Processes such as heavy rains, seismic, changes in groundwater level, erosion, climate, weathering, and natural topography are the natural parameters that trigger landslides. These effects increase the shear stress or decrease the shear resistance of the slope material [11]. Another important parameter that triggers landslide is urban activities. Increasing population and creating new living spaces forced people to settle on the slopes that present geological danger. The realization of equipment uses such as installing, practice, the creation of safe areas, and the realization of stress structure activities brought on by the excavation developed on the slopes can disrupt stability and create human activities and explosions that trigger landslides. Especially in developing countries, the land in mountainous areas is not used in

accordance with the topology, and wrong land use increases the probability of landslide development. Sustainability cannot be achieved in terms of physical environment, change and efficiency of landslide risk areas in open pit mining sites, and

Important landslides developed in open pit coal mining of the country in recent years are determined based on ground conditions. The stability of working area was managed with different methods such as geotechnical characters and geological formations, precautionary measurements, and the processes determined.

Researchers have two basic theories for areas with similar geotechnical conditions [12–30]. Firstly, landslides are formed in the same geological, geomorphologic, hydrogeological, climatic conditions as in the past. Regarding the past phenomenon, the stability studies were carried out. Another is that the types and properties of landslides will be the same with other open pits. Therefore, knowing the mechanism and properties of past landslides is important basic information to evaluate landslides that may develop in the future, neighboring regions, or geotechnical similar areas. Geological and geotechnical analyzes of the slopes should be carried out in order to minimize the economic and social losses and casualties caused by landslides. In this direction, within the coal mining area of Şırnak Avgamasya and Silopi,

open pit mining was carrying high landslide or rock falling risk (**Figure 1a**).

The geotechnical properties of the slopes where landslides occur in the districts that are 0.2–0.4 km from the south of the city and the center are analyzed, and the stability analyses were carried out with different methods using the GEO5 program. Within the scope of this project, a 1/5.000 scale engineering geology map covering 0.07 km2 of the study area and its surroundings that will be opened to urban use has been prepared as a

in the construction of the municipal development plans in the future.

*(a and b) Satellite and contour topography of Avgamasya No.1 Pit Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area 1/18000 and 1/5000.*

result of field and laboratory studies, and a topographic map has been created for all four hills by using the polar coordinate system. The high risk of rock sliding or falling damaging the asphaltite coal production occurred at the local open mining site 1 in Avgamasya seen as shown in **Figure 1b**. Black area was coal extracting area.

#### **2. The coal geology in Avgamasya, Şırnak**

Due to its tectonic structure and stratigraphy in the Southeastern Anatolia region, besides having reservoir rock and cover rock properties required for hydrological conditions, the water going down to the depths of the ground along the stretch cracks in the region are in a position to provide the necessary fluid for open pit asphaltite mining [31]. The crust of the earth was subjected to a stretching in the east-west direction with the effect of compression in the north-south direction throughout the region, and olivine basaltic magma rose from the asthenosphere along the stretch cracks formed.

Basaltic magma, which reaches to the surface in the Karacadağ region between Diyarbakır-Şanlıurfa-Mardin, Gaziantep Yavuzeli region, and İdil-Cizre regions, flowed in several phases and left large areas under lava flows. Magma, which does not reach the earth, as in the north of Batman, created hot areas by making intrusions in several places. This situation in Şırnak is not clearly seen in the geological map of the region made by MTA General Directorate. The four lithostratigraphic units in the study area were distinguished from late period time age as Mardin

Vulcanite (Upper Miocene) [30], Old Alluvium (Quaternary), New Alluvium (Quaternary), and Slope Rubble (Quaternary). Consisting of vulcanite, tuff, agglomerate and andesitic basaltic lava, syenitic rocks, which make up a large part of the study area, it shows as much shale and porous rock formations and slopes as occurred in the studied area chosen.

In recent years, both the opening of our university in our city and the migration movement from rural to provinces have also affected the coal economy in Şırnak. Open pit mining excavation and asphaltite production increased in different excavated pits in the area. A total of 500,000 asphaltite excavation by Asphaltite open pit mining with 20 separate pits continued to increase rapidly in Şırnak. Equipment and safety demands have also increased due to excessive extraction. This increase in demand caused people who are not competent in excavating in open pit mining production to enter the hauling, the control mechanism of dumping ability, modeling slopes to control the intensive stability, and areas that are not included in the development plan that are rapidly foreseen to mining development and safety. A vast majority of the excavatings in the Avgamasya open pit No. 1, 2, 3, 4 were excavated without adequate ground research. In the asphaltite mining of Şırnak, there were generally adjacent open pits in Silopi, Uludere. It is believed that such new open pits in Şırnak have been developed due to the neighboring hard condition of rock cracks, rock fallings, landslides, and sometimes the existing collapsed pits (or structural damage caused by the rotation of the equipment) or hydrological ground problems. Finally, Şırnak Avgamasya No. 2 landslide caused 8 workers' death, closing the excavation work. For these reasons, the investigation of the new buildings to be built in our province and the ground conditions on the basis of regional and parcels of new areas to be developed has become essential [18, 19]. The unconditional expectations related to this study were also defined for this region such as the influence of the ground water, rock cracks and slope design, and explosion exchange dynamics leading to landslide. GEO5 software and manual stability analysis showed high risk area for plotting (**Figure 2**).

degree in Uludere Ortabağ districts. Cizre and Merkez were areas of 2 degree risk. The studies considered to take precautions for steep slopes avoid those as below:

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

• high slope type pits, excavating without basement control in real sense; and

• slope models designed without paying attention to hydrologic conditions and

Ground movements that may occur on a regional and/or 5–10 m basis have been observed in many irregular shale facing, high crack risk areas as seen in **Figure 4**.

*North and south steep slope faces of Avgamasya No. 1 pit of Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area.*

• steep slope structures over 60°;

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 4.**

**113**

• earthquake resistant hollow-type structures;

*North face of Avgamasya No. 1 pit Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area.*

ground conditions did not escape attention.

Another issue for the province of Şırnak is the causes of the damages that may occur in possible explosions and earthquake shock waves caused by human conditions which are due to the engineering errors as well as the lack of control mechanism and construction defects in the excavating process. Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No. 1 mining site is located in the 2nd degree earthquake zone and these shortcomings mentioned above are also seen in our city. As seen in **Figure 3**, the risk of slope stability risk in explosions and excavation near earthquake district of 1

**Figure 2.** *Avgamasya No. 1 pit Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area.*

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

**Figure 3.** *North face of Avgamasya No. 1 pit Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area.*

degree in Uludere Ortabağ districts. Cizre and Merkez were areas of 2 degree risk. The studies considered to take precautions for steep slopes avoid those as below:

• steep slope structures over 60°;

Vulcanite (Upper Miocene) [30], Old Alluvium (Quaternary), New Alluvium (Quaternary), and Slope Rubble (Quaternary). Consisting of vulcanite, tuff, agglomerate and andesitic basaltic lava, syenitic rocks, which make up a large part of the study area, it shows as much shale and porous rock formations and slopes as

stability analysis showed high risk area for plotting (**Figure 2**).

*Avgamasya No. 1 pit Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area.*

Another issue for the province of Şırnak is the causes of the damages that may occur in possible explosions and earthquake shock waves caused by human conditions which are due to the engineering errors as well as the lack of control mechanism and construction defects in the excavating process. Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No. 1 mining site is located in the 2nd degree earthquake zone and these shortcomings mentioned above are also seen in our city. As seen in **Figure 3**, the risk of slope stability risk in explosions and excavation near earthquake district of 1

In recent years, both the opening of our university in our city and the migration movement from rural to provinces have also affected the coal economy in Şırnak. Open pit mining excavation and asphaltite production increased in different excavated pits in the area. A total of 500,000 asphaltite excavation by Asphaltite open pit mining with 20 separate pits continued to increase rapidly in Şırnak. Equipment and safety demands have also increased due to excessive extraction. This increase in demand caused people who are not competent in excavating in open pit mining production to enter the hauling, the control mechanism of dumping ability, modeling slopes to control the intensive stability, and areas that are not included in the development plan that are rapidly foreseen to mining development and safety. A vast majority of the excavatings in the Avgamasya open pit No. 1, 2, 3, 4 were excavated without adequate ground research. In the asphaltite mining of Şırnak, there were generally adjacent open pits in Silopi, Uludere. It is believed that such new open pits in Şırnak have been developed due to the neighboring hard condition of rock cracks, rock fallings, landslides, and sometimes the existing collapsed pits (or structural damage caused by the rotation of the equipment) or hydrological ground problems. Finally, Şırnak Avgamasya No. 2 landslide caused 8 workers' death, closing the excavation work. For these reasons, the investigation of the new buildings to be built in our province and the ground conditions on the basis of regional and parcels of new areas to be developed has become essential [18, 19]. The unconditional expectations related to this study were also defined for this region such as the influence of the ground water, rock cracks and slope design, and explosion exchange dynamics leading to landslide. GEO5 software and manual

occurred in the studied area chosen.

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

**Figure 2.**

**112**

Ground movements that may occur on a regional and/or 5–10 m basis have been observed in many irregular shale facing, high crack risk areas as seen in **Figure 4**.

**Figure 4.** *North and south steep slope faces of Avgamasya No. 1 pit of Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area.*

#### **3. Geotechnical properties of slopes and modeling**

#### **3.1 Field studies**

It is observed that the city center of Şırnak is located on a topography inclined to the south. Formations generally are composed of claystone and siltstone in the field.

It was observed and it is known that the center of Sirnak province is in Germav Formation. Germav Formation causes rapid formation of landslides as it forms a high slope topography by rapidly eroding due to its wear resistance. Therefore, in summary, Şırnak city center is located on the anchored Germav Formation, which is a mixture of sandy, carbonated, clayey, and silty units due to old landslides. Slope debris extends from the south of the stream (**Figure 2**) to the boundary of the working area. It has been determined with the field observations that the slope debris is composed of myocene limestones. Their thickness is extremely variable. They outcrop relatively less in areas where slope inclination decreases.

The surface of new alluvial deposits starting from city center to the south of Avgamasya open pit 1 (**Figure 3**) in the study area is gray marl shale. This part is generally covered with silty soil, and some parts of it consist of sandy and clayey zones. It has been determined that the new alluvium continues in the drilling up to 35 m by the Special Provincial Administration [32]. Slope Rubble is located south of the Stream in the study area.

Grain sizes range from fine clay to coarse sand. The thickness of the rubble, which does not show any grading and grading, varies between 10 and 35 cm. The active and potential landslide areas observed in the slope debris have been studied in detail.

#### **3.2 Geotechnical properties**

American Standards (ASTM 3080) were taken as a basis in the experiments carried out to determine the geotechnical properties of the surfaces surfaced in landslide risk areas. In the landslide risk areas of the study, undisturbed and lump rock samples were taken from the ground parts of the slope face. In experiments on the lines shown in **Figure 5**, the slope unit weight in wedge style and circle shape were considered in analysis with manual and GEO5 software and safety consistency limits were obtained.

