2. Materials and methods

#### 2.1. Materials and mix design

The cement in this study was CEM I/42.5 R according to TS EN 197-1 [29]. Fly ash (FA) was used to increase the resistance against ASR and supply utilization by recycling this waste material. CRTS obtained by recycling computer screens was provided from Exitcom Corp. in Turkey. The chemical and physical properties of the cement, FA, and CRTS used in this study are provided in Table 1. A superplasticizer was also added to ensure concrete workability.

Four different types and sizes of aggregate were used: river sand (0–3 mm), crushed sand (0– 4 mm), coarse aggregate 1 (5–12 mm), and coarse aggregate 2 (12–20 mm). The coarse aggregates consisted of crushed stone and their maximum size was 20 mm. Figure 1 shows river sand, crushed sand, and CRTS. The gradation curves for CRTS and the other fine aggregates are shown in Figure 2.

Five different mix designs were investigated, as shown in Table 2. These mix designs contained CRTS in the amounts of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% by weight of total aggregate crushed sand replacements. After the workability of fresh concrete was determined for each mix, five cubes of size 150150150 mm, five beams of size 100100400 mm, five cylinders of 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm in length, five cubes of size 717171 mm, and five prisms of size 2525285 mm were cast to determine the compressive strength, flexural strength and pulse velocity, elastic modulus, abrasion, and ASR, respectively.

#### 2.2. Test methods

Workability. The slump of fresh concrete was measured using the standard slump test apparatus according to ASTM C143 [30].

Densities and water absorption. Dry, saturated densities and water absorption of hardened concrete were measured according to ASTM C642 [31].

Compressive strength. The compressive strength of the hardened concrete was determined according to ASTM 39 [32] at the ages of 3, 7, 28, and 90 days for the cube specimens of 150150150 mm in size. These cubes were removed from the molds after 1 day and cured in water at 21C before testing.

Flexural strength. The flexural strength of the hardened concrete was determined at the ages of 3, 7, 28, and 90 days for the beams of 100100400 mm in size. These beams were removed from the molds after 1 day and cured in water at 21C before testing. The flexural strength was

Chemical properties Physical and mechanical properties

SiO2 20.5 50.2 50.9 Specific gravity (g/cm3

Table 1. Chemical composition and physical properties of cement, fly ash and CRTS.

Figure 1. Photographs of CRTS, crushed sand, and river sand used in the study.

Al2O3 4.65 12.7 2.62 Blaine (m2

BaO — — 9.10 Sb2O3 — — 0.31 ZrO2 — — 0.91 SrO — — 5.97 TiO — — 0.39 CeO2 — — 0.25 Cl 0.01 — — Insoluble residue 0.60 — — Ignition loss 2.15 0.54 —

Constituent (%) Cement Fly ash CRTS Properties Cement Fly ash CRTS

Research on Strength, Alkali-Silica Reaction and Abrasion Resistance of Concrete with Cathode Ray Tube Glass…

Fe2O3 3.40 9.00 0.12 Mass stability (mm) 2.00 — — CaO 62.7 12.53 1.54 Setting period start (min) 153 — — Free CaO 1.09 — — Setting period stop (min) 188 — — MgO 1.02 4.33 0.64 90 μ sieve (%) 0.20 — — SO3 2.21 0.39 — 45 μ sieve (%) 12.8 — — Na2O 0.18 2.75 3.60 2 day-strength (MPa) 30.2 — — K2O 0.41 2.50 4.30 7-day strength (MPa) 51.1 — — PbO — — 0.29 28-day strength (MPa) 62.2 — —

) 3.12 2.04 2.70

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73873

135

/kg) 360 212 —

Research on Strength, Alkali-Silica Reaction and Abrasion Resistance of Concrete with Cathode Ray Tube Glass… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73873 135

Table 1. Chemical composition and physical properties of cement, fly ash and CRTS.

The present study investigated the effects of substituting various amounts of CRT glass for fine aggregates in concrete on the following physical, mechanical, and durability properties: unit weight, workability, water absorption, compressive and flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, static and dynamic elastic moduli, abrasion, and ASR expansion. The crushed sand replacement by cathode ray tube glass sand (CRTS) constituted 5, 10, 15, and 20% by weight of

134 Sustainable Buildings - Interaction Between a Holistic Conceptual Act and Materials Properties

The cement in this study was CEM I/42.5 R according to TS EN 197-1 [29]. Fly ash (FA) was used to increase the resistance against ASR and supply utilization by recycling this waste material. CRTS obtained by recycling computer screens was provided from Exitcom Corp. in Turkey. The chemical and physical properties of the cement, FA, and CRTS used in this study are provided in Table 1. A superplasticizer was also added to ensure concrete workability.

