*1.3. Route of Transmission*

Based on our current knowledge, spreading of the SARS-CoV-2 occurs from person to person via respiratory droplets (defined as particles > 5 μm). Risk factors are close contact (≤2 m), especially over a prolonged time (generally considered to be >15 min), and direct contact with infectious secretions like sputum or blood [13]. A fecal−oral transmission appears likely but has not been proven yet [14]. Not only can SARS-CoV-2 be found in feces, but also stool samples can remain positive even when samples from the respiratory tract have become negative [15].

The gastrointestinal symptoms in some patients with COVID-19 may be explained by the extended persistence and shedding in the gastrointestinal tract.

Infection with SARS-CoV-2 can lead to a disease called COVID-19 that predominantly affects the lungs. The impact of COVID-19 in immunocompromised patients after solid organ transplantation (SOT) is largely unknown, as only a small number of such infections have occurred so far, and detailed reports are still awaited.


*3.6. Hydrogen Content of Biogas Produced*

Like hydrogen generation, hydrogen content (Figure 5) can be used as a process indicator. Although methane is one of the final gases of AD and is therefore accumulated, H2 is an intermediate gas that appears and subsequently transforms into a final compound. The hydrogen ratio of the biogas generated increases in the first few days when hydrolysis, acidogenesis and acetogenesis occur, until the peak is reached as soon as the latter ends. When methanogenesis begins, the ratio of H2 should drop as hydrogen is transformed into methane by hydrogenotrophic route.

**Figure 5.** Hydrogen content mean curve from the biogas produced in the anaerobic digestion of 100 g of residue CrM.

As noted, there are the two peaks described above. The first and most pronounced occurs on day 3 with a hydrogen content of 0.289 (±9.903%) %, and the second occurs on day 9 reaching a hydrogen content of 0.033 (±349.718%) %. The occurrence of these two peaks reconfirms the possibility of two-phase digestion or a slowdown of the process that is subsequently recovered. To determine the reasons why this occurs, and to give a definitive explanation for the development of the process, we go on to study together all the generation curves together with the pH evolution curve, and to analyze them, taking into account the changes in the composition of the mixture at the end of the digestion process.


**6. References**

Asaka, O. & Shoda, M. (1996). Biocontrol of *Rhizoctonia solani* damping-off of tomato with *Bacillus subtilis* RB14. *Applied and Environmental Microbiology*, Vol.62, pp. 4081-4085

Beg, Q. K.; Kapoor, M.; Mahajan, L. & Hoondal, G. S. (2001). Microbial xylanases and their industrial applications: a review. *Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology*, Vol.56, pp. 326-338

CS in soybean curd residue was almost equivalent to that when glucose was used as carbon source, the utilization of soybean curd residue will be one possible nutrient in peptide

Gallardo et al. Blanco et al.

30 % was retained after 10 min at 65°C

Remained stable at 50°C

for at least 3 h. Deactivated within 1 h at 60°C.

This work Reference (Ohdan et al.)

60 % was retained after 10 min at 65°C

This work References

Molecular mass 24 kDa 24 kDa 32 kDa Optimum pH 6-7 6 5.5 Optimum temperature 50-60°C 60°C 50°C

> Decreased to 30 % at 50°C after 3 h. Deactivated within 1 h at 60°C.

 Ba-S Ba-L Molecular mass 58 kDa 47 kDa 67 kDa Optimum pH 5.5-6.0 5.5 5.5 Optimum temperature 70°C 65°C 65°C

Table 2. Comparison of characteristics of purified xylanases with previous reports.

Soybean curd residue which is the residue of *Tofu* production was used for nutrients for production of a lipopeptide antibiotic, iturin A in solid state fermentation(SSF) using *Bacillus subtilis*. As the main carbon sources of soybean curd residue were insoluble fiber, we expected that *B. subtilis* produced the soybean curd residue-degrading enzymes. Among insoluble fibers in soybean curd residue, hemicellulose was mainly degraded by *B. subtilis* during SSF. Xylan, a major hemicellulose in plant cell wall was degraded by *B. subtilis*, and two enzymes which showed xylanase activity were purified and identified as endo-1,4-βxylanase and α-amylase. As productivity of iturin A in soybean curd residue was almost equivalent to that in glucose medium, this study gave a possible way to use soybean curd

Asaka, O. & Shoda, M. (1996). Biocontrol of *Rhizoctonia solani* damping-off of tomato with *Bacillus subtilis* RB14. *Applied and Environmental Microbiology*, Vol.62, pp. 4081-4085 Beg, Q. K.; Kapoor, M.; Mahajan, L. & Hoondal, G. S. (2001). Microbial xylanases and their

industrial applications: a review. *Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology*, Vol.56, pp.

