**1. Introduction**

Soybean (*Glycine max* (L.) Merrill) is a model legume crop, widely grown in the world for hu‐ man consumption or animal fodder. Moreover, soybeans have gained worldwide research in‐ terest in many public laboratories and industrial sectors. Soybean seeds contain protein, oil, carbohydrates, dietary fibers, vitamins, and minerals. For the last few decades the majority of research laboratories have been investigating genetic traits to improve the yield of protein or oil in soybean seeds through genetic engineering, thereby achieving improved quantity and quality of soybean seeds. Until now, most of the transformation experiments have implement‐ ed a single functional gene not multiple genes. Those agronomically and economically impor‐ tant traits affect the enhancement of grain quantity and quality [1]. However, the majority of agronomic and genetic traits such as complex metabolic, biological, and pharmaceutical path‐ ways are polygenetic traits and are produced in a complex pathway. Therefore, those traits are encoded and regulated by a number of genes. In an attempt to study and manipulate those pathways, the transfer of multigene or large inserts into plants have been developed by multi‐ gene engineering technology and have also been involved in metabolic engineering. Several examples of multigene or large insert transfers have been reported such as the application of carotenogenic genes in rice, canola, and maize [2-4], and of polyunsaturated fatty acid and vi‐ tamin E genes in soybean and *Arabidopsis* [5-7]. Therefore, reliable systems for transforming large DNA fragments into plants make it feasible to introduce a natural gene cluster or a series of previously unlinked foreign genes into a single locus.

Over the last two decades, the transfer of DNA into plant cells has been achieved by using several methods. In soybeans, the most frequently employed plant genetic engineering methods are *Agrobacterium*-mediated transformation and particle bombardment. Both sys‐ tems have successfully been used in genetic transformation of soybean. Since the initial re‐ ports of fertile transgenic soybean production [8-9], various efforts have been made to improve the transformation efficiency and to produce transgenic soybean. Particularly, the

© 2013 Lee et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 Lee et al.; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

preferred and reproducible transformation is the use of the cotyledonary node as a plant material, which is based on *Agrobacterium*-mediated gene transfer [10-12]. Nevertheless, new methods have been developed for more efficient soybean transformation. There still remain, however, many challenges for genotype- and tissue- specific independent transformation of soybean. This review provides an overview of historical efforts in developing and advanc‐ ing soybean regeneration and transformation systems. In addition, recent advances and challenges in soybean transformation are discussed.


**Abstract**

Globally, soil erosion is a severe environmental issue, particularly in mountainous regions, leading to substantial declines in soil productivity. This study aims to quantify soil loss in Eastern Hindu Kush region using Revised Universal Soil Erosion Loss Equation (RUSLE) approach integrated with Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS). The study considers various factors including rainfall, soil erodibility, topography, slope, and land use to model annual soil loss rates. Rainfall erosivity (R), slope length and steepness (LS), soil erodibility (K), cover management (C), and conservation practice (P) were utilized as input parameters. These parameters are integrated to estimate soil erosion risk zones through raster-based GIS analysis, categorizing soil loss severity into five classes. The results show soil loss rates ranging from > 50 to over 276 tons/ha/year, indicating varying levels of severity. The distribution of soil loss severity is as follows: 37% of the area falls under insignificant, 16% under slight, 22% under moderate, 11% under severe, 6% under very severe, and 8% under catastrophic severity zones. Notably, valley areas with steep slopes and significant relief display higher erosion rates. The intricate and challenging terrain of the Eastern Hindu Kush makes it particularly susceptible to soil erosion risks.