Four different types and sizes of aggregate were used: river sand (0–3 mm), crushed sand (0– 4 mm), coarse aggregate 1 (5–12 mm), and coarse aggregate 2 (12–20 mm). The coarse aggregates consisted of crushed stone and their maximum size was 20 mm. Figure 1 shows river sand, crushed sand, and CRTS. The gradation curves for CRTS and the other fine aggregates

Five different mix designs were investigated, as shown in Table 2. These mix designs contained CRTS in the amounts of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% by weight of total aggregate crushed sand replacements. After the workability of fresh concrete was determined for each mix, five cubes of size 150150150 mm, five beams of size 100100400 mm, five cylinders of 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm in length, five cubes of size 717171 mm, and five prisms of size 2525285 mm were cast to determine the compressive strength, flexural strength and pulse

Workability. The slump of fresh concrete was measured using the standard slump test appa-

Densities and water absorption. Dry, saturated densities and water absorption of hardened

Compressive strength. The compressive strength of the hardened concrete was determined according to ASTM 39 [32] at the ages of 3, 7, 28, and 90 days for the cube specimens of 150150150 mm in size. These cubes were removed from the molds after 1 day and cured

velocity, elastic modulus, abrasion, and ASR, respectively.

concrete were measured according to ASTM C642 [31].

the total aggregate.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials and mix design

are shown in Figure 2.

2.2. Test methods

ratus according to ASTM C143 [30].

in water at 21C before testing.

Figure 1. Photographs of CRTS, crushed sand, and river sand used in the study.

Flexural strength. The flexural strength of the hardened concrete was determined at the ages of 3, 7, 28, and 90 days for the beams of 100100400 mm in size. These beams were removed from the molds after 1 day and cured in water at 21C before testing. The flexural strength was

determined using three-point bending tests according to ASTM C78 [33] with an effective span

Research on Strength, Alkali-Silica Reaction and Abrasion Resistance of Concrete with Cathode Ray Tube Glass…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73873

Ultrasonic pulse velocity. The ultrasonic pulse velocity of the hardened concrete was determined by selecting a measurement distance of 400 mm at the ages of 3, 7, 28, and 90 days on the 100�100�400 mm beams. The measurements were performed according to ASTM C597

Static and dynamic elastic moduli. The static elastic modulus was determined on 150�300 mm cylinders at the age of 28 days in compression according to ASTM C469 [35]. The dynamic elastic modulus was determined using the 28-day data that were obtained from the ultrasonic pulse velocity of the beams according to ASTM C597, formula obtained from ASTM C597 was used to calculate the dynamic elastic modulus. The formula of dynamic elastic modulus was

> ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi E 1ð Þ � μ r ð Þ 1 þ μ ð Þ 1 � 2μ

Alkali-silica reaction. ASR was determined on the mortar bars of 25�25�285 mm according

Abrasion. The amount of horizontal surface abrasion was determined on the cubes of 71�71�71 mm using the Bohme testing method according to BS EN 13892–3 [37] after 28 days.

The workability was negatively affected with increasing CRTS content, as shown in Table 2. The slump value slightly decreased when the CRTS content increased by 5%. However, the slump decreased by only 2.75 cm when the CRTS content increased to 20%. According to Ling and Poon, fine particle size glass increases water absorption [38]. Similar to these results, Topcu and Canbaz reported that increasing glass content reduced the workability but the reduction was insignificant [15]. Concrete with glass requires more water to achieve the same workability [5, 21]. Ismail and Al-Hashmi, Kou and Xing, and Shayan and Xu, also reported

Table 3 indicates that up to 15% CRTS content in concrete increases the density of hardened concrete in comparison to plain concrete. However, glass content above 15% decreases the density [23]. Changing the glass content from 15 to 20% produces the largest increase in water absorption, which suggests that glass content above 15% leads to higher porosity than specimens without CRTS. The study by Shayan and Xu also indicates that the density decreases

(1)

137

V ¼

s

of 300 mm.

showed in Eq. (1).

to ASTM C1260 [36].

3.1. Workability

[34] before the flexural strength tests.

