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**11**

*Italy*

**Mycoflora and Biodiversity of**

Cinzia Oliveri and Vittoria Catara

*Università degli Studi di Catania*

**Black Aspergilli in Vineyard Eco-Systems**

*Dipartimento di Scienze delle Produzioni Agrarie ed Alimentari, Catania*

Environmental conditions in vineyard eco-systems are of particular interest because they can influence the fungal populations associated with grapes, fungal–plant interactions, and production of secondary metabolites, including mycotoxins. Some fungal species are pathogenic to grapevines, infecting the roots, canes, leaves and fruit (Hewitt, 1988; Tournas & Katsoudas, 2005). Grape contamination by different moulds occurs during vineyard preharvesting, harvesting and grape processing (Magnoli et al., 2003). Moulds commonly isolated from grapes are *Alternaria*, *Cladosporium* and *B. cinerea*, the latter causing bunch rot. Pathogenic and opportunistic species of *Fusarium*, *Penicillium* and *Aspergillus* can also

In heavily infected fruit, moulds alter chemical composition and mould enzymes adversely affect wine flavor and colour as well as yeast growth during alcoholic fermentation (Fleet, 1999; Fleet, 2001). Some vineyard fungal species are capable of producing toxic secondary metabolites (mycotoxins) in infected tissue, which may contaminate grapes and grape products such as wine, grape juice and dried vine fruit (reviewed in Nielsen et al., 2009). The mycotoxins of greatest signicance include aatoxins, citrinin, patulin and ochratoxin A (OTA) and recently fumonisin B2 (FB2) (Frisvad et al., 2007; Logrieco et al., 2010; Morgensen et al., 2010a, 2010b; Susca et al., 2010). The most important mycotoxin in grapes and the grape-wine chain is OTA first reported by Zimmerli and Dick (1996). It has nephrotoxic, carcinogenic (2B group) (IARC, 1993), teratogenic and immunotoxic effects (Abarca et al., 2001; Castegnaro & Pfohl-Leszkowicz, 2002, Da Rocha et al., 2002; Pfohl-Leszkowicz et al., 2002; Petzinger & Weidenbach, 2002; Vrabcheva et al., 2000). Thereafter, several authors reported OTA contamination in wine and the presence of OTA-producing fungi in grapes in different winegrowing areas around the world (Battilani et al., 2006; Leong et al., 2007; Medina et al., 2005; Sage et al., 2004; Tjamos et al., 2004). The contamination of grapes with OTA can occur in the field, even without visible symptoms, while the grapes are still on the vine (Serra et al. 2006).

**2. Occurrence and biodiversity of black aspergilli from grapes**

Several surveys conducted in the Mediterranean, South America, and Australia reported fungal species belonging to *Aspergillus* section *Nigri* (also known as Black Aspergilli-BA) as

**1. Introduction**

colonize inducing grape disease.

**2.1 Role in Ocratoxin A contamination**


**2. Impact welding**

In the 1940s, Carl proposed explosives can be used to drive metal and metal collisions for metallurgical bonding, which he termed explosive welding [11]. People nowadays deploy chemical energy, electromagnetic field energy, high-energy-density light energy, high-pressure gas, and other driving sources to produce various forms of impact welding by releasing high energy transiently and driving high-speed collision of welding parts.

During the Great War, engineers noticed shrapnel unusually attached to armored tanks, not simply inserted into the tank's side (**Figure 2**). The tank material and shrapnel fused due to the force of the collision. That is, the impact resulted in the formation of a weld.

In the process of impact welding, two or more metal sheets collide at high speed. The impact begins in the vicinity at the speed of sound in the air [12]. The workpieces experience severe plastic deformation at the contact area during impact by transforming kinetic energy into plastic deformation energy. The superficial (oxide) layers are broken apart by this plastic deformation. The required angle between the workpieces causes a line-shaped contact zone to go over the surface of the workpieces as the space between them closes. The high-pressure contact substantially removes gaps and results in a metallurgical bond between the materials. The impact welding process successfully welds dissimilar metal and does not produce a heat-affected zone. A common drawback of traditional welding processes is that the processes alter the material properties by the local temperature condition, often resulting in a softer region around the weld (heat-affected zone). Joints are by impact, the properties of the base metal are intact at the joint. The resulting interface may or may not be as robust as the base metals.