**Keywords:** soil erosion, RUSLE, GIS, elevation, slope, susceptibility, Hindu Kush


**6. Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN)**

In our research, main focus is on a novel 2D material, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), which is a ceramic material that exhibits versatile properties such as outstanding mechanical stability, remarkable chemical inertness, anti-wear promotion, high electrical resistivity, and superb thermal conductivity [5, 46, 234–239]. On the other hand, h-BN is an effective solid lubricant, it is suitable for diverse applications such as metal-working processes where lubrication at high-temperatures is required and is widely used in high-temperature wear-sealing materials of aerospace engines [155, 239]. Boron and nitrogen atoms behave similarly to carbon when bonded with each other to form boron nitride, exhibiting many similar structures as carbon only with alternating B and N atoms instead of C atoms (see **Figure 8**). Because of this, there are many forms of boron nitride (BN) that coincide with carbon structures and have a variety of properties and functions. h-BN (so-called "white graphite" due to its structural similarity to graphite) is a common form of BN that has a similar configuration to graphite which has been recently studied [15, 49, 108, 133]. Like graphite, this honeycomb layered material has hexagonal ring layers separated by 3.33 Å, in which every boron atom is connected to three nitrogen atoms by strong covalent bonds and vice versa; the B-N distance is 1.44 Å. Between the layers, every boron interacts with a nitrogen atom through a Van der Waals force [237, 240]. Therefore, the strong B-N bond makes an h-BN atomic layer a mechanically strong material, quite analogous to graphene, and individual BN layers could be isolated from bulk h-BN crystals [15, 108, 229]. As an insulating material with very high thermal conductivity [241], h-BN surpasses other nanofillers and is an attractive material for high thermal transport and electrically insulating composites [15, 133, 236, 242]. Nevertheless, theoretical studies indicate that high thermal conductivities can only be achieved from the (002) planes (up to hundreds to thousands of W/m K) [50, 243]; through a synthesis process of wet exfoliation, h-BN can give maximum exposure to these (002) lattice planes. Meantime, some thermal management systems need electrically conducting fillers for static electric charge dissipation. Graphene-based systems are good for these applications where they can do both thermal and electrical management. This shows how h-BN will be specially applicable and useful in thermal management applications, where electrical insulation is also required. It is also important to mention that BN is environmentally and skin friendly; proof of this is that BN is widely used as the main ingredient for cosmetics. According to the Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) report from 2012, BN is used in 483 cosmetic formulations. Products containing BN are reported to be used on baby skin (in a lotion, oil, powder, or cream), eye area, or mucous membranes. BN is reported to be used at up to 25% in eye product formulations, at 2% in lipstick formulations, up to 16% in powders, and at up to 0.9% in fragrance preparations [244]. Hence, since little research have been conducted on 2D nanostructures, and particularly on boron nitride, exfoliated h-BN, having a few layers in thickness has a remarkable opportunity to overcome the material of the future in the thermal management field for diverse applica‐ tions, including electrical/electronic, since its nature allows it to be a thermal conductor but an electrical insulator.

**Figure 8.** Scheme of h-BN and graphite structure.


**6. Future Works**

In this work, the charging demand of each EV is considered as 100%, but this limit can vary, and random charging demand can be considered. Service delay can be regarded to benefit both the user and CS operator. Reserve charging points can be taken into account, and the charging can be undertaken for users with a special tariff based on the CS operator's decision. This kind of option available at the CS may help floating customers who want quick charging.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, G.S.F. and V.K.; methodology, G.S.F.; software, S.K.; validation, J.S.A., Z.M.A. and S.H.E.A.A.; formal analysis, G.S.F.; investigation, V.K.; resources, S.K.; data curation, G.S.F.; writing—original draft preparation, S.H.E.A.A.; writing—review and editing, J.S.A. and Z.M.A.; visualization, V.K.; supervision, A.E.-S.; project administration, A.E.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**7. Conclusions**

This paper presents a decision support system as a multi-criteria optimization problem. The model of the decision problem as a multi-criteria optimization problem allows for generating decision variants and tracking their consequences.

The interactive analysis is based on the reference point method. It allows the decision maker to determine solutions well suited to his preferences. A numerical example shows that the right computational problem can be solved efficiently using standard optimization software.

This type of decision support does not prejudge the final solution but supports and informs the decision maker on the specific decision problem. The final decision is to be made by the decision maker.


