**2. Nutrition profile of soy**

Soy is a very nutritious plant, and the only complete plant protein. Protein in soy is not only high, but comparable in quality to animal protein regarding amino

**27**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 1.**

*Similarity of isoflavones to estrogens.*

*Structure of estrogen and isoflavones.*

*Evidence for the Effectiveness of Soy in Aging and Improving Quality of Life*

acid content and digestibility [24]. The carbohydrate content of soybeans is not only low, but poorly digested by intestinal enzymes, and thus behaves as a prebiotic for beneficial bacteria [25]. The fat content is highly variable among different soybean varieties, but includes 10–15% saturated fat, 19–41% monounsaturated fat, and

Most notably, soybeans contain isoflavones. The three main isoflavones present in soybeans include genistein (50% of isoflavones), daidzein (40% isoflavones) and glycitein (10% of isoflavones) [27]. Isoflavones are also classified as phytoestrogens because of their similar structure to estrogen (**Figures 1** and **2**). Isoflavones are more bioactive in their unconjugated (aglycon) form than their conjugated form, which must be hydrolyzed in the intestine to release the aglycons [28]. Additionally, fermented soy has more unconjugated isoflavones, thus making fermented soy foods more pharmacokinetically beneficial [29]. Soy isoflavones are also metabolized by gut bacteria, which leads to many different metabolites, the most biologically active being euqol [30]. Equol is structurally similar to estrogen, but inhibits growth of mammary tumors and may act as a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) [31]. Isoflavones have anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as the ability to alter gene expression, specifically in estrogen-responsive genes [32]. It is this ability that often leads health practitioners to believe that soy may be dangerous for certain populations, specifically breast cancer, which will be later discussed in this chapter. However, these SERM like capabilities are responsible for

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85664*

46–62% polyunsaturated fat [26].

many of soy's positive effects on health.

*Evidence for the Effectiveness of Soy in Aging and Improving Quality of Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85664*

acid content and digestibility [24]. The carbohydrate content of soybeans is not only low, but poorly digested by intestinal enzymes, and thus behaves as a prebiotic for beneficial bacteria [25]. The fat content is highly variable among different soybean varieties, but includes 10–15% saturated fat, 19–41% monounsaturated fat, and 46–62% polyunsaturated fat [26].

Most notably, soybeans contain isoflavones. The three main isoflavones present in soybeans include genistein (50% of isoflavones), daidzein (40% isoflavones) and glycitein (10% of isoflavones) [27]. Isoflavones are also classified as phytoestrogens because of their similar structure to estrogen (**Figures 1** and **2**). Isoflavones are more bioactive in their unconjugated (aglycon) form than their conjugated form, which must be hydrolyzed in the intestine to release the aglycons [28]. Additionally, fermented soy has more unconjugated isoflavones, thus making fermented soy foods more pharmacokinetically beneficial [29]. Soy isoflavones are also metabolized by gut bacteria, which leads to many different metabolites, the most biologically active being euqol [30]. Equol is structurally similar to estrogen, but inhibits growth of mammary tumors and may act as a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) [31]. Isoflavones have anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as the ability to alter gene expression, specifically in estrogen-responsive genes [32]. It is this ability that often leads health practitioners to believe that soy may be dangerous for certain populations, specifically breast cancer, which will be later discussed in this chapter. However, these SERM like capabilities are responsible for many of soy's positive effects on health.

**Figure 1.** *Similarity of isoflavones to estrogens.*

**Figure 2.** *Structure of estrogen and isoflavones.*


**8. Linearity and range**

Linearity and range are typically assessed in a complex experiment demonstrating a linear change of peak area with analyte concentration. Since most of the methods use UV detection, such linearity experiments can be considered as re-confirmation of the Beer-Lambert law for the particular hardware configuration.


**6. Privacy of synthetic data**

*Security and Privacy From a Legal, Ethical, and Technical Perspective*

trained on the synthetic data versus when trained on real data.

medical imaging diagnostics and significantly reduce privacy risks.

from that paper are shown in **Figure 6**.

still a lot of work to do in this area.