Different welding technologies, such as electromagnetic pulse welding, vaporizing foil actuator welding, and laser impact welding, are all part of the impact welding family. Although the primary working principle of these processes is a high-velocity collision between a flyer and a target, the method of accelerating the flyer differs. These methods also have a wide range of length scales, giving the impact welding

**Figure 2.** *Shrapnel stuck to armored tank.*

group a wide range of applications. Impact welding can drive the development of numerous scientific investigations, which are necessary for optimizing current production processes by developing new welding techniques and solutions.

### **2.1 Electromagnetic welding**

Electromagnetic welding (EMW) is a solid-state welding process that primarily joins conductive materials using high-speed electromagnetic force. The technique efficiently joins similar or dissimilar metals, as well as metals and non-metals [13]. The process utilizes very high velocity and strain rate to join several materials. The impulsive Lorenz force, produced by repelling magnetic fields due to pulse current, accelerates one or both joining materials, resulting in a high-velocity collision and joint formation. The weld contact does not melt, unlike traditional joining techniques, preserving the material characteristics.

Electromagnetic pulse welding was used by Yu et al., [14] to create aluminum-covered steel tubes. The findings suggest that the proposed EMW technique can generate strong cladding bonds to make a tubular clad component with a long axial length. P. Q. Wang et al., [15] successfully welded Al/Cu dissimilar sheet metal by EMW. Many process parameters define the mechanical performance and interfacial morphology of EMP welded joints. The investigation by C. Li et al., [16] reported a relationship between process parameters such as discharge current frequency, the Lorentz force, and the displacement in the base metals. Shaoluo Wang et al., [17] reported that to improve the weldability range by EMW, discharge energy, and the wieldable standoff distance range would be enhanced as the ascent of discharge energy could make the flyer plate have a higher collision velocity. The process has a significant effect on the microstructural changes at the bond interface as well. The interface morphology generally includes the formation of a dislocation network, mechanically induced dissolution of precipitates, and recrystallization [18]. There is little evidence one can find in the melting of base materials. In addition, it is worth expecting the significant enhancement in the strength for the post-weld heat-treatable alloys by thermomechanical processing. During service, dissimilar metal junctions will invariably experience corrosion, which results in premature failure of the welded joints. Galvanic corrosion at the joints of hybrid structures accelerates corrosion. Corrosion characteristics of EMP welded galvanized steel/aluminum sheets are reported in [19].

The recent advancement in the technique led to the commercialization of the process with many welding applications. T. Aizawa et al., [20] used EMW to provide successful metallurgical and electrical bonds between flexible printed circuit boards (FPCB). The applications are suited for tubular assembly, regular or irregular shapes, and flat shape connections. The EMW is widely used to manufacture crimped gearbox parts, crimped Al/Steel tube instrumental panel beam, hemming of aluminum pressure vessel, Aluminum lid for the pharmaceutical glass bottle etc [21].

#### *2.1.1 Working procedure*

An AC power supply charges the capacitor bank. After storing the appropriate quantity of energy in the capacitors, it is released into a coil instantly (**Figure 3**). The discharge current creates a strong transient magnetic field inside the coil, which causes eddy currents to form in the work piece. Eddy currents prevent the magnetic field from diffusing through the outer work piece, resulting in a difference in the magnitude of the magnetic field on both sides of the work piece. The magnetic field

**Figure 3.** *Electromagnetic welding process.*

causes the outer work piece to collide with the inner one. The collision of the work pieces causes bonding via a variety of mechanisms. The bonding will be intact as the distance between the atoms becomes smaller than the range of mutually attractive forces. In this instance, electrons are shared between the two materials, resulting in an intermetallic phase (potentially high hardness).

The actual bonding procedure takes less than 30 seconds. There are no shielding gases, fillers, or any auxiliary materials utilized. The electromagnetic pulse welding procedure is like a cold joining method, with very little heat generated. As a result, there is no heat-affected zone, and materials retain their qualities. The lack of heat and solid-state nature of the method allows for the joining of different materials. Aluminum to copper, aluminum to steel, and copper to brass are examples. The process EMW can weld the sheet metals with cross-sections comparable to that of an explosive weld. Since there is limited intermetallic phase generation at the interfaces, EMW produces a robust metallurgical bonded structure. EMW finds applications in tube forming, sheet metal forming, crimping, welding, and metal cutting with good results in highly conducting metals such as aluminum, copper, steel, and others.