The slope model construction plan is shown in **Figure 6**. The anchorage improved stability safety factors for steep sliding slopes in 20 m height excessive to 30 m. Wire mesh hanged top of slopes were avoiding rock falling of highly cracked shale block stones at 3–5 m size. The pile anchorage was designed and practiced for

hauling road slopes control and stability at the constructed near deep of slopes

*North and south steep slope faces of Avgamasya No. 1 pit of Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area*

*North and south steep slope faces of Avgamasya No. 1 pit of Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area*

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

The uniaxial compressive test point load tests, RQD values, and Mohr-Coulomb criteria diagrammed were determined regarding ASTM standards; effective cohesion (c') and effective shear resistance friction angle (ϕ°)' of the rock samples were given in **Tables 1** and **2** on the standard rock samples of 50 mm cubic forms with the help

Undisturbed rock samples used in the point load experiment were classified according to ASTM standards and determined as cracked, altered ground. Rock samples show nonplastic character and there are also coarse-sized gravel.

In addition, during the making of these experiments, the unit volume weight,

The results obtained in plastic and liquid limit tests are given in **Table 1** for each sample. According to the ground classification in North district, the slope samples in the landslide N1 are in the less plastic shale and not plastic group, whereas in the region containing the landslide hazard N2 and N3, it is determined that there is less

the amount of compression, and the void ratio were determined.

bottom line as shown in **Figure 7**.

*with anchorage pile pattern.*

of ELE press equipment [23–25].

plastic.

**115**

**Figure 7.**

**Figure 6.**

*with anchorage pattern.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

#### **Figure 5.**

*North and south steep slope faces of Avgamasya No. 1 pit of Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area with anchorage pattern.*

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

**Figure 6.**

**3. Geotechnical properties of slopes and modeling**

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

It is observed that the city center of Şırnak is located on a topography inclined to the south. Formations generally are composed of claystone and siltstone in the field. It was observed and it is known that the center of Sirnak province is in Germav Formation. Germav Formation causes rapid formation of landslides as it forms a high slope topography by rapidly eroding due to its wear resistance. Therefore, in summary, Şırnak city center is located on the anchored Germav Formation, which is a mixture of sandy, carbonated, clayey, and silty units due to old landslides. Slope debris extends from the south of the stream (**Figure 2**) to the boundary of the working area. It has been determined with the field observations that the slope debris is composed of myocene limestones. Their thickness is extremely variable.

They outcrop relatively less in areas where slope inclination decreases.

The surface of new alluvial deposits starting from city center to the south of Avgamasya open pit 1 (**Figure 3**) in the study area is gray marl shale. This part is generally covered with silty soil, and some parts of it consist of sandy and clayey zones. It has been determined that the new alluvium continues in the drilling up to 35 m by the Special Provincial Administration [32]. Slope Rubble is located south of

Grain sizes range from fine clay to coarse sand. The thickness of the rubble, which does not show any grading and grading, varies between 10 and 35 cm. The active and potential landslide areas observed in the slope debris have been studied

American Standards (ASTM 3080) were taken as a basis in the experiments carried out to determine the geotechnical properties of the surfaces surfaced in landslide risk areas. In the landslide risk areas of the study, undisturbed and lump rock samples were taken from the ground parts of the slope face. In experiments on the lines shown in **Figure 5**, the slope unit weight in wedge style and circle shape were considered in analysis with manual and GEO5 software and safety consistency

The slope model construction plan is shown in **Figure 6**. The anchorage improved stability safety factors for steep sliding slopes in 20 m height excessive to 30 m. Wire mesh hanged top of slopes were avoiding rock falling of highly cracked shale block stones at 3–5 m size. The pile anchorage was designed and practiced for

*North and south steep slope faces of Avgamasya No. 1 pit of Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area*

**3.1 Field studies**

the Stream in the study area.

**3.2 Geotechnical properties**

limits were obtained.

in detail.

**Figure 5.**

**114**

*with anchorage pattern.*

*North and south steep slope faces of Avgamasya No. 1 pit of Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area with anchorage pattern.*

#### **Figure 7.**

*North and south steep slope faces of Avgamasya No. 1 pit of Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area with anchorage pile pattern.*

hauling road slopes control and stability at the constructed near deep of slopes bottom line as shown in **Figure 7**.

The uniaxial compressive test point load tests, RQD values, and Mohr-Coulomb criteria diagrammed were determined regarding ASTM standards; effective cohesion (c') and effective shear resistance friction angle (ϕ°)' of the rock samples were given in **Tables 1** and **2** on the standard rock samples of 50 mm cubic forms with the help of ELE press equipment [23–25].

Undisturbed rock samples used in the point load experiment were classified according to ASTM standards and determined as cracked, altered ground. Rock samples show nonplastic character and there are also coarse-sized gravel.

In addition, during the making of these experiments, the unit volume weight, the amount of compression, and the void ratio were determined.

The results obtained in plastic and liquid limit tests are given in **Table 1** for each sample. According to the ground classification in North district, the slope samples in the landslide N1 are in the less plastic shale and not plastic group, whereas in the region containing the landslide hazard N2 and N3, it is determined that there is less plastic.

recompression parameters. In this case, parameters of the compacted soil can be

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

In order to determine the slip resistance parameters of samples taken from different points of four separate slopes, a cutting box experiment was carried out. After the experiments, c<sup>0</sup> and ϕ<sup>0</sup> values were found. The stability analyses were carried out by the model constructed and practiced in the field as shown in

The manual weight chart method was so efficient and useful in slide pattern analysis in the area as shown in **Figure 9**. The sliding surface is circular half cylindrical. The sliding mass is divided into slices as equally as possible [33]. The safety coefficient values of the landslides were calculated according to

**Fellenius method**: if the forces between slices are considered to be in the same direction but opposite and equal to each other, they are not taken into account in the analysis. In the back, only the slice weight, ground reaction, cohesion, friction resistance, and leakage forces, if any, are in balance, without drainage on partially

The rupture envelope, which is determined by the strength's test under conditions, does not parallel the normal tension axis after a point, and the ground behaves both cohesively and internally. Total tension analysis method can be applied to cover this condition and to analyze stability by sliding mass divided into a certain number of vertical slices [12, 35–37]. **Bishop method**: in this method, as in all

*North and south steep slope faces of Avgamasya No.1 pit of Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area*

*with anchorage pile pattern and PE melting paste filling to cracks.*

used in stability analysis.

Fellenius, Bishop, and Jambu [1, 34].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

**Figures 8** and **9**.

water-saturated floors.

**Figure 8.**

**117**

**Table 1.**

*Results from geotechnical tests on samples taken from landslide slopes.*

**Table 2.**

*Proctor of ground samples and permeability test results.*

The results obtained from the geotechnical tests carried out on the samples taken from the slopes forming the landslide threat are given in **Tables 1** and **2**.

#### **4. Results and discussions**

The water content on the ground will be significantly affected by the clay content. When evaluated according to the percentage of clay in the floor, the floor samples show a non-cohesion or low cohesion feature.

The grain volume weights obtained by the experiments done on the samples taken from the landslide sites are shown in **Table 1**. In order to determine the soil types according to the grain size, grain distribution experiment has been carried out and the results and names in the combined soil classification are given in **Table 1**.

In order to determine the permeability of the ground, a fixed level permeability test instrument was used. The degree of permeability of the ground was determined by evaluating the results of the experiment (**Table 2**). When **Table 2** is examined, it is seen that the slopes S1, S2, and S3 fall under the permeable ground class.

The γ<sup>k</sup> and wopt values obtained as a result of Proctor experiments on soil samples taken from landslide areas are given in **Table 2**. With this experiment, optimum water content on the ground and maximum dry unit volume weight are determined and used for stability calculations of the slopes. Compaction parameters do not affect the stability of a natural slope, because these parameters are the parameters of the ground compacted in the desired way. In artificial slopes, compression parameters are used directly. If there is a landslide danger in a natural slope, in case of compression, the stabilization analyses are compared using these parameters. In the precautions to be taken against landslide danger, compacted filling can be made in front of the slope or bench slope can be made in the slope. At the same time, the natural ground is dug up and compacted according to the

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

recompression parameters. In this case, parameters of the compacted soil can be used in stability analysis.

In order to determine the slip resistance parameters of samples taken from different points of four separate slopes, a cutting box experiment was carried out. After the experiments, c<sup>0</sup> and ϕ<sup>0</sup> values were found. The stability analyses were carried out by the model constructed and practiced in the field as shown in **Figures 8** and **9**.

The manual weight chart method was so efficient and useful in slide pattern analysis in the area as shown in **Figure 9**. The sliding surface is circular half cylindrical. The sliding mass is divided into slices as equally as possible [33].

The safety coefficient values of the landslides were calculated according to Fellenius, Bishop, and Jambu [1, 34].

**Fellenius method**: if the forces between slices are considered to be in the same direction but opposite and equal to each other, they are not taken into account in the analysis. In the back, only the slice weight, ground reaction, cohesion, friction resistance, and leakage forces, if any, are in balance, without drainage on partially water-saturated floors.

The rupture envelope, which is determined by the strength's test under conditions, does not parallel the normal tension axis after a point, and the ground behaves both cohesively and internally. Total tension analysis method can be applied to cover this condition and to analyze stability by sliding mass divided into a certain number of vertical slices [12, 35–37]. **Bishop method**: in this method, as in all

#### **Figure 8.**

*North and south steep slope faces of Avgamasya No.1 pit of Şırnak asphaltite coal mine site and survey area with anchorage pile pattern and PE melting paste filling to cracks.*

The results obtained from the geotechnical tests carried out on the samples taken

The water content on the ground will be significantly affected by the clay content. When evaluated according to the percentage of clay in the floor, the floor

The grain volume weights obtained by the experiments done on the samples taken from the landslide sites are shown in **Table 1**. In order to determine the soil types according to the grain size, grain distribution experiment has been carried out and the results and names in the combined soil classification are given in **Table 1**. In order to determine the permeability of the ground, a fixed level permeability test instrument was used. The degree of permeability of the ground was determined by evaluating the results of the experiment (**Table 2**). When **Table 2** is examined, it

is seen that the slopes S1, S2, and S3 fall under the permeable ground class. The γ<sup>k</sup> and wopt values obtained as a result of Proctor experiments on soil samples taken from landslide areas are given in **Table 2**. With this experiment, optimum water content on the ground and maximum dry unit volume weight are determined and used for stability calculations of the slopes. Compaction parameters do not affect the stability of a natural slope, because these parameters are the parameters of the ground compacted in the desired way. In artificial slopes, compression parameters are used directly. If there is a landslide danger in a natural slope, in case of compression, the stabilization analyses are compared using these parameters. In the precautions to be taken against landslide danger, compacted filling can be made in front of the slope or bench slope can be made in the slope. At the same time, the natural ground is dug up and compacted according to the

from the slopes forming the landslide threat are given in **Tables 1** and **2**.

samples show a non-cohesion or low cohesion feature.

