Acknowledgements

The author M. J. Paris thanks Universidad de las Américas Puebla (UDLAP) and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs (Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores) of Mexico for financing her doctoral studies in food science. This work was supported by the Mexican National Council of Science and Technology (CONACyT) under Grant [CB-2016-2101-283636].


3.3.  Cl2 þ S þ O2 þ 3Hþ þ 4e

H2O þ S ClOH ½ �• þ Cl2 ! S þ ClO2 þ 3Hþ þ 2Cl� þ e

Indirect oxidation of pollutants occurs according to the reactions given in Eqs. (25)–(29) [26]. 2Cl� ! Cl2ð Þg þ 2e

Chlorate is usually an unwanted product in the effluent, and its formation could also prevent the use of EOx in various applications [25]. At the cathode, hydrogen gas and chloride anions

Here S symbolizes the active sites of the anode surface, and R represents the organic matter. To evaluate the selectivity of an anode material, competition between the oxidation of organic materials and the oxygen formation (the side reaction) at the anode (Eq. (4)) must be taken into account [12]. Oxygen formation is typically considered to be an undesirable side reaction in the electrochemical wastewater treatment because it affects the efficiency of the process and

Removal mechanisms of various pollutants involve diffusion of pollutants from the bulk solution to the anode surface and direct oxidation at the anode surface either partially or completely [12] and generation of a strong oxidizing agent (i.e., chlorine) at the anode surface

Among the variables that are usually studied in EOx treatment, the current density is one of the most frequently referenced terms since it affects the rate of reactions [12]. It should be noted that an increase in current density will not necessarily result in an increase in oxidation efficiency or oxidation rate [12]. The use of higher current densities usually leads to higher

6ClO� þ 3H2O ! 2ClO�

ClO� þ H2O þ 2e

2H3Oþ þ 2e

2H2O þ 2e

significantly increases the operating costs [25].

3.2. Operating parameters

and indirect oxidation of pollutants in the bulk solution.

operating costs due to the increase in energy consumption.

are formed as shown in Eqs. (30)–(32).

78 Wastewater and Water Quality

• þ H2O (21)

� (25)

Cl2 þ H2O ⇄ HClO þ Hþ þ Cl� (26)

3 2

� ! H2 þ 2H2O at acidic conditions ð Þ (30)

� ! H2 þ 2OH�ð Þ at alkaline conditions (31)

� ! Cl� þ 2OH� (32)

H2O þ R þ ClO� þ Hþ ! RO þ H3Oþ þ Cl� (28)

3 þ 4Cl� þ 6Hþ þ

HClO ⇄ Hþ þ ClO� (27)

O2 þ 6e

� (22)

� (23)

� (24)

� (29)

This section briefly describes the treatment of different wastewater types by EOx method in the last few years. Table 2 shows a general insight on minimum, maximum, and optimum values of operating parameters, pollutant reduction, energy consumption, and operating cost of EOx

Ref. Wastewater Electrode material Parameters Research

Current density (A/m2

Current density (mA/cm2

Sacrificial electrode

Interelectrode distance

material

(cm)

Electrolysis time (min) 0–5 2 Initial pH 4–11 6.6 NaCl concentration (g/L) 0–2 1.5

Applications of Combined Electrocoagulation and Electrooxidation Treatment to Industrial Wastewaters

Current intensity (A) 1–3 3 Detention time (min) 10–60 60

NaCl concentration (g/L) 0.5–3 1 H2O2 concentration (mg/L) 0–2000 1000 Detention time (min) 5–30 30

Electrolysis time (min) 20–90 90 Current intensity (A) 0.2–1 0.6 pH 5–10 6

Stirring speed (rpm) 250–750 500

[48] Dairy

[49] Anaerobic

reactor effluent (real)

[50] Pharmaceutical (synthetic)

[20] Olive mill (real)

[19] Textile (real)

(synthetic)

Anode: Al Cathode: Ti/Pt

Anode: MP RuO2/Ti Cathode: MP stainless steel Sacrificial electrode: BP Al

Anode: MP stainless steel Cathode: MP stainless steel

steel Sacrificial electrodes: BP Al

Anode: MP Ti/IrO2 Cathode: MP Ti Sacrificial electrode: BP Al or Fe

Anode: RuO2/Ti Cathode: Stainless ranges for parameters

pH 5–10 7 Ammonia removal:

pH 4.5–10.9 10.9 Diclofenac sodium

pH 3–9 4 COD removal:

) 5–40 40

0.5–1.5 1

Optimum conditions

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75460

) 0–75 50 COD removal:

Results at optimum conditions 81

54.16% TP removal: 42.9%

37%

98% TP removal: 98% COD removal: 72%

removal: 84% COD removal: 80%

96%

88.7% TSS removal: 97% O&G removal: 97.1% BOD5/COD: 0.46

93.5% TSS removal: 97% Color removal: 97.5% BOD5 removal:

90%

96%

99% TP removal: 97%

Turbidity removal:

Phenol removal:

Operating cost: 1.69 US \$/m3

Al-Fe Al COD removal:

BOD5 removal: 93.6% Phenol removal: 94.4% Color removal: 91.4%

Turbidity removal:

Turbidity removal:

Table 2. EOx treatment results of various wastewaters for selected examples in the literature.

treatment. By evaluating the previously published studies, it has been concluded that EOx is a remarkable treatment method in terms of organic matter, turbidity, color, phenol, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), and O&G removal efficiencies.


