the least consistency with the numerical rise in the transfer function being slower; and the ponded rise occurring slightly later but both intercepting the upper surface (500 cm). Drainage or rejected recharge occurs with the increase for the analytical function occurring nearly 5 years later than the numerical output for drainage. Overall, the modelling outputs show that the processes are correct and the outputs are adequate for use in groundwater modelling.

**Figure 4.** Of outputs from one-dimensional outputs from PerTy3 (semi-analyt-ical) (dashed) and FEFLOW (numerical) (solid) models (**a**) transfer functions; (**b**) ponded head and (**c**) normalized drainage volume.


**4.1 Subjective evaluation of fabric handle**

Subjective assessment treats fabric hand as a psychological reaction obtained from the sense of touch (Bakar, 2004). Traditionally, in the textile and clothing industries, the assessment of the fabric handle is carried out subjectively by individual judges. The judgements strongly rely on personnel criteria (Yick et al., 1995).

Figure 5 shows the change in thickness with pressure for a soft fabric together with the recovery in thickness as the pressure is removed. The steep initial slope of the curve makes it very difficult to measure thickness with any accuracy as a small change in pressure in this region causes a large change in measured thickness. Thickness at zero pressure always has to be obtained by extrapolation of the curve, as a positive pressure is needed to bring any

It is evident from studies on the subjective evaluation of fabric handle that warm-cool feeling of a fabric very often makes an important contribution to the perception of its over-all handle and quality in the context of a given end use (Bishop, 1996). Alambeta instrument developed by Hes can be used for measuring the warm-cool feeling (Bishop, 1996; Özçelik et al., 2008; Mazzuchetti et al., 2008; Hes, 2004). This feeling, which is generated when fabric initially contacts the skin, is related to the heat flow between the skin and the contacted object. Rough fabric surface reduces the area of contact appreciably, and a smoother surface increases the area of contact and the heat flow, thereby creates a cooler feeling. The correlation between transient heat flux and the warm/cool feeling was investigated by several researchers (Barker, 2002; as cited in Rees, 1941; as cited in Hollies et al., 1953; as cited in Kawabata et al. ,1985). It has been reported that transient heat flux significantly affects clothing comfort in next-to-skin

Prickle is a rather negative attribute associated particularly with fabrics containing a proportion of coarse animal fibres, having diameters of about 30 µm or more. When evaluating the handle and quality of wool containing fabrics, there has been obtained good correlation and therefore prickle characteristics of the fabrics should also be taken into consideration in objective handle measurements (Bishop, 1996). Although the luster and fuzzes of the fabric surface are not generally included in objective handle measurements, since the appearance of fabrics make an important contribution to consumers` garment preferences, the measurement of these properties should also be of interest in handle evaluation. The fabric noise and odour are not redundant in the subjective evaluation of

Fabric handle according to fabric sound has been investigated in recent days. Fabric sound in the forms of sound spectra through Fast Fourier Transform analysis was analyzed (Mitsuo, 2006; as cited in Yi & Cho, 2000). Level pressure of total sound, level range and frequency differences of fabric sound were compared to mechanical parameters measured by KES system (Mitsuo, 2006; as cited Cho et al., 2001, 2005). The physiological responses evoked by friction sounds of warp knitted fabrics to that of electroencephalog, the ratio of

Subjective assessment treats fabric hand as a psychological reaction obtained from the sense of touch (Bakar, 2004). Traditionally, in the textile and clothing industries, the assessment of the fabric handle is carried out subjectively by individual judges. The judgements strongly

textiles but these properties can be useful to evaluate fabric handle (Mitsuo, 2006).

measuring instrument into contact with the fabric surface (Saville, 1999).

**3.5 Other fabric properties related to sensorial comfort**

fabrics (Barker, 2002; as cited in Kawabata et al., 1985).

high to low frequency were also studied (Mitsuo, 2006).

**4. Sensorial comfort of fabrics**

**4.1 Subjective evaluation of fabric handle**

rely on personnel criteria (Yick et al., 1995).