**4. Results and discussions**

*Proctor of ground samples and permeability test results.*

**Rock formations**

**Table 1.**

**Table 2.**

**116**

γsat max (g/cm<sup>3</sup>

**Thickness (m)**

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

**RQD (%)**

*Results from geotechnical tests on samples taken from landslide slopes.*

**c**0 **(kPa)** **φ**<sup>0</sup> **Pı (MPa)**

S1 25 25.9 3700 22 22.0 1.4 22 2.92 2.58 S2 74 42.9 3300 28 15.0 1.8 13 2.92 2.57 S3 25 40.8 2300 32 26.0 1.7 14 2.9 2.62 N1 47 25.9 2700 18 38.0 1.0 25 2.92 2.61 N2 55 35.4 4700 17 33.0 2.3 12 2.8 2.68 N3 46 33.9 4100 14 36.0 2.2 12 2.8 2.68

**Rock no S1 S2 S3 N1 N2 N3**

wopt (%) 15.9 11.9 11.0 12.3 3.8 3,3 Permeability (k) (cm/s) 5.3\*10–4 3.0\*10–5 6\*10–5 1.3\*10–4 3.3\*10–6 5.2\*10–6

) 2.98 2.75 2.77 2.98 2.75 2,77

**Iı (MPa; 50 mm)**

**Shear strength (mm/s)**

**γsat n (g/cm3 )**

**γdry (g/cm3 )**

sliding surfaces are more than those in the laboratories. It will be small, in other words, it will be closer to permanent values. In this respect, the value of 1.35 was

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

According to the combined ground classification (USCS) located on the skirts of Şirnak Avgamasya open pit No.1 ground, movements in the area S1 consisting of shale group stones continued as high erosion creep with steep slope. Tectonic events occurring in the region have also triggered movements and continued to this day.

The discontinuous cracks were studied by cable extensometers weighted and observed as cm changes by daily periods in the control work. The slopes where landslide risk S1 is covered with pile anchorage and mesh slope stabilization by melted waste PE pressed (**Figures 8** and **10**). The maximum elevation difference between the top and heel point of the landslide S1 is 72 m, the maximum height of

In the observations made on this slope during the field studies, it was observed that it took the material that occurred in the stream and that small breaks and flows occurred after the precipitation. The geological map and landslide cross section and

Mineralogical compositions of the samples were determined by means of stan-

Prior to the preparation of the melting mixture by fly ash, micropictures showed the macropores in which melted PE penetrates into the pores and makes the pores stick easily to stabilize cracks as shown under the microscope pictures (**Figure 11**). Şirnak limestone, Midyat limestone, Şirnak marl, and marly shale were sized at 50–70 mm cubic blocks. The blocks were compressed with ELE press under 30 kN compression The blocks were crushed in test. The test results were given in

*Sliding shale landslide risk cross section with slope topography of Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No.1 mining,*

dard chemical Ca, Mg, and silica analyzes. The samples were first brought to dimensions between 40 mm and 10 mm in jaw crusher and were homogenized by milling to 0.1 mm. Powder samples are thawed and burned with HF in platinum crucible for silica content. Chemical composition of the rocks provided in the vicinity of Şirnak province in the experiments is given in **Table 3**. The amount of

**4.2 Slope S1 landslide risk analysis in Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No.1**

Nowadays, there are small-sized movements on the slope after the rains.

the surfaces where the calculations are made are given in **Figure 10**.

**4.3 Rock tests and crack stabilization by melted waste PE**

silica in the marly and marly limestone was reduced.

**Figure 10.**

**119**

*models for stability analysis.*

the slope is 80 m, and the slope angle of the slope is 58°.

taken as the limit security coefficient.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

**Figure 9.**

*Sliding shale areas contour topography of Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No.1 mining area and survey area 1/5000.*

stability problems, the initial shift is taken as post-equilibrium equations are taken out as if the slope is in the limit equilibrium. Bishop performed analysis with effective stresses instead of total stress. This method is more advanced than the methods brought by Taylor and Fellenius [28, 29]. **Janbu method**: this method can be used for all types of sliding surfaces, whether circular or not. In the slope stability analysis, it is a method that takes into account the inter-slice forces for the stability analysis of the more general types of noncircular shifts with the circular shifts occurring in the homogeneous split and fillings [38].

If the properties of the ground, very weak rock mass or rust material in any slope vary frequently throughout the slope, also the applicability of circular shear analysis methods disappears due to a structural feature such as ground-rock touch or in the presence of low shear strength planar levels in the mass [12, 13, 36, 37]. Shifts under such conditions: it develops along surfaces that start circularly in noncircular or near slope-top areas and continue in planar depths [14–17]. It is a method used to examine the stability of slopes, where instabilities develop or may develop along such sliding surfaces.

#### **4.1 Model slopes and landslide analysis**

In order to evaluate geological and landslide data, 1/1000 scale topographic maps of the slopes were prepared by field studies. Polar coordinate system was used in map production and Topcon GTS 702 electronic device was used. The heights are given according to the triangulation point on the 1200 m high hill. Topographic maps prepared for 4 slopes in the study area are given in **Figure 1**. In these 4 slopes, active and potential areas in terms of stability have been distinguished as a result of the surface studies on landslide.

According to the studies conducted, the regions where landslide is developed and the areas where relative movements are observed have been determined as active landslide area. Relative movements are determined by using the stress cracks on the surface. Potential landslide areas, on the other hand, correspond to areas where there are stress cracks around these active sites, but relative movements are not currently observed. In the study area, geological sections were prepared by marking the geological outcrops on topographic sections taken from 4 different slopes.

The safety coefficients of the slopes have been used with Bishop, Janbu, and Fellenius methods and circular slip diagrams GEO5 program for different slip surfaces [39, 40]. It is taken as 1.3 in ASTM standard in the limitations of safety coefficients. In laboratory experiments, c<sup>0</sup> and φ<sup>0</sup> were found according to the effective and maximum resistance parameters. It is known that movements occur in the stretch cracks in the field over time. In this case, the internal parameters on the

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

sliding surfaces are more than those in the laboratories. It will be small, in other words, it will be closer to permanent values. In this respect, the value of 1.35 was taken as the limit security coefficient.

#### **4.2 Slope S1 landslide risk analysis in Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No.1**

According to the combined ground classification (USCS) located on the skirts of Şirnak Avgamasya open pit No.1 ground, movements in the area S1 consisting of shale group stones continued as high erosion creep with steep slope. Tectonic events occurring in the region have also triggered movements and continued to this day. Nowadays, there are small-sized movements on the slope after the rains.

The discontinuous cracks were studied by cable extensometers weighted and observed as cm changes by daily periods in the control work. The slopes where landslide risk S1 is covered with pile anchorage and mesh slope stabilization by melted waste PE pressed (**Figures 8** and **10**). The maximum elevation difference between the top and heel point of the landslide S1 is 72 m, the maximum height of the slope is 80 m, and the slope angle of the slope is 58°.

In the observations made on this slope during the field studies, it was observed that it took the material that occurred in the stream and that small breaks and flows occurred after the precipitation. The geological map and landslide cross section and the surfaces where the calculations are made are given in **Figure 10**.

#### **4.3 Rock tests and crack stabilization by melted waste PE**

Mineralogical compositions of the samples were determined by means of standard chemical Ca, Mg, and silica analyzes. The samples were first brought to dimensions between 40 mm and 10 mm in jaw crusher and were homogenized by milling to 0.1 mm. Powder samples are thawed and burned with HF in platinum crucible for silica content. Chemical composition of the rocks provided in the vicinity of Şirnak province in the experiments is given in **Table 3**. The amount of silica in the marly and marly limestone was reduced.

Prior to the preparation of the melting mixture by fly ash, micropictures showed the macropores in which melted PE penetrates into the pores and makes the pores stick easily to stabilize cracks as shown under the microscope pictures (**Figure 11**).

Şirnak limestone, Midyat limestone, Şirnak marl, and marly shale were sized at 50–70 mm cubic blocks. The blocks were compressed with ELE press under 30 kN compression The blocks were crushed in test. The test results were given in

#### **Figure 10.**

*Sliding shale landslide risk cross section with slope topography of Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No.1 mining, models for stability analysis.*

stability problems, the initial shift is taken as post-equilibrium equations are taken out as if the slope is in the limit equilibrium. Bishop performed analysis with effective stresses instead of total stress. This method is more advanced than the methods brought by Taylor and Fellenius [28, 29]. **Janbu method**: this method can be used for all types of sliding surfaces, whether circular or not. In the slope stability analysis, it is a method that takes into account the inter-slice forces for the stability analysis of the more general types of noncircular shifts with the circular shifts

*Sliding shale areas contour topography of Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No.1 mining area and survey area*

If the properties of the ground, very weak rock mass or rust material in any slope vary frequently throughout the slope, also the applicability of circular shear analysis methods disappears due to a structural feature such as ground-rock touch or in the presence of low shear strength planar levels in the mass [12, 13, 36, 37]. Shifts under such conditions: it develops along surfaces that start circularly in noncircular or near slope-top areas and continue in planar depths [14–17]. It is a method used to examine the stability of slopes, where instabilities develop or may develop along

In order to evaluate geological and landslide data, 1/1000 scale topographic maps of the slopes were prepared by field studies. Polar coordinate system was used in map production and Topcon GTS 702 electronic device was used. The heights are given according to the triangulation point on the 1200 m high hill. Topographic maps prepared for 4 slopes in the study area are given in **Figure 1**. In these 4 slopes, active and potential areas in terms of stability have been distinguished as a result of

According to the studies conducted, the regions where landslide is developed and the areas where relative movements are observed have been determined as active landslide area. Relative movements are determined by using the stress cracks on the surface. Potential landslide areas, on the other hand, correspond to areas where there are stress cracks around these active sites, but relative movements are not currently observed. In the study area, geological sections were prepared by marking the geological outcrops on topographic sections taken from 4 different

The safety coefficients of the slopes have been used with Bishop, Janbu, and Fellenius methods and circular slip diagrams GEO5 program for different slip surfaces [39, 40]. It is taken as 1.3 in ASTM standard in the limitations of safety coefficients. In laboratory experiments, c<sup>0</sup> and φ<sup>0</sup> were found according to the effective and maximum resistance parameters. It is known that movements occur in the stretch cracks in the field over time. In this case, the internal parameters on the

occurring in the homogeneous split and fillings [38].

**4.1 Model slopes and landslide analysis**

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

the surface studies on landslide.

slopes.

**118**

such sliding surfaces.

**Figure 9.**

*1/5000.*

#### **Table 3.**

*The chemical analysis of rock specimens of Şırnak asphaltite Avgamasya open pit mine No.1 site limestone, marly shale, and shale.*

**Figure 11.** *(a) Shale, (b) marly shale, (c) Şırnak porous limestone, and (d) the Şırnak-altered porous limestone.*

#### **Figures 12** and **13** within the limit indentation pattern values charted, as given in **Table 3** (**Figures 14**–**16**).

The rock samples have also increased the 13.6% of the pore contained in bulk pile as 25 mm fraction showed a pore rate as lower at 9.2%. The results were shown in **Figure 1**. **Figure 1** also proved that the melted interaction of 20 min is sufficient. Hence, the dissolution process reached the PE and ash saturation of the emulsified PE solution by waste machine oil. The pores in the limestone sample reached 13.6%

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

(**Table 4**).