**5.3 Other approaches**

In [16], Nvidia researchers demonstrate generation of synthetic MRI images with brain tumors using generative adversarial networks, trained on two publicly available datasets of brain MRI: ADNI and BRATS. Two distinct benefits of synthetic data are highlighted in this work: improved performance leveraging synthetic images as a form of data augmentation, and the value of synthetic data as a tool for reducing privacy risk while achieving comparable tumor segmentation results when

The results from [16] are quite impressive, and some synthetic images taken

Clearly more work remains in this area, especially in generating higher resolution synthetic images, tackling all imaging modalities as well as addressing many other clinical use-cases; nonetheless, this work demonstrates excellent initial results for synthetic image generation in medical research with the potential to improve

Recently, neural language models with attention (i.e., Transformers [17]) have been used to for a variety of language tasks, including synthetic text generation, sequence to sequence translation, question answering and many others. One potential application of language models in medicine is the generation of free-text clinical notes based on structured data. Instead of generating synthetic versions of the structured medical EMR record, the goal is to translate the input structured data into a clinically correct and useful text summary of the patient information, in a form physicians are used to reading. Although early experiments with human-like language generation with models like GPT2 are showing good initial results, there's

It's worth mentioning one other generative modeling approach called flowbased generative models; this technique is quite complex mathematically, and is in early stages of research, but can potentially provide an additional set of

**150**

**Figure 6.**

*Examples of synthetic abnormal brain MRI images.*

With differential privacy, our goal is to define a query mechanism that guarantees certain privacy levels if the users are restricted to access micro-data through the specified mechanism only. Synthetic data generation is different in that it assumes synthetic data is published directly to users, and thus access to the data is virtually unlimited. We now want to inspect those differences in more detail to better understand the implications of privacy for synthetic data generation.

We start with an important, fundamental recognition. With real datasets (either de-identified or available through differential privacy mechanisms), an attacker knows for sure that each row in the datasets represents a real instance or person, only the privacy mechanisms attempt to conceal the privacy information in different ways. With synthetic datasets that is not the case, as the samples are randomly chosen from a probability distribution, and thus by definition do not reflect real people. In fact, as described at the beginning of this chapter, if we assume the real data and synthetic data are both sampled from a theoretical (unknown) distribution P(X), and that distribution is very high dimensional (as it often is for micro-data), then the only hypothetical risk is that by a stroke of luck a synthetic record exactly matches the values in one of the original values, which is very unlikely. And its occurrence could not be recognized with any assurance by an attacker.

Nonetheless, there is an important privacy consideration – unintended memorization [21]. A deep generative learning model might unintentionally memorize the training set (of real data) and thus instead of approximating a distribution and then sampling from that distribution, it instead just copies one or more of the original data records into the synthetic dataset.

It is possible to test for memorization pro-actively as part of training the generative model (as proposed in [21]) and optimize the generative model in such a way as to remove any memorization or minimize it to a level which presents minimal risk.

To further enhance privacy guarantees, we can apply a k-anonymity [22] to the synthetic dataset. It's common to use generalization or obfuscation of variables to achieve the desired levels of k-anonymity; however both techniques result in reduced utility. With synthetic data, however, one can instead generate additional records in a way that improves the privacy guarantees without compromising utility.

### **7. Summary and conclusion**

In this chapter we provided an overview of synthetic data and how it may provide an alternative to differential privacy as a method for sharing micro-data for the purpose of analysis and machine learning applications.

We discussed two of the most common techniques used in deep generative modeling, namely variational auto-encoders and generative adversarial networks, and highlighted some of the remarkable success in the space of modeling medical

data. We then discussed why synthetic data provides privacy by design and some areas of research in privacy of synthetic data generation.

As research in the space of generative models continues at a neck-break pace at companies like OpenAI, Google, Facebook, Microsoft and others, we expect to see tremendous prosgress in this field on the research side as well as in applications of synthetic data across many areas of industry.


**3.2.3 Surface modification through electrostatic interactions**

16 Biomedicine

Overall, surface modification achieved via hydrophobic interaction and insertion of hydrophobic chains into the cell membrane demonstrated a limited retention time. For PEGlipids this time depends on the alkyl chain length of lipid chains (Inui et al., 2010). The longer alkyl chains allowed PEG-lipid molecules to retain longer on the cell membrane. However, the overall retention time was no longer than 48 hours before the all molecules disappeared from the islets surfaces. Incorporation of hydrophobic molecules into the cell membrane leads to their uptake into the cell cytoplasm. Adding amphiphilic part to the structures prevents the uptake but molecules are released into the surrounding media.