3. Experimental studies and discussion

3.2. Unit weight and water absorption

that glass added to concrete decreases the workability [2, 15, 16].

Figure 2. Particle size distributions of fine aggregates.

Table 2. Concrete mix designs.

determined using three-point bending tests according to ASTM C78 [33] with an effective span of 300 mm.

Ultrasonic pulse velocity. The ultrasonic pulse velocity of the hardened concrete was determined by selecting a measurement distance of 400 mm at the ages of 3, 7, 28, and 90 days on the 100�100�400 mm beams. The measurements were performed according to ASTM C597 [34] before the flexural strength tests.

Static and dynamic elastic moduli. The static elastic modulus was determined on 150�300 mm cylinders at the age of 28 days in compression according to ASTM C469 [35]. The dynamic elastic modulus was determined using the 28-day data that were obtained from the ultrasonic pulse velocity of the beams according to ASTM C597, formula obtained from ASTM C597 was used to calculate the dynamic elastic modulus. The formula of dynamic elastic modulus was showed in Eq. (1).

$$\mathbf{V} = \sqrt{\frac{\mathbf{E}\left(1-\mu\right)}{\mathbf{\rho}\left(1+\mu\right)(1-2\mu)}}\tag{1}$$

Alkali-silica reaction. ASR was determined on the mortar bars of 25�25�285 mm according to ASTM C1260 [36].

Abrasion. The amount of horizontal surface abrasion was determined on the cubes of 71�71�71 mm using the Bohme testing method according to BS EN 13892–3 [37] after 28 days.


**8. Conclusions**

Nowadays, heat exchangers play a vital role in the operational efficiency and effectiveness at every processing facility in which heat is essential, whether it is an oil refinery, combined heat and power plants, solar and biomass power plant, etc. As energy efficiency importance grows, the role of heat exchangers will become even greater and their technologies more advanced. Fouling on heat transfer surfaces of power plants are a major economic and environmental problem worldwide. Estimates have been made of fouling costs due primarily to wasted energy through excess fuel burn that are as high as 0.25% of the gross national product (GNP) of the industrialized countries. Many millions of tons of carbon emissions are the result of antifouling inefficiency.

After this study of the state of the art of fouling in heat exchanger, the main conclusion is that fouling problem is latent and unresolved. For this reason, new research projects must be developed to investigate and resolve this old problem without environmental effect.


Non-equilibrium Equation of State in the Approximation of the Local Density Functional and Its Application to the Emission of High-Energy Particles in Collisions of Heavy Ions

*A.T. D'yachenko and I.A. Mitropolsky*


*<IP_ADDRESS> Reaction (level I)*

Reaction refers to the way in HBCs measure their satisfaction with the training [27]. Evaluation indicators should include training objectives, topic, content, venue, time, environment, facilitator's knowledge and preparedness, training manuals, the benefits of training on the job and what HBCs think should have been included in the training. HBCs have to be asked to rate these indicators on a 3-point Likert scale. Additionally, HBCs should also be asked to write suggestions on the training in the comment box. HBCs can be given 45 minutes to complete the evaluation tools at the end of the session.


**10. Conclusion**

Since the inception of aptamer technology, this field has significantly evolved with its foray into a wide variety of applications, including targeted delivery. Aptamers caught the attention of researchers due to their unique advantages for use in therapeutics in nanomedicine due to their small size that gives higher penetration in tissues as compared to antibodies, ease of synthesis, high specificity and affinity that is comparable with antibodies and ease of chemical modifications that allowed

**15**

*Aptamers for Targeted Delivery: Current Challenges and Future Opportunities*

important aspect of treating lysosomal storage diseases.

determine their efficiency at the clinical level.

We would like to thank Lakshmi Narayanan Gopalan for his assistance in the preparation of figures. The salary support for this work was provided by Indo-Finland research grant (IV4SP-FinSynBio-Synthetic Biology), funded by Department of Biotechnology, Government of India (Grant number BT/IN/

**Acknowledgements**

Finland/29/MN/2013).

