The BM should be promoted more because it can offer additional income and in certain cases when a hobby becomes a profession, also a full-time job. However, currently gardeners who hire gardens from the municipality are in a worse position, as municipality regulations for urban gardens on public places require only non-profit gardening for self-supply of the family. The municipality will have to reconsider its strict regulations in the future. However, urban gardeners are always one step ahead of the authorities. In the light of the lack of public urban garden plots, citizens hire privately owned fields from farmers and divide them into smaller plots. Currently, areas of this type represent 87% (138 ha) of all urban allotment garden areas (158 ha), showing that the municipality will never be able to fulfil the demand for garden plots by citizens.

This shows that the municipality of Ljubljana will have to concentrate also on possible entrepreneurial initiatives originating from the urban food chain (production and sale), which could improve self-provision and the long-term food resilience of the city.

### **Acknowledgements**

**4.3. Knowledge acquired**

(136.69 m2

40 Urban Agriculture

garden (60 m2

The study showed that gardeners were growing a wide variety of crops, on average 15 different types, and this required a lot of different knowledge and production skills. It also means that the diet of an average gardener was quite diverse. On a yearly basis, the average gardener

The Slovenian Ministry for agriculture, forestry and food, following World Health Organisa‐ tion (WHO) recommendations, advises for a grown person to eat a minimum of 250 g of vegetable per day without potatoes. This means that the vegetable quantity produced by an average urban gardener is sufficient for 1457 daily servings, which was enough for a family of four members to be self-sufficient in vegetables for a whole year. If we compare this to a median

for 640 daily servings of vegetable or 1.8 family members per year. The results offer us an evidence of high potential for families to be self-sufficient. There is also plenty of room and

The study offers evidence that the ACM can be upgraded with the BM. For example, if a family

people. Consequently, the surpluses for two extra family members can be sold for extra money. In present times, the BM is quite rare in Ljubljana, however, in the past centuries before population growth after the World War II, this type of vegetable production was very common in Ljubljana. Housewives, living in small houses on the edge of the city wall, sold their vegetable produce from home gardens to the citizens on the main market every morning. This was additional money for their household budget, and it also meant financial independence for women. The earnings are not great but it seems that people are doing it for a two combined

The long history of urban gardening in Ljubljana is the best guarantee for a bright future. Urban gardening is currently a subject of many social and aesthetic studies dealing with the involve‐ ment of different social groups in co-shaping the city's green areas. The municipality is spatially arranging urban gardening allotment areas with an accelerating speed putting in to use few hundred new garden plots each year. While cooperation with ACM urban gardeners was open and correct and they were always available to help us, this was not the case with BM gardeners. In future studies, a great deal of work will have to be invested in strengthening the trust between BM producers and researchers to convince them to cooperate and provide them

The BM should be promoted more because it can offer additional income and in certain cases when a hobby becomes a profession, also a full-time job. However, currently gardeners who hire gardens from the municipality are in a worse position, as municipality regulations for urban gardens on public places require only non-profit gardening for self-supply of the family. The municipality will have to reconsider its strict regulations in the future. However, urban gardeners are always one step ahead of the authorities. In the light of the lack of public urban

opportunity to expand the city of Ljubljana's self-provision of vegetables.

of two retired members has an average garden of 136 m2

motives as additional income whereas food is not wasted.

**4.4. Future of urban gardening**

necessary anonymity.

) in the study, they produce 160 kg of vegetable without potatoes, which account

, they can produce vegetables for four

) produced 465 kg of total vegetables or 364 kg without potatoes.

The data for ACM in this chapter were obtained from a survey carried out in 2014 within the framework of the international project called 'Food Planning and Innovation for Sustainable Metropolitan Regions' - FOODMETRES (7th Framework Project—KBBE.2012.1.4-06 - Short chain delivery of food for urban-peri-urban areas). The data for business model were partially obtained under the GREEN SURGE, EU FP7 collaborative project, FP7-ENV.2013.6.2-5-603567. Both projects were funded by the European Commission. This publication has been made available as Open Access by the European Commission through its FP7 post-grant Open Access Pilot.

#### **Author details**

Matjaž Glavan\* , Majda Černič Istenič, Rozalija Cvejić and Marina Pintar

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Agronomy Department, Ljubljana, Slovenia

#### **References**

## **Comparison of the Land Uses and Sustainable Development in Small Islands: The Case of Skiathos Island, Greece**

Fani Samara, Stergios Tampekis, Stavros Sakellariou, Olga Christopoulou and Athanasios Sfougaris

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/62423

#### **Abstract**

[4] Smith J, Jehlicka P. Quiet sustainability: fertile lessons from Europe's productive

[5] Ranasinghe TT. A novel living agricultural concept in urban communities: Family Business Garden. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol [Article]. 2003;10(3):239–245.

[6] Anastasiou A, de Valenca A, Amare E, Montes de Oca G, Widyaningrum I, Bokhorst K, et al. The Role of Urban Agriculture in Urban Organic Waste Management in The Hague - Academic Consultancy Training. The Netherlands, Hague: Wageningen University; 2014; 70. Available from: http://www.foodmetres.eu/foodmetres-urban-

[7] Corrigan MP. Growing what you eat: developing community gardens in Baltimore,

[8] Gómez-Baggethun E, Barton DN. Classifying and valuing ecosystem services for urban

[9] Gómez-Baggethun E, Gren Å, Barton D, Langemeyer J, McPhearson T, O'Farrell P, et al. Urban Ecosystem Services. In: Elmqvist T, Fragkias M, Goodness J, Güneralp B, Marcotullio PJ, McDonald RI, et al., editors. Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem

Services: Challenges and Opportunities. Netherlands: Springer; 2013; 175–251.

[10] Kaufman J, Bailkey M. Farming Inside Cities: Entrepreneurial Urban Agriculture in the United States. Massachusetts, Cambridge: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy200. Report

[11] Pfeiffer A, Silva E, Colquhoun J. Innovation in urban agricultural practices: Responding to diverse production environments. Renew Agr Food Syst [Article]. 2015;30(1):79–91.

[12] Mok HF, Williamson VG, Grove JR, Burry K, Barker SF, Hamilton AJ. Strawberry fields forever? Urban agriculture in developed countries: a review. Agron Sustain Dev

[13] Hamilton AJ, Burry K, Mok HF, Barker SF, Grove JR, Williamson VG. Give peas a chance? Urban agriculture in developing countries. A review. Agron Sustain Dev

[14] Poulsen MN, McNab PR, Clayton ML, Neff RA. A systematic review of urban agricul‐ ture and food security impacts in low-income countries. Food Policy [Review].

[15] Eigenbrod C, Gruda N. Urban vegetable for food security in cities. A review. Agron

[16] SURS. SI-Stat Data Portal. Slovenia, Ljubljana: Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia; 2015. Available from: http://pxweb.stat.si/pxweb/dialog/statfile1.asp.

[17] Jamnik B, Smrekar A, Vrščaj B, Kladnik D, Erhartič B, Komac B, et al. Vrtičkarstvo v Ljubljani/Allotment gardening in Ljubljana. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC; 2009.

gardeners. J Rural Stud. 2013;32:148–57.

42 Urban Agriculture

organic-waste-management-in-the-hague-report/

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2015;55:131–46.

The Island of Skiathos occupies a total area of 50 km2 , accounting for 1.6% of the area of the prefecture of Magnesia and 0.28% of the Region of Thessaly, Greece. The land is hilly and can be divided into farmland, meadows, woodlands, land covered by water and land occupied by settlements and roads. Also, a large part is occupied by burnt areas that resulted from the fire of 2007. The aim of this chapter is to present the evolution of existing land uses at the Island of Skiathos during the past decades. With the contribution of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and the orthophotomaps, the spatial planning of the land uses can be evaluated for all these years and the total area can also be calculat‐ ed. Our results are important for understanding the impacts of land uses on ecosystems in the frame of sustainable development. There has been no other research regarding land uses in Skiathos Island in the past, and, also, this is the first digitization of the area. Finally, two sustainable spatial development scenarios for the Island of Skiathos are proposed. The first scenario relates to the results obtained from a prediction (application of the model of automatic cellular) while the second scenario refers to a more realistic model of development with focus on environmental protection and sustainable development.

**Keywords:** GIS, land uses, area, island, thematic maps, scenario

#### **1. Introduction**

Over the past few decades, European ecosystems have changed substantially as a result of socioeconomic and political changes, while future transformations are also expected to occur [9,13].

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The European Mediterranean landscapes have undergone many changes over the years due to the relocation of people in coastal areas, forest fires, desertification, logging, the rapid expansion of activities related to tourism and the intensification of agriculture [6,14,20].

Environmental and ecological consequences of landscape transformation are more evident in natural ecosystems where their sustainability, multifunctional role and values are threatened [10,11,15,19].

Sustainable development refers to economic development that is planned and implemented, taking into account environmental protection and sustainability.

The rule of sustainability is the maximum gain of goods from the environment, without interrupting the natural production of these products in sufficient quantities in the future. Sustainable development implies development of the productive structure of the economy while creating infrastructure for a sensitive attitude toward the natural environment and ecological problems (such as defining traditional sciences like geography).

Sustainability implies that natural resources are exploited at a rate lower than that to which renewed, otherwise occurring environmental degradation. In theory, the long-term effects of environmental degradation are the inability of the earth's ecosystem to support human life (ecological crisis).

**•** The coastal and insular nature of the geography of Greece has a significant impact on local development; it creates geographical areas heavily dependent on the mainland. Although the geographical distances separating the islands from mainland Greece are not large (following the natural-geographic mosaic recommended the Greek area), developmental and political choices are affecting their real integration with criteria of cost, time, frequency of service, availability of interconnection etc., creating, as a consequence, significant dysfunctions in their development completion.

Exploring the development process in the islands and a strategic integrated development model for small islands is on systematic research field and policy in world affairs for decades. The structural problems flowing from the specific natural and socio-economic characteristics distinguish the islands from the mainland and intensified in inverse proportion to the size of the islands, slowing the growth process. Although the need for a differentiated approach to the island territory and particularly small islands has been recognized by the international community in Greece, a few steps in that direction have been made. Given the insular nature of the country, the small size of the majority of the islands and the strong development catching up, exploring the roadblocks and the formation of a strategic model of integrated development of small islands space become necessary.

The purpose of this article is to apply the changes of land uses for the past few decades for the Island of Skiathos and also make a prediction for the land uses change for the year 2020. The comparison of the land uses has been made with the tool of GIS and orthotophotomaps. Moreover, to make the prediction, we used the model of cellular automata and two indicators. Our results are important for understanding the impacts of land uses on ecosystems in the frame of sustainable development. There has been no other research regarding land uses in Skiathos Island in the past, and, also, this is the first digitization of the area.

Finally, in the future, these results will be used for making the spatial plan for the Island of Skiathos.

#### **2. Methodology**

#### **2.1. Study area**

The European Mediterranean landscapes have undergone many changes over the years due to the relocation of people in coastal areas, forest fires, desertification, logging, the rapid expansion of activities related to tourism and the intensification of agriculture [6,14,20].