Fig. 4. Top: (a) Chemical structure of oligo(dT)20-conjugated PEG-lipid (oligo(dT)20-PEGlipid). (b) Urokinase is modified with Sulfo-EMCS to introduce maleimide groups, and then

(c) Oligo(dT)20-PEG-lipid is incorporated into the cell surface by the hydrophobic interaction between alkyl chains and the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. Oligo(dA)20-urokinase is applied to cells carrying oligo(dT)20. Urokinase is conjugated on the cell surface through oligo(dT)20 -oligo(dA)20 hybridization. Bottom: Confocal laser scanning microscopic images of urokinase--modified-islets which were subjected to immunostaining for urokinase. Islets were modified with oligo(dT)20-PEG-lipids and then oligo(dA)20-urokinase. The urokinasemodified-islets just after treatment, after 1 and 2 days of culture. Reprinted with permission

oligo(dA)20-SH is conjugated on urokinase through the thiol/maleimide reaction.

from Takemoto et al., 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

Heparin has an affinity to a number of plasma proteins and growth factors including endothelium and vascular endothelium growth factors. Employing this property of heparin, the synthetic heparin-binding peptide amphiphile was used to immobilize heparin and, subsequently, growth factors on islet surfaces (Chow et al., 2010). Initial immobilization of the amphiphile on the islet surfaces can be achieved *via* electrostatic interactions of positively charged amphiphile and negatively charge cell membrane (Fig. 3, A4). Later, negatively charged heparin can be bound to the amphiphile. The so-formed amphiphileheparin complex coating on the islets surface was able to bind and retain growth factors up to 48 hours. The complex nanostructures provide extracellular matrix-like scaffold for the encapsulated islets for supporting their viability. Such immobilization of growth factors does not affect viability or function, yet, they are able to stimulate an angiogenic response in the islets.


**3. Generation of organochlorine compounds by some industries**

The intensive development of agriculture and industry produces large quantities of plant raw materials, as well as the presence of pesticides, toxic xenobiotics, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorophenols, metals, organochlorine compounds, among other pollutants [7]. Once released into the environment, they decompose very slowly in air, water, soil, and in living organisms [11]. Particularly, these compounds, which are environmental pollutants, mainly used as biocides of wide spectrum in industry and agriculture, their formation during the bleaching of the pulp on papermaking process and the direct discharge of industrial waste [12]. A classic example is the dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), which has been widely used in the last decades as an insecticide for the protection of crops and for the control of vector-borne diseases such as typhus and malaria [13].

The most common sources of organochlorine pollutants, apart from the paper industry, are the combustion of organic matter, partial transformation of phenoxy pesticides such as 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 2,4,6-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, treatment of wood against fungi and insects and preservation of raw hides in leather tanning industries [12].

The toxicity of these compounds tends to increase with their degree of chlorination. Among chlorinated phenols, pentachlorophenol (PCP) has been widely used

*The Roll of Different Kind of Fungi to Eliminate Lignin and Organochlorines: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105162*

as a preservative in wood and leather due to its toxicity to bacteria, mold, algae, and fungi in these materials [12].

On the other hand, inorganic chloride (Clinorg) supplied to soil through atmospheric deposition can undergo plant absorption, leaching, and react to form organochlorines (Clorg). Natural chlorination can occur through biotic and abiotic processes under environmental conditions. Also, the Clinorg becomes Clorg during the decomposition and humification of the vegetal material in the surface of soil [14].


**2.1 Vitamins and diabetes mellitus type 2**

Nutrients are the natural mixes needed by our body which are termed as mandatory ingredients required in definite quantities. They cannot be made in adequate quantity by the human body, and thus, should be gotten from the eating routine. Thirteen distinct kinds of vitamins are found that are ordered by their organic and substance action; every one of them keeps a particular job in human body [13].

Vitamins are termed as either fat-dissolvable or water-solvent. There are thirteen vitamins found in nature. Nine of them could dissolve in water (8 B Vitamins and Vitamin C) whereas, four of them could dissolve in fat (A, D, E, and K). The

water-solvent Vitamins effectively make solution in water and are discharged from the body quickly since they could not be kept for quite a while, aside from nutrient B12 [14]. Whereas, fat-solvent Vitamins are caught up in the digestive system within the existence of lipid and they are bound to be kept in the body. As they are kept for quite a while, they can prompt hypervitaminosis more than the water-dissolvable vitamins; a few nutrients are necessary for the body cell development and improvement (for instance folate and vitamin B12).