easy conjugation with a variety of molecules like siRNA/miRNAs, proteins, peptides, antibody, drugs and nanoparticles. However, there have also been challenges in the application of aptamers due to their unique characteristics, *viz.*, small size that lead to quick renal filtration, serum instability and lack of diversity in aptamer library. It is important to note that each of these issues has been addressed in different possible ways. Quick renal filtration of aptamers was tackled by conjugation with high molecular weight moieties, e.g., PEG. Similarly, serum instability was dealt with introduction of modifications to the nucleic acid backbone and modifications at 5′- or 3′-end of the oligonucleotide. The diversity of aptamer library was increased by introduction of modified bases, and this lead to the development of mutant polymerases which were capable of amplifying these unnatural aptamers. Endosomal escape of cell-internalizing aptamers is a very important issue that needs to be addressed for clinical translation. Conjugation of aptamer with endosome escaping peptides will facilitate this issue. But lysosomal localization of aptamers is not always a problem, since lysosomal delivery of proteins or drugs is an

Efforts to up the speed of aptamer selection for industrializing this technology were achieved by development of high-throughput SELEX, and CE-SELEX which brought down the duration of selection process from months or weeks to just a few days. Additionally, the development of next-generation sequencing platform has been a boon for aptamer selection since it allowed assay of millions of aptamer sequences at one go, and alleviated the need to perform several rounds of selection that was earlier a norm. It significantly reduced the amount of time and resources that went in the selection of aptamers. From the point of selectionologists, it is quite important to characterize aptamers in the best possible way, i.e., keep right controls and perform vigorous validation experiments to make sure that aptamers coming out of a lab are robust, and work in hands of different people. Development of working reliable aptamers will pave their way for targeted delivery of therapeutics. Macugen was the first FDA approved aptamer drug that appeared in market for clinical use in 2005. No other aptamer drug has entered the market since then. Several aptamers underwent clinical trials in the last 2 decades as listed in earlier reviews [5, 97, 98]. However, many of them have failed [5, 98]. In many cases, the failure in clinical trials is not due to lack of aptamer specificity or affinity to the target, but because they were unable to provide better treatment over the existing state-of-the-art treatment regimens. However, it is a common phenomenon that more drugs fail during clinical trails than pass it. In the past 2 decades the advances described in this chapter have facilitated in the development of stabilized aptamers that have entered clinical trials. In future, application of aptamers in targeted delivery and therapeutics is only poised to increase due to the establishment of ancillary technologies that facilitate faster and more stable aptamer development. Due to this, a number of aptamers are entering clinical trials. In summary, aptamermediated targeted delivery remains a work in progress; however, with bright results at *in vivo* level and several aptamer drugs in clinical trials, the coming decade will

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84217*

#### *Aptamers for Targeted Delivery: Current Challenges and Future Opportunities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84217*

easy conjugation with a variety of molecules like siRNA/miRNAs, proteins, peptides, antibody, drugs and nanoparticles. However, there have also been challenges in the application of aptamers due to their unique characteristics, *viz.*, small size that lead to quick renal filtration, serum instability and lack of diversity in aptamer library. It is important to note that each of these issues has been addressed in different possible ways. Quick renal filtration of aptamers was tackled by conjugation with high molecular weight moieties, e.g., PEG. Similarly, serum instability was dealt with introduction of modifications to the nucleic acid backbone and modifications at 5′- or 3′-end of the oligonucleotide. The diversity of aptamer library was increased by introduction of modified bases, and this lead to the development of mutant polymerases which were capable of amplifying these unnatural aptamers. Endosomal escape of cell-internalizing aptamers is a very important issue that needs to be addressed for clinical translation. Conjugation of aptamer with endosome escaping peptides will facilitate this issue. But lysosomal localization of aptamers is not always a problem, since lysosomal delivery of proteins or drugs is an important aspect of treating lysosomal storage diseases.

Efforts to up the speed of aptamer selection for industrializing this technology were achieved by development of high-throughput SELEX, and CE-SELEX which brought down the duration of selection process from months or weeks to just a few days. Additionally, the development of next-generation sequencing platform has been a boon for aptamer selection since it allowed assay of millions of aptamer sequences at one go, and alleviated the need to perform several rounds of selection that was earlier a norm. It significantly reduced the amount of time and resources that went in the selection of aptamers. From the point of selectionologists, it is quite important to characterize aptamers in the best possible way, i.e., keep right controls and perform vigorous validation experiments to make sure that aptamers coming out of a lab are robust, and work in hands of different people. Development of working reliable aptamers will pave their way for targeted delivery of therapeutics.