Environmental and ecological consequences of landscape transformation are more evident in natural ecosystems where their sustainability, multifunctional role and values are threatened

Sustainable development refers to economic development that is planned and implemented,

The rule of sustainability is the maximum gain of goods from the environment, without interrupting the natural production of these products in sufficient quantities in the future. Sustainable development implies development of the productive structure of the economy while creating infrastructure for a sensitive attitude toward the natural environment and

Sustainability implies that natural resources are exploited at a rate lower than that to which renewed, otherwise occurring environmental degradation. In theory, the long-term effects of environmental degradation are the inability of the earth's ecosystem to support human life

**•** The coastal and insular nature of the geography of Greece has a significant impact on local development; it creates geographical areas heavily dependent on the mainland. Although the geographical distances separating the islands from mainland Greece are not large (following the natural-geographic mosaic recommended the Greek area), developmental and political choices are affecting their real integration with criteria of cost, time, frequency of service, availability of interconnection etc., creating, as a consequence, significant

Exploring the development process in the islands and a strategic integrated development model for small islands is on systematic research field and policy in world affairs for decades. The structural problems flowing from the specific natural and socio-economic characteristics distinguish the islands from the mainland and intensified in inverse proportion to the size of the islands, slowing the growth process. Although the need for a differentiated approach to the island territory and particularly small islands has been recognized by the international community in Greece, a few steps in that direction have been made. Given the insular nature of the country, the small size of the majority of the islands and the strong development catching up, exploring the roadblocks and the formation of a strategic model of integrated development

The purpose of this article is to apply the changes of land uses for the past few decades for the Island of Skiathos and also make a prediction for the land uses change for the year 2020. The comparison of the land uses has been made with the tool of GIS and orthotophotomaps. Moreover, to make the prediction, we used the model of cellular automata and two indicators.

taking into account environmental protection and sustainability.

dysfunctions in their development completion.

of small islands space become necessary.

ecological problems (such as defining traditional sciences like geography).

[10,11,15,19].

44 Urban Agriculture

(ecological crisis).

The Island of Skiathos resides in the territorial unity of the northern Sporades and the capital is the city of Skiathos. It is 2.4 miles from the coast of southern Pelion and 4 miles from Skopelos. The surface area is about 49,89 km2 while the length is 12 km and the width is 9 km. Within the administrative boundaries of Skiathos island lie the smaller islands of Tsougrias, Small Tsougrias, Repio, Aspronisi, Maragos and Arcos. The town of Skiathos is connected with the Island of Skopelos, Alonissos, the town of Volos, Ag. Konstantinos and Euboea, via a (trade passenger) port. There is also a National Airport located in the northeastern part of the island. Administratively, the Municipality of Skiathos is part of the Magnesia Municipality in Thessaly.

A large part of the island is covered by woodland and the rest of the island is dominated by olive trees. In Skiathos there is one area identified as the Area of Community Interest (Sites of Community Interest) and was included in the European ecological network Natura 2000 (Directive 92/43/EEC). That area is the island of Skiathos (code: GR1430003, 32 ha). Around the island there are about 70 beaches.

The population of the island, in 2011, was 6088 and the density was 122 people/km2 . In Table **1**, the population and the population density, during the past few decades, are presented.

**Table 1.** Population.

It can be observed that the difference between the last two decades is very small. The most significant increase in the population took place during the period 1991–2001.

Mediterranean climate prevails in Skiathos with cold winters and pleasant summers. There is almost complete absence of rainfall during the summer months. The temperature during July and August often exceeds 30 degrees Celsius, while in June the weather is somewhat cooler. As in most islands, from July to mid-August we encounter the phenomenon of Meltemi, quite throwing the night temperature.

In the Island of Skiathos, the month with the maximum daily precipitation amount is January with 155.8 mm while the smallest occurs in July with 25.3 mm. The most humid month of the year is December with a relative humidity of 76.92% while the driest is July with a relative humidity of 60.64%.

#### **2.2. Methodology**

The methodology used consisted of data collection (statistics, land register), creation of maps in Geographic Information Systems (GIS), comparison of results, provision of land use for the year 2020 and finally the development of scenarios.

More specifically, the aim of this chapter was to examine the evolution of land use on the Island of Skiathos on the dates 1945, 1996, 2007 and the current situation in terms of population, infrastructure and development.

With the contribution of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and the orthophotomaps, the spatial planning of the land uses can be evaluated for all these years and the total area can also be calculated.

Once the thematic maps were created, the model of Cellular Automata (CA) was implemented to make provision on land use development in 2020. In our forecast, human factors such as forest fires were not taken into consideration.

The procedure followed in the study of land use change in the Island of Skiathos was the following:

The data entered were: land use in 1945 and 1996, distance from roads, distance from the coastline and distance from the main road. Due to the high correlation between the distance from the main road and the distance from the coastline, the distance from the main road was not involved in the model [23,24].

**2.** Analysis of land use change

The land use changes were determined by comparing two maps, one of 1945 and one of 1996 [12,16–18].

**3.** Model development

We used artificial neural networks to create the dynamic transition maps which would be introduced in the model of cellular automata [22].

Five parameters were used in neural networks:

As in most islands, from July to mid-August we encounter the phenomenon of Meltemi, quite

In the Island of Skiathos, the month with the maximum daily precipitation amount is January with 155.8 mm while the smallest occurs in July with 25.3 mm. The most humid month of the year is December with a relative humidity of 76.92% while the driest is July with a relative

The methodology used consisted of data collection (statistics, land register), creation of maps in Geographic Information Systems (GIS), comparison of results, provision of land use for the

More specifically, the aim of this chapter was to examine the evolution of land use on the Island of Skiathos on the dates 1945, 1996, 2007 and the current situation in terms of population,

With the contribution of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and the orthophotomaps, the spatial planning of the land uses can be evaluated for all these years and the total area can also

Once the thematic maps were created, the model of Cellular Automata (CA) was implemented to make provision on land use development in 2020. In our forecast, human factors such as

The procedure followed in the study of land use change in the Island of Skiathos was the

The data entered were: land use in 1945 and 1996, distance from roads, distance from the coastline and distance from the main road. Due to the high correlation between the distance from the main road and the distance from the coastline, the distance from the

The land use changes were determined by comparing two maps, one of 1945 and one of

throwing the night temperature.

infrastructure and development.

**2.** Analysis of land use change

**2.** Analysis of land use change

1996 [12,16–18]. **3.** Model development

**3.** Model development

year 2020 and finally the development of scenarios.

forest fires were not taken into consideration.

main road was not involved in the model [23,24].

humidity of 60.64%.

46 Urban Agriculture

**2.2. Methodology**

be calculated.

following:

**1.** Data input

**4.** Simulation **5.** Provision **1.** Data input The simulation was achieved by cellular automata. The cellular automata took account of the original map, the factors affecting land use changes and the model developed in the previous paragraph. The cellular automata operates as follows:

Following the above procedure, the cellular automata gives the result of the simulation for a repetition (iteration). Applying a second iteration, the result of the simulation will be used as an initial land use map. Therefore, in each iteration, we used the previous simulation as initial state land use [1–5,21].

**5.** Provision

Using the model developed above, we created a forecast for 2020. The prediction was performed using the structure of the above model in which to investigate land use change maps were used in 1945 and 2007 [7,8].

**Figure 1.** Neural network learning curve.

#### **3. Results and discussion**

For the year 1945, we have digitized the land uses in the Island of Skiathos. In Figure **1**, the thematic map resulting from the digitization is presented.

**Figure 2.** Land uses in Skiathos Island in the year 1945.

In Figure **2**, the digitization and the categorization of the land uses in the year 1945 can be observed. Also, the percentage contribution of each land use type is presented in the Figure (3) and Table (2).

Comparison of the Land Uses and Sustainable Development in Small Islands: The Case of Skiathos Island, Greece http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/62423 49

**Table 2.** Land uses (total area: ha) in the year 1945.

**Figure 1.** Neural network learning curve.

48 Urban Agriculture

**3. Results and discussion**

thematic map resulting from the digitization is presented.

**Figure 2.** Land uses in Skiathos Island in the year 1945.

(3) and Table (2).

For the year 1945, we have digitized the land uses in the Island of Skiathos. In Figure **1**, the

In Figure **2**, the digitization and the categorization of the land uses in the year 1945 can be observed. Also, the percentage contribution of each land use type is presented in the Figure

**Figure 3.** Land uses (% area) in Skiathos Island in the year 1945.

In Figure **3**, it can be observed that the land use with the largest area is the forest (51%) followed by the crops (47%) with a small difference. Finally, the categories grass land (1%) and urban areas (1%) have occupied the same percentage of land and also in very low levels compared to the other two categories.

In Figure **4**, a thematic map of the year 1996 for the Island of Skiathos is presented.

The growth of urban areas is evident from the above map. This means the reduction of the rest of the categories of land uses with the exception of the grass land. More specifically, the percentage of each category is presented in the next chart.

**Figure 4.** Land uses in Skiathos Island in the year 1996.

**Table 3.** Land uses (total area: ha) in the year 1996.

**Figure 5.** Land uses (% area) in Skiathos Island in the year 1996.

As noticed in Figure **5** and **Table 3** in the year 1996 urban areas have increased (12%). On the other hand, crops have been reduced (36%). Finally, the percentage area of the forests (51%) and the grass land (1%) remained the same.

In Figure **6**, a thematic map of the year 2007 for the Island of Skiathos is presented.

**Figure 6.** Land uses in Skiathos Island in the year 2007.

**Figure 4.** Land uses in Skiathos Island in the year 1996.

50 Urban Agriculture

**Table 3.** Land uses (total area: ha) in the year 1996.

**Figure 5.** Land uses (% area) in Skiathos Island in the year 1996.

**Land Uses Total area (ha) Crops** 1697.57 **Grass land** 62.82 **Forest** 2398.26 **Urban areas** 532.93

> In the year 2007, a burned area can be noticed, from the above thematic map. It resulted from a fire in the Island of Skiathos in 2006. The area burnt was previously a forest area. This means that the percentage of forest area has been reduced. This can be observed in Figure **7** and **Table 4**.

**Table 4.** Land uses (total area: ha) in the year 2007.

**Figure 7.** Land uses (% area) in Skiathos Island in the year 2007.

In the year 2007, there was a decrease in the percentage of forest land, while rates of other types of land use remained stable. This is a direct result of the burnt area. From 1945 to 1996, there was a great variation in land use changes in relation to 1996 and 2007. This happened because the interval between the two time periods (1945–1996) is too long (51 years) as opposed to the period 1996–2007 which is only 11 years. That is because there were no data for intermediate dates.

Then, the land uses were significantly changed in these three dates. More specifically, in Figure **8**, the area for each land use can be observed for each year.

In the above chart, a large increase in urban areas in 1996 and the reduction of forest areas in 2007 can be observed. The reduction of the forest areas was mainly due to the appearance of the burnt areas. Also, the crop areas have shown a significant decrease in 1996 mainly due to the growth of the urban areas.

**Table 5.** Comparison of land uses.

Comparison of the Land Uses and Sustainable Development in Small Islands: The Case of Skiathos Island, Greece http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/62423 53

**Figure 8.** Comparison of land uses.

**Figure 7.** Land uses (% area) in Skiathos Island in the year 2007.

**8**, the area for each land use can be observed for each year.

**Land Uses 1945–1996 1996–2007 Crops** 0.313530517 0.013196376 **Grass land** 0.545686087 0.049190253 **Forest** 0.006412983 0.105520087 **Urban areas** 0.954421781 0.037806706

**Burned areas** 1

dates.

52 Urban Agriculture

the growth of the urban areas.

**Table 5.** Comparison of land uses.

In the year 2007, there was a decrease in the percentage of forest land, while rates of other types of land use remained stable. This is a direct result of the burnt area. From 1945 to 1996, there was a great variation in land use changes in relation to 1996 and 2007. This happened because the interval between the two time periods (1945–1996) is too long (51 years) as opposed to the period 1996–2007 which is only 11 years. That is because there were no data for intermediate

Then, the land uses were significantly changed in these three dates. More specifically, in Figure

In the above chart, a large increase in urban areas in 1996 and the reduction of forest areas in 2007 can be observed. The reduction of the forest areas was mainly due to the appearance of the burnt areas. Also, the crop areas have shown a significant decrease in 1996 mainly due to

**Figure 9.** Land uses in Skiathos Island in the year 2020.

Urban areas, between the years 1945 and 1996, largely increased in a percentage of 95% (**Table 5** and **Figure 8**) a thematic map is presented, deriving from the model cellular automata which predicted the land uses in the Island of Skiathos in the year 2020.