**3.2 Definition of integration**

82 Current Issues of Water Management

effort is required at all levels, from the local to the national, if integration is to be operational

Despite the fact that the interconnectedness of water and land and the relevance of these resources for sustainable development have been well-documented, both resources are still largely managed as isolated policy issues and only limited research focuses on the numerous links between them. There is still a weak link between land reform, agricultural support and water resource provision (Greenberg, 2010). In South Africa, many land reform farms have failed because of water not being available for production. The synchronisation between water allocation and land reform programmes in irrigation areas therefore has to be improved to ensure that beneficiaries hold secure land and water use rights once they

Integration is however easier said than done, and can only be achieved through the acknowledgement of a diverse multi-actor landscape and consequent diverging interests and perceptions. This can only be achieved if the current tendency by government departments and sectors to work in "silos", without much integration, is transformed from the programme level. Once this is achieved, we will be able to come to terms with the existence of multiple social and cultural norms that shape how water and land are

Several integration approaches have been developed over time to better conceptualise the meaning of "integration" and how it applies to natural resource management processes,

Firstly, the term Integrated Resource Management (IRM) is somewhat ambiguous and not always clearly defined, and, as such, is often operationalised in a variety of ways. Integrated Natural Resources Management (INRM) has been described as a conscious process of incorporating multiple aspects of natural resource use into a system of sustainable management to meet explicit production goals of farmers and other uses (e.g., profitability, risk reduction) as well as goals of the wider community (sustainability) (Sayer and Campbell, 2004). INRM is also described as an approach that integrates research about different types of natural resources into stakeholder-driven processes of adaptive management and innovation. The aim of this process is to improve livelihoods, agroecosystem resilience, agricultural productivity and environmental services at community, eco-regional and global scales of intervention and impact (Thomas, 2002). The focus is agriculture specific, which speaks to the chapter's focus on integrated water allocation and

A related term that is also of relevance to this chapter is that of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), which the Technical Advisory Committee of the Global Water

and implementable.

have been allocated their land (Groenewald, 2004).

policy implementation, and theoretical frameworks.

**3.1 The "Integrated" in IRM, INRM and IWRM**

Partnership (GWP-TAC) defines as follows:

**2. Motivation**

managed.

land reform.

**3. Definition of terminology**

Having identified different possible approaches to integration of water and land management, it becomes important to establish a definition of "integration". This definition is based on the discussion of the international approaches above but also specifically applies them to the issue of water allocation and land reform in the South African context. Integration can therefore be defined as follows: the degree to which policies formulated in one government department are harmonised or coordinated with policies developed in other government departments, other sectors, or acknowledge the interconnectedness of various resources and the degree to which inter-departmental coordination and communication take place in the implementation of said policies.

Integration therefore refers to policy harmonisation and coordination across government departments and sectors as a result of the recognition of the interconnectedness of different natural resources. Furthermore, integration entails acknowledging and taking into account

Integration Challenges of Water and Land Reform – A Critical Review of South Africa 85

South Africa is characterised by substantial socio-economic inequalities and inequitable access to water resources and land as a result of its historical legacy, coupled with challenging climatic conditions and problems of water management. It therefore makes for an interesting case study of the need for integrating approaches to water allocation and land

South Africa is a water scarce country. Although some parts of the country receive more rainfall than others, the country's average rainfall of 450mm per year is far below the global average which amounts to 860mm per year. In addition, factors such as climate change and international obligations to neighbouring countries with shared watercourses limit the

While South Africa has enough water to meet its needs in the immediate future, based on calculations of runoff, yield and water use, there is a growing demand for water, which is currently being met by the development of the country's surface water resources. South Africa's estimated mean annual runoff is 43 500 million cubic metres per annum (excluding the runoff from Swaziland and Lesotho), the total available yield is 13 227 million m3/a and for the year 2000 the total water use requirements were 12 871 million m3/a (Classsen,

**5. The South African case study**

**5.1 Climatic conditions in South Africa**

reform as well as the consequences of non-integration.

amount of water that can be used (Claassen, 2010).

Fig. 1. South Africa's average rainfall (Maherry, 2010)

2010).

the diverse multi-actor landscape and consequent diverging interests and perceptions that make up the water allocation and land reform landscape in order to come to terms with the existence of multiple social and cultural norms that shape this landscape.

Integration as described here is important so that policies or programmes developed in one government department take into account the impacts on or of other sectors and do not operate in isolation from other sectors. In addition, coordination is not only imperative between different government departments and sectors, but also between different levels of government at the national, provincial and local levels.