**121**

**Figure 13.**

**Figure 12.**

*Compression strength change of the Şırnak aggregates.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

*Point load strength change of the Şırnak aggregates.*

#### **4.4 Point loading and compressive strength tests of rocks**

The test samples were produced as 5 5 5 cm blocks and 10 samples were determined to be with 95% accuracy rate by prestigious ELE brand test equipment. The results are shown in **Figures 6** and **7**.

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

**Figure 12.** *Compression strength change of the Şırnak aggregates.*

**Figure 13.** *Point load strength change of the Şırnak aggregates.*

The rock samples have also increased the 13.6% of the pore contained in bulk pile as 25 mm fraction showed a pore rate as lower at 9.2%. The results were shown in **Figure 1**. **Figure 1** also proved that the melted interaction of 20 min is sufficient. Hence, the dissolution process reached the PE and ash saturation of the emulsified PE solution by waste machine oil. The pores in the limestone sample reached 13.6% (**Table 4**).

**Figures 12** and **13** within the limit indentation pattern values charted, as given in

*(a) Shale, (b) marly shale, (c) Şırnak porous limestone, and (d) the Şırnak-altered porous limestone.*

**%Component Sırnak marly shale stone Şırnak Marl Şırnak porous limestone Şırnak shale** SiO2 9.42 24.14 2.12 48.53 Al2O3 6.53 12.61 1.71 24.61 Fe2O3 4.48 7.34 0.58 7.59 CaO 39.23 29.18 45.22 9.48 MgO 2.28 4.68 7.41 3.28 K2O 0.53 3.32 0.40 2.51 Na2O 0.24 1.11 0.21 0.35 Ignition loss 26.11 21.43 48.04 3.09 SO3 0.21 0.20 0.02 0.32

*The chemical analysis of rock specimens of Şırnak asphaltite Avgamasya open pit mine No.1 site limestone,*

The test samples were produced as 5 5 5 cm blocks and 10 samples were determined to be with 95% accuracy rate by prestigious ELE brand test equipment.

**4.4 Point loading and compressive strength tests of rocks**

**Table 3** (**Figures 14**–**16**).

**Figure 11.**

**120**

**Table 3.**

*marly shale, and shale.*

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

The results are shown in **Figures 6** and **7**.

#### **Figure 14.**

*Histogram view of impact, abrasion resistance: 1. Sırnak porous limestone; 2. Sırnak marl; 3. Şırnak marly shale; 4. Midyat limestone; 5. Şırnak porous limestone; and 6. Şırnak marl.*

microporous structure of 13.4–14.8% silica in Sırnak marly limestone and as 5–30 micron microporous. The degree of chemical interaction in marinated limestone and marl was not sufficient due to the silica content and the microcrystalline pore

*Chemical composition of binder fillers for crack stabilization in the Şırnak asphaltite Avgamasya open pit*

**%Component Shale powder Asphaltite slime Tatvan pumice Şırnak fly ash** SiO2 43.48 50.50 60.13 41.48 Al2O3 16.10 14.61 17.22 18.10 Fe2O3 10.52 24.30 4.59 4.52 CaO 8.48 2.30 2.48 18.48 MgO 3.80 1.28 2.17 4.20 K2O 2.51 2.51 3.51 2.71 Na2O 1.35 1.35 4.35 1.95 Ign.loss. 10.9 0.21 4.12 1.9 SO3 0.32 0.12 0.52 0.22

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

*Open pit mine No.2: excavations for steep slopes—asphaltite excavation.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

According to the information obtained from the drillings carried out by the Special Provincial Administration, the depth of the slope varies 11–20 m. In the investigations, the groundwater level on the slope where the landslide no S1 is located was observed at a base of 25 m. In the stability calculations made on the

separately according to "saturated" rock were shown in **Table 6**. According to Hoek-Bray [32], the safety coefficient value is determined as 1.25. When **Table 7** is

. Safety coefficient values of possible sliding surfaces calculated

, φ<sup>0</sup> = 22°, γnatural = 2.97 g/cm<sup>3</sup>

,

structure.

**Table 4.**

**Figure 16.**

*mine No.1.*

and γdry = 2.7 g/cm<sup>3</sup>

**123**

**4.5 Stability risk survey for S1 slope**

slope where landslide S1 developed, c<sup>0</sup> = 190 kg/cm<sup>2</sup>

**Figure 15.** *Chart pattern for Workers in open pit mine excavations for S1 slope. Excavation was completed till 43° slope obtained for overburden.*

Porous limestone texture, chemical interaction result, and petrographic changes are seen in **Figure 2**. It was determined that the amount of silicate of 2.3 and 4% of Şirnak altered limestone was changed and the pore size was as micro mesh with a size of 1–3 mm macro 50–300 micron. This pore amount is in microcrystalline

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

**Figure 16.**

*Open pit mine No.2: excavations for steep slopes—asphaltite excavation.*

#### **Table 4.**

*Chemical composition of binder fillers for crack stabilization in the Şırnak asphaltite Avgamasya open pit mine No.1.*

microporous structure of 13.4–14.8% silica in Sırnak marly limestone and as 5–30 micron microporous. The degree of chemical interaction in marinated limestone and marl was not sufficient due to the silica content and the microcrystalline pore structure.

#### **4.5 Stability risk survey for S1 slope**

According to the information obtained from the drillings carried out by the Special Provincial Administration, the depth of the slope varies 11–20 m. In the investigations, the groundwater level on the slope where the landslide no S1 is located was observed at a base of 25 m. In the stability calculations made on the slope where landslide S1 developed, c<sup>0</sup> = 190 kg/cm<sup>2</sup> , φ<sup>0</sup> = 22°, γnatural = 2.97 g/cm<sup>3</sup> , and γdry = 2.7 g/cm<sup>3</sup> . Safety coefficient values of possible sliding surfaces calculated separately according to "saturated" rock were shown in **Table 6**. According to Hoek-Bray [32], the safety coefficient value is determined as 1.25. When **Table 7** is

Porous limestone texture, chemical interaction result, and petrographic changes are seen in **Figure 2**. It was determined that the amount of silicate of 2.3 and 4% of Şirnak altered limestone was changed and the pore size was as micro mesh with a size of 1–3 mm macro 50–300 micron. This pore amount is in microcrystalline

*Chart pattern for Workers in open pit mine excavations for S1 slope. Excavation was completed till 43° slope*

*Histogram view of impact, abrasion resistance: 1. Sırnak porous limestone; 2. Sırnak marl; 3. Şırnak marly*

*shale; 4. Midyat limestone; 5. Şırnak porous limestone; and 6. Şırnak marl.*

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

**Figure 14.**

**Figure 15.**

**122**

*obtained for overburden.*

examined, since the boundary safety coefficient is taken as 1.25, it can be easily seen that the sliding slopes S1 and S2 were unstable. It is seen that the sliding surfaces 3 and 4 are very close to the limit value when it is made according to "saturated" rock and it is unstable when it is examined according to "natural."

the fracture distribution percentage and angle of the slope angle in the formation,

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

The fracture or discontinuity angle t frequency% in the 20 m sliding on slope

R*i*Fi tan θ ¼

**Compacted binder 1. Sample 2. Sample 3. Sample 4. Sample Average sample**

 205,6 205,6 209,60 203,5 204,55 284,5 284,5 288,4 296,5 289,80 15% fly ash 182,99 205,6 188,81 198,39 196,1 194,43 284,5 304,84 319,7 301,75 308,76 20% fly ash 203,61 205,6 251,17 253,9 257,56 254,21 284,5 360,79 369,2 360,73 363,57 25% fly ash 205,50 205,6 300,24 220,92 241,46 254,21 284,5 355,13 356,99 359,21 357,11 30% fly ash 281,89 205,6 323,66 316,99 313,72 318,12 284,5 381,17 377,42 371,8 376,80

**Site F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 SF** S1 1210 2150 3270 4180 5460 6210 5740 4130 3550 2230 1.1 S2 1320 2280 3330 4270 5640 6540 5730 4580 3840 2470 1.2 S3 1110 2010 3110 4080 5200 6030 5530 3970 3110 1940 1.3 N1 1200 2100 3200 4100 5400 6200 5700 4100 3500 2200 1.2 N2 1200 2100 3200 4100 5400 6200 5700 4100 3500 2200 1.25 N3 1200 2100 3200 4100 5400 6200 5700 4100 3500 2200 1.3

*Sliding shale landslide risk cross section with slope topography of Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No.1 mining.*

�*tiθ*

ð*b a e* �*tiθ*

*dx* were calculated as given in

*dy<sup>i</sup>* (3)

**)**

*dy* (4)

which has a high probability of slide.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

below equations and in **Tables 5**–**7**

5% fly ash

**Table 5.**

**Table 6.**

**125**

*Şırnak limestone aggregate sieve analysis results aggregate type.*

*5 m unit saturated weight charts kN.*

direction and the variable position in the design card *dy*

<sup>R</sup>*<sup>c</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>X</sup> i

0

**Curing time (min) Uniaxial compressive strength (kg/cm2**

*dy dx* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>e</sup>*

According to the slope-clay floor combined ground classification (USCS) located in the upper skirts of the south district, the SW-SC group consists of plastic floors. Tectonic events occurring in the region have also triggered movements and continued to this day. Today, it has been observed in the field studies that there are small size movements on the slope after the rains. The slope where landslide risk S1 was developed was covered with color black showed the instability (**Figure 11**). The maximum elevation difference between the top and heel point of the landslide S1 is 75 m, the maximum height of the slope is 110 m, and the slope angle of the slope is 48°.

According to the information obtained from the drillings carried out by the Mining Bureau of Şirnak Administration Authority, the thickness of the slope varies between 11 and 20 m. In the investigations, underground water level was observed on the slope where the landslide number. In the stability calculations on the slope where the landslide S1 is developed, c<sup>0</sup> = 199 kg/ cm<sup>2</sup> , φ <sup>0</sup> = 22°, γsat = 2.97 g/ cm<sup>3</sup> , and γdry = 2.77 g/cm<sup>3</sup> were used. Safety coefficient values of possible sliding surfaces calculated separately according to "saturated" rocks were shown in **Table 6**. According to Hoek-Bray, the safety coefficient value is determined as 1.25. When **Tables 6** and **7** were examined and analyzed, since the boundary safety coefficient was taken as 1.25, it could be easily seen that the sliding surfaces 1 and 2 are unstable. It was seen that the sliding surfaces S3 and S4 are very close to the limit value according to saturated rock weight.