80 % was retained after 3 h at 50°C. Deactivated within 2 h at 60°C.

residue in higher and economical production of lipopeptides.

production.

Thermal stability

Thermal stability

**5. Conclusion**

**6. References**

326-338

(B) Xyl-II

(A) Xyl-I

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Ohdan, K.; Kuriki, T.; Kaneko, H.; Shimada, J.; Takada, T.; Fujimoto, Z.; Mizuno, H. &

O'tool, D. K. (1999). Characteristics and use of soybean curd residue, the soybean residue

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Perez, J.; Munoz-Durado, J.; de la Rubia, T. & Martinez, J. (2002). Biodegradation and

Phae, C. G.; Shoda, M. & Kubota, H. (1990). Suppressive effect of *Bacillus subtilis* and its

Sa-Pereira, P.; Paveia, H.; Costa-Ferreira, M. & Aires-Barros, M. R. (2003). A new look at

Stein, T. (2005). *Bacillus subtilis* antibiotics: structures, syntheses and specific functions.

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Tsuge, K.; Ano, T.; Hirai, M.; Nakamura Y. & Shoda, M. (1999). The genes, *degQ*, *pps* and *lpa-*

production. *Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy*, Vol. 43, pp. 2183-2192 Tsuge, K.; Akiyama, T. & Shoda, M. (2001). Cloning, sequencing, and characterization of the

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*Edited by Hussein Abdel hay El-Sayed Kaoud*

This book discusses important bacterial diseases and suggestive prevention strategies based on progress in this field. It includes four sections and five chapters that provide the most common diseases and an overview of the essential methods for their prevention and control. The book will be useful to researchers and students of veterinary sciences as well as those who are interested in cattle production. The book is the result of collaborating parties. I gratefully acknowledge the assistance provided by all authors who have contributed to the publication of this volume and the IntechOpen editorial office that initiated this project and saw it to its completion.

ISBN 978-1-83881-229-4

Bacterial Cattle Diseases

Published in London, UK © 2019 IntechOpen © Misterfullframe / iStock


2. Basic science of BodyTite® and RFAL

The BodyTite® device is comprised of a workstation, or platform, which houses the RF Generator, software and circuit boards of the system. Into this workstation attach the various clinic hand pieces (Figure 1). The hand pieces come in different sizes and configurations and are designed for specific clinical procedures and anatomical locations.

Each BodyTite® hand piece is in a bipolar configuration, where the internal electrode is a silicon coated cannula that is RF emitting in its distal uncoated region and has a sophisticated bullet shaped tip to aid is soft tissue dissection and movement, while minimizing the risk of end dermal hits and thermal injury.

The external electrode, which is attached to the same hand piece, slides along the surface of the skin in tandem with the internal electrode (Figure 2).

The internal electrode emits positively charged RF current, which flows back and forth from the positively charged internal electrode to the negatively charged external electrode. The RF is strongly ablative and coagulative within 1–2 cm of the internal electrode and dissipates at is flows and diffuses up to the external electrode. Soft tissue within 1–2 cm of the internal electrode will undergo a necrotic, ablative tissue thermal effect, while the dermis will experience a sub-necrotic, non- ablative dermal, thermal stimulation.

The Radiofrequency energy within 1–2 cm of the internal electrode provides a coagulative, ablative issue on local tissue, adipose, vascular and the fibroseptal network (FSN). As RF flows up, ever more diffusely, to the external electrode moving in parallel and in tandem with the internal electrode, RF will be more diffuse and is flowing to a much broader, bigger surface area electrode and the thermal effect on the dermal structures will be non-ablative heating (Figure 3).

Figure 1. The BodyTite® RFAL workstation. The various hand pieces in the BodyTite® RFAL family plug into the workstation.

BodyTite®: The Science and Art of Radiofrequency Assisted Lipocoagulation (RFAL)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83446

Figure 2. The BodyTite® bipolar RFAL hand piece.

#### Figure 3.

The RF energy flows from the internal electrode, where it is ablative in nature, to the external electrode, where the RF has a gentle non-ablative thermal effect on the dermis.