When a person runs their finger across the surface of a fabric, a complex multi-sensory, emotional and cognitive experience takes place. A memory is stirred, an emotion, feeling and association is evoked and a decision is made, an impression becomes embossed in the mind. Decisions and motivations are based on anticipated reality of preference, personality, emotion and moods, for audience or non-audience participation (Moody et al., 2001).

The subjective hand is the result of touch sensation and therefore is dependent on the mechanisms of human tactile sensations. The somatic senses are those nervous system mechanisms by which sensory information is collected from within body. The somatic senses are classified to the three groups:

It is then clear that subjective hand sensing is the combination of various receptors responsible for feeling of texture, pressure, stretching, thermal feedback, dynamic deformation and vibration and from the sum of their complex responses humans can perceive and discriminate between the textiles (Militky& Bajzík, 1997).

In the subjective assessment process of textiles, fabric hand is understood as a result of psychological reaction through the sense of touch. There are variations in how individuals actually feel textiles because people do not have the same sensory perception of identical occurrences. Affecting aspects can be grouped in sociological factors and the physiological factors.

The other main factors affecting the subjective handle evaluation can be defined as; the judges, the criteria of judgement, assessment conditions, assessment technique, the method of ranking and scaling the assessment, analysis of the results (Mahar et al., 1990; as cited in Brand, 1964; Bishop, 1996). Gender, age, education and cultural backgrounds are potential influencing factors. Female individuals in general respond more delicately and sensitively than male individuals and therefore have a finer assessment of a specific parameter (Mäkinen et al., 2005; as cited in Kweon et al., 2004; as cited in Dillon et al., 2000).

Since the services of expert judges are not widely available for research activities, generally students, laboratory assistants and other consumer groups work as panelists. Such panels should be capable of making consistent judgements of textile attributes and due to the high variability of these panelists compared to the expert judges, larger panel sizes should be preferred, at around 25-30 persons (Bishop, 1996).

In order to ensure the reliability of subjective assessments, it is critical to choose the right expressions for the description of a fabric handle parameter (Mäkinen et al., 2005). There are different sensory attributes identified by numerous authors. These are grouped as given in Table 1 (Hu, 2008). The words "thickness," "thinness," "softness," "stiffness," "slippery," "roughness," "tightness," "fullness" and "pliable" are mostly used expressions to describe the feel of a fabric (Sülar & Okur, 2007).

Generally, in order to evaluate the handle of the fabric, fingers are slid on the surface of the fabric, compressed between the thumb and sign finger. The fingers containing more than

Sensorial Comfort of Textile Materials 247

The assessment conditions of subjective handle evaluation are critically important. Different skin hydrations of individuals affect notably the feel of a textile. A higher moisture level on

The evaluation is carried out in three different conditions: sight only, touch only and sight and touch together. During the assessment, in order to prevent the effect of colour and appearance on the assessments, wooden boxes with holes on the facing sides, through which the hands can easily go, can be used. Fabric samples are placed in these boxes prior to assessments. This helps the jury to assess the fabric without seeing it (Sülar &Okur, 2008b). The first attempts of ranking and scaling the assessment methods in hand evaluation of textiles in an organized and quantitative manner were published as early as 1926 and have continued up to the present time and two basic procedures of subjective hand evaluation is

a. Direct method - is based on principle of sorting of individual textiles to defined subjective grade in ordinal scale (e.g., 0 - very poor, 1 - sufficient, 5 - very good, 6 -

b. Comparative method - is based on sorting of textiles according to subjective criterion of evaluation (e.g., ordering from textiles with the most pleasant hand to textiles with the worst hand) (Bakar, 2004). If the number of samples is high, the second approach can be

It is preferable to use a paired comparison technique during assessment, the so-called bipolar pairs of sensory attributes, such as "thin/thick" or "soft/harsh" (Mahar et al., 1990; as cited in Brand, 1964). For the same reason, fabric hand attributes are measured on specific scales thus avoiding the intrinsic weakness of descriptive terminology. In case of using bipolar descriptors in the assessment of the handle, control fabrics are better to be used for the training of the panel members. Control fabrics are chosen according to the related objective properties. The test results for objective properties that are related to sensory attributes were sorted in ascending order for each parameter. The fabrics with minimum, maximum and medium values are determined and used for the initial tests for the selection

It is crucially important to convert the subjective assessment results to the numerical values for finding a relationship between objective measurements to analyze statistical evaluation.