### **2.2 Vaporizing foil actuator welding**

Vaporizing foil actuator welding is an impact welding technique without chemical explosives. In this process, welding is achieved through a high-speed, oblique impact between the welding materials. At small-scale length scales and with similar driving pressures as explosive welding, vaporizing foil actuator welding can weld a wide range of advanced and dissimilar metal combinations. The fabrication of nano-sized particles and the structuring of high current pulses are two examples of outstanding achievements. Until the recent work by Vivek et al., [16] vaporizing foil actuators were not explored much. VFAW uses the same machinery as EMW, but instead of

### *Joining by Forming of Sheet Metals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102098*

vaporizing a thin foil by the discharge current, the capacitor quickly vaporizes a thin layer to launch the metal flyer plate, as shown in **Figure 4**. Thermal deformation does not occur due to the low heat generated during the operation, and the properties of base metal do not deteriorate in the weld. Daehn et al., [22] developed the novel collision welding method called vaporizing foil actuator welding (VFAW). Many experimental [23, 24] and numerical simulations [25] suggest that VFAW can be a cost-effective, high-performance technology to join similar and dissimilar metal sheets. According to Hahn et al., [26] VFAW is a competitor technology to the MPW. Vivek et al., [27] successfully joined bulk metallic glass and copper sheets by VFAW. Suhani Chen et al., successfully welded Al −3003 and pure titanium by VFAW. Shuhai Chen et al., [23] reported microstructures, interfacial morphology, and mechanical property of dissimilar metals joint by the VFAW and investigated the influence of processing parameters on the anti-shear capacity of the joint produced by VFAW.

The process can be used to join steel sheets with aluminum, aluminum alloy sheets with different grade aluminum, and many dissimilar metal combinations [28, 29]. This could solve problems that automotive industries are facing in improving fuel efficiency by weight minimization.

## *2.2.1 Working procedure*

The vaporizing foil actuator is placed against the flyer and supported by an anvil in VFAW, to direct the driving pressure toward the flyer sheet. (**Figure 4**). VFAW works by sending a strong electrical pulse into a foil. The foil is sandwiched between an anvil and a flyer. The flyer is forced into another base material called the target. An electrical pulse travels from the capacitor bank to the foil (actuator), inducing enough energy in the foil to cause it to vaporize, transforming it from a solid to a plasma gas in an instant that strains the system. The flyer placed over the foil moves a short distance before impacting the target. The flyer and target may be overlapping portions (as in a lap joint) or base metals overlapping in a different arrangement (as in a flange weld). A modest standoff distance exists between the base metals, which is crucial.

For the required pressure distribution of the flyer, a suitably shaped foil is required. A minor constriction in the foil can create a spot pressure for developing an impact spot weld. The foil is cut into variable weld shape, a longitudinal seam, stitch geometry, or even many weld places in a limited region. The quality of the weld depends on how foil explodes when a large amount of energy is transferred into it. A few kilojoules (up to 10) from a capacitor bank are deposited in 10 microseconds and directed to a small location.


3.1.2. Plantar Pressure Comparison Analysis

The average plantar pressure on the left foot (unaffected) of the right hemiparetic patients was 6.11 ± 0.08 pF (capacitance difference value) in the lateral side of the foot and 6.50 ± 0.27 pF in the medial side. The right foot (affected) showed 5.17 ± 0.46 pF and 5.45 ± 0.29 pF, respectively (Table 5).

**Table 5.** Average plantar pressure of right hemiparetic patients (*n* = 9) (unit: pF).

Table 6 shows the average plantar pressure of left hemiparetic patients. The lateral side of the left foot (affected) showed 5.11 ± 0.18 pF of pressure and the medial side had 5.01 ± 0.16 pF. The unaffected right foot had 6.14 ± 0.18 pF on the lateral side and 6.14 ± 0.11 pF on the medial side.

In Table 7, the average plantar pressure on the lateral side of the left foot was 5.62 ± 0.33 pF and of the medial side was 5.36 ± 0.38 pF in bilateral hemiparetic patients. The medial side of the right foot showed 5.42 ± 0.57 pF and the lateral side 5.66 ± 0.33 pF.