Macugen was the first FDA approved aptamer drug that appeared in market for clinical use in 2005. No other aptamer drug has entered the market since then. Several aptamers underwent clinical trials in the last 2 decades as listed in earlier reviews [5, 97, 98]. However, many of them have failed [5, 98]. In many cases, the failure in clinical trials is not due to lack of aptamer specificity or affinity to the target, but because they were unable to provide better treatment over the existing state-of-the-art treatment regimens. However, it is a common phenomenon that more drugs fail during clinical trails than pass it. In the past 2 decades the advances described in this chapter have facilitated in the development of stabilized aptamers that have entered clinical trials. In future, application of aptamers in targeted delivery and therapeutics is only poised to increase due to the establishment of ancillary technologies that facilitate faster and more stable aptamer development. Due to this, a number of aptamers are entering clinical trials. In summary, aptamermediated targeted delivery remains a work in progress; however, with bright results at *in vivo* level and several aptamer drugs in clinical trials, the coming decade will determine their efficiency at the clinical level.


Demitrack, A. (1986). The Late Quaternary Geologic History of the Larisa Plain,Thessaly,

Doneus, N.; Flory, S.; Hinterleitner, A.; Kastowsky. K.; Kucera, M.; Nau, E.; Neubauer, W.;

Eppelbaum, V. L. 2011. Review of Environmental and Geological Microgravity Applications

Fowler, M.J.F. (2002). Satellite Remote Sensing and Archaeology: a Comparative Study of

Fry, G.L.A.; Skar, B.; Jerpansen, G.; Bakkestuen, V. & Erikstad, L., (2004). Locating

Glenn E. P.; Huete A. R. ; Nagler P. L. & Nelson S. G., (2008). Relationship Between

Hadjimitsis, D.G.; Papadavid G.; Agapiou A..; Themistocleous K.; Hadjimitsis M. G.; Retalis

Iwahashi, J., & Kamiya, I., (1995). Landform classification using digital elevation model by

Jonhson J. K., (2006). *Remote Sensing in Archaeology*, The University of Alabama Press,

Kauth R. J. & Thomas G. S. (1976). The tasseled Cap - A Graphic Description of the Spectral-

Lillesand, T. M.; Kiefer, R. W. & Chipman, J. W. (2004). *Remote Sensing and image*

Linford, N. (2006). The Application Of Geophysical Methods To Archaeological Prospection.

*Geoinformatics* 6 (2), 97 - 108 (in Japanese with English abstract).

*Journal of Geophysics*, vol. 2011, issue 1, pp. 1-9.

indicators. Landscape and Urban Planning 67, 97-107. Gaffney, C. & Gater, J. (2003). *Revealing the Buried Past*, Tempus: Stroud.

*International Journal of Remote Sensing*., 25, 3651-3674.

Purdue University of West Lafayette, Indiana, 4B,44-51.

*interpretation*, Wiley International Edition.

*Reports on Progress in Physics,* v.69, pp. 2205–2257.

Stanford University.

166-168.

55-69.

*Sensors*, 8, 2136-2160.

Tuscaloosa.

Greece: Tectonic, Climatic and Human Impact on the Landscape, Ph.D.thesis,

Scherzer, D.; Schreg, R.; Trinks, I.; Wallner, M. & Sitz, T. (2011). Integrative Archaeological Prospection - Case Study Stubersheimer Alb. Bridging the Gap Between Geophysical Prospection and Archaeological Interpretation, in Archaeological Prospection - Extended Abstracts, ed. by M. G. Drahor & M. A. Berge, 9th *International Conference of Archaeological Prospection*, Izmir, Turkey, pp.

and Feasibility of Its Employment at Archaeological Sites in Israel*, International*

Satellite Imagery of the Environs of Figsbury Ring, Wiltshire. *Archaeol.Prospec.*, *9*,

archaeological sites in the landscape: a hierarchical approach based on landscape

Remotely-sensed Vegetation Indices, Canopy Attributes and Plant Physiological Processes: What Vegetation Indices Can and Cannot Tell Us About the Landscape.

A.; Michaelides S.; Chrysoulakis N.; Toulios L. & Clayton C. R. I. (2010). Atmospheric correction for satellite remotely sensed data intended for agricultural applications: impact on vegetation indices, *Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci*., 10, 89-95 . Hadjimitsis, D.G.; Clayton, C.R.I. & Hope, V.S. (2004). An assessment of the effectiveness of

atmospheric correction algorithms through the remote sensing of some reservoirs.

the skills of image procesingdmainly using the Digital National Land Information.