Shale rocks without drainage develop geotechnical parameters anisotropically. The slopes under compressive load show different shear strength depending on the shear face direction depending on the water content.

$$c\_{\theta} = c\_{2} + (c\_{1} - c\_{2}) \cos^{2}\theta \tag{1}$$

where *θ* is the angle made with the principal stress direction where shear stress occurs as below:

Compressive load values in the calculation of design model slope stability cards were given as equation below:

$$F = \sum\_{0}^{i} \mathbf{N}\_{i} \mathbf{F}\_{i} = \mathbf{N}\_{i} \frac{C\_{i}}{\gamma H} \cos \rho^{i} \tag{2}$$

The compression load on the N*i*block was calculated as the ground anisotropic shale shear *<sup>C</sup>*<sup>1</sup> *Ci* strength values depending on the slope angle, *β*. Although safety factor is designed as 1.25 and 1.35, safety factor is preferred as 1.35, according to water content greatly considered.

Due to the differences in fracture distribution, in order to determine the safe slope stability angle in the stress design cards, the sliding risk factor R*<sup>c</sup>* depends on *Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

the fracture distribution percentage and angle of the slope angle in the formation, which has a high probability of slide.

The fracture or discontinuity angle t frequency% in the 20 m sliding on slope direction and the variable position in the design card *dy dx* were calculated as given in below equations and in **Tables 5**–**7**

$$\mathbf{R}\_{\mathbf{c}} = \sum\_{0}^{\mathrm{i}} \mathbf{R}\_{\mathbf{i}} \mathbf{F}\_{\mathbf{i}} \tan \theta = \int\_{a}^{b} e^{-ti\theta} d\mathbf{y}^{\mathrm{i}} \tag{3}$$

$$\frac{dy}{dx} = e^{-\text{ti}\theta} dy\tag{4}$$

**Table 5.**

examined, since the boundary safety coefficient is taken as 1.25, it can be easily seen that the sliding slopes S1 and S2 were unstable. It is seen that the sliding surfaces 3 and 4 are very close to the limit value when it is made according to "saturated" rock

According to the slope-clay floor combined ground classification (USCS) located in the upper skirts of the south district, the SW-SC group consists of plastic floors. Tectonic events occurring in the region have also triggered movements and

continued to this day. Today, it has been observed in the field studies that there are small size movements on the slope after the rains. The slope where landslide risk S1 was developed was covered with color black showed the instability (**Figure 11**). The maximum elevation difference between the top and heel point of the landslide S1 is 75 m, the maximum height of the slope is 110 m, and the slope angle of the

According to the information obtained from the drillings carried out by the Mining Bureau of Şirnak Administration Authority, the thickness of the slope varies between 11 and 20 m. In the investigations, underground water level was observed on the slope where the landslide number. In the stability calculations on the slope

γdry = 2.77 g/cm<sup>3</sup> were used. Safety coefficient values of possible sliding surfaces calculated separately according to "saturated" rocks were shown in **Table 6**. According to Hoek-Bray, the safety coefficient value is determined as 1.25. When **Tables 6** and **7** were examined and analyzed, since the boundary safety coefficient was taken as 1.25, it could be easily seen that the sliding surfaces 1 and 2 are unstable. It was seen that the sliding surfaces S3 and S4 are very close to the limit

Shale rocks without drainage develop geotechnical parameters anisotropically. The slopes under compressive load show different shear strength depending on the

*<sup>c</sup><sup>θ</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>c</sup>*<sup>2</sup> <sup>þ</sup> ð Þ *<sup>c</sup>*<sup>1</sup> � *<sup>c</sup>*<sup>2</sup> cos <sup>2</sup>

where *θ* is the angle made with the principal stress direction where shear stress

Compressive load values in the calculation of design model slope stability cards

*C*i

N*i*Fi ¼ N*<sup>i</sup>*

The compression load on the N*i*block was calculated as the ground anisotropic

factor is designed as 1.25 and 1.35, safety factor is preferred as 1.35, according to

Due to the differences in fracture distribution, in order to determine the safe slope stability angle in the stress design cards, the sliding risk factor R*<sup>c</sup>* depends on

*Ci* strength values depending on the slope angle, *β*. Although safety

, φ <sup>0</sup> = 22°, γsat = 2.97 g/ cm<sup>3</sup>

*θ* (1)

*<sup>γ</sup><sup>H</sup>* cos *<sup>β</sup><sup>i</sup>* (2)

, and

and it is unstable when it is examined according to "natural."

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

where the landslide S1 is developed, c<sup>0</sup> = 199 kg/ cm<sup>2</sup>

shear face direction depending on the water content.

• compressive strength in the direction of θ sliding face;

*<sup>F</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>X</sup> i

0

• normal load stress in the vertical direction; and

• shear stress in the horizontal direction.

were given as equation below:

water content greatly considered.

value according to saturated rock weight.

slope is 48°.

occurs as below:

shale shear *<sup>C</sup>*<sup>1</sup>

**124**

*Şırnak limestone aggregate sieve analysis results aggregate type.*

#### **Table 6.**

*Sliding shale landslide risk cross section with slope topography of Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No.1 mining.*

**Table 7.** *Sliding shale landslide risk finite analysis with slope topography of Şırnak Avgamasya open pit No.1 mining.*

Safety risk parameter was calculated as 1.42 stable for 400 slopes, but for 500 and 600 slopes, the safety factors decreased to 1198 and 1060. As given in the figure, the equation slope 44.20 has been given a safety factor for a stable slope as

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

In the observations made on this slope during the field studies, it was observed that it took the material that occurred in the stream and that small breaks and flows occurred after the precipitation. The geological map and

and development of nonslip methods in the region is of special importance

landslide cross section and the surfaces where the calculations are made are given in

Groundwater movement change should be considered as a hazard and landslide prevention methods appropriate for the site should be determined. In addition, as the study area will be opened to urban use within the scope of the project, research

ð5Þ

1320 is shown in **Figure 8**.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

**Figure 17**.

(**Tables 8**–**10**).

**Chart Block height**

**Figure 17.**

**Table 8.**

**127**

*Weight chart calculations for S11.*

**Block width**

*Sliding shale landslide risk isocontour map; black area is unsafe area.*

**Block weight (ton)**

1 3 4 11,12 109,0872 6,217,489 2 5 6 27,8 272,718 13,29,372 3 10 8 74,13,333 727,248 32,94,993 4 15 9 125,1 1227,231 54,57,176 5 18 7 116,76 1145,416 51,03364 6 16 5 74,13,333 727,248 32,94,993 7 14 4 51,89,333 509,0736 23,51,495 8 11 4 40,77,333 399,9864 18,79,746 9 9 3 25,02 245,4462 12,11,435

10 7 3 19,46 190,9026 9,755,607 500 Total 5554,357 255,1988 1206

**Block weight (kN)**

**Block chart share (MPa)**

**Safety**

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

Safety risk parameter was calculated as 1.42 stable for 400 slopes, but for 500 and 600 slopes, the safety factors decreased to 1198 and 1060. As given in the figure, the equation slope 44.20 has been given a safety factor for a stable slope as 1320 is shown in **Figure 8**.

$$S = \frac{\Sigma(c' + \sigma' \cdot \tan \phi') \cdot \ell}{\Sigma(W \cdot \sin \phi')} \tag{5}$$

In the observations made on this slope during the field studies, it was observed that it took the material that occurred in the stream and that small breaks and flows occurred after the precipitation. The geological map and landslide cross section and the surfaces where the calculations are made are given in **Figure 17**.

Groundwater movement change should be considered as a hazard and landslide prevention methods appropriate for the site should be determined. In addition, as the study area will be opened to urban use within the scope of the project, research and development of nonslip methods in the region is of special importance (**Tables 8**–**10**).

**Figure 17.** *Sliding shale landslide risk isocontour map; black area is unsafe area.*

#### **Table 8.** *Weight chart calculations for S11.*

**Site**

**126**

S1

S2

S3

N1

N2

N3

*5 m unit saturated rock block weight points kN (H/V).*

**Table 7.** *Sliding shale landslide risk finite analysis with slope topography*

 *of Şırnak Avgamasya*

 *open pit No.1 mining.*

 321/332

 515/443

 527/453

 418/366

 546/377

 621/556

 574/221

 513/462

 655/555

 223/112

 418/366

 513/462

 655/555

 1.3

 321/332

 515/443

 527/453

 418/366

 546/377

 621/556

 574/221

 513/462

 655/555

 223/112

 418/366

 513/462

 655/555

 1.25

 321/332

 515/443

 527/453

 418/366

 546/377

 621/556

 574/221

 513/462

 655/555

 223/112

 418/366

 513/462

 655/555

 1.2

 321/332

 515/443

 527/453

 418/366

 546/377

 621/556

 574/221

 513/462

 655/555

 223/112

 418/366

 513/462

 655/555

 1.3

 321/332

 515/443

 527/453

 418/366

 546/377

 621/556

 574/221

 513/462

 655/555

 223/112

 418/366

 513/462

 655/555

 1.2

 321/332

 515/443

 527/453

 418/366

 546/377

 621/556

 574/221

 513/462

 655/555

 223/112

 418/366

 513/462

 655/555

 1.1

 **Joint 1,**

 **Joint 2**

 **Joint 3**

 **Joint 4**

 **Joint 5**

 **Joint 6**

 **Joint 7**

 **Joint 8**

 **Joint 9 Joint 10**

 **Joint 11**

 **Joint 12**

 **Joint 13**

 **SF 13-12**

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

In order to prevent this situation with clay, it is necessary to accumulate rock material in sizes that the river cannot carry, or the creek must be improved. South and North districts of the Avgamasya open pit No.1 asphaltite mine should be reinforced in the hazardous areas according to ground water. As a result of these shock wave movements, taking precautionary measures according to the slopes and underground water floods, drainage channels should be examined again. For this reason, there is a need to investigate the stability of the slopes that will be opened to

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

The importance of extensometer station was very critical for over 20 mm displacement and covering the cracks by mixture of melted plastics and asphalt and facilitates the infiltration of rainwater into the channel reduces the landslide or rock

which are positive in terms of stability, and hence, there is a reduction in the holding forces that keep the slopes in balance. For this reason, enrichment in terms of vegetation is an important landslide preventing parameter in the region. However, the effect of vegetation on stability will be minimal for sliding surfaces up to 30 m in depth. The weathering causes the rocks to change to a great extent, the bond between the grains to weaken and disappear completely. The rocks, which weaken as a result of weathering in the study area, are easily eroded and change the slope angles and slope altitudes. The weathering observed in the rocks in the study area also contributes negatively to the stability problems. As a result of geotechnical analysis carried out in the study area, it is concluded that very large landslides will not be expected in the future. However, this result does not eliminate the possibility of landslide danger for urban areas and urban development areas. For this reason, especially in large-scale plans such as master zoning plan and application zoning plan, geological hazard in the region should be evaluated and landslide prevention methods appropriate for the site should be determined. In addition, research and development methods to prevent instability in the region are of special importance since the study area will be opened to urban use within the scope of the project. As a result of laboratory experiments carried out on the soil samples, it was determined that the slope material was permeable, the cohesion value ranged between 1300 and 3800 kPa, and the internal friction angle ranged between 37.5 and 22.1, and according to the combined ground classification, the slope material consisted of Shale, low marly shale, and cracked limestone low RQD group rocks. From the stability analysis performed in the light of this information, it was concluded that the slopes S1, S2, and N1 were unstable, and the slopes S3 and N2 N3

The lack of vegetation in the study area prevents benefiting from these effects,

As a result of the field investigations, it was determined that the increase in the

Plants facilitate the infiltration of rainwater into the mass and slow down and reduce superficial flow. This prevents the masses from erosion. The roots of the

flow rate at the peak with the melting of snow in May and June caused severe erosion on the heel of the slopes and thus had a negative effect on the stability of the slope. In order to prevent this situation, which is effective on slopes N2 and N3, it is necessary to accumulate rock material in sizes that the stream cannot bear, or the stream should be improved. Sirnak City and the surrounding area, according to Turkey Earthquake Zone Map, are located in the first degree in the danger zone. Since these regions are within the influenced area of the South East Anatolian Fault, frequent earthquakes occur in the region and some tectonic movements occur due to these earthquakes. As a result of these movements, the stability of the slopes is compromised. For this reason, there is a need to investigate the stability of the

flow. This drainage patterns prevents the masses creep.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

urban use.

were stable.