The Soft tissue tightening concept of BodyTite® is to provide and 3-dimensional contraction of the soft tissue through internal RF stimulation and contraction of the Fibroseptal network, together with dermal enhancement through non-ablative thermal stimulation and neo-collagenases [15].


**7. Conclusion**

Pathophysiology and Clinical Aspects of 28 Venous Thromboembolism in Neonates, Renal Disease and Cancer Patients

neural tube defects, preeclampsia, spontaneous abortion, and premature delivery (Dasarathy et al., 2010). This is pertinent as it is believed that placental thrombosis may

In the case of deficiency of one or more vitamins involved in homocysteine metabolism, blood levels of this amino acid are often elevated well above those observed in the healthy population. Treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia includes supplementation with mostly pharmacological doses of one or more of the relevant B vitamins and is generally effective in reducing homocysteine concentrations and delays atherosclerotic and thrombotic

The negative impact of particular genotypes on homocysteine levels can partly be compensated by folate intake and is, even in smaller part, dependent on several other variables that affect homocysteine levels (see Table 2). For example, if persons have balanced diet with optimal intake of B6 and B12 vitamins and folates it seems that the C677T mutation and the subsequent reduced activity of the enzyme MTHFR do not connect with hyperhomocysteinemia (Schriver et al., 1995; Silaste et al., 2001). Besides, folic acid supplemetation reduces the plasma homocysteine concentration in all three genotypes (TT,

This scientific evidence suggests that the MTHFR C677T genetic mutation influences folate metabolism, leading to the conclusion that dietary intake of a standard dosage of folate may be insufficient for half to two-thirds of the population with this mutation (Meshkin & Blum,

In the case of CBS deficiency, the enzyme activity can effectively be enhanced by treatment

A combination of all three relevant coenzymes to treat milder forms of hyperhomocysteinemia resulted in a clear 50% reduction of plasma homocysteine levels. However, given alone, only folic acid was able to induce similar reductions, whereas vitamin B 12 was little effective and vitamin B6 failed to show an effect (Perry et al., 1968,

Many countries have implemented mandatory folic acid fortification of flour and grain products to reduce the risk of various diseases. Besides, individuals can find a good source

For individuals with unexplained arterial or venous blood clots and unexplained atherosclerosis it seems appropiate having blood homocysteine levels checked. One can also argue that everybody with atherosclerosis, patients with CVD, heart attacks, or strokes, should have their blood checked for homocysteine levels. All this in order to prevent further

**6. Who should be tested for MTHFR mutations and homocysteine levels**

contribute to the pathogenesis of these conditions (Gatt & Makris, 2007).

The treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia varies with the underlying cause.

CT and CC) of the MTHFR C677T mutation (Meshkin & Blum, 2007).

of folate in fruits and vegetables (especially green leafy vegetables).

**5. Treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia**

events.

2007).

with large doses of vitamin B6.

Ubbink et al., 1993; Ubbink et al., 1994).

Elevated homocysteine concentration has been identified as an independent risk factor for premature cardiovascular disease.

Results of multiple prospective and case control studies have shown that patients with a moderately elevated plasma homocysteine concentration are more likely to develop venous and arterial thrombosis compared to the control population. Homocysteine seems to promote atherothrombosis by a variety of mechanisms. The precise pathogenic mechanism remains to be confirmed and it is not yet clear whether homocysteine itself or a related metabolite or a cofactor is primarily responsible for the atherothrombogenic effects of hyperhomocysteinemia. However, recent studies indicate that lowering an elevated homocysteine level does decrease the risk of atherosclerosis and blood clots. Until this issue has been more clearly defined, it appears prudent to make an effort to try to lower one's homocysteine levels through supplementation with B vitamins, which is an efficient and safe way to reduce an elevated homocysteine levels.

The MTHFR mutations appear to be medically irrelevant, as long as an individual's homocysteine level is normal. Therefore, it should be first the homocysteine level, not the MTHFR genetic status, to be tested in patients with or at risk for blood clots, atherosclerosis, or pregnancy complications.

It is well estabilished that healthly lifestyle lowers homocysteine concentrations. So the most important in everyday life is awareness that the level of homocysteine in blood is strongly influenced by several lifestyle factors such as nutrition, stress, smoking cigarettes, alcohol consumption, or physical inactivity. And therefore, exercise is a commonly recommended lifestyle intervention for individuals at risk for, or diagnosed with, cardio vascular disease. More specifically, we suggest that exercise, mild in aged people, but especially heavy physical activity, exerts its most favorable effect in subjects with hyperhomocysteinemia.