1 … 5 … 10 thinnest … medium … thickest 1 … 5 … 10 softest … medium … stiffest 1 … 5 … 10 smoothest … medium … rougest 1 … 5 … 10 proper … medium … most proper

the skin makes it more sensitive to the sense of touch (Mäkinen et al., 2005).

proposed as follows: (Bakar, 2004; as cited in Howorth,1964):

considered rather time consuming (Sülar & Okur, 2007).

Therefore, using these types of ranking scale is preferable (Table 3).

Table 3. Handle components and the rating scale (Sülar & Okur, 2008a)

of the control fabrics (Sülar & Okur, 2007).

excellent).

250 sensors per cm2 are the crucial important organs determining the fabric quality (Bensaid et al., 2006). Tightening of the fabric between fingers gives idea about thickness, bulkiness, compressibility, thermal absorptivity and surface properties of the fabrics, whereas slipping of the fingers on the surface of the fabrics with a pressure renders about structure and elongation of the fabrics (Aliouche & Viallier, 2000).

Table 1. Sensory attributes of fabrics

There are generally four handle methods for the evaluation of fabric handle, as shown in Figure 6. The multiple finger pinch and the touch-stroke are the most relevant ones.

However, using just the index finger has also proved acceptable. Evaluated properties of the fabrics by these handle techniques are given in Table 2 (Moody et al., 2001; as cited in Dillon & Moody, 2000).

Fig. 6. Handle techniques (1. Touch stroke, 2.Rotating cupped, 3.Multiple finger, 4.Two handed rotation) (Moody et al., 2001)

Table 2. Properties evaluated by different handle techniques (Moody et al., 2001)

250 sensors per cm2 are the crucial important organs determining the fabric quality (Bensaid et al., 2006). Tightening of the fabric between fingers gives idea about thickness, bulkiness, compressibility, thermal absorptivity and surface properties of the fabrics, whereas slipping of the fingers on the surface of the fabrics with a pressure renders about structure and

Stiffness/crispness/pliability/flexibility/limpness Anti-drape/spread/fullness Softness/harshness/hardness Tensile deformation/

There are generally four handle methods for the evaluation of fabric handle, as shown in

However, using just the index finger has also proved acceptable. Evaluated properties of the fabrics by these handle techniques are given in Table 2 (Moody et al., 2001; as cited in Dillon

Figure 6. The multiple finger pinch and the touch-stroke are the most relevant ones.

Fig. 6. Handle techniques (1. Touch stroke, 2.Rotating cupped, 3.Multiple finger, 4.Two

**Handle Technique Properties Evaluated**  1 Touch-stroke Surface quality (texture), temperature 2Rotating cupped action Stiffness, weight, temperature, comfort,

overall texture, creasing

stretch (force-feedback)

Texture, stiffness, temperature, fabric structure, both sides of a fabric, friction,

Thickness/bulkiness/sheerness/thinness Compressibility Weight/heaviness/lightness Snugness/loosenes Warmth/coolness/coldness (thermal characteristics) Clinginess/flowing Dampness/dryness/wetness/clamminess Quietness/noisiness

bending/surface friction/sheer

Smoothness/fineness/silkiness

elongation of the fabrics (Aliouche & Viallier, 2000).

Prickliness/scratchiness/roughness/coarseness/itch

iness/tickliness/stickiness/

Table 1. Sensory attributes of fabrics

handed rotation) (Moody et al., 2001)

and 1 or 2 fingers)

Multiple finger pinch: Rotating between the fingers action with one hand (thumb

4 Two handed rotation action Stretch, sheerness

Table 2. Properties evaluated by different handle techniques (Moody et al., 2001)

Looseness/tightness

& Moody, 2000).

3

The assessment conditions of subjective handle evaluation are critically important. Different skin hydrations of individuals affect notably the feel of a textile. A higher moisture level on the skin makes it more sensitive to the sense of touch (Mäkinen et al., 2005).