**129**

slopes that will be opened to urban use.

plants, whose roots reach deep, are mechanical.

#### **Table 9.**

*Weight chart calculations for S12.*

**Table 10.** *Weight chart calculations for S13.*

#### **5. Conclusions**

As a result of the laboratory experiments carried out on the soil samples, it was determined that the slope material was permeable, the cohesion value ranged between 0.1 and 0.38, the internal friction angle ranged between 17.5 and 22.4, and according to the combined ground classification, the slope material consisted of shale group plastic steep slopes in the top area of low RQD. From the stability analysis performed in the light of this information, it was concluded that the slopes in S1, S2, and N1 are unstable, and the slope S3 and N2 in open pit were stable.

As a result of the field studies, it was determined that the increase in the flow rate at the peak with the melting of snow, especially in May and June, caused severe erosion on the heel of the slopes and thus had a negative effect on the stability of the slope. Chart patterns were obtained on the slopes S1, S2, and S3 to reduce sliding risk. *Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

In order to prevent this situation with clay, it is necessary to accumulate rock material in sizes that the river cannot carry, or the creek must be improved. South and North districts of the Avgamasya open pit No.1 asphaltite mine should be reinforced in the hazardous areas according to ground water. As a result of these shock wave movements, taking precautionary measures according to the slopes and underground water floods, drainage channels should be examined again. For this reason, there is a need to investigate the stability of the slopes that will be opened to urban use.

The importance of extensometer station was very critical for over 20 mm displacement and covering the cracks by mixture of melted plastics and asphalt and facilitates the infiltration of rainwater into the channel reduces the landslide or rock flow. This drainage patterns prevents the masses creep.

The lack of vegetation in the study area prevents benefiting from these effects, which are positive in terms of stability, and hence, there is a reduction in the holding forces that keep the slopes in balance. For this reason, enrichment in terms of vegetation is an important landslide preventing parameter in the region. However, the effect of vegetation on stability will be minimal for sliding surfaces up to 30 m in depth. The weathering causes the rocks to change to a great extent, the bond between the grains to weaken and disappear completely. The rocks, which weaken as a result of weathering in the study area, are easily eroded and change the slope angles and slope altitudes. The weathering observed in the rocks in the study area also contributes negatively to the stability problems. As a result of geotechnical analysis carried out in the study area, it is concluded that very large landslides will not be expected in the future. However, this result does not eliminate the possibility of landslide danger for urban areas and urban development areas. For this reason, especially in large-scale plans such as master zoning plan and application zoning plan, geological hazard in the region should be evaluated and landslide prevention methods appropriate for the site should be determined. In addition, research and development methods to prevent instability in the region are of special importance since the study area will be opened to urban use within the scope of the project.

As a result of laboratory experiments carried out on the soil samples, it was determined that the slope material was permeable, the cohesion value ranged between 1300 and 3800 kPa, and the internal friction angle ranged between 37.5 and 22.1, and according to the combined ground classification, the slope material consisted of Shale, low marly shale, and cracked limestone low RQD group rocks. From the stability analysis performed in the light of this information, it was concluded that the slopes S1, S2, and N1 were unstable, and the slopes S3 and N2 N3 were stable.

As a result of the field investigations, it was determined that the increase in the flow rate at the peak with the melting of snow in May and June caused severe erosion on the heel of the slopes and thus had a negative effect on the stability of the slope. In order to prevent this situation, which is effective on slopes N2 and N3, it is necessary to accumulate rock material in sizes that the stream cannot bear, or the stream should be improved. Sirnak City and the surrounding area, according to Turkey Earthquake Zone Map, are located in the first degree in the danger zone. Since these regions are within the influenced area of the South East Anatolian Fault, frequent earthquakes occur in the region and some tectonic movements occur due to these earthquakes. As a result of these movements, the stability of the slopes is compromised. For this reason, there is a need to investigate the stability of the slopes that will be opened to urban use.

Plants facilitate the infiltration of rainwater into the mass and slow down and reduce superficial flow. This prevents the masses from erosion. The roots of the plants, whose roots reach deep, are mechanical.

**5. Conclusions**

*Weight chart calculations for S13.*

**Table 10.**

**128**

**Chart Block height**

*Weight chart calculations for S12.*

**Table 9.**

**Chart Block height**

> **Block width**

> **Block width**

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

**Block weight (ton)**

10 7 3 19,46 190,9026 11,40,951 500 Total 6317,967 342,9576 1418

**Block weight (ton)**

1 5 6 27,8 272,718 15,65,644 2 7 7 45,40,667 445,4394 24,62,219 3 12 8 88,96 872,6976 46,80,062 4 17 9 141,78 1390,862 73,69,786 5 18 7 116,76 1145,416 60,95,706 6 17 5 78,76,667 772,701 41,60,992 7 15 4 55,6 545,436 29,81,289 8 12 4 44,48 436,3488 24,15,031 9 9 3 25,02 245,4462 14,2408

1 9 9 75,06 736,3386 30,29,683 2 11 9 91,74 899,9694 40,41,929 3 15 9 125,1 1227,231 54,57,176 4 17 9 141,78 1390,862 61,64,799 5 18 7 116,76 1145,416 51,03364 6 17 5 78,76,667 772,701 34,91,555 7 14 4 51,89,333 509,0736 23,51,495 8 11 4 40,77,333 399,9864 18,79,746 9 9 3 25,02 245,4462 12,11,435

**Block weight (kN)**

**Block weight (kN)**

> **Block chart share (MPa)**

> **Block chart share (MPa)**

> > **Safety**

**Safety**

As a result of the laboratory experiments carried out on the soil samples, it was

10 7 3 19,46 190,9026 9,755,607 500 Total 7517,926 337,0674 1171

determined that the slope material was permeable, the cohesion value ranged between 0.1 and 0.38, the internal friction angle ranged between 17.5 and 22.4, and according to the combined ground classification, the slope material consisted of shale group plastic steep slopes in the top area of low RQD. From the stability analysis performed in the light of this information, it was concluded that the slopes in S1, S2, and N1 are unstable, and the slope S3 and N2 in open pit were stable. As a result of the field studies, it was determined that the increase in the flow rate at the peak with the melting of snow, especially in May and June, caused severe erosion on the heel of the slopes and thus had a negative effect on the stability of the slope. Chart patterns were obtained on the slopes S1, S2, and S3 to reduce sliding risk.

#### **Symbols**

**References**

1981

472 p

Sons; 1980

1974. pp. 1212-1217

2000. pp. 71-80

pp. 183-202

**31**:1627-1632

**131**

[1] Höek E, Bray J. Rock Slope Engineering. 3rd ed. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy: London, UK;

[2] Goodman RE. Methods of Geological Engineering in Discontinuous Rocks. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co.; 1976.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

Construction and Building Materials.

[10] Dramis F, Sorriso-Valvo M. Deep-Seated gravitational slope deformations,

related landslides and tectonics. Engineering Geology. 1994;**38**:231-243

[11] Ulusoy R. Uygulamalı Jeoteknik Bilgiler. Ankara: JMO Yayınları; 1989

[12] Gündüz L. The effects of pumice aggregate/cementations on the lowstrength concrete properties.

Construction and Building Materials.

Influence of a new type of additive on the performance of polymer- lightweight mortar composites. Cement and Concrete

[14] Gündüz L, Uğur İ. The effects of different fine and coarse pumice

[15] Gündüz L, Sarıısık A, Tozaçan B, Davraz M, Uğur İ, Çankıran O. Pumice Technology. Vol. 1. Isparta: Süleyman Demirel University; 1998. pp. 275-285

[16] Tosun Yİ, Cevizci H, Ceylan H. Landfill design for reclamation of Şırnak coal mine dumps—Shalefill stability and risk assessment. In: ICMEMT 2014, 11-12 July 2014, Prague, Czechoslovakia. 2014

[17] Tosun Yİ. A case study on use of foam concrete landfill on landslide hazardous area in Şırnak city province. In: XX Congress of the Carpathian Balkan Geological Association, Tirana, Albania, 24-26 September 2014. 2014

[18] Tosun Yİ. Shale stone and fly ash landfill use in land-slide hazardous area

aggregate/ cementations on the structural concrete properties without using any admixtures. Cement and Concrete Research. 2005;**35**(9):1859-1864

[13] Gündüz L, Bekar M, Şapcı N.

Composites. 2007;**29**:594-602

2008;**22**:135-142

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

2008;**22**(5):721-728

[3] Goodman RE. Introduction to Rock Mechanics. New York: John Wiley and

[4] Pells PJN. The behaviour of fully bonded rock bolts. In: Advances in Rock Mechanics. Vol. 2: Part B. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences;

[5] Sjöberg J. Failure mechanism for high slopes in hard rock. In: Slope Stability in Surface Mining. Littleton, CO: Society of Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration;

[6] Sjöberg J, Sharp JC, Malorey DJ. Slope stability at Aznalcóllar. In:

[7] Chen B, Liu J. Experimental application of mineral admixtures in lightweight concrete with high strength and workability. Construction and Building Materials. 2008;**22**:s.655-s.659

Hustralid WA, MJ MC, DJA VZ, editors. Slope Stability in Surface Mining. Littleton, CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration; 2001.

[8] Demirboğa R, Orung I, Gül R. Effects of expanded perlite aggregate and mineral admixtures on the compressive strength of low-density concretes. Cement and Concrete Research. 2001;

[9] Demirdag S, Gündüz L. Strength properties of volcanic slag aggregate lightweight concrete for high performance masonry units.

### **Author details**

Yildırım İsmail Tosun Engineering Faculty, Mining Engineering Department, Şırnak University, Şırnak, Turkey

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

#### **References**

**Symbols**

**Author details**

Turkey

**130**

Yildırım İsmail Tosun

Φ0

c<sup>0</sup> kg/cm<sup>2</sup> effective cohesion

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

Φο internal friction angle

ο effective internal friction angle

γkmax g/cm<sup>3</sup> maximum dry unit volume weight

number

S1, S2, S3, S4, C1, C2 south and north landslide risk slopes No. 1, 2, 3, 4 S11, C11 sample taken from south and north landslide risk slopes

Engineering Faculty, Mining Engineering Department, Şırnak University, Şırnak,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
provided the original work is properly cited.