As it can be observed in the above thematic map, in the model the burned area was not taken into account, it was left to reforest naturally. In Figure **10**, the percentage of each category of land use is presented, according to the model of cellular automata.

**Figure 10.** Land uses (% area) in Skiathos Island in the year 2020.

All the categories should be reduced except from the urban area and grass land which should increase.

In **Table 5**, a comparison between the land uses and the years is presented.

**Table 5.** Land use (area: ha) in the years 1945, 1996, 2007 and 2020.

**Figure 11.** Comparison of land uses in the years 1945, 1996, 2007 and 2020.

In Figure **11**, a significant reduction in the crop areas can be observed between the years 1945 and 1996. In the next years, the reduction was smaller. As for the grass land, there was an increase between the years 1945 and 1996 and a minimum increase in the next years. Also, from the chart it can be observed that grassland occupies the smallest area in the Island of Skiathos.

Forest areas was the category of land use occupying the largest area in the island. However, the greatest reduction in forest areas happened between the years 1996 and 2007, due to the fire which took place in the island.

Finally, the category presenting the greatest increase was urban areas and, more specifically, between the years 1945 and 1996. There was an increase in urban areas during the next periods as well. Burned areas have been recorded in the year 2007 due to the forest fire of 2006 in the south-west part of the Island of Skiathos.

#### **4. Scenarios**

Urban areas, between the years 1945 and 1996, largely increased in a percentage of 95% (**Table 5** and **Figure 8**) a thematic map is presented, deriving from the model cellular automata which

As it can be observed in the above thematic map, in the model the burned area was not taken into account, it was left to reforest naturally. In Figure **10**, the percentage of each category of

All the categories should be reduced except from the urban area and grass land which should

In **Table 5**, a comparison between the land uses and the years is presented.

**Land Uses 1945 1996 2007 2020 Crops** 2229.81 1697.57 1675.46 1601.49 **Grass land** 28.54 62.82 66.07 64.82 **Forest** 2413.64 2398.26 2169.35 2157.18 **Urban areas** 24.29 532.93 553.87 618.34 **Burned areas** - - 219.83 219.83

predicted the land uses in the Island of Skiathos in the year 2020.

land use is presented, according to the model of cellular automata.

**Figure 10.** Land uses (% area) in Skiathos Island in the year 2020.

**Table 5.** Land use (area: ha) in the years 1945, 1996, 2007 and 2020.

increase.

54 Urban Agriculture

Taking into consideration the above analysis and results, two sustainable spatial development scenarios for the Island of Skiathos were proposed. The first scenario is derived from the results obtained from the prediction (application of the model of cellular automata), while the second scenario refers to a more realistic model of development with a focus on environmental protection and sustainable development.

#### **4.1. Trend scenario**

This scenario concerns the development of the island in the next years. It results from the application of the model of cellular automata for the year 2020 and shows us an increase in tourism and urban areas.

In the south part of the island, pockets should be created between the urban areas. This scenario does not favor the environment. Also, the sector of the agriculture constantly decreases as the area of gross land reduces in 2020.

Moreover, the northern part of the island will be isolated as there will be no development. The infrastructures in this part of the island are few.

#### **4.2. Sustainable scenario**

As an alternative approach, this scenario has a central idea of establishing rules and a com‐ prehensive plan for spatial planning. The new development model is described spatially through the following guidelines—interventions:

More specifically, we proposed a Local Spatial Plan for the entire Island of Skiathos. More specifically, it includes the following areas:

The regulations include both construction limits and permitted land uses in each area of the island (what is allowed and what is forbidden). It also includes incentives, mainly financial.

#### **4.3. Comparison of the scenarios**

The sustainable scenario has more advantages than the trend scenario, as it proposed spatial planning and protection of the environment. Also, there is no development in the south part of the island and particularly an increase in tourism.

#### **5. Conclusions**

obtained from the prediction (application of the model of cellular automata), while the second scenario refers to a more realistic model of development with a focus on environmental

This scenario concerns the development of the island in the next years. It results from the application of the model of cellular automata for the year 2020 and shows us an increase in

In the south part of the island, pockets should be created between the urban areas. This scenario does not favor the environment. Also, the sector of the agriculture constantly decreases as the

Moreover, the northern part of the island will be isolated as there will be no development. The

As an alternative approach, this scenario has a central idea of establishing rules and a com‐ prehensive plan for spatial planning. The new development model is described spatially

**•** The design and implementation of a Local Spatial Plan for the entire Island of Skiathos

More specifically, we proposed a Local Spatial Plan for the entire Island of Skiathos. More

The regulations include both construction limits and permitted land uses in each area of the island (what is allowed and what is forbidden). It also includes incentives, mainly financial.

The sustainable scenario has more advantages than the trend scenario, as it proposed spatial planning and protection of the environment. Also, there is no development in the south part

protection and sustainable development.

**4.1. Trend scenario**

56 Urban Agriculture

tourism and urban areas.

**4.2. Sustainable scenario**

area of gross land reduces in 2020.

**•** The implementation regulations

**i.** Regulations and incentives

**ii.** Delimitation of settlements

**4.3. Comparison of the scenarios**

of the island and particularly an increase in tourism.

**iii.** Land use zones

specifically, it includes the following areas:

infrastructures in this part of the island are few.

through the following guidelines—interventions:

The diversification of land uses is a result of human activities in the Island of Skiathos. More specifically, it depends on the economic situation, the development and the population of the Island. Also, another parameter is the human factor.

From the above analysis regarding land uses over the years, a great difference between categories of land uses was noticed. What should be mentioned is the increase of urban areas at the expense of forest and crops areas. This happened due to an increase in the population in the island and the increased number of tourists arriving in the island during the last summers.

Therefore, two scenarios, for the Island of Skiathos, were proposed. However, the sustainable scenario offered a more balanced development for the Island of Skiathos. Essentially, the sustainable scenario proposed a rural plan for the whole island.

There has been no other research regarding land uses in Skiathos Island in the past, and, also, this is the first digitization of the area. There is no rural plan for the Island of Skiathos, as well.

#### **Author details**

Fani Samara1\*, Stergios Tampekis1 , Stavros Sakellariou1 , Olga Christopoulou1 and Athanasios Sfougaris2

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
1 Department of Planning and Regional Development, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece

2 Department of Agriculture Crop Production and Rural Environment, School of Agricultur‐ al Sciences, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece

#### **References**

[18] Uljee I., Engelen G., White R.: Ramco Demo Guide. Work document CZM-C 96.08. 1996; The Hague: Coastal Zone Management Centre, National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management.

[4] Clarke K., Gaydos L.: Loose-coupling a cellular automation model and GIS: longterm urban growth prediction for San Francisco and Washington/Baltimore. International

[5] Couclelis H.: From cellular automata to urban models: new principles for model development and implementation. Environment and Planning B. 1997; 24: 165–174. [6] Lasanta-MartínezT., Vicente-SerranoSM., Cuadrat-PratsJM.: Mountain Mediterranean landscape evolution caused by the abandonment of traditional primary activities: a study of the Spanish Central Pyrenees. Applied Geography. 2007; 25(1): 47–65.

[8] Liu Y.: Modeling Urban Development with Geographical Information Systems and

[9] Moreira F., RegoFC., FerreiraPG.: Temporal (1958-1995) pattern of Change in a cultural landscape of northwestern Portugal: implications for fire occurrence. Landscape

[10] Narumalani S., MishraDR., RothwellRG.: Analyzing landscape structural change using image interpretation and spatial pattern metrics. GI Science and Remote Sensing. 2004;

[11] PausasJG., Llovet J., Rodrigo A., Vallejo R.: Are wildfires a disaster in the Mediterra‐ nean basin? A review. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 2007; 17(6): 713–723. [12] Portugali J., BenensonI.: Artificial planning experience by means of a heuristic cellspace model: simulating international migration in the urban process. Environment

[13] Reger B., Otte A., Waldhardt R.: Identifying patterns of land-cover change and their physical attributes in a marginal European landscape. Landscape and Urban Planning.

[14] Serra P., Pons X., Sauri D.: Land-cover and land-use change in a Mediterranean landscape: a spatial analysis of driving forces integrating biophysical and human

[15] SchulzJJ., Cayuela L., Echeverria C., Salas J., Rey BenayasJM.: Monitoring land cover change of the dryland forest landscape of Central Chile (1975e2008). Applied Geogra‐

[16] ToblerWR.: Cellular geography. In Philosophy in geography: 1979; ed. GaleS. and

[17] TorrensPM.: How cellular models of urban systems work. WP-28, Centre for Advanced

OlssonG., 379–386. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company.

Spatial Analysis (CASA), University College, London. 2000.

Journal of Geographical Information Science. 1998; 12(7): 699–714.

[7] Levy S.: Artificial Life. New York: Vintage Books. 1992.

Ecology. 2001; 16(6): 557–567.

and Planning, 1995; A27: 1647–1665.

factors. Applied Geography. 2008; 28(3):189–209.

2007; 81(1–2): 104–113.

phy. 2010; 30(3): 436–447.

41(1): 25–44.

58 Urban Agriculture

Cellular Automata. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group. 2009

## **Identifying Functionality of Peri-Urban Agricultural Systems: A Case Study**

Inmaculada Marques-Perez and Baldomero Segura García del Río

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/62725

#### **Abstract**

Some agricultural systems, especially peri-urban agricultural systems, are character‐ ized as agricultural ecosystems that provide goods and services related to leisure and recreation, the process development beneficial to the environment, such as fixing CO2, the production of healthy and safe food, and the preservation of natural and cultural heritage. Public intervention in agriculture has traditionally been known as a basic economic task performed by the government whose main objective is food security. But now, agricultural policies have been increasingly challenged by civil society demand, such as a new agricultural model with stronger consideration for non-commodity goods and services. The main obstacles for public intervention are, knowing production of goods and services and externality by peri-urban agriculture system, and identifying what specific demands agriculture needs to satisfy social preferences for goods and services.

We created a descriptive approach for the functionality of peri-urban agricultural systems based on a scientific literature review, which focused on multifunctionality and the goods and services of agricultural systems. This review shows a wide variety of functions that can be grouped according to their economic dimension, social dimension and environ‐ mental dimension. We propose a methodology to quantify the functionality of periurban agricultural systems by means of indicators.

The proposed methodology was applied to a peri-urban area in Valencia. This is identified as Huerta de Valencia, an agricultural system around Valencia City with a wide variety of resources. The "Comunidad Autónoma de Valencia" government and local government in Valencia City are interested to define a protection scheme and there is open political-institutional debate. The results are very interesting and useful to enrich this debate.

**Keywords:** Urban fringe, Multifunctionality, Public goods, Joint production, External‐ ity, Market failure, Diversification

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **1. Introduction**

To the conventional role of farming activity as a production sector of raw materials, mainly food products, whose objective was to obtain economic benefits from globalized markets, since the post-productivist paradigm, other capacities have been added: social, economic and ecological implication on the surrounding territory where it has been implemented. To a greater or lesser extent, it is acknowledged that, simultaneous to the production of food and raw material, agriculture contributes to the provision of public goods and services that are related with entertainment and recreation, and to developing beneficial processes, such as CO2 fixation, healthy safe food production, preserving natural and cultural heritage, and respecting and maintaining the natural environment. The consideration of these aspects results in an agricultural model known as multifunctional [1–7].