The evaluation is carried out in three different conditions: sight only, touch only and sight and touch together. During the assessment, in order to prevent the effect of colour and appearance on the assessments, wooden boxes with holes on the facing sides, through which the hands can easily go, can be used. Fabric samples are placed in these boxes prior to assessments. This helps the jury to assess the fabric without seeing it (Sülar &Okur, 2008b).

The first attempts of ranking and scaling the assessment methods in hand evaluation of textiles in an organized and quantitative manner were published as early as 1926 and have continued up to the present time and two basic procedures of subjective hand evaluation is proposed as follows: (Bakar, 2004; as cited in Howorth,1964):

It is preferable to use a paired comparison technique during assessment, the so-called bipolar pairs of sensory attributes, such as "thin/thick" or "soft/harsh" (Mahar et al., 1990; as cited in Brand, 1964). For the same reason, fabric hand attributes are measured on specific scales thus avoiding the intrinsic weakness of descriptive terminology. In case of using bipolar descriptors in the assessment of the handle, control fabrics are better to be used for the training of the panel members. Control fabrics are chosen according to the related objective properties. The test results for objective properties that are related to sensory attributes were sorted in ascending order for each parameter. The fabrics with minimum, maximum and medium values are determined and used for the initial tests for the selection of the control fabrics (Sülar & Okur, 2007).

It is crucially important to convert the subjective assessment results to the numerical values for finding a relationship between objective measurements to analyze statistical evaluation. Therefore, using these types of ranking scale is preferable (Table 3).

Table 3. Handle components and the rating scale (Sülar & Okur, 2008a)

Sensorial Comfort of Textile Materials 249

organized by Professor Kawabata. In this fabric objective measurement method, scientific principles are applied to the instrumental measurement and fabric low stress mechanical and surface properties such as fabric extension, shear, bending, compression, surface friction and roughness are measured. The fabric handle is calculated from measurements of these properties. Empirical equations for calculating primary hand values and total hand values were put forward by Kawabata and Niwa (Mäkinen et al., 2005; as cited in Kawabata, 1980;

The process of the subjective evaluation according to Kawabata can be given as follows

"primary hand"

The first part of Kawabata`s work was to find the important aspects of handle and the contribution of each to the overall rating of the fabric. For each category such as stiffness, smoothness, etc. were identified and the title of primary hand values were give. The original Japanese terms of these primary hand definitions together with English meanings are given in Table 4. The primary hand values are combined to give an overall rating for the fabric categories such as man's summer suiting, man's winter suiting, lady's thin dress, and man's dress short and knitted fabrics for undershirts. The conversion of the primary hand values is done by using a translation equation for a particular fabric category determined empirically. This total hand value is rated on a five point scale, where five is the best rating (Kawabata,

The second stage of Kawabata`s work was to produce a set of instruments with which to measure the appropriate fabric properties and then to correlate these measurements with the subjective assessment of handle. The aim was that the system would then enable any

The Kawabata Evaluation System for Fabric (KES-F) which has been widely used since the 1970's consists of four specialized instruments: FB1 for tensile and shearing, FB2 for bending, FB3 for compression and FB4 for surface friction and variation. A total of 16 parameters are measured at low levels of force (Table 5). The measurements are intended to

operator to measure reproducibility the total hand value of a fabric (Saville, 1999).

simulate the fabric deformations found in use (Hu, 2008; Chen et al., 2001).

Fig. 7. Measuring principles of the KES system

 Summarized expressions → about fabric characters by Overall

→judgement of fabric quality

as cited in Shishoo, 2000).

Detection of fabric basic mechanical properties such as bending, stiffness, etc.

Physiological sensing data processing in man's brain

(Bona, 1994):

Touch of fabric by hand

1980).

This subjective hand evaluation system requires years of experience and can obviously be influenced by the personal preferences of the assessor as mentioned before. A fabric may be felt light, soft, mellow, smooth, crisp, heavy, harsh, rough, furry, fuzzy or downy soft. So there is a need to replace the subjective assessment of fabrics by experts with an objective machine-based system which will give consistent and reproducible results (Hu, 2008).