γs g/cm<sup>3</sup> grain unit volume weight k permeability coefficient

c kg/cm<sup>2</sup> cohesion

τ kg/cm<sup>2</sup> shear stress σ kg/cm<sup>2</sup> normal stress Is point load index Bs bending strength Ps compression strength Wopt optimum water content γNatural g/cm<sup>3</sup> natural unit volume weight γSaturated g/cm<sup>3</sup> saturated unit volume weight γDry g/cm<sup>3</sup> dry unit volume weight

[1] Höek E, Bray J. Rock Slope Engineering. 3rd ed. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy: London, UK; 1981

[2] Goodman RE. Methods of Geological Engineering in Discontinuous Rocks. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co.; 1976. 472 p

[3] Goodman RE. Introduction to Rock Mechanics. New York: John Wiley and Sons; 1980

[4] Pells PJN. The behaviour of fully bonded rock bolts. In: Advances in Rock Mechanics. Vol. 2: Part B. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences; 1974. pp. 1212-1217

[5] Sjöberg J. Failure mechanism for high slopes in hard rock. In: Slope Stability in Surface Mining. Littleton, CO: Society of Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration; 2000. pp. 71-80

[6] Sjöberg J, Sharp JC, Malorey DJ. Slope stability at Aznalcóllar. In: Hustralid WA, MJ MC, DJA VZ, editors. Slope Stability in Surface Mining. Littleton, CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration; 2001. pp. 183-202

[7] Chen B, Liu J. Experimental application of mineral admixtures in lightweight concrete with high strength and workability. Construction and Building Materials. 2008;**22**:s.655-s.659

[8] Demirboğa R, Orung I, Gül R. Effects of expanded perlite aggregate and mineral admixtures on the compressive strength of low-density concretes. Cement and Concrete Research. 2001; **31**:1627-1632

[9] Demirdag S, Gündüz L. Strength properties of volcanic slag aggregate lightweight concrete for high performance masonry units.

Construction and Building Materials. 2008;**22**:135-142

[10] Dramis F, Sorriso-Valvo M. Deep-Seated gravitational slope deformations, related landslides and tectonics. Engineering Geology. 1994;**38**:231-243

[11] Ulusoy R. Uygulamalı Jeoteknik Bilgiler. Ankara: JMO Yayınları; 1989

[12] Gündüz L. The effects of pumice aggregate/cementations on the lowstrength concrete properties. Construction and Building Materials. 2008;**22**(5):721-728

[13] Gündüz L, Bekar M, Şapcı N. Influence of a new type of additive on the performance of polymer- lightweight mortar composites. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2007;**29**:594-602

[14] Gündüz L, Uğur İ. The effects of different fine and coarse pumice aggregate/ cementations on the structural concrete properties without using any admixtures. Cement and Concrete Research. 2005;**35**(9):1859-1864

[15] Gündüz L, Sarıısık A, Tozaçan B, Davraz M, Uğur İ, Çankıran O. Pumice Technology. Vol. 1. Isparta: Süleyman Demirel University; 1998. pp. 275-285

[16] Tosun Yİ, Cevizci H, Ceylan H. Landfill design for reclamation of Şırnak coal mine dumps—Shalefill stability and risk assessment. In: ICMEMT 2014, 11-12 July 2014, Prague, Czechoslovakia. 2014

[17] Tosun Yİ. A case study on use of foam concrete landfill on landslide hazardous area in Şırnak city province. In: XX Congress of the Carpathian Balkan Geological Association, Tirana, Albania, 24-26 September 2014. 2014

[18] Tosun Yİ. Shale stone and fly ash landfill use in land-slide hazardous area in Sirnak city with foam concrete. GM Geomaterials Journal. 2014;**4**(4):141- 150. DOI: 10.4236/gm.2014.44014

[19] Tosun YI. Kalker, Marn ve Şeylin Sünme Karakterizasyonu—Bitümlü Gözenekli Agrega için Don— Mikrodalga Kurutma-Bilya Darbe Dayanım Testi ile Sünme Etüdü, AGGRE 2016. In: 8th Internatıonal Aggregates Symposıum, October 5-7, 2016, Istanbul, Turkey. 2016

[20] Rocscience. SWEDGE— Probabilistic Analysis of the Geometry and Stability of Surface Wedges. Toronto, Canada: Rocscience Ltd.; 2001 Available from: www.rocscience.com/

[21] Rocscience Ltd. ROCLAB Software for Calculating Hoek–Brown Rock Mass Strength. Toronto, Ontario: Rocscience Ltd; 2002. Available from: www. rocscience.com/

[22] Rocscience Ltd. SLIDE—2D Slope Stability Analysis for Rock and Soil Slopes. Toronto, Ontario: Rocscience Ltd; 2002. Available from: www. rocscience.com/

[23] Pritchard MA, Savigny KW. Numerical modelling of toppling. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 1990;**27**: 823-834

[24] Pritchard MA, Savigny KW. The Heather Hill landslide: an example of a large scale toppling failure in a natural slope. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 1991;**28**:410-422

[25] Sonmez H, Ulusay R. Modifications to the geological strength index (GSI) and their applicability to the stability of slopes. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 1999; **36**(6):743-760

[26] Sageseta C, Sánchez JM, Cañizal J. A general solution for the required anchor force in rock slopes with toppling failure. International Journal of Rock

Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 2001; **38**:421-435

[37] Gündüz L. Use of quartet blends containing fly ash, scoria, perlitic pumice and cement to produce cellular hollow lightweight masonry blocks form on-load bearing walls. Construction and Building Materials. 2008;**22**:747-754

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture…*

[38] Ulusoy R. Şev Stabilite Analizlerinde

[39] Görög P, Török Á. Slope stability assessment of weathered clay by using field data and computer modelling: a case study from Budapest. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 2007;**7**:417-422. Available from: www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net

Kullanılan Pratik Yöntemler ve Geoteknik Çalışmalar. MTA Yayınları,

[40] Görög P, Török Á. Stability Problems of Abandoned Clay Pits in Budapest, IAEG2006 Paper Number 295. London: The Geological Society of

London; 2006

**133**

Eğitim Serisi; 1982. p. 25

[27] Anbalagan R. Landslide hazard evaluation and zonation mapping in mountainous terrain. Engineering Geology. 1992;**32**:269-277

[28] Anonymous, a. GEO5—Engineering Manuals—Part 1, Part 2. 2011. Available from: http://www.finesoftware.eu/ geotechnical-software/

[29] Anonymous, b. GEO5—FEM— Theoretical Guide. 2011. Available from: http://www.finesoftware.eu/ geotechnical-software/

[30] Anonymous, c. Türkiye Deprem Bölgeleri Haritası. Ankara: Afet ve Acil durum Yönetimi Başkanlığı Deprem Dairesi Başkanlığı; 2012

[31] Duncan JM. Landslides: Investigation and mitigation - Chapter 13. In: Soil Slope Stability Analysis. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board; 1996. pp. 337-371. Special Report 247

[32] ASTM. Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils under Consolidated Drained Condition1990. pp. D3080-D3090

[33] Dershowitz WS, Einstein HH. Characterizing rock joint geometry with joint system models. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering. 1988;**20**(1):21-51

[34] Höek E. Estimating the stability of excavated slopes in opencast mines. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. 1970;**A105**:A132

[35] Fell R. Landslide risk assessment and acceptable risk. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 1994;**31**:261-272

[36] Erdoğan TY. Beton. Ankara: ODTÜ Geliştirme Vakfı Yayıncılık ve İletişim A.Ş; 2003

*Anchorage Pile Strengthening of Shale Slopes and Cementing Falling Stone Blocks by Mixture… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91987*

[37] Gündüz L. Use of quartet blends containing fly ash, scoria, perlitic pumice and cement to produce cellular hollow lightweight masonry blocks form on-load bearing walls. Construction and Building Materials. 2008;**22**:747-754

in Sirnak city with foam concrete. GM Geomaterials Journal. 2014;**4**(4):141- 150. DOI: 10.4236/gm.2014.44014

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 2001;

[28] Anonymous, a. GEO5—Engineering Manuals—Part 1, Part 2. 2011. Available from: http://www.finesoftware.eu/

[29] Anonymous, b. GEO5—FEM— Theoretical Guide. 2011. Available from:

[30] Anonymous, c. Türkiye Deprem Bölgeleri Haritası. Ankara: Afet ve Acil durum Yönetimi Başkanlığı Deprem

Investigation and mitigation - Chapter 13. In: Soil Slope Stability Analysis. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board; 1996. pp. 337-371.

[32] ASTM. Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils under Consolidated Drained Condition1990.

[33] Dershowitz WS, Einstein HH. Characterizing rock joint geometry with joint system models. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering. 1988;**20**(1):21-51

[34] Höek E. Estimating the stability of excavated slopes in opencast mines. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy.

[35] Fell R. Landslide risk assessment and acceptable risk. Canadian

Geotechnical Journal. 1994;**31**:261-272

[36] Erdoğan TY. Beton. Ankara: ODTÜ Geliştirme Vakfı Yayıncılık ve İletişim

http://www.finesoftware.eu/ geotechnical-software/

Dairesi Başkanlığı; 2012

Special Report 247

pp. D3080-D3090

1970;**A105**:A132

A.Ş; 2003

[31] Duncan JM. Landslides:

[27] Anbalagan R. Landslide hazard evaluation and zonation mapping in mountainous terrain. Engineering

Geology. 1992;**32**:269-277

geotechnical-software/

**38**:421-435

[19] Tosun YI. Kalker, Marn ve Şeylin Sünme Karakterizasyonu—Bitümlü Gözenekli Agrega için Don— Mikrodalga Kurutma-Bilya Darbe Dayanım Testi ile Sünme Etüdü, AGGRE 2016. In: 8th Internatıonal Aggregates Symposıum, October 5-7,

2016, Istanbul, Turkey. 2016

[20] Rocscience. SWEDGE—

rocscience.com/

rocscience.com/

1991;**28**:410-422

**36**(6):743-760

**132**

823-834

Probabilistic Analysis of the Geometry and Stability of Surface Wedges. Toronto, Canada: Rocscience Ltd.; 2001 Available from: www.rocscience.com/

[21] Rocscience Ltd. ROCLAB Software for Calculating Hoek–Brown Rock Mass Strength. Toronto, Ontario: Rocscience Ltd; 2002. Available from: www.

[22] Rocscience Ltd. SLIDE—2D Slope Stability Analysis for Rock and Soil Slopes. Toronto, Ontario: Rocscience Ltd; 2002. Available from: www.

[23] Pritchard MA, Savigny KW. Numerical modelling of toppling. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 1990;**27**:

[24] Pritchard MA, Savigny KW. The Heather Hill landslide: an example of a large scale toppling failure in a natural slope. Canadian Geotechnical Journal.