It has recently begun to attract considerable attention, with discussion on urban agriculture in industrialized countries. Some agricultural systems on the urban fringe are characterized by being highly valuable spaces that maintain a fragile equilibrium between considering agri‐ cultural spaces and/or peri-urban areas that are subject to pressure by alternative land uses (industrial, infrastructure, commercial and leisure centers, etc.). However, society demands of them opportunities to undertake recreational activities, produce quality organic products locally, conserve and maintain spaces relatively near cities and towns under suitable environ‐ mental conditions for living, conserving cultural ethnological heritage, etc. [2, 3, 6, 8, 9]. These functions performed by agricultural systems, and the goods and services they can provide, result from the agriculture practice itself, and are generated simultaneously with the produc‐ tion of foodstuffs and raw materials [8, 10–12]. They possess the character of Positive Exter‐ nality1 and Public Goods2 , 3 without markets where farmers can interchange them for income, and the existence of market failure that provides theoretical arguments for justifying possible forms of public intervention for correcting these is acknowledged.

Many public goods associated in some form or another with agricultural activities are local [2, 9, 13]. Developing intervention policies requires studying the functional analyses of peri-urban agricultural systems which, beyond the sectorial perspective of agriculture as an economic sector, incorporate detailed analyses of enviro-friendly-related functions, healthy food production, provision of entertainment spaces, etc., as well as the Non Marketable Goods and Services (NMGSs) that they can provide. This work adopts a descriptive approach that takes the multifunctionality of agriculture as a basis to later carry out empirical analyses of periurban agricultural systems, the functions they can perform, and the goods and services they can provide.

<sup>1</sup> Refers to situations in which the producer of a particular output is not remunerated for it (positive externalities) or does not pay for its detrimental effects (negative externalities).

<sup>2</sup> Refers to goods for which use cannot be easily excluded to other beneficiaries (low excludability) and which can be used various times by different beneficiaries without being destroyed (low rivalry).

<sup>3</sup> Environmental and social functions are known as non-productive, or also as non-marketable, and goods and services are often identified as non-marketable (NMGS). The economic literature about multifunctionality talks indistinctly about (positive or negative) externalities, and about public goods (or "bads"), as most externalities are non-exhaustible, of joint consumption and are impossible to exclude, which render them as public goods.

When applying this theoretical framework to analyze the functionality of any peri-urban agricultural system, it is fundamental to improve the exactness of the spatial scales applied to these analyses by limiting the system under study and suitably detailing the beneficial processes that can be developed.

The Huerta de Valencia is a wealthy agricultural system with a wide variety of resources, but one that is also subject to pressures that can condition its development and survival. Its periurban nature (since it is located in the metropolitan area of the city of Valencia), has been greatly conditioned by this fact, and also by the great pressure from competition given the possibilities of alternative activities in this space. You can see the area in Figure 1.

**Figure 1.** Huerta de Valencia.

**1. Introduction**

62 Urban Agriculture

nality1

can provide.

1

2

and Public Goods2

, 3

not pay for its detrimental effects (negative externalities).

various times by different beneficiaries without being destroyed (low rivalry).

consumption and are impossible to exclude, which render them as public goods.

forms of public intervention for correcting these is acknowledged.

To the conventional role of farming activity as a production sector of raw materials, mainly food products, whose objective was to obtain economic benefits from globalized markets, since the post-productivist paradigm, other capacities have been added: social, economic and ecological implication on the surrounding territory where it has been implemented. To a greater or lesser extent, it is acknowledged that, simultaneous to the production of food and raw material, agriculture contributes to the provision of public goods and services that are related with entertainment and recreation, and to developing beneficial processes, such as CO2 fixation, healthy safe food production, preserving natural and cultural heritage, and respecting and maintaining the natural environment. The consideration of these aspects results

It has recently begun to attract considerable attention, with discussion on urban agriculture in industrialized countries. Some agricultural systems on the urban fringe are characterized by being highly valuable spaces that maintain a fragile equilibrium between considering agri‐ cultural spaces and/or peri-urban areas that are subject to pressure by alternative land uses (industrial, infrastructure, commercial and leisure centers, etc.). However, society demands of them opportunities to undertake recreational activities, produce quality organic products locally, conserve and maintain spaces relatively near cities and towns under suitable environ‐ mental conditions for living, conserving cultural ethnological heritage, etc. [2, 3, 6, 8, 9]. These functions performed by agricultural systems, and the goods and services they can provide, result from the agriculture practice itself, and are generated simultaneously with the produc‐ tion of foodstuffs and raw materials [8, 10–12]. They possess the character of Positive Exter‐

and the existence of market failure that provides theoretical arguments for justifying possible

Many public goods associated in some form or another with agricultural activities are local [2, 9, 13]. Developing intervention policies requires studying the functional analyses of peri-urban agricultural systems which, beyond the sectorial perspective of agriculture as an economic sector, incorporate detailed analyses of enviro-friendly-related functions, healthy food production, provision of entertainment spaces, etc., as well as the Non Marketable Goods and Services (NMGSs) that they can provide. This work adopts a descriptive approach that takes the multifunctionality of agriculture as a basis to later carry out empirical analyses of periurban agricultural systems, the functions they can perform, and the goods and services they

Refers to situations in which the producer of a particular output is not remunerated for it (positive externalities) or does

Refers to goods for which use cannot be easily excluded to other beneficiaries (low excludability) and which can be used

<sup>3</sup> Environmental and social functions are known as non-productive, or also as non-marketable, and goods and services are often identified as non-marketable (NMGS). The economic literature about multifunctionality talks indistinctly about (positive or negative) externalities, and about public goods (or "bads"), as most externalities are non-exhaustible, of joint

without markets where farmers can interchange them for income,

in an agricultural model known as multifunctional [1–7].

From all the above information, we put forward some working hypotheses to respond to our research:

beneficial to the environment, such as fixing CO2, the production of healthy and safe food, and the preservation of natural and cultural heritage".

The first part of this study centres on the multifunctionality concept, and its connection with new sustainable agriculture and multifunctionality approaches of lands, as well as peri-urban agriculture, and provides the most interesting corollaries to define the functions and goods and services that peri-urban agricultural systems can supply, which legitimize public inter‐ vention for their conservation. Accordingly, the intention is to specify the supply of public goods and services acknowledged to agricultural systems by defining indicators that allow an empirical analysis. Finally, we include the analysis that we are interested in, the peri-urban system of the Huerta de Valencia.

#### **2. Descriptive approach of peri-urban agrosystems functionality**

#### **2.1. Multifunctional, sustainable, and peri-urban agricultural system**

Agricultural multifunctionality (AMF) is a conceptual framework within which agricultural activity, which goes beyond the merely productive and commercial domain, forms part of a broader conception by attributing to agriculture functions that care for the natural environ‐ ment and landscape, conservation of cultural heritage, and functions that improve aspects of the social equilibrium [2]. To these we can add the possibility of providing recreational services, which would perform a recreational function. The fact, that these other (non-productive) agricultural functions exist, which generate NMGS, and for which social demand exists in developed countries, is the basis on which the argument about protecting agriculture and its justification lie.

There has been considerable debate about AMF in different domains. In the political domain, the debate for more than one decade on agricultural policy has been about the multifunction‐ ality of agriculture. The assumed case of this multifunctionality being an intrinsic quality of agriculture as a result of joint production has been underlined in positive AMF approaches. OCDE [4, 5] was probably the first statement who, for legitimacy of policy support to agricul‐ ture, adopts the neo-classical economic approach with joint of production of commodities and positive externalities, and market failure for public goods (biodiversity, landscape etc.) as key notions. The legal approach, however, considered it to be the result of the plurality of objectives that the agricultural policy considers and is, therefore, a desirable model [2].

Wilson [7] criticizes that, depending on the research field, the term multifunctionality has been widely and confusedly conceptualized, and goes from agricultural economy to geography, and even moves on to rural sociology. It distinguishes between the MFA concept [11], with its more economic-type discourse, and multifunctionality from a broader landscape and ecology perspective [14, 15], with discourses based on broader and more holistic interpretations. For the first concepts, we could state that multifunctionality is observed from a sectorial perspec‐ tive, while the second concept seeks the agricultural-rural areas interrelation, and multifunc‐ tionality not only of agricultural activity, but also of lands. They point at important implications for analytical research tools such as models for agronomic and agro-ecological relations at farm and regional levels.

beneficial to the environment, such as fixing CO2, the production of healthy and safe food,

**•** Third: "Developing intervention policies requires a study of the functional analyses done of peri-urban agricultural systems which, beyond the agricultural sectorial perspective as an economic sector, incorporates detailed analyses of the functions that are related to respecting the natural environment, production of healthy foods, provision of recreational

**•** Fourth: "There is concern and social interest about the Huerta de Valencia, and its conser‐

The first part of this study centres on the multifunctionality concept, and its connection with new sustainable agriculture and multifunctionality approaches of lands, as well as peri-urban agriculture, and provides the most interesting corollaries to define the functions and goods and services that peri-urban agricultural systems can supply, which legitimize public inter‐ vention for their conservation. Accordingly, the intention is to specify the supply of public goods and services acknowledged to agricultural systems by defining indicators that allow an empirical analysis. Finally, we include the analysis that we are interested in, the peri-urban

**2. Descriptive approach of peri-urban agrosystems functionality**

Agricultural multifunctionality (AMF) is a conceptual framework within which agricultural activity, which goes beyond the merely productive and commercial domain, forms part of a broader conception by attributing to agriculture functions that care for the natural environ‐ ment and landscape, conservation of cultural heritage, and functions that improve aspects of the social equilibrium [2]. To these we can add the possibility of providing recreational services, which would perform a recreational function. The fact, that these other (non-productive) agricultural functions exist, which generate NMGS, and for which social demand exists in developed countries, is the basis on which the argument about protecting agriculture and its

There has been considerable debate about AMF in different domains. In the political domain, the debate for more than one decade on agricultural policy has been about the multifunction‐ ality of agriculture. The assumed case of this multifunctionality being an intrinsic quality of agriculture as a result of joint production has been underlined in positive AMF approaches. OCDE [4, 5] was probably the first statement who, for legitimacy of policy support to agricul‐ ture, adopts the neo-classical economic approach with joint of production of commodities and positive externalities, and market failure for public goods (biodiversity, landscape etc.) as key notions. The legal approach, however, considered it to be the result of the plurality of objectives

that the agricultural policy considers and is, therefore, a desirable model [2].

**2.1. Multifunctional, sustainable, and peri-urban agricultural system**

and the preservation of natural and cultural heritage".

scenarios, etc., and NMGS".

64 Urban Agriculture

vation and preservation".

system of the Huerta de Valencia.

justification lie.

Jongeneel et al. [8] defend that multifunctionality in agriculture is directly, although not exclusively, linked to the different functions agricultural land can fulfil. The functions that agricultural land can fulfil include traditional production functions (food, feed), an ecological function (habitat for wildlife), a cultural function (typical landscapes), and a recreation function (enjoying landscape, on-farm attractions and accommodation). Multifunctional agriculture can simultaneously fulfil different combinations of these functions. The goods produced by these functions may be marketable (food, raw materials, ornamental plants, etc.) or non-marketable (wildlife and landscape) [8].

After indicating that the most important non-agricultural functions that it contributes are to help maintain rural areas and the natural environment (in practice this contribution is not easy to measure and is ever-changing). Compés and García Alvarez-Coque [16] defend an agricul‐ tural policy that necessarily contemplates reducing negative impacts and agriculture's contribution to mitigating greenhouse effect gases. In parallel, conditions are increasingly imposed and society places more value on positive environmental functions of agriculture, which include CO2 fixation or maintaining biodiversity, two important cases, and recommend instruments that award surfaces, extensification, quality, sustainable development, biodiver‐ sity and rural landscapes.

Renting [2] promotes AMF as a concept and agricultural development course trajectory from an integrated perspective within the sustainable development framework of sustainable development. Reig [12] explores possible connections between multifunctionality and sustainability by understanding that the multifunctional orientation of agriculture leads to measures being taken to correct market failures and to provide coverage of specific environ‐ mental functions (protecting biodiversity, landscaping, etc.), which can help enhance social well-being and reinforce environmental sustainability. All this contributes to develop more sustainable agricultural activity.