Temporal Development of Agricultural Crops as Seen by LANDSAT". In Proceedings of the Symposium on Machine Processing of Remotely Sensed Data,

Bartroli, S. R., Garsia, G. E. & Tamba, R. (2011). GPR Imaging of Structural Elements. Case

Bem, C.; Bem, C; Asandulesei, A.; Venedict, B. & Cotiuga, V., (2011). Identity in Diversity, in

Böniger, U. & Tronicke, J. (2010). Integrated data analysis at an archaeological site: A case

Cavalli, R.M.; Colosi, F.; Palombo, A; Pignatti, S. &Poscolieri, M. (2007).Remote

Che, N. & Price, J. C. (1992) Survey of Radiometric calibration results and methods for

Cheetham, P. (2010). An Empirical Reassessment Of The Utility Of The Geonics Em38B,

Clark, A. J. (1990). *Seeing Beneath the Soil. Prospecting Methods in Archaeology*. London: B.T.

Conghe, S. & Woodcock, E. C. (2003) Monitoring Forest Succession With Multitemporal

Conyers, B. L. & Goodman, D. (1997). *Ground Penetrating Radar: An Introduction for*

Conyers, L B. (2004). *Ground Penetrating Radar for Archaeology,* Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira

Crespi, M.; Dore, N.; Partuno, J.; Piro, S. & Zamuner, D. (2011). Comparison of SAR data,

Curran P. J. & Williamson H. D., (1986). Sample Size for Ground and Remotely Sensed Data,

Dalan, R.A. (2006). Magnetic Susceptibility in Johnson, J.K. (ed.) *Remote Sensing in*

De Laet, V.; Paulissen, E. & Waelkens, M. (2007). Methods for the extraction of

imagery, Hisar (southwest Turkey). *J.Archeol. Sci.*, *34*, 830–841.

149-151.

272-283.

Batsford Ltd.

Press.

169-173.

162-203.

Vol. 75, No. 4, pp. B169-B176.

*of Environment*, 41, 19 – 27.

*Sensing*, 41 (11), 2557 -2567.

*Archaeological Geophysics*, London.

*Archaeologists*, Walnut Creek, CA., Altamira Press.

*Remote Sensing of Environment*, 20, pp. 31−41.

28.

Study of the Restoration Project of the Modernist Historic Site of Sant Pau, in Archaeological Prospection - Extended Abstracts, ed. by M. G. Drahor & M. A. Berge, 9th *International Conference of Archaeological Prospection*, Izmir, Turkey, pp.

Archaeological Prospection - Extended Abstracts, ed. by M. G. Drahor & M. A. Berge, 9th *International Conference of Archaeological Prospection*, Izmir, Turkey, pp. 25-

study using 3D GPR, magnetic, and high-resolution topographic data, *Geophysics*,

Hyperspectral Imageryas a support to Archaeological Prospection, *J. Cult. Herit.*, *8*,

visible and near infrared channels of NOAA-7, -9, and -11 AVHRRs. *Remote Sensing*

Together With Suggested Methodologies For Its Application In Archaeological Investigations, *Meeting of the New Surface Geophysics Group - Recent Work in*

Landsat Images: Factors of Uncertainty, *IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote*

Optical Satellite Images and GPR Investigations for Archaeological Site Detection, in Archaeological Prospection - Extended Abstracts, ed. by M. G. Drahor & M. A. Berge, 9th *International Conference of Archaeological Prospection*, Izmir, Turkey, pp.

*Archaeology: An Explicitly North American Perspective*, Alabama Press: Tuscaloosa,

archaeological featuresfrom very high-resolution IKONOS-2 remote sensing

Remote Sensing Applications in Archaeological Research 461

Papadopoulos, N. & Sarris, A. (2011). An Algorithm for the fast 3-D Invesrion of Direct

Pavlidis, L. (2005). High resolution satellite imagery for archaeological application.

Pettinelli, E.; Barone, P.M.; Mattei, E. & Lauro, S.E. (2011). Radio Waves Technique for

Rowlands, A. & Sarris, A. (2006). Detection of exposed and subsurface archaeological remains using multi– sensor remote sensing. *J. Archaeol. Sci.*, *34*, 795-803. Sarris, A.; Papadopoulos N.G.; Salvi, M.C. & Dederix, S. (2011). Preservation Assessment of

Sarris, A.; Teichmann, M.; Seferou, P. & Kokkinou, E. (2010). Investigation of the Urban-