**Vitamin B6 also play a crucial role in diabetics as it is a cofactor for approximately 150 reactions that regulate the metabolism of glucose, lipids, amino acids, DNA, and neurotransmitters. In addition, it plays the role of antioxidant by counteracting the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and advanced glycation end-products (AGEs). Epidemiological and experimental studies indicated an evident inverse association between vitamin B6 levels and diabetes, as well as a clear protective effect of vitamin B6 on diabetic complications. Interestingly, by exploring the mechanisms that govern the relationship between this vitamin and diabetes, vitamin B6 can be considered both a cause and effect of diabetes** [15]**.**

Folate is known as vitamin B9 which has significant functionality in human body. We need folate for the repair, creation and methylation of DNA [16]. In a study in America, it was seen that the **intake of folate in young adulthood was inversely associated with diabetes incidence in midlife amongst Americans. The observed association may be partially explained by mechanisms related to homocysteine level, insulin sensitivity, and systemic inflammation** [17]**.**

Besides, it goes about as a helper in numerous fundamental natural responses. Folic Acid has a significant job in cell division and it is particularly required amid early stages and pregnancy. Our body needs folic acid so as to avoid iron deficiency and create sound RBCs (Red Blood Cells), while Vitamin B12 assumes a significant job in providing basic methyl bunches for protein and DNA amalgamation. Vitamin B12 is bound to the protein in our meal and hydrochloric acid in the stomach discharges B12 from it amid ingestion. Once discharged, vitamin B12 consolidates with an ingredient known as intrinsic factor [18].

The type 2 Diabetes Mellitus is a heterogenous malady which is usually connected to vital chemical reactions, especially starch and fat administration in the living being. Be that as it may, most micronutrients are likewise associated with some route either as a component of the reason or impact of this perpetual pathology. The outcomes and problems of diabetes are the aftereffect of a disparity between free radical development and their control by common cancer prevention agents [19]. Thus, those micronutrients that have an antioxidant function are very important in the development of the disease and its complications, while other nonantioxidant vitamins have also shown a relationship.

Vitamins A, C and E, which have antioxidant properties are discovered diminished in diabetic patients, may be because of an expanded need to limit the extraordinary oxidative pressure created by irregularities in glucose digestion. Then again, retinol binding protein applies a tweaking impact, as it has adipokine capacities. As for the B complex Vitamins, pyridoxine, thiamin and biotin have been discovered diminished though the systems are not obvious, whereas using its supplements has demonstrated some betterment of the metabolic control in individuals suffering from diabetes. The assimilation of folate and Vitamin B12 is critically diminished by the prolonged utilization of metformin, which is the most used medicine in simple diabetes, subsequently these two supplements have been discovered insufficient in the ailment and most presumably should be administered consistently. Whereas, Vitamin D is viewed as a hazard for the improvement of diabetes just as its difficulties, especially those related to heart and blood vessels. Though a few examinations

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*Therapeutic Effect of Folate and Cobalamin in Diabetics DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96447*

**2.2 Cobalamin or B12 vitamin**

atherosclerosis [21].

know as "Cobalamins".

*2.2.1 Forms of vitamin B12*

• Hydroxocobalamin

• Methyl cobalamin

• Cyanocobalamin

*2.2.2 Functions of vitamin B12*

for the making of hemoglobin.

These compounds are listed as [26].

• 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin and Adenosyl cobalamin

delayed periods may require folate and Vitamin B12 [20].

have discovered a relationship of Vitamin K admission with sugar digestion which require more research. Research on the utilization of multivitamin supplements have indicated uncertain outcomes. The individuals utilizing metformin amid

Vitamin B12 is a non-protein ingredient in the single-carbon metabolic pathways, engaged with the making of methionine, pyrimidine and purine bases. Its deficiency due to DNA damage or faulty repair is involved in cancer, vascular diseases and some birth defects, while a consequent hyperhomocysteinemia, also related to folic acid deficiency; it has been recognized as a risk for hypertension and

The water-soluble vitamin is *Vitamin B12*. It is found within many foodstuffs as well as exists in nutritional medicines. It is present with many types as well as has mineral cobalt [22–25], thus compounds having vitamin B12 features may together

• It is essential of the suitable RBCs development, neurological role, and DNA synthesis. Vitamin B12 acts as a cofactor for methionine synthase and L-methyl malonyl-CoA mutase. Methionine synthase activates the alteration of homocysteine to methionine [26, 27]. Methionine is vital for the development of S-adenosylmethionine which is a general methyl donor for roughly 100 different substrates, including RNA, DNA, hormones, lipids and proteins. L-methyl malonyl-CoA mutase transforms L-methyl malonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA during destruction of propionate [22, 26, 27], which is an important biochemical reaction in metabolism of protein and fat. Succinyl-CoA is also necessary

• It is present within the protein of food and may be free through action of gastric protease and HCl during digestion. When artificial vitamin B12 is mixed in prepared meals and nutritional supplements, it is now in free form and, therefore, does not involve this detachment process. Free vitamin B12 joins with intrinsic factor which is a glycoprotein released by the gastric tube's parietal cells. The complex formed as a consequence experiences ingestion inside the distal ileum by the help of receptor-mediated endocytosis [26, 28].