Chiara [17] indicates that the most significant components of the non- built-up peri-urban areas in some Italian urban areas, are agricultural lands, which usually fulfil environmental, productive, recreational, water balance, and cultural functions, just as multifunctional agriculture does [2, 18]. These multifunctional activities of peri-urban agriculture enrich both the rural and the urban context [19, 20].

Pascucci [21] defends that the multifunctionality of peri-urban agriculture is performed or materializes in the same way as the rural one, insofar as it is the joint production of activity that is firstly oriented to the direct production of market goods and services (food and raw material), but secondly produces goods and services that help land sustainability, preserve biodiversity, and maintain the economic and social vitality of the urban areas in which it is practiced.

Finally, Zasada [22] finds that MFA has been commonly recognized in peri-urban areas. The multifunctional development paradigm provides an approach that strengthens and modern‐ izes peri-urban agriculture. There is a reasonable demand among the urban public for multiple functions and values from farming.

#### **2.2. Provision of goods and services by peri-urban agriculture**

Ecosystem services have often been narrowly defined and restricted to natural ecosystems. In recent years, the scope of the ecosystem services concept has been extended, and more studies refer to ecosystem services in agricultural systems. Serious discussion about AMF has resulted from political discussion.

The extensive academic literature available shows recurring concern for the conceptualization of multifunctionality, discussion about the concept, and the supply and demand of the noncommercial functions attributed to it. However, they do not represent an alternative set of compact well-defined contributions, with new contributions on multifunctionality [23]. Nor has a clear definition of the objectives and functions of agriculture beyond the generic (economic, social, and environmental) ones initially established by the Commission been completed.

We reviewed papers that address goods and services of agricultural systems, and that study the peri-urban fringe, its particular characteristics, and especially goods and services related to agriculture. Based on our scientific literature review, we adopted a descriptive approach of the functionality of peri-urban agro systems.

The makeup of peri-urban areas may differ depending on each urban area, the characteristics of the city's growth and systematic land occupancy for town planning, and also on interrela‐ tions between town planning and the surrounding rural environment.4 There are three ways of considering agriculture: land, the living environment and production. Agricultural activity plays a key role in the conception of agricultural peri-urban spaces. In developing countries,5 agriculture plays an important role in enhancing urban food security and nutrition, local economic development, poverty alleviation, and the social inclusion of disadvantaged groups and sustainable environmental management in cities. In industrialized countries, beyond the

<sup>4</sup> Consult the document, Agricultural management in peri-urban areas [45], which describes the debate one different future models or scenarios for peri-urban areas in France and Italy, according to the interrelation and urban growth over the peri-urban/rural areas near cities.

<sup>5</sup> In November 2001, the following document was presented: Annotated Bibliography on Urban Agriculture, prepared for the Swedish International Development Agency (Sida) by ETC-Urban Agriculture Programme, in cooperation with TUAN and other organizations.

urban sprawl and unplanned situations, agriculture is taken into account to: care for space (fertile land is a non-renewable resource); provide a view of agriculture in land tenure terms (agriculture is an economy activity and land is an economic resource); contribute to urban employment and to reduce inequalities; favour the conservation of memory and the roots of agriculture (it forms part of the territory's identity); and contribute, through its environmental functions, to management of water and natural risks, to fight against greenhouse effects, to value waste, and to increase the value of landscapes and tourism. This peri-urban scenario is enhanced by AMF.

Pascucci [21] defends that the multifunctionality of peri-urban agriculture is performed or materializes in the same way as the rural one, insofar as it is the joint production of activity that is firstly oriented to the direct production of market goods and services (food and raw material), but secondly produces goods and services that help land sustainability, preserve biodiversity, and maintain the economic and social vitality of the urban areas in which it is

Finally, Zasada [22] finds that MFA has been commonly recognized in peri-urban areas. The multifunctional development paradigm provides an approach that strengthens and modern‐ izes peri-urban agriculture. There is a reasonable demand among the urban public for multiple

Ecosystem services have often been narrowly defined and restricted to natural ecosystems. In recent years, the scope of the ecosystem services concept has been extended, and more studies refer to ecosystem services in agricultural systems. Serious discussion about AMF has resulted

The extensive academic literature available shows recurring concern for the conceptualization of multifunctionality, discussion about the concept, and the supply and demand of the noncommercial functions attributed to it. However, they do not represent an alternative set of compact well-defined contributions, with new contributions on multifunctionality [23]. Nor has a clear definition of the objectives and functions of agriculture beyond the generic (economic, social, and environmental) ones initially established by the Commission been

We reviewed papers that address goods and services of agricultural systems, and that study the peri-urban fringe, its particular characteristics, and especially goods and services related to agriculture. Based on our scientific literature review, we adopted a descriptive approach of

The makeup of peri-urban areas may differ depending on each urban area, the characteristics of the city's growth and systematic land occupancy for town planning, and also on interrela‐

of considering agriculture: land, the living environment and production. Agricultural activity plays a key role in the conception of agricultural peri-urban spaces. In developing countries,5 agriculture plays an important role in enhancing urban food security and nutrition, local economic development, poverty alleviation, and the social inclusion of disadvantaged groups and sustainable environmental management in cities. In industrialized countries, beyond the

 Consult the document, Agricultural management in peri-urban areas [45], which describes the debate one different future models or scenarios for peri-urban areas in France and Italy, according to the interrelation and urban growth over

 In November 2001, the following document was presented: Annotated Bibliography on Urban Agriculture, prepared for the Swedish International Development Agency (Sida) by ETC-Urban Agriculture Programme, in cooperation with

There are three ways

tions between town planning and the surrounding rural environment.4

practiced.

66 Urban Agriculture

functions and values from farming.

the functionality of peri-urban agro systems.

from political discussion.

completed.

4

5

the peri-urban/rural areas near cities.

TUAN and other organizations.

**2.2. Provision of goods and services by peri-urban agriculture**

It is not unreasonable to indistinctly talk about the agricultural areas located in urban areas where agricultural activity is a multifunctional economic activity, and about peri-urban areas of disperse urban growth where agricultural activity is actually marginal; that is, in a small space in local interstitial areas, or in an almost continuous urban matrix, but one that is broken by small closed agricultural spaces. Isolated agricultural areas influence the main agricultural functions, and hence agri-urban development. This isolation is a disadvantage for small fields given conflicts with local inhabitants, high land prices and low income. Non-agricultural work opportunities are scarce, and the share of part-time agriculture and hobby farming is large. These areas can be termed infra-urban.

The interest of the present work lies in peri-urban systems, where the productive structure and agricultural areas are almost continuous, although there is a separation between the urban and the agricultural/rural matrix. In these agricultural areas, agricultural land is more available, and the productive, environmental and landscape functions of agriculture are more important.

In relation to agriculture, and its multifunctional activity consideration, Reig [24], considers that it produces a wide range of goods, and includes a diagram to summarize and classify them as public and private. Private ones include the production of food and raw material of an agricultural origin, rural tourism, and other possible private goods. Public goods are classified as: 1) environmental: protecting landscape values, protecting biodiversity and protecting land, plus controlling erosion; 2) social: contributing to the feasibility of unfavoured rural areas, protecting cultural values in rural areas, and protecting rural areas from population loss.

Specifically for peri-urban agriculture, Zasada [22] reviews societal demands and the provision of goods and services by farming. Beyond traditional agricultural functions, peri-urban agriculture is increasingly acknowledged for its deliverance of local food, as well as recrea‐ tional, educational and other social services: Environmental and landscape amenities, Leisure and recreation, Regional food supply which directly, Lifestyle farming, Recreation-oriented diversification, Social farming, Short supply chains and Direct marketing.

If we consider one of the broadest and more specific definitions for sustainable agriculture, that by Gómez-Villarino et al. [25] is in accordance with the basic functions that the natural environment performs as a source of resources, a receiver of effluents and a support of activities, sustainable agriculture will be orientated to the rational exploitation of renewable resources, depending on their renovation rates, will not emit effluents to nature that exceed its assimilation capacity, and will respect ecosystems' hosting capacity when inducing transformations in them: it will promote savings and efficiency in water resources, use of alternative irrigation sources (wastewater), energy savings and efficiency, use of renewable energies, land management that avoids erosion phenomena, integrated and ecological production methods; it will avoid practices that pollute water, will respect the natural vocation of ecosystems, and will limit accessibility to the whole land; it will conserve traditional buildings and constructions, the makeup of plots and farms, and separation elements: walls, edgings, hedges, dispersed trees. It will also defend these functions: territorial equilibrium: fixing a dispersed population in the land to counteract the concentration tendency; creating a social system for activity by developing population settlements and constructed elements to also confer a material value, and historical and cultural interest; it will be a support for infrastructures and more productive economic activities, whose sustainability lies in respect‐ ing the natural vocation of various types of ecosystems.

The more an agricultural system approaches the pattern defined by Gómez-Villarino, the further it will move from productivity patterns.

The research by Ivesa and Kendalb [26] lists the following as components of the value of periurban agricultural areas: Culture (agricultural land near cities is an important part of cultural heritage), Education (farms near cities are important places for people to learn about the natural world, Agricultural land near cities provides good opportunities to teach people about where their food comes from), Environment (farmland near cities is important because it protects natural landscapes. The agricultural land closest to where people live is valuable because it contains natural areas not found in the city. Land near cities used for farming is not a place with worries about protecting native species of plants and wildlife. I like to know that native plants and animals are able to survive on the edge of cities), Aesthetics (people enjoy the scenery of agricultural landscapes on the edge of cities. It is important that people can see farm animals near where they live), Food security (farms near cities should produce food to make sure that people who live there have a secure food supply), Food availability (it is important that people have access to food produced near where they live. We can still have a fresh supply of food without preserving agricultural land near cities. People prefer to buy locally produced food).

As a result of studying and analyzing these works, we proposed a descriptive approach of the multifunctionality of peri-urban agricultural systems, and the goods and services they can provide, by differentiating private ones from public ones, and among these, positive and negative externalities. We classified the various functions depending on whether they are economic, social or environmental.

We considered the following functions and/or goods and services:

**•** Configuring natural heritage: Agricultural systems are local in nature, and the surrounding conditions they develop in (climate, soil type and characteristics, edaphic properties, availability of water resources, the land's orography, etc.), condition the configuration of true natural heritage in accordance with crops, the production practices and techniques applied, and the agricultural structures that are implemented.

**•** Creating new landscape forms: as a result of the previous point, the generated landscape is unique and irreplaceable, and is, more often than not, high quality. The impact of agricul‐ tural activity is attractive landscapes, which is why citizens are very sensitive about their conservation and maintenance.

transformations in them: it will promote savings and efficiency in water resources, use of alternative irrigation sources (wastewater), energy savings and efficiency, use of renewable energies, land management that avoids erosion phenomena, integrated and ecological production methods; it will avoid practices that pollute water, will respect the natural vocation of ecosystems, and will limit accessibility to the whole land; it will conserve traditional buildings and constructions, the makeup of plots and farms, and separation elements: walls, edgings, hedges, dispersed trees. It will also defend these functions: territorial equilibrium: fixing a dispersed population in the land to counteract the concentration tendency; creating a social system for activity by developing population settlements and constructed elements to also confer a material value, and historical and cultural interest; it will be a support for infrastructures and more productive economic activities, whose sustainability lies in respect‐

The more an agricultural system approaches the pattern defined by Gómez-Villarino, the

The research by Ivesa and Kendalb [26] lists the following as components of the value of periurban agricultural areas: Culture (agricultural land near cities is an important part of cultural heritage), Education (farms near cities are important places for people to learn about the natural world, Agricultural land near cities provides good opportunities to teach people about where their food comes from), Environment (farmland near cities is important because it protects natural landscapes. The agricultural land closest to where people live is valuable because it contains natural areas not found in the city. Land near cities used for farming is not a place with worries about protecting native species of plants and wildlife. I like to know that native plants and animals are able to survive on the edge of cities), Aesthetics (people enjoy the scenery of agricultural landscapes on the edge of cities. It is important that people can see farm animals near where they live), Food security (farms near cities should produce food to make sure that people who live there have a secure food supply), Food availability (it is important that people have access to food produced near where they live. We can still have a fresh supply of food without preserving agricultural land near cities. People prefer to buy

As a result of studying and analyzing these works, we proposed a descriptive approach of the multifunctionality of peri-urban agricultural systems, and the goods and services they can provide, by differentiating private ones from public ones, and among these, positive and negative externalities. We classified the various functions depending on whether they are

**•** Configuring natural heritage: Agricultural systems are local in nature, and the surrounding conditions they develop in (climate, soil type and characteristics, edaphic properties, availability of water resources, the land's orography, etc.), condition the configuration of true natural heritage in accordance with crops, the production practices and techniques

ing the natural vocation of various types of ecosystems.

further it will move from productivity patterns.

locally produced food).