Sarris, A. (2008). Remote Sensing Approaches / Geophysical, in *Encyclopedia of Archaeology*, ed. By Deborah M. Rearsall, Academic Press, New York, vol. 3, pp. 1912-1921. Sarris, A. (2005). Use of remote sensing for archaeology: state of the art. Presented at the

Sarris, A., Galaty, M. L.; Yerkes,R. W.; Parkinson, W. A.; Gyucha, A.; Billingsley, D. M. &

Sarris, A. & Jones, R. E. (2000). Geophysical and Related Techniques Applied to

Schaepman-Strub, G.; Schaepman, M. E.; Painter, T. H.; Dangel, S., & Martonchik, J. V. (

Scott, J. H. & Markiewich, R. D. (1990). Dips and chips-PC programs for analyzing seismic refraction data: *Proceedings, SAGEEP 1990*, Golden, Colorado, pp. 175-200. Thompson, R. & Oldfield, F. (1986). Environmental Magnetism. London: Allen and Unwin. Utsi, E. (2010). Reflections From Westminster Abbey, *Meeting of the New Surface Geophysics*

Verdonck, L & Vermeulen, F. (2011). 3-D GPR Survey with a Modular System: Reducing

*Archaeological Prospection*, Izmir, Turkey, pp. 197-200.

Francis Group, London, Volume 52, Issue 2, pp. 121-130.

www.fungis.org/images/newsletter/205-1.pdf

Brazil.

Cano (Editors), Granada, Spain.

*and Cultural Heritage*, *Campeche, Mexico*.

*Science*, volume 31, Issue 7, pp. 927-939.

*Archaeology* (JMA), v.13, no.1, pp.3-75.

*Remote Sensing of Environment*, 103, pp. 27−42.

*Group - Recent Work in Archaeological Geophysics*, London.

*of Archaeological Prospection*, Izmir, Turkey, pp. 204-212.

Current Resistivity Data Using LSMR, in Archaeological Prospection - Extended Abstracts, ed. by M. G. Drahor & M. A. Berge, 9th *International Conference of*

Nondestructive Archaeological Investigations. *Contemporary Physics*, Taylor &

Ancient Theatres through Integrated Geophysical Technologies, *XVIth Congress of the International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences (UISPP),* Florianopolis,

Suburban Center of Ancient Nikopolis (Greece) through the Employment of Geophysical Prospection Techniques, Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archeology "*Fusion of Cultures*" CAA'2010, Fco. Javier Melero & Pedro

*International Conference on the Use of Space Technologies for the Conservation of Natural*

Tate, R. (2004). Geophysical prospection and soil chemistry at the Early Copper Age settlement of Vésztó-Bikeri, Southeastern Hungary , *Journal of Archaeological*

Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean: A Review, *Journal of Mediterranean*

2006). Reflectance quantities in optical remote sensing-Definitions and case studies.

Positioning Inaccuracies and Linear Noise, in Archaeological Prospection - Extended Abstracts, ed. by M. G. Drahor & M. A. Berge, 9th *International Conference*

Linford, N.; Linford, P.; Payne. A.; David, A.; Martin, L. & Sala, J. (2011). Stonehenge: Recent

Loke, M. H. & Barker, R. D. (1996). Rapid Least-Squares Inversion of Apparent Resistivity

Martonchik, J. V.; Bruegge, C. J. & Strahler, A. H. (2000). A review of reflectance nomenclature used in remote sensing. *Remote Sensing Reviews*, 19, pp. 9−20. Masini, N. & Lasaponara, R. (2007). Investigating the spectral capability of Quickbird data to

Masini, N.; Persico, R. & Rizzo, E. (2010). Some Examples Of GPR Prospecting For

Menze, B.H. & Sherratt, A.G. (2006). Detection of Ancient Settlement Mounds:

Merola, P.; Allegrini, A.; Guglierra, D. & Sampieri, S. (2006). Buried Archaeological

Milton E. J. & Rollin Ε. Μ. (2006). Estimating the irradiance spectrum from measurments in a

Milton, E. J. (1987). Principles of Field Spectroscopy. *Remote Sensing of Environment* 8 (12),

Milton, E. J.; Schaepman, M. E.; Anderson, K.; Kneubühler, M & Fox, N. (2009). Progress in

Mullins, C. E. & Tite, M. S. (1973). Magnetic Viscocity, Quadrature Susceptibility and

Nicodemus, F. F.; Richmond, J. C.; Hsia, J. J.; Ginsberg, I.W. & Limperis, T. L. (1977).