**2.3. Hedonic benefit**

The main concern of banking institutions has been to maintain and/or increase connection with their customers by being able to provide products and/or services that give a high degree of satisfaction. The important role of customer satisfaction in the decision-making process has been widely studied. In fact, a satisfied customer will contribute to improve an institution's reputation [3] and will be willing to return and to recommend the institution [4], maintaining a higher degree of loyalty [5] and staying with the institution for a longer period of time [6]. It is thus very important for the banking institution to ensure that its customers obtain the state of satisfaction desired [1]. The different factors oriented to achieve this state of satisfaction are well known: perception of price and post-purchase performance [7], quality of the service received [8], perceived value [9], trust and empathy [1], and evaluation of what is received vs. expected [10]. Although it has been argued that satisfaction is affective in nature [11, 12], satisfaction can also arise from a good perception of the benefits that the customer possesses [4]. Further, these benefits can become a very important point when achieving greater connection between affective evaluation and customer satisfaction. It is known that affective evaluation can be a very important antecedent of the perception of the services the consumer receives [13], but there is still little evidence to show the presence of a connection between affective evaluation—benefits—satisfaction, especially in the financial market. This study proposes that satisfaction can be a result of the perception of functional benefit [14], hedonic benefit [15], and symbolic benefit [16]. It is also proposed that these benefits, in turn, result from the customer's affective evaluation [17]. This benefit triad can play an important role in the relationship affective evaluation–satisfaction. For a financial institution, it is very important that the customer come to identify with the benefits obtained as antecedents of satisfaction, and at the same time, as a result of his or her affective evaluation.

It has been argued that affective evaluation can be defined as an individual's set of emotions, whether real, predicted, imagined, or gathered from his or her relationship to others [18]. The specialized literature also indicates that affective evaluation is characterized as emotionally reactive, a response with minimal direct control [19]. In other words, the consumer will respond spontaneously to the stimuli he or she receives from the environment. Affective evaluation can be manifested physically [20]. The consumer will use body language to express his or her emotional state in the presence of these stimuli. Finally, it has been shown that affective evaluation responds to most stimuli and can be learned [21]. Thus, the consumer will express affective well-being in the presence of both material and nonmaterial stimuli received

The functional benefit expected is essential for a consumer. It is acquired as a result of the consumption of products and/or services that respond to consumers' essential needs and the solving of their problems [22], thereby avoiding frustrating experiences [23]. The customer

**2. Theoretical foundations**

through a specific product or service.

**2.2. Functional benefit**

**2.1. Affective evaluation**

96 Marketing

Given the relatively rational type of decision made by the customer of a financial institution, hedonic benefit is a very important attribute [26]. The customer will attend this institution motivated not only by need but also by the pleasure experienced through the attention received [27]. This benefit emerges as a result of the customers' psychosensory experiences, as a result fundamentally of the need for stimulation and the search for pleasing sensations that customers expect when using a financial institution [28]. The customer expects to find this pleasure through his or her experience with the service, which is associated with fantasies and feelings characteristic of its nature [29]. The perception of hedonic attributes involves an accumulation of global multisensory experiences. Institutions that can understand the customer's needs and activate these multisensory images by stimulating the different senses will be able to achieve a perfect consumption experience [30].

#### **2.4. Symbolic benefit**

Symbolic benefit can contribute to a great extent to strengthen the relationship between customer and financial institution, since it is associated with the underlying needs for social approval and self-esteem and corresponds fundamentally to attributes not directly related to the products [4]. Symbolic benefit is defined as the benefit received from multiple components of "self-concept." One's "self-concept" is essentially the result of the evaluations that others make of one, whether these evaluations are real or not [31]. It is composed of a variety of representations that each person has and that are united to a particular set of social circumstances [32]. The literature has used four components of self-concept to explain the consumer's behavior at the moment of consumption: real self-image, ideal self-image, social self-image, and ideal social self-image [33]. Consumers will seek to surround themselves with their reference group [34] and will prefer the banking institution attended by people who may reinforce their degree of belonging to this group.