68 Urban Agriculture

economic, social or environmental.

We considered the following functions and/or goods and services:

applied, and the agricultural structures that are implemented.

However, agricultural activity can also have negative effects, or negative externalities, such as:

which, through leaching, can affect bodies of water. As regulations progressively tighten the use of these substances, they are used less. The inclusion of good agricultural and livestock practices, and an agriculture that respects ecological and integrated production systems, are not only necessary to comply with laws, but to also meet new consumer food trends; and to attend consumers who are concerned about the health of food, traditional production with traditional varieties and cultivars that offer excellent taste quality, pro‐ duction by applying traditional more enviro-friendly working techniques, and production obtained from family-run farms related with traditional ways of life in a nearby agricultural space that offers good quality of life.

Regarding the use and enjoyment of peri-urban agricultural spaces as recreational and entertainment spaces, outsourcing activities is feasible in such a way that some surfaces would no longer remain agricultural, but would be occupied for other uses, termed land activities which, by adding value, sum complementary income to the primary value. Such activities include rural tourism as various ecotourism forms, sun-and-beach tourism, scientific, obser‐ vation and adventure tourism: e.g., birdwatching and wildlife, hiking, cycling, fishing, hunting, and even swimming. Accordingly, the positive effects set out in the previous section that agricultural activity has on land also apply to such spaces. In these cases, other production activities should also maintain an environmental function that respects nature and biodiver‐ sity, as well as other factors, such as the landscape and cultural heritage, on which the agricultural system's multifunctional nature is sustained.

**Table 1.** Peri-urban agricultural system: functions, goods and services.

The attached **Table 1** includes a list of the goods and services that an agricultural system can provide, distinguishes between those considered private from public, and those with a positive or a negative externality nature. All goods and services are classified according to whether they are economic, social or environmental. Up to 12 generic services are defined, which are subdivided into 22 functions and 22 goods and services. This is contemplated as a descriptive approach to AMF as a basis to later carry out empirical analyses on peri-urban agricultural systems.

which, through leaching, can affect bodies of water. As regulations progressively tighten the use of these substances, they are used less. The inclusion of good agricultural and livestock practices, and an agriculture that respects ecological and integrated production systems, are not only necessary to comply with laws, but to also meet new consumer food trends; and to attend consumers who are concerned about the health of food, traditional production with traditional varieties and cultivars that offer excellent taste quality, pro‐ duction by applying traditional more enviro-friendly working techniques, and production obtained from family-run farms related with traditional ways of life in a nearby agricultural

Regarding the use and enjoyment of peri-urban agricultural spaces as recreational and entertainment spaces, outsourcing activities is feasible in such a way that some surfaces would no longer remain agricultural, but would be occupied for other uses, termed land activities which, by adding value, sum complementary income to the primary value. Such activities include rural tourism as various ecotourism forms, sun-and-beach tourism, scientific, obser‐ vation and adventure tourism: e.g., birdwatching and wildlife, hiking, cycling, fishing, hunting, and even swimming. Accordingly, the positive effects set out in the previous section that agricultural activity has on land also apply to such spaces. In these cases, other production activities should also maintain an environmental function that respects nature and biodiver‐ sity, as well as other factors, such as the landscape and cultural heritage, on which the

space that offers good quality of life.

70 Urban Agriculture

agricultural system's multifunctional nature is sustained.

**Table 1.** Peri-urban agricultural system: functions, goods and services.

The public goods that agriculture generates differ from some agricultural systems to others depending on different aspects of the environment, agricultural practices, etc. Consequently, the supply and demand of public goods is extremely heterogeneous.

Regarding the joint production characteristic, interdependence exists between agricultural production and production of other goods (NMGS), regardless of their technical or biological nature. Moreover, some production factors exist from which several different outputs are obtained, which cannot be separately assigned to each one. Reig [9] considers that joint production is related with the production techniques applied, environmental conditions, technology and the subsequent allocation of resources, etc., therefore knowledge of it demands multidisciplinary research efforts, and must be oriented to specific geographic locations.

Supply will be more heterogeneous as a result of differences between the physical basis (climate, soil type, quality of irrigation water, etc.) on which the activity in different regions lies, and also due to the agricultural activity management at the exploitation level with intensification or extensification of production systems. The fact that externalities exist and that market failure is acknowledged will trigger intervention. However, knowledge about the joint production process is essential to select and design intervention instruments that can promote the production processes or systems that generate the positive externalities or public goods that are in demand [27].

#### **3. Analysis of the functionality of agricultural systems**

Conducting studies about multifunctionality entails defining the significant indicators which suitably explain the underlying processes and relations that link the agricultural activity and functions, and the goods and services that it provides. These indicators should be defined and proposed in different case studies and in accordance with not only the most relevant aspects of the agricultural system to be studied, but also with the purpose of the study in question, but mainly according to existing sources of information, etc. **Table 2** includes the defined indicators.

For a multidimensional assessment, the next task is to identify appropriate indicators of economic, social and environmental dimensions of multifunctionality in peri-urban areas.

Specially, we want select a limited number of attributes which can be quantified, in order to evaluate the performance of agriculture, and determine its multifunctional character, in different settings and situations.

This selection was made by review of literature about some indicators, proposed by some authors related to economic dimension [20, 28–31] to social dimension [32, 33], and to envi‐ ronmental dimension [22, 34, 35]. There are some works which integrate all dimensions together [2, 36, 37].

Were used too, some reference papers, from statements, public institutions, government institutions, etc. which include information about some indicators in different dimensions:

As a result, a set of indicators were selected (**Table 2**), designed to verify and control the multifunctionality of agriculture farming system level. **Table 2** includes indicators used to evaluate the peri-urban agricultural system of Huerta de Valencia.

**Table 2.** Peri-urban agricultural system: indicators for functions, goods and services.

Indicators need the requirements [38] that they are:

This selection was made by review of literature about some indicators, proposed by some authors related to economic dimension [20, 28–31] to social dimension [32, 33], and to envi‐ ronmental dimension [22, 34, 35]. There are some works which integrate all dimensions

Were used too, some reference papers, from statements, public institutions, government institutions, etc. which include information about some indicators in different dimensions: **•** OCDE 2001: Environmental Indicators for Agriculture Volume 3: Methods and Results

**•** OCDE 2002: Effects of agricultural policies and practices on the environment: review of empirical work in OCDE countries. COM/AGR/CA/ENV/EPOC(2001)60/FINAL [39].

**•** Proyecto WADI: The Sustainability of European Irrigated Agriculture under Water Frame‐

**•** COM (2006) 508 final, COMUNICACIÓN DE LA COMISIÓN AL CONSEJO Y AL PARLA‐ MENTO EUROPEO. Establecimiento de indicadores agroambientales para el seguimiento de la integración de las consideraciones medioambientales en la política agrícola común.

**•** OCD 2008: Environmental Performance of Agriculture since 1990: Main Report, Paris,

As a result, a set of indicators were selected (**Table 2**), designed to verify and control the multifunctionality of agriculture farming system level. **Table 2** includes indicators used to

evaluate the peri-urban agricultural system of Huerta de Valencia.

**Table 2.** Peri-urban agricultural system: indicators for functions, goods and services.

together [2, 36, 37].

France (2008).

work Directive and Agenda 2000 [40].

[38].

72 Urban Agriculture

#### **3.1. Indicators for economic function**

Indicators that explain the economic function are related to indicators on economic viability of farming. They are taken into consideration: 1) Farm real estate values. It is the principal source of collateral for farm loans, enabling farmers to finance the agricultural activity. 2) Farm income as indicator of economic performance. Also, rents resulting from possible alternative activities that can develop in the field of agriculture, more related to the possibility of out‐ sourcing activity and development related to the possibilities of using agricultural areas for leisure and recreation activities. Considering potential income, as complementary income from farming tourism. Calculation of income as defined by the OECD [38] as the difference between the value of gross output and all expenses, including depreciation at the farm level from agricultural activities.

The use of agricultural areas for leisure and recreation is related to rural amenities from landscape, biodiversity, and wildlife habitat, the existence of a cultural heritage related to traditional agricultural practice: architecture, civil engineering, agricultural engineering, hydraulic engineering, etc. In many cases, specific local environmental and external factors drive urban farms to develop unique innovations for space-intensive production systems, often creating a dominant paradigm for urban farming for a given location [28].

#### **3.2. Indicators for environmental function**

The environmental function is related to the configuration of farming systems that contribute to the creation of characteristic agricultural landscapes of great value, to the conservation of biodiversity, to the conservation of the soil, to the protection of water resources, etc.

#### *3.2.1. Configuration of Natural Heritage and Creation of new landscape shapes*

Agriculture is, in many cases, responsible for shaping landscapes and ecosystem with specific characteristics. Managing human intervention over nature, the crops, cultural practices, plot size, shape of the plots, alignment of the plots, and infrastructures creation, can contribute to the creation of agricultural heritage, natural with great value. These agricultural landscapes deliver cultural and recreational, services, which do not sustain agricultural production, but deliver benefits derived from the aesthetic function of landscapes, including tourism, sense of place, spiritual experiences and recreation, offering possibilities for additional income through, e.g., the recreation and tourism sector [41].

Agricultural landscapes are characterized by their spatial structure and composition. Land‐ scape structure includes the diversity and complexity of the spatial (and temporal) structure of the landscape: orography, slope of the land, spatial organization of fields, plot size, shape of the plots, alignment of the plots, and infrastructures creation. Landscape composition refers to the relative prevalence of land use/land cover types, crops types, and landscape elements: water, trees, etc.).

Indicators proposed are:

**Table 3.** Arable land in Huerta de Valencia.

**Table 4.** Farm size in Huerta de Valencia.

place, spiritual experiences and recreation, offering possibilities for additional income

Agricultural landscapes are characterized by their spatial structure and composition. Land‐ scape structure includes the diversity and complexity of the spatial (and temporal) structure of the landscape: orography, slope of the land, spatial organization of fields, plot size, shape of the plots, alignment of the plots, and infrastructures creation. Landscape composition refers to the relative prevalence of land use/land cover types, crops types, and landscape elements:

**•** Soil cover as number of days in a year that the soil (agricultural land) is covered with

**•** Mosaic or tessellation is interpreted by agricultural matrix more or less plotted, more or less broken in small agricultural spaces, with a great variety of crops. Mosaic can be interpreted

100% 91% 92%

**Number of farms Total surface(Ha) Number of farms Total surface (Ha)**

**Total farmland surface (Ha) Arable land (Ha)**

**From 0.1 to 0.2 Ha** 5 0.38 3 0.35 **From 0.2 to 0.5 Ha** 1,161 389.34 1,043 353.37 **From 0.5 to 1 Ha** 1,283 885.50 1,261 893.84 **From 1 to 2 Ha** 1,766 2,448.25 1,760 2,424.21 **From 2 to 3 Ha** 921 2,196.66 892 2,113.11 **From 3 to 4 Ha** 493 1,668.58 474 1,597.20 **From 4 to 5 Ha** 298 1,307.19 271 1,188.70 **From 5 to 10 Ha** 632 4,254.70 604 4,056.80 **From 10 to 20 Ha** 256 3,415.14 246 3,264.29 **From 20 to 30 Ha** 67 1,602.28 56 1,348.93 **From 30 to 50 Ha** 36 1,359.24 28 1,039.07 **From 50 to 70 Ha** 13 727.76 11.00 621.82

through, e.g., the recreation and tourism sector [41].

by number of agricultural plots, and variety of crops.