• It can be in particular main component to keep strong nerve cells as well as this

assists for making of RNA and DNA hereditary matter of body [28].

have discovered a relationship of Vitamin K admission with sugar digestion which require more research. Research on the utilization of multivitamin supplements have indicated uncertain outcomes. The individuals utilizing metformin amid delayed periods may require folate and Vitamin B12 [20].


*4.2.3 Biological pest control*

*Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture*

pest population reaches or exceeds the specified economic threshold.

mechanisms for preventing and suppressing pest populations.

important role in pest management in organic farming [13].

*4.2.2 Mechanical and physical pest control*

*4.2.1 Cultural pest control*

**4.2 Tactics used for pest prevention and suppression in organic farming**

A successful integrated pest management (IPM) program in organic farming incorporates a variety of pest management tactics such as cultural, mechanical/ physical, biological, and biopesticide (allowed for organic use) tactics individually or in combination. Each control tactic, discussed below, employs a different set of

The goal of cultural control is to alter the environment, the condition of the host, or the behavior of the pest to prevent or suppress an infestation. It disrupts the normal relationship between the pest and the host and makes the pest less likely to survive, grow, or reproduce [13]. In agricultural crops, crop rotation, selection of crop plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting, irrigation management, crop rotation, and use of trap crops help reduce populations of weeds, microorganisms, insects, mites, and other pests. These cultural practices are more preventive than curative and thus may require planning in advance [13–15]. The diversified habitat provides these parasites and predators with alternative food sources, shelter, and breeding sites [16]. Tillage can cause destruction of the insect or its overwintering chamber, removal of the protective cover, elimination of food plants, and disruption of the insect life cycle generally killing many of the insects through direct contact, starvation or exposure to predators, and weather [13]. The use of trap strip crops can control insect damage at the field edges and at the same time avail refuge and food for beneficial insects. Insect resistance is an important component of pest and disease management. Quality-based resistance can be induced in plants through management of nutrients and irrigation. Intercropping and biodiversity play an

One of the simplest methods of physical or mechanical pest control is handpicking insects or hand-pulling weeds. This method works best in those situations where the pests are visible and easily accessible [17]. Physical or mechanical disruption of pests also includes such methods as mowing, hoeing, flaming, soil solarization, tilling or cultivation, and washing [17]. Animals such as kangaroos cause damage by eating yellow dates; hence, fruit bunches are covered to protect them from such damage [18]. Devices that can be used to exclude insect pests from reaching crops in organic farming include, but not limited to, row covers, protective nets with varying mesh

bodies. Unlike insect pests, plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, virus, and nematodes are difficult to identify in the field and may need laboratory diagnosis. However, signs of insect damage and symptoms of plant diseases may be easily distinguished in the field. Weeds could be easily identified using key and field guides. Monitoring is the regular inspection or scouting of field crops for pests, including insects, pathogens, nematodes, and weeds, to determine their abundance and level of damage. It serves as an early warning system for the presence of pests and diseases providing information for decision-making regarding management action and evaluation of control methods. Insect pests can be monitored through visual observation, pheromone and light traps, sticky traps, water traps, yellow traps, sweep nets, beating trays, and pitfall traps. Scouting data are used to develop economic thresholds, a useful decision-making tool to start control action when a

**140**

Biological methods are the use of beneficial organisms that can be used in the field to reduce insect pest populations. Biological control is grouped into three categories: importation or classical biological control, which introduces pest's natural enemies to the locations where they do not occur naturally, augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies, boosting the naturally occurring population, and conservation, which involves the conservation of existing natural enemies in the environment [19]. The role of beneficial species on pests is of relatively greater importance in organic agriculture than in conventional agriculture, because organic growers do not have recourse to highly potent insecticides (such as synthetic pyrethroids) with which to tackle major pest problems [13].