**Table 6.** Average plantar pressure of left hemiparetic patients (*n* = 6) (unit: pF).

**Table 7.** Average plantar pressure of bilateral hemiparetic patients (*n* = 3) (unit: pF).

Table 8 shows the average plantar pressure of healthy adults. The lateral side of the left foot had 6.39 ± 0.43 pF, the medial side had 6.24 ± 0.38 pF, the lateral side of the right foot had 6.41 ± 0.42 pF, and the medial side had 6.39 ± 0.29 pF.

**Table 8.** Average plantar pressure of healthy adults (*n* = 17) (unit: pF).


**2. Synthetic methods**

The recent development of nanotechnology has proved that nanomaterials such as nano-sized titanium dioxide photocatalysts can have high activity in the photodegradation of a wide range of organic and inorganic contaminants in water. It is believed that photocatalysis will soon be recognized as one of the most effective means of dealing with various kinds of wastewater since organic pollutants can be completely degraded to harmless matter under normal

It is capable of degrading pollutants such as herbicides, carboxylic acids and alcohols completely to carbon dioxide, water and simple minerals [4]. For it to be very effective, it should have certain properties such as suitable particle size, shape, crystallinity and a good ratio of anatase to rutile. This is the reason why most researchers have been trying to use different methods to get particles with suitable characteristics for environmental remediation or for

lar, titanium dioxide nanotubes (TNTs) have their performance improved in photovoltaics [5]

nanostructures, in particu-

other applications of interest. Several studies have proved that TiO2

conditions of temperature and pressure.

**Figure 1.** Different forms titanium dioxide [1].

152 Titanium Dioxide - Material for a Sustainable Environment


Preface

**Section 3 Treatment, Prevention and Public Health 131**

Chapter 8 **Pharmacological Treatment of Giardiasis 133**

Chapter 9 **Risk Assessment for Giardia in Environmental Samples 147**

Tenorio Lourdes Mariana and Leyva-Soto Luis Alonso

Ana Paola Balderrama-Carmona, Gortáres-Moroyoqui Pablo, Morán-Palacio Edgar Felipe, Ulloa-Mercado Ruth Gabriela, Díaz-

Víctor Manuel Molina Díaz

**VI** Contents

Giardiasis is still a significant infectious and parasitic disease, caused by the protozoan *Giardia intestinalis* (syn. *G. duodenalis*, *G. lamblia*). Considered among the pathogens that probably were seen by Leeuwenhoek in 1681, the first descriptions were properly attributed to Vilèm Lambl in 1859. After centuries of advance in its knowledge, today we are aware that at least 8 different genotypes exist, ranging from A to H, being of human significance those included in A and B. However, other genotypes, in addition to other species in the genus, are significantly important in multiple other animal hosts. Among genotypes A and B, there are multiple subgenotypes that are important at the same time in other animals, e.g., dogs and cats, making giardiasis also a zoonotic disease. Although its historical importance, its epidemiology is not well understood, there is still a lack of national prevalence in multiple countries (1,2) and even more of molecular epidemiology identifying such genotypes. Despite that, there are estimates of more than 200 million of cases of giardiasis occurred in the world annually. Among those cases, although in tropical countries the prevalence tends to be higher, giardiasis is globally distributed. Recently its importance in new vulnerable populations has been recognized, which is the case, for example, of pregnant women (3) which are considered increasingly more exposed when visiting giardiasis-prevalent areas (4,5). Even more, in a globalized world, multiple infectious diseases have been linked to its occurrence to climate change and variability, also including giardiasis (5). Then, the advance in research in giardiasis during the last century and particularly during the last decade includes new forms of transmission (e.g., sexual transmission), as well the need for a world congress entirely dedicated to this pathogen (together with *Cryptosporidium*) (International Giardia & Cryptosporidium Con‐ ference, held now in seven occasions) (7).

At clinical level, giardiasis can lead to acute and chronic consequences, e.g., affecting children nu‐ trition and development, as well as causing inflammatory intestinal syndrome and chronic fati‐ gue, among multiple other sequelae (8-10). All these aspects call for the need of accurate and prompt diagnosis in order to provide effective treatments that can be prescribed as monotherapy of combination therapy (11,12).