**Farmland Arable land**

Farms Ha Farms Ha 10.030 21.975 9.079 20.123

water, trees, etc.).

74 Urban Agriculture

Indicators proposed are:

vegetation [38]. See you Table 3

**Table 3.** Arable land in Huerta de Valencia.

There are a lot of very small size plots. **Table 4**, indicates that there are arround 22.000 farms. From these, 60% are short farms, smaller than 10 ha. 25% between 4 and 10 Ha.

**Figure 2.** Spatial structure and composition.

There are a wide variety of crops (**Table 5**): traditional orchard crops, grain represented by rice, and a lot of citrus.

**Table 5.** Variety of crops.

#### *3.2.2. Biodiversity protection*

Variety of natural conditions and farming traditions can create unique landscapes that are not only pleasing to the eye but provide the living conditions for many plants and animals. Differing farming practices have led to a variety of agricultural habitats that host a large number of plant and animal species. Maintaining adequate farming practices is therefore key to biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity generally decreases when the intensity of farming increases. On the other hand, land use change affect negatively, and abandonment is consid‐ ered detrimental to biodiversity. So, extensive farming systems are most vulnerable to abandonment, and so to decrease biodiversity. Small farm size usually entails the consolidation of fields boundary, such as hedges and small trees, structures for feeding, nesting and shelter against predators. These are important for the crop protection [2]. Farmland birds are too, indicative of overall biodiversity.

In the area of Huerta, we find sites hosting natural diversity of habitats subject to different forms of protection. South of the Huerta de Valencia is the Albufera Natural Park. Paddy field area is located within the Albufera Park.

North of the Huerta de Valencia, is the wetland "Rafalell I Vistabella", and "Marjal del Moro". Both are protected wetlands included in the Ramsar Convention. Albufera is also a wetlands. Tree areas are included in Nature 2000. Ecosystems located into or in the immediate vicinity and bordering on agricultural land.

The structural composition and dynamics of these ecosystems can´t be understood but as a result of interdependencies with the surrounding agricultural areas and certain agricultural activities. In all cases, irrigation returns is very important for wetland. Moreover, the agricul‐ tural environment intervenes in biological flows, allowing the species movement through connection elements present, such as trails, enclaves and hedges that include either through called frames biophysical, hydrological flow to the surface. The canals and drainage system, and irrigation canals connected, in all cases, with these spaces, forming a waterways system in some cases with abundant marsh vegetation that act as ecological corridors, linking together different spaces. A lot of species use marsh vegetation in canals for feeding, nesting and shelter.

Indicators proposed:

**Vegetables Other arable crops**

RICE (PADDY) CHUFA ALGARROBO

Variety of natural conditions and farming traditions can create unique landscapes that are not only pleasing to the eye but provide the living conditions for many plants and animals. Differing farming practices have led to a variety of agricultural habitats that host a large number of plant and animal species. Maintaining adequate farming practices is therefore key to biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity generally decreases when the intensity of farming increases. On the other hand, land use change affect negatively, and abandonment is consid‐ ered detrimental to biodiversity. So, extensive farming systems are most vulnerable to abandonment, and so to decrease biodiversity. Small farm size usually entails the consolidation of fields boundary, such as hedges and small trees, structures for feeding, nesting and shelter against predators. These are important for the crop protection [2]. Farmland birds are too,

In the area of Huerta, we find sites hosting natural diversity of habitats subject to different forms of protection. South of the Huerta de Valencia is the Albufera Natural Park. Paddy field

North of the Huerta de Valencia, is the wetland "Rafalell I Vistabella", and "Marjal del Moro". Both are protected wetlands included in the Ramsar Convention. Albufera is also a wetlands. Tree areas are included in Nature 2000. Ecosystems located into or in the immediate vicinity

The structural composition and dynamics of these ecosystems can´t be understood but as a result of interdependencies with the surrounding agricultural areas and certain agricultural activities. In all cases, irrigation returns is very important for wetland. Moreover, the agricul‐ tural environment intervenes in biological flows, allowing the species movement through connection elements present, such as trails, enclaves and hedges that include either through called frames biophysical, hydrological flow to the surface. The canals and drainage system,

Potato TOTAL GRANADO

**GRAIN CEREALS TUBERS HUMAN CONSUMPTION FRUIT**

**Table 5.** Variety of crops.

76 Urban Agriculture

*3.2.2. Biodiversity protection*

indicative of overall biodiversity.

**Figure 3.** Paddy fiels area in Albufera Park.

and bordering on agricultural land.

area is located within the Albufera Park.

On the other hand, biodiversity that is dependent on agricultural activities and/or affected by it, is related with the diversity of crop varieties/livestock used in agricultural production. These indicators help to reveal the resilience of agricultural production to environmental changes and risks which occur through diversifying the number of varieties/breeds in production.

**Table 6.** Natural area protected.

**Table 7.** Natural protected area for arable land.

#### *3.2.3. Water use*

Agriculture has capacity to interfere on the supply and quality of water to improve it. Agri‐ culture performs storage functions and water retention. Agriculture regulates the water regime in the crop area and in bordering wetlands, already named above.

The share of agriculture in total water utilisation is normally high. Irrigation technology help to achieve economic efficiency by management and distribution.

We are developing three indicators related to agriculture's use of water:

	- **◦** 1) Irrigation efficiency: m3/Ha
	- **◦** 2) Share of irrigation water applied by different forms of irrigation technology (**Table 8**).

**Table 8.** Surface by irrigation method (Ha).

The least efficient method, flooding, is the most used irrigation method in Huerta de Valencia. This suggests that water be used more efficiently. Water is considered a scarce resource and consequently issues related to irrigation efficiency are of importance. But, the irrigation method, is important for another function:

	- **◦** 3) Supplying adjacent wetlands: relationship between feedback water resources that supply adjacent wetlands of all the resources used in arable area.

#### *3.2.4. Climate change and global warming contribution*

It is now widely believed that the increased atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is contributing to the process of climate change and global warming.

Huerta de Valencia as agrarian system has capacity to act as a GHG sink, regulation of local and global climate change, and contributes to atmosphere composition regulation, and the improve of quality air. But the cover cropping, tillage systems and crops management in Huerta de Valencia make these capacities difficult, because the most important crops are vegetable and there are few trees.

#### *3.2.5. Soil protected, land conservation*

Appropriate land use, combined with environmentally sound soil and water management practices can help to reduce the peak flow of surface water and loss of soil sediment.

#### *3.2.6. Negative externalities*

The share of agriculture in total water utilisation is normally high. Irrigation technology help

**◦** 2) Share of irrigation water applied by different forms of irrigation technology (**Table 8**).

The least efficient method, flooding, is the most used irrigation method in Huerta de Valencia. This suggests that water be used more efficiently. Water is considered a scarce resource and consequently issues related to irrigation efficiency are of importance. But, the irrigation

**◦** 3) Supplying adjacent wetlands: relationship between feedback water resources that

It is now widely believed that the increased atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases

Huerta de Valencia as agrarian system has capacity to act as a GHG sink, regulation of local and global climate change, and contributes to atmosphere composition regulation, and the improve of quality air. But the cover cropping, tillage systems and crops management in Huerta de Valencia make these capacities difficult, because the most important crops are

Appropriate land use, combined with environmentally sound soil and water management

practices can help to reduce the peak flow of surface water and loss of soil sediment.

Sprinkler Drip Flood Other method

to achieve economic efficiency by management and distribution.

We are developing three indicators related to agriculture's use of water:

19,044 253 4,886 13,782 122

**•** The reservoirs and canals provide habitat for waterfowl and fish.

**•** Wetlands around agricultural areas receive seepage and drainage from canals.

supply adjacent wetlands of all the resources used in arable area.

(GHGs) is contributing to the process of climate change and global warming.

**•** Irrigated system/ Absolute volume of water used per arable area:

**◦** 1) Irrigation efficiency: m3/Ha

78 Urban Agriculture

**Table 8.** Surface by irrigation method (Ha).

method, is important for another function:

*3.2.4. Climate change and global warming contribution*

**•** Irrigation canals provide habitats.

vegetable and there are few trees.

*3.2.5. Soil protected, land conservation*

**Total Surface (Ha) Irrigation method (Ha)**

Environmental value includes negative impacts of farm management practices. These negative impacts refer to pollution derived from intensification in irrigation crops, and from pesticides applied.

Huerta de Valencia is an agricultural system which practices farm management that can induce environmental damage. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) surplus in excess can run-off into surface waters and percolate. So it is important to consider the risk of groundwater pollution. Regional administration has rated the area with high risk of groundwater vulnerability.

It is important to have analysis from soil and water, to adjust surplus N and P to the crop needs.

Pollution by pesticide, include soil, water and air pollution. The most important result is the potential risk to human health and the environment. It required pest management, to reduce the environmental and health impacts of pesticide use. Recommended farm management practices can reduce pesticide residues left in soil, by lowering the quantity of pesticides applied and using less toxic and less persistent pesticides. Indicator:

#### **3.3. Indicators for social function**

Social goods and services of Huerta de Valencia derive from territorial and cultural-scientific elements.

#### *3.3.1. Equilibrium territorial*

Urban expansion has been the most important driver of very high consumption of land and agricultural resources. The urban fringe is often characterized by uncontrolled urban devel‐ opment that results in discontinuous patterns and consequent fragmentation of farmlands. As a result, it becomes a particular contemporary peri-urban landscape, where residential lowdensity settlements are intertwined with farmlands that have been partially modified and reduced by urbanization. This is the main landmark of metropolitan areas [42].

In Mediterranean cities, for decades, small residential urban settlements around the big city, absorb some of the population growth (Barcelona, Valencia, Milan, etc.), creating major metropolitan areas very densely populated. Agriculture involves this urban development process with opportunity of working, building communities, connect people to each other and the land, family cohesion, producing food and other products for consumption and for sale.

Actually, in these developed cities, agriculture, rather than food production per se, takes on an important role in providing recreational opportunities for citizens (recreational routes, food buying and meals on the farm, visiting facilities) or having educational functions (bringing youth in contact with animals, teaching about ecology, etc.).

Huerta de Valencia has been shaped historically by the farmers, from small settlements, the network of canals and historic trails, and scattered farmhouses and "barracas"6 . As a result of agricultural activity, it has developed important agronomic heritage (agricultural practices, varieties, tools, vocabulary, etc.), hydraulic heritage necessary to water resources manage‐ ment, and civil architecture (mills, farmhouse, etc.). All together, these make Huerta de Valencia an agricultural system with great cultural and scientific value.

In Valencia, from 1950, economic growth resulted in very important changes in the city and pre-metropolitan settlements. Population in this area has exhibited a considerable growth. In small settlements, this is faster than Valencia City. You can see Table 9.

**Table 9.** Population evolution in Valencia Metropolitan Area (VMA).

On the other hand, agriculture provides agricultural employment opportunities. De Zeeuw (2003) noted that in addition to the economic benefits to the urban agricultural producers, urban agriculture stimulates the development of related enterprises: the production of necessary agricultural inputs and, the processing, packaging and marketing of outputs. The activities or services rendered by these enterprises may owe their existence wholly or in part to urban agriculture [43].