Papadopoulos N.G.; Sarris, A.; Michalopoulou, S. & Salvi, M.C. (2011). Integrated

Field Spectroscopy. *Remote Sensing of Environment* 113, 92--109.

Pollard (eds.), *Handbook of Archaeological Sciences*, pp.543-553.

*Archaeological Prospection*, September 19 – 24, Izmir, Turkey.

and Maghaemite, *Journal of Geophysical Research,* no. 78, pp. 804-809.

*Standards Monograph*, 160, Washington, D.C U.S. Govt. Printing Office. Nishimura, Y. (2001). Geophysical prospection in Archaeology in D. R. Brothwell and A. M.

89.

181-152.

*Cult. Herit.*, *8*, 53-60.

vol. 7, pp. 190–199.

*Sens.*, *72*, 321-327.

245–56.

1807--1827.

Results from a Ground Penetrating Radar Survey of the Monument, in Archaeological Prospection - Extended Abstracts, ed. by M. G. Drahor & M. A. Berge, 9th *International Conference of Archaeological Prospection*, Izmir, Turkey, pp. 86-

Pseudo-Sections using Quasi-Newton method. *Geophysical Prospecting*, v.48, pp.

detectarchaeological remains buried under vegetated and not vegetated areas, *J.*

Monitoring Of The Monumental Heritage, *Journal Of Geophysics And Engineering*,

Archaeological SurveyBased on the SRTM Terrain Model. *Photogramm. Eng. Remote*

Structures Detection Using MIVIS Hyperspectral Airborne Data, In *Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering*, 2006; pp. 62970Z.1-62970Z.12. Metwaly, M.; Green, A. G.; Horstmeyer, H.; Maurer, H.; Abbas, A. M. & Hassaneen, A. G.

(2005). Combined Seismic Tomographic And Ultrashallow Seismic Reflection Study Of An Early Dynastic Mastaba, Saqqara, Egypt. *Archaeological Prospection,* 12, pp.

limited number of spectral bands, Remote Sensing of Environment 100, pp. 348-355.

Frequency dependence of Susceptibility in Single-Domain Assemblies of Magnetite

Geometrical considerations and nomenclature for reflectance. *National Bureau of*

Geophysical Investigations in Nemea and Tsoungiza, *9th International Conference of*

**20**

**The Mapping of the Urban Growth of**

Kayembe wa Kayembe Matthieu1,

*1University of Lubumbashi 2Université Libre de Bruxelles*

> *1D.R. Congo 2Belgium*

Mathieu De Maeyer2 and Eléonore Wolff2

**Kinshasa (DRC) Through High Resolution**

The study of urban growth in Kinshasa is not a new topic, as shown by the work on the dynamics of housing in the 1970s (Flouriot et al., 1975; Pain, 1978). These authors followed the spatial extension of Kinshasa by collecting old cartographic documents and comparing them. Flouriot (1975) combined a cartographic approach with household surveys to follow

The advent and development of remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have changed the methods, making it now possible to map and quantify urban growth quickly and easily. More recently in Kinshasa, Tshibangu et al. (1997) have integrated into a GIS a vegetation map drawn by Compere in 1960. This was possible thanks to the interpretation of aerial photographs and Landsat and SPOT images conducted respectively in 1982 by Wilmet and 1987 by Nsekera to quantify the urban sprawl. Delbart and Wolff (2002) evaluated the extension of the city of Kinshasa from an old map (1969) and the delineation of the city in 1995 observed on a SPOT image (from 1995). The current extension of the city (between 1995 and 2005) is not precisely known, but the figures are around 600km² (Lelo Nzuzi, 2008). The purpose of this chapter is to map and quantify urban growth

The city of Kinshasa province, located between 4 ° and 5 ° south and between 15 ° and 17 ° east, is the largest city in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It covers an area of 9965 km2 (De Saint Moulin, 2005), about 600 km2 being only urbanized. The city had 400,000 inhabitants in 1960 and reached more than six million in 2008, the average annual growth

Kinshasa has grown in the plains bordering the Congo River. The plain 300 metres above sea level covers about 200 km2. This is the most industrialized area and formerly the most

between 1995 and 2005 using a time series of high resolution satellite images.

rate between 1960 and 2003 would therefore be about 6.80% (Lelo Nzuzi, 2008).

**1. Introduction**

**2. Study area**

the long-term housing growth.

**Remote Sensing Between 1995 and 2005**