With these conceptions in mind, this book includes different topics with regard to epidemiology, biology, clinical manifestations, treatment, and prevention, of the wide spectrum of manifesta‐ tions caused by *Giardia* in humans and animals, trying to update the most significant research in many of them as well to offer a multinational perspective on different aspects. This book has been organized in three major sections: 1. "Overview, Epidemiology, and Clinical Aspects," 2. "Biologi‐ cal and Diagnostic Aspects," and 3. "Treatment, Prevention, and Public Health." Section I in‐ cludes topics related to epidemiology and clinical aspects, including particularly the malabsorption syndrome and other aspects in livestock and companion animals. Section II in‐ cludes basic aspects of *Giardia*, such as its cytoskeleton, the endomembrane system, and modern methods for its detection, such as the loop-mediate isothermal amplification. Finally, Section III discusses topics related to pharmacological management of this disease as well as the risk assess‐ ment in the environment.

Commissioning of this book by InTech editorial has been related in part to my long commitment with zoonotic parasitic and tropical diseases, being involved as the Co-Chair of the Working Group on Zoonoses of the International Society for Chemotherapy (WGZ-ISC), as well as in Co‐ lombia at the Committee on Zoonoses, Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (Asociación Colombiana de Infectología, ACIN). Between 2009 and 2011, I was appointed as director of Population Studies and Epidemiology of national center for population studies in Venezuela (Fundacredesa), which performed the Second National Study of Human Growth and Development, including the survey for *Giardia* and other enteric parasites, which derived in multiple scientific analysis, products, and related publications on this and other protozoans and helminths.

After moving in 2011 to Colombia, I have been involved in research of parasitic diseases in Risaralda, where we still keep working on this important tropical disease. Part of all this is a clear reflect of the work impulse at the Research Group Infection Public Health and Infection of the Faculty of Health Sciences of the Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, directed by Dr. Guillermo Javier Lagos-Grisales, not just a partner, a colleague, and mainly a friend but an extreme believer in our work in vectorborne and zoonotic diseases. But, I must recognize also the beginning of a significant collaboration after a meeting in Yokohama, Japan, during the International Congress of Chemotherapy, where I met Dr. Angel Arturo Escobedo, from Cuba, also part of the WGZ-ISC, who became since that year my most important collaborator on giardiasis. His work on giardiasis has kept me engaged also in this interesting parasitic disease.

Following the same philosophy as we had on my five previous books with InTech, *Current Topics in Tropical Medicine* (13), *Current Topics in Public Health* (14), *Current Topics in Echinococcosis* (15), *Current Topics in Chikungunya* (16), and *Current Topics in Malaria* (17), this book does not intend to be an exhaustive compilation, and this first edition has included not just multiple different topics but also a wide geographical participation from many countries of different regions of the world. Its on line availability through the website of InTech, as well the possibility to upload the com‐ plete book or their chapters in personal websites and institutions repositories, allows it to reach a wide audience in the globe. Continuing on the series of *Current Topics* books, we are planning to develop in the future other projects such as *Current Topics in Zika* (already in press, coming soon too), *Current Topics in Infectious Diseases*, and *Current Topics in Travel Medicine*.

I would like to give a very special thanks to InTechOpen (for the fourth time), and particularly to Maja Bozicevic and Romina Rovan (Publishing Process Managers), for the opportunity to edit this interesting and important book, as well for their constant support.

I want to take the appropriate time and space, as I used to do, to dedicate this book to my beloved family (Aurora, Alfonso José, Alejandro and Andrea, the neurologist) and particularly to my lovely wife, Diana. After 6 years together, I am so clear she is everything to me.  We have gone for difficult moments, partially related to my work, but our love has survived these challenges. And due to her support, projects like this one would be not just possible but suc‐ cessful.  Today, despite all that we have gone together, I cannot imagine my life without her. Also to my friends and my undergraduate and postgraduate students of health sciences in Colombia, Venezuela and around Latin America. Also it is time to say thanks to my colleagues at the Working Group on Zoonoses, International Society for Chemo‐

therapy and the Committee on Zoonoses, Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine (formerly on Zoonoses and Haemorrhagic Fevers) of the Colombian Infectious Diseases Society (ACIN). Special thanks are given to my friend and colleague Dr. Guillermo J. Lagos-Grisales, MD, MPH. Members of our research group and incubator consist of young and enthusiastic medical students and some veterinary medical students as well young medical doctors, who are pursuing significant improve‐ ments in the understanding of the epidemiology of zoonotic, vector-borne, parasitic and in general, infectious diseases, in our country with international projection. Year 2017 has been highly produc‐ tive for this recognized group, which now is classified by the national agency of science, Colcien‐ cias, in the highest rank "A1," which is positioned as a leader in infectious disease epidemiology research in the coffee-triangle region and in the country.