Indicators:

**•** Employment: agricultural employment in total civilian employment.

Agricultural sector has a declining role in overall economic activity. This is reflected in the decrease of farm employment.

<sup>6</sup> Typical farmhouse in Huerta de Valencia.

**Table 10.** Employment by economic sector, 2009.

Actually, in these developed cities, agriculture, rather than food production per se, takes on an important role in providing recreational opportunities for citizens (recreational routes, food buying and meals on the farm, visiting facilities) or having educational functions (bringing

Huerta de Valencia has been shaped historically by the farmers, from small settlements, the

agricultural activity, it has developed important agronomic heritage (agricultural practices, varieties, tools, vocabulary, etc.), hydraulic heritage necessary to water resources manage‐ ment, and civil architecture (mills, farmhouse, etc.). All together, these make Huerta de

In Valencia, from 1950, economic growth resulted in very important changes in the city and pre-metropolitan settlements. Population in this area has exhibited a considerable growth. In

On the other hand, agriculture provides agricultural employment opportunities. De Zeeuw (2003) noted that in addition to the economic benefits to the urban agricultural producers, urban agriculture stimulates the development of related enterprises: the production of necessary agricultural inputs and, the processing, packaging and marketing of outputs. The activities or services rendered by these enterprises may owe their existence wholly or in part

Agricultural sector has a declining role in overall economic activity. This is reflected in the

. As a result of

network of canals and historic trails, and scattered farmhouses and "barracas"6

Valencia an agricultural system with great cultural and scientific value.

small settlements, this is faster than Valencia City. You can see Table 9.

**Year Now VMA Valencia (VMA/Valencia)x100**

**•** Employment: agricultural employment in total civilian employment.

**1877\*** 88,000 165,000 53.33 **1900\*** 110,000 209,000 52.63 **1950\*** 214,000 450,000 47.56 **1975\*** 470,000 718,000 65.46 **2008\*\*** 758,232 771,466 98.28 **2011** 746,696 798,033 93.57

**Table 9.** Population evolution in Valencia Metropolitan Area (VMA).

to urban agriculture [43].

decrease of farm employment.

Typical farmhouse in Huerta de Valencia.

Indicators:

80 Urban Agriculture

6

youth in contact with animals, teaching about ecology, etc.).

If we consider employments for the last years, by activity sector, we find in Huerta de Valencia that agriculture maintains low employment proportion, less 2%, with progressive decrease.

**•** Employment per hectare of cultivation: agricultural employment in total surface of farm‐ land.

**Table 11.** AWU´s/surface.

However, it must be pointed out, in **Table 11**, that agricultural employment per hectare of cultivation is most important in this area.

**•** Number of companies. In **Table 12** it is described the types of businesses and their legal form.

**Table 12.** Farmland and surface, by farmland type.

#### *3.3.2. Cultural-scientific function*

Agricultural land near cities is important for food availability. We can still have a fresh supply of food preserving agricultural land near cities.

The cultural and scientific value is recognized by agricultural activity development and local knowledge related to farmland multifunctionality and sustainable land usage:

The scientific value in Huerta de Valencia is recognized by agricultural activity development throughout the centuries, from Roman times, with the development of environmental practices adopted by farmers:

Cultural value derive from adaptation of activity, to the ecosystem:

the activity, and irrigation management, such as mills, canals, dams, etc. Glick [44], an American historian and scholar of historical irrigation systems, has studied the irrigation system in the Huerta de Valencia, and places its origins in medieval times.

Indicators:

*3.3.2. Cultural-scientific function*

location [28].

82 Urban Agriculture

adopted by farmers:

**•** Specific vocabulary,

produce,

of food preserving agricultural land near cities.

Agricultural land near cities is important for food availability. We can still have a fresh supply

The cultural and scientific value is recognized by agricultural activity development and local

**•** Scientific: related to agronomic engineering. In many cases, specific local environmental and external factors drive urban farms to develop unique innovations for space-intensive production systems, often creating a dominant paradigm for urban farming for a given

**•** Education: Farms near cities are important places for people to learn about the natural world, and provides important opportunities to teach people about where their food comes from.

The scientific value in Huerta de Valencia is recognized by agricultural activity development throughout the centuries, from Roman times, with the development of environmental practices

**•** Development of crop farming that has changed over the centuries, providing plant foods, raw materials and biological material. Actually, supplying a variety of quality fresh

**•** For each soil, farmers choose the most appropriate crop, and the best agricultural practices, creating a peculiar vegetation cover, resulting in a landscape-type non-common in Europe,

**•** Special working tools design adapted to the structures' type, plot size, shape of the plots,

**•** Small hydrological corrections, variety of techniques to collect and provide water to crops,

**•** own customs, such as those derived from water resources management models through a

**•** development of agricultural practices that have contributed to soil conservation and

**•** creation of an important architectural heritage and civil engineering, with an important set of built elements (buildings, farms, barracks houses), and other elements associated with

alignment of the plots, crops and agricultural practices,

**•** Adaptation of plots for soil conservation: embankments, low walls,

**•** Species conservation and preservation of plant genetic resources,

Cultural value derive from adaptation of activity, to the ecosystem:

historic hydraulic infrastructures with mills, towers, canals,

improvement of their agrologic characteristics,

**•** creating a unique space, organized according to the farming system,

knowledge related to farmland multifunctionality and sustainable land usage:

**•** Culture: Agricultural land near cities is an important part of cultural heritage.

	- **◦** length preserved historic canals
	- **◦** floodgate, sluice

#### **4. Conclusion**

On our objective in this paper was created a descriptive approach for the functionality of periurban agricultural systems, and proposed a methodology to quantify the functionality of periurban agricultural systems by means of indicators. Here, we reviewed the literature on perurban agricultural system, the literature on indicators, to define an analytical framework to determine and assess ecosystem services at peri-urban agricultural systems. The review shows a wide variety of functions that can be grouped according to their economic dimension, social dimension and environmental dimension. The descriptive approach for the functionality includes a list of the goods and services that an agricultural system can provide, distinguishes between those considered private from public, and those with a positive or a negative externality nature. All goods and services are classified according to whether they are economic, social or environmental. Up to 12 generic services are defined, which are subdivided into 22 functions and 22 goods and services.

To quantify the functionality of peri-urban agricultural systems we propose 36 indicators that cover the three components of the concept (economic, social and environmental). Some of these indicators are defined from previous studies around sustainable agriculture. There are some papers which propose indicators to economic and environmental analysis but do not com‐ pletely cover the selected aspects of multifunctionality. In order to yield a broader coverage, we include new indicators defined specifically for the analysis of the peri-urban agriculture particularities. Specifically, indicators related to territorial aspects of the special location of these agricultural systems, and pressures to which they are subject. Other indicators related to the education and cultural function that these agricultural systems can provide to the hipsters.

From descriptive approach for the functionality of peri-urban agricultural systems derive that these can´t be considered as an economic activity *sensu stricto*. On the other hand, society demands of these opportunities to undertake recreational activities, produce quality organic products locally, conserve and maintain spaces relatively near cities and towns under suitable environmental conditions for living, conserving cultural ethnological heritage, etc.

The planners and political decision makers should consider society demands and the contri‐ bution from peri-urban system to the economic, socio-ecological, psychological, cultural, and spiritual welfare of the urban community.

So, to planners, it is important to determine functions and services actually, in the peri-urban system. Then, it can determine social preferences for them though determining social welfare function. Finally, planners and political decision makers can define desirable future scenarios to the peri-urban agriculture system, quantifying the weight, as a starting point, and define policies to achieve those desirable scenarios.

The analytical framework presented can apply for every peri-urban system. The proposed methodology was applied to the Huerta de Valencia, a peri-urban agricultural system around Valencia City. This is a rich agricultural area with a variety of resources. There is an open political-institutional debate to define a protection scheme. The results from this study help to enrich this debate.

Indicators proposed are relevant to quantify every empirical value of function and services that explain. But the indicators proposed are highly questionable as there is no clear connection between the indicator value pure amount and the value of multifuntionality. Some authors [37] recommend transforming base indicators into adimensional variables (normalization) and then aggregate. Another question is determine the minimum/maximum values of the indicator values, a range of values that determine the multifunctional character for each aspect, or for the aggregate value.

For next research it is necessary to work in the normalization of indicators, as previous step to aggregation. To evaluate the multifunctional character it is necessary to have a range of values.

#### **Author details**

Inmaculada Marques-Perez\* and Baldomero Segura García del Río

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Department of Economics and Social Sciences, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Camino de Vera S/N, Valencia, Spain

#### **References**

From descriptive approach for the functionality of peri-urban agricultural systems derive that these can´t be considered as an economic activity *sensu stricto*. On the other hand, society demands of these opportunities to undertake recreational activities, produce quality organic products locally, conserve and maintain spaces relatively near cities and towns under suitable

The planners and political decision makers should consider society demands and the contri‐ bution from peri-urban system to the economic, socio-ecological, psychological, cultural, and

So, to planners, it is important to determine functions and services actually, in the peri-urban system. Then, it can determine social preferences for them though determining social welfare function. Finally, planners and political decision makers can define desirable future scenarios to the peri-urban agriculture system, quantifying the weight, as a starting point, and define

The analytical framework presented can apply for every peri-urban system. The proposed methodology was applied to the Huerta de Valencia, a peri-urban agricultural system around Valencia City. This is a rich agricultural area with a variety of resources. There is an open political-institutional debate to define a protection scheme. The results from this study help to

Indicators proposed are relevant to quantify every empirical value of function and services that explain. But the indicators proposed are highly questionable as there is no clear connection between the indicator value pure amount and the value of multifuntionality. Some authors [37] recommend transforming base indicators into adimensional variables (normalization) and then aggregate. Another question is determine the minimum/maximum values of the indicator values, a range of values that determine the multifunctional character for each aspect, or for

For next research it is necessary to work in the normalization of indicators, as previous step to aggregation. To evaluate the multifunctional character it is necessary to have a range of values.

and Baldomero Segura García del Río

Department of Economics and Social Sciences, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Camino de

environmental conditions for living, conserving cultural ethnological heritage, etc.

spiritual welfare of the urban community.

policies to achieve those desirable scenarios.

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84 Urban Agriculture

the aggregate value.

**Author details**

Inmaculada Marques-Perez\*

Vera S/N, Valencia, Spain

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>

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88 Urban Agriculture

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/62402

#### **Abstract**

Urban development endangers agricultural and natural areas. It causes the rural population to immigrate to urban areas due to appealing life standards and leads to the extinction of rural areas. In addition, reduced rural population causes urban areas to select rural areas as development areas. This problem of rural areas can be better described in the areas that have completed their urban development but still continue to develop. This article discusses the effect of population in determining the areas which see population increases and are under pressure.

We addressed Amasya in our research. The population in the neighbourhoods of Amasya was determined. The distribution of rural areas in the city plans in the neighbourhoods was determined. Geographical information system was used for these analyses. Pearson's product-moment correlation was used on agricultural and population data obtained from the neighbourhoods. The existence of a negative or positive interaction between population and agricultural areas was shown. This study described the problems of rural areas located in urban areas and indicated their status according to the population, using statistical analysis.

**Keywords:** agricultural areas, urban development, geographical information system, Pearson's product moment correlation, rural population

#### **1. Introduction**

Rapid urbanization puts serious pressure on agricultural land and natural areas [1]. Urbani‐ zation has greatly reduced agricultural areas [2]. According to the OECD [3], cities are the most important sources of major problems for rural areas [4]. Uncontrolled development also

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

reduces biodiversity and depletes natural resources. All these show that urban development endangers agricultural and natural areas.