**9. Complications**

Flap-related complications are low regarding breast reconstruction with PAP flaps. Profunda artery perforator perfusion is robust and therefore the risk of fat necrosis generally is minimal, both in incidence and volume. Fat necrosis is mostly seen at the tips of the flap and can be avoided by careful intra-operative clinical assessment and prophylactic excisional debridement of presumptive nonviable fat.

Donor site complications are more common. These include, but are not limited to, seroma, delayed wound healing, dehiscence, prolonged edema, dysesthesia, adverse scarring [5, 7].

Seroma should be distinguished easily from prolonged edema, which may also occur. This is done with a clinical exam and confirmed with ultrasound imaging. Prevention is the primary focus. This includes limiting undermining, closed suction drain, quilting sutures, layered closure, and post-operative compression garments. Persistent or recurrent seromas are treated with aspiration and/or drain placement as needed.

Due to the dynamic nature of the surgical site with ambulation, as well as being located near an intertriginous zone, delayed wound healing can occur. Dehiscence is much less common. Appropriate pre-operative planning with pinch-test and conservative skin markings support tension-free closure and routine wound healing. The Fleur-de-PAP is more susceptible to wound healing complications due to the creation of a T-junction with the skin flaps.

Prolonged edema is typically caused by disruption of major lymphatic channels in the lower extremity. The PAP flap dissection avoids the femoral triangle and major lymphatic channels; therefore, the risk is quite low. Preserving the greater saphenous vein, tributaries, and surrounding lymphatics can help prevent edema. Early ambulation with compression dressings or garments is standard of care.

Post-surgical dysesthesia, like the infraumbilical skin after DIEP flap, is a result of cutaneous nerve disruption after flap elevation and is best treated with reassurance and time.

Adverse scarring, namely widened or hypertrophic scars, can occur and is thought to be due to motion and dynamic tension at the suture line, like a thigh lift or brachioplasty.

#### **10. Discussion**

Since its introduction to breast reconstruction in 2010, the profunda artery perforator flap has been a reliable autologous alternative to the DIEP flap within the armamentarium of the reconstructive microsurgeon. It has also been an important additional method when the DIEP flap is not enough. The PAP boasts a large skin paddle (average 27 x 6 cm), ample pedicle length and good caliber, and mild-to-moderate volume of soft, pliable tissue. The ability to harvest the flap from a supine position with a two-team approach increases efficiency. The vascular anatomy is constant which has been corroborated with the routine use of pre-operative CT/MR angiography. The donor site results in acceptable scars with minimal exposure and complication rate. This is expounded by the recently described 'fleur-de-PAP' which enhances the volume at the cost of minimal excess scarring. Pedicle length and caliber enhances its utility in stacked flap procedures. The ability to immediately mold the flap into an esthetically excellent three-dimensional breast mound cannot be overstated.

The primary disadvantage of the flap is volume. However, this can be circumvented with proper patient selection and flap planning, including stacked flaps, hybrid procedures, and subsequent fat grafting (**Figure 9A–D**).

#### **11. Conclusion**

The profunda artery perforator flap is an alternative approach to flap-based breast reconstruction. As breast reconstruction continues to advance, the prevalence of alternative approaches such as the PAP flap will increase. Familiarity with anatomy, microsurgical elevation, contouring and donor site management is critical to achieving excellent esthetic outcomes and professional success.

*Alternative Flap-Based Breast Reconstruction: The PAP Flap DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112765*

#### **Figure 9.**

*(A, B) Pre and post-operative images of a patient with left breast cancer who underwent stacked DIEP and PAP flap reconstruction of the bilateral breasts. (C and D) Pre and post-operative images well-hidden PAP flap donor sites, without disruption of the infragluteal fold. (Reprinted from Artz et al. [8]).*

## **Acknowledgements**

We would like to acknowledge Dr. Robert Allen for his incredible contributions to both this chapter and the innovation of the profunda artery perforator flap in breast reconstruction. We would also like to acknowledge his home institution, Louisiana State University Division of Plastic Surgery for their supportive efforts, and where Dr. Allen continues to contribute to the field of reconstructive microsurgery.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.