Finally, I hope our readers enjoy this publication as much as I did reading the chapters of *Current Topics in Giardiasis*.

#### **Prof. Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales**

MD, MSc, DTM&H, FRSTMH (Lon), FFTM RCPS (Glasg), FACE, PhD (c) Editor, Current Topics in Giardiasis Part-Time Faculty Instructor, Risk Factors (Epidemiology) (Coordinator) Department of Community Medicine, School of Medicine Lecturer, Frontiers Research, School of Veterinary Medicine & Zootechnics Director of Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia Co-Chair, Working Group on Zoonoses, International Society for Chemotherapy (ISC) Secretary, Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN) Member of the Committee on Zoonoses, Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine, ACIN President, ACIN Chapter Coffee Triangle Region President, Committee on Travel Medicine Pan-American Association of Infectious Diseases Senior Researcher, Colciencias (2017–2019)

#### **References**

discusses topics related to pharmacological management of this disease as well as the risk assess‐

Commissioning of this book by InTech editorial has been related in part to my long commitment with zoonotic parasitic and tropical diseases, being involved as the Co-Chair of the Working Group on Zoonoses of the International Society for Chemotherapy (WGZ-ISC), as well as in Co‐ lombia at the Committee on Zoonoses, Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (Asociación Colombiana de Infectología, ACIN). Between 2009 and 2011, I was appointed as director of Population Studies and Epidemiology of national center for population studies in Venezuela (Fundacredesa), which performed the Second National Study of Human Growth and Development, including the survey for *Giardia* and other enteric parasites, which derived in multiple scientific analysis, products, and related publications on this and other

After moving in 2011 to Colombia, I have been involved in research of parasitic diseases in Risaralda, where we still keep working on this important tropical disease. Part of all this is a clear reflect of the work impulse at the Research Group Infection Public Health and Infection of the Faculty of Health Sciences of the Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, directed by Dr. Guillermo Javier Lagos-Grisales, not just a partner, a colleague, and mainly a friend but an extreme believer in our work in vectorborne and zoonotic diseases. But, I must recognize also the beginning of a significant collaboration after a meeting in Yokohama, Japan, during the International Congress of Chemotherapy, where I met Dr. Angel Arturo Escobedo, from Cuba, also part of the WGZ-ISC, who became since that year my most important collaborator on giardiasis. His work on giardiasis has kept me engaged also in

Following the same philosophy as we had on my five previous books with InTech, *Current Topics in Tropical Medicine* (13), *Current Topics in Public Health* (14), *Current Topics in Echinococcosis* (15), *Current Topics in Chikungunya* (16), and *Current Topics in Malaria* (17), this book does not intend to be an exhaustive compilation, and this first edition has included not just multiple different topics but also a wide geographical participation from many countries of different regions of the world. Its on line availability through the website of InTech, as well the possibility to upload the com‐ plete book or their chapters in personal websites and institutions repositories, allows it to reach a wide audience in the globe. Continuing on the series of *Current Topics* books, we are planning to develop in the future other projects such as *Current Topics in Zika* (already in press, coming soon

I would like to give a very special thanks to InTechOpen (for the fourth time), and particularly to Maja Bozicevic and Romina Rovan (Publishing Process Managers), for the opportunity to edit this

I want to take the appropriate time and space, as I used to do, to dedicate this book to my beloved family (Aurora, Alfonso José, Alejandro and Andrea, the neurologist) and particularly to my lovely wife, Diana. After 6 years together, I am so clear she is everything to me.  We have gone for difficult moments, partially related to my work, but our love has survived these challenges. And due to her support, projects like this one would be not just possible but suc‐ cessful.  Today, despite all that we have gone together, I cannot imagine my life without her. Also to my friends and my undergraduate and postgraduate students of health sciences in Colombia, Venezuela and around Latin America. Also it is time to say thanks to my colleagues at the Working Group on Zoonoses, International Society for Chemo‐

too), *Current Topics in Infectious Diseases*, and *Current Topics in Travel Medicine*.

interesting and important book, as well for their constant support.

ment in the environment.

VIII Preface

protozoans and helminths.

this interesting parasitic disease.

**Overview, Epidemiology and Clinical Aspects**

[4] Gallego V, Berberian G, Lloveras S, Verbanaz S, Chaves TS, Orduna T, Rodriguez-Mo‐ rales AJ. The 2014 FIFA World Cup: communicable disease risks and advice for visi‐ tors to Brazil--a review from the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine

[5] Almanza C, Escobedo ÁA, Rodríguez-Morales AJ. Giardia infection in foreign visitors

[6] Escobedo AA, Almirall P, Rumbaut R, Rodríguez-Morales AJ. Potential impact of mac‐ roclimatic variability on the epidemiology of giardiasis in three provinces of Cuba,

[7] Escobedo AA, Arencibia R, Vega RL, Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Almirall P, Alfonso M. A bibliometric study of international scientific productivity in giardiasis covering the pe‐

[8] Durán C, Hidalgo G, Aguilera W, Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Albano C, Cortez J, Jiménez S, Díaz M, Incani RN. Giardia lamblia infection is associated with lower body mass in‐dex

[9] Escobedo AA, Almirall P, Cimerman S, Rodríguez-Morales AJ. Sequelae of giardiasis:

[10] Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Franco-Paredes C. Giardia Infections. In: Zhang Y (Editor). En‐ cyclopedia of Global Health. ISBN<PHONE_NUMBER>860. SAGE Publications, California, USA, 2008: Volume 2: 739. Available at: http://www.sage-ereference.com/abstract/

[11] Escobedo AA, Lalle M, Hrastnik NI, Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Castro-Sánchez E, Cimer‐ man S, Almirall P, Jones J. Combination therapy in the management of giardiasis: What laboratory and clinical studies tell us, so far. Acta Trop. 2016 Oct;162:196-205. [12] Escobedo AA, Almirall P, Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Duquesne-Rivero E, Suarez-Mella R, Ruiz-Blanco E. Could the Fight Against Treatment Failures in Giardiasis Lead to a Sec‐ ond Childhood for Quinacrine? J Infect Dis. 2017 Aug 3. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jix375. [13] Rodriguez-Morales AJ. (Editor). Current Topics in Tropical Medicine. ISBN 978-953-51-0274-8. InTech, Croatia, March 2012. Available at: http://www.intechop‐

[14] Rodriguez-Morales AJ. (Editor). Current Topics in Public Health. ISBN 978-953-51-1121-4. InTech, Croatia, May 2013. Available at: http://www.intechop‐en.com/books/current-

[15] Rodriguez-Morales AJ. (Editor). Current Topics in Echinococcosis. ISBN 978-953-51-2159-6. InTech, Croatia, September 2015. http://www.intechopen.com/books/current-topics-in-

[16] Rodriguez-Morales AJ. (Editor). Current Topics in Chikungunya. ISBN 978-953-51-2595-2. InTech, Croatia, August 2016. http://www.intechopen.com/books/current-topics-in-

[17] Rodriguez-Morales AJ. (Editor). Current Topics in Malaria. ISBN 978-953-51-2790-1. InTech, Croatia, November 2016. http://www.intechopen.com/books/current-topics-in-

an emerging public health concern. Int J Infect Dis. 2016 Aug;49:202-3.

(SLAMVI). Travel Med Infect Dis. 2014 May-Jun;12(3):208-18.

to Cuba. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2015 Nov-Dec;13(6):505-6.

2010-2012. J Infect Public Health. 2015 Jan-Feb;8(1):80-9.

riod 1971-2010. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2015 Jan 15;9(1):76-86.

values. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2010 Jun 30;4(6):417-8.

en.com/books/current-topics-in-tropical-medicine

globalhealth/n514.xml

X Preface

topics-in-public-health

echinococcosis

chikungunya

malaria

**Provisional chapter**