[25] Sonmez H, Ulusay R. Modifications to the geological strength index (GSI) and their applicability to the stability of slopes. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 1999;

[26] Sageseta C, Sánchez JM, Cañizal J. A general solution for the required anchor force in rock slopes with toppling failure. International Journal of Rock

[38] Ulusoy R. Şev Stabilite Analizlerinde Kullanılan Pratik Yöntemler ve Geoteknik Çalışmalar. MTA Yayınları, Eğitim Serisi; 1982. p. 25

[39] Görög P, Török Á. Slope stability assessment of weathered clay by using field data and computer modelling: a case study from Budapest. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 2007;**7**:417-422. Available from: www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net

[40] Görög P, Török Á. Stability Problems of Abandoned Clay Pits in Budapest, IAEG2006 Paper Number 295. London: The Geological Society of London; 2006

**Chapter 8**

East of Slovakia

realization of the reclaiming work.

model, test statistics, reclaiming

**1. Introduction**

**135**

*Vladimír Sedlák*

**Abstract**

Specific Solution of Deformation

Applications to Reclaiming the

Vector in Land Subsidence for GIS

Abandoned Magnesite Mine in the

Mining activity influences on the environment belong to the most negative industrial influences. Mining subsidence on the earth surface is a result of underground mining. The present study deals with the theory of specific procedures for solving the deformation vector in the case of an objective disturbance of data homogeneity in the geodetic network structure of the monitoring station in monitoring mining subsidence. The theory was developed for the mining subsidence created on the earth surface of the mining landscape, where the abandoned magnesite mine Košice-Bankov in the East of Slovakia was operated for many decades in the twentieth century. The achieved results and outputs were implemented into the GIS tools for the plan of the process of gradual reclaiming the entire mining landscape of Košice-Bankov. The aim of the deformation measurements was to determine the exact boundaries of the subsidence edges with the residual movement zones for the purpose of comprehensive reclaiming the devastated mining landscape. Some numerical and graphical results from the deformation vectors survey in the abandoned magnesite mine Košice-Bankov are presented. The obtained results in GIS were supplied for the needs of the Municipality of the city of Košice to the

**Keywords:** subsidence, deformation vector, geodetic network, Gauss-Markov

At present, with an extremely sharp increase in people's material needs, priority must be given to their security from any economic prosperity of many countries around the world. As the extraction and processing mineral resources increase, so does the economic prosperity of the country. To protect the environment, which should be an intact ecosystem, it is necessary to protect the lives of people and their property from adverse industrial impacts. One of the most negative industrial impacts on the whole ecosystem is the adverse impact of any mining activity. The land subsidence (mining subsidence, hereinafter referred to as subsidence)

#### **Chapter 8**

## Specific Solution of Deformation Vector in Land Subsidence for GIS Applications to Reclaiming the Abandoned Magnesite Mine in the East of Slovakia

*Vladimír Sedlák*

### **Abstract**

Mining activity influences on the environment belong to the most negative industrial influences. Mining subsidence on the earth surface is a result of underground mining. The present study deals with the theory of specific procedures for solving the deformation vector in the case of an objective disturbance of data homogeneity in the geodetic network structure of the monitoring station in monitoring mining subsidence. The theory was developed for the mining subsidence created on the earth surface of the mining landscape, where the abandoned magnesite mine Košice-Bankov in the East of Slovakia was operated for many decades in the twentieth century. The achieved results and outputs were implemented into the GIS tools for the plan of the process of gradual reclaiming the entire mining landscape of Košice-Bankov. The aim of the deformation measurements was to determine the exact boundaries of the subsidence edges with the residual movement zones for the purpose of comprehensive reclaiming the devastated mining landscape. Some numerical and graphical results from the deformation vectors survey in the abandoned magnesite mine Košice-Bankov are presented. The obtained results in GIS were supplied for the needs of the Municipality of the city of Košice to the realization of the reclaiming work.

**Keywords:** subsidence, deformation vector, geodetic network, Gauss-Markov model, test statistics, reclaiming

#### **1. Introduction**

At present, with an extremely sharp increase in people's material needs, priority must be given to their security from any economic prosperity of many countries around the world. As the extraction and processing mineral resources increase, so does the economic prosperity of the country. To protect the environment, which should be an intact ecosystem, it is necessary to protect the lives of people and their property from adverse industrial impacts. One of the most negative industrial impacts on the whole ecosystem is the adverse impact of any mining activity. The land subsidence (mining subsidence, hereinafter referred to as subsidence)

is created on the earth surface as a result of underground extraction of the mineral deposits especially at the chamber mining by a caving method [1, 2]. In many cases, the mine subsidence represents the large-scale and very deep downthrown blocks that is dangerous for any movement of people in them [1–7]. As at the deep mining there are many large voids created in the rock massif (especially during the aforementioned mining by the chamber method), their collapse occurs with the manifestations of deformations on the earth surface mostly in the form of subsidence. The collapse of these cavities can occur at different time horizons, i.e., from the commencement of mining up to several years, or even decades or more after the end of mining. Especially for endangering the lives of people and their property, the most dangerous are the sudden and unexpected formation of invasions of the earth surface over the mined rock massif, which often happens even in some abandoned mines [6, 8, 9].

surveying technology, are increasingly being applied to deformation measurements [14, 15, 18–26]. The deformation vectors are the outputs of 3D data processing from the abovementioned geodetic measurements of deformations (deformation measurements) of the earth surface or building structure objects, but several geodetic measurements are combined and thus confirmed by some physical measurements based on the measurement of stress and strain states. By their size and position in 3D space, deformation vectors can provide a global overview not only of the nature of the current state of deformation of the monitoring subsidence in the mining area, but also of the nature of the further development of these deformations with the required time predictions [1, 2, 10, 19]. At the same time, when monitoring particularly important buildings located close to the subsidence, additional geophysical measurements of stress–strain states of the rock massif must be carried out underground (in the extracted mining space). Achievement of the unstressing states in the rock massif above the extracted space can be realized in many cases by the

*Specific Solution of Deformation Vector in Land Subsidence for GIS Applications to Reclaiming…*

Periodically repeating measurements on parts respectively on the whole geodetic network of some monitoring stations to measure deformations of the earth surface (e.g., subsidence) or construction objects and engineering structures can sometimes be complicated for objective reasons. Most of the monitoring stations consist of a network of firmly stabilized points (geodetic network) on the surveyed earth surface or on surveyed buildings and other engineering structures. By various geodetic methods, measurements are made on these points of the geodetic network to determine their 3D positions (i.e., coordinates *X*, *Y*, and *Z*) in the given Cartesian coordinate system [5, 14]. During the realization of long-term (multiyear or even several decades) geodetic measurements, undesirable and unpredictable obstructions and interventions into the monitoring station and so into the geometric structure of the geodetic network may also occur. In many cases, such undesirable interventions into the structure of the geodetic network include predominantly loss or damage to points due to uncontrolled earthworks or construction work in the territory of the monitoring station. Due to such undesirable interference with the monitoring station, the geometric and data structure of the points of the geodetic network is not homogeneous during all periodic deformation measurements.

This means that the measured elements of the applied geodetic measurements at

In the evaluation of deformation vectors and their 3D modelling, the time factor of the gradual creation of the subsidence over the mined-out space underground plays an important role in its overall evaluation of the earth ground movements. The possibility in improving polynomial modeling of the subsidence is conditioned by the knowledge to detect position of the so-called breakpoints, i.e., the points in the surface in which the subsidence border with a zone of breaches and bursts start to develop above the mined mineral deposit. This means that the

the points of the geodetic network of the monitoring station at individual time epochs are no longer identical and cannot be maintained as they were at the time of the initial (primary, i.e., zero) measured epoch. When changing the geometrical structure of the points of the geodetic network, it is no longer possible to maintain, in particular, the spatial configuration of the measuring sights between the determined points of the network. Disturbance of stability or destruction and the loss of multiple points of the geodetic network also results in a disturbance of the geometric and thus data structure of the whole network of the monitoring station. In such cases, the re-stabilization of destroyed or lost points (in particular object points) at the original or other places of the geodetic network will not help either. Nor will it help to replace the original measured variables (which are no longer measurable in the subsequent monitoring epochs due to damage of the geodetic network points)

so-called destress blasting [27, 28].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91461*

by other measured variables [1, 10, 25, 29].

**137**

In the sense of several scientific studies, as well as theoretical and practical knowledge on mining impacts on the earth surface, it is very difficult to accurately predict how long the movements in the subsidence will be in existence and when these movements will be ended [1, 2, 10–12]. Current statistics resulting from many deformation measurements in the subsidence confirm that around 60–90% of total subsidence movements occur within the first few weeks up to months after the excavation of the underground space in the rock massif. The remaining movements in the subsidence persist even after the end of mining, and at a decreasing rate these movements can last for 3–5 years and longer and in rare cases even several decades.

In order to protect the lives of people and their property, as well as the complex environment, it is essential to constantly investigate any movements in the subsidence on the earth surface even after mining has ended [2, 13, 14]. The most investigated movements in the subsidence with their prediction based on threedimensional (3D) modeling are on coal fields [3, 5, 11, 12, 14–17].

The nature and magnitude of the subsidence on the earth surface depends mainly on tectonic and geological conditions and also on the overload of the rock massif above the excavated space. Knowing the range, i.e., localization of the edges (boundaries) of the subsidence in mining territories, may provide for more precise placement of technical barriers (fencings and warning boards) and thus help to prevent persons and animals from entering these danger zones. Geodetic methods for investigation of deformation vectors, which can be derived from the processing of some specific geodetic measurements at the monitoring stations based on these mining territories, are the priority methods for determining the extent of movement in the subsidence on the earth surface above the excavated underground space. The deformation vectors in their 3D model concept most markedly characterize any movements of the earth surface, buildings, and other civil engineering structures located in the mining territory with the occurrence of the subsidence. In many cases, 3D modeling of the deformation vectors is based on regular (periodic) monitoring of the spatial changes in suitably structured points of the geodetic network of a monitoring station located on the earth surface or on buildings and civil engineering structures. Such periodic monitoring of the spatial changes of 3D coordinates of the geodetic network points is mostly realized by the application of classical geodetic terrestrial methods (tacheometry, trigonometry, traverse surveying, leveling, etc.), which are used extensively up to now or are currently increasingly using advanced methods of the satellite technologies within the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) based on the US Global Positioning System (GPS), Russian Global Navigation Sputnik System (GLONAS), European Galileo, and Chinese Compass (BeiDou II). At present, very specific measurement technologies such as Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR), i.e., the radar surveying technology, and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), i.e., the laser

#### *Specific Solution of Deformation Vector in Land Subsidence for GIS Applications to Reclaiming… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91461*

surveying technology, are increasingly being applied to deformation measurements [14, 15, 18–26]. The deformation vectors are the outputs of 3D data processing from the abovementioned geodetic measurements of deformations (deformation measurements) of the earth surface or building structure objects, but several geodetic measurements are combined and thus confirmed by some physical measurements based on the measurement of stress and strain states. By their size and position in 3D space, deformation vectors can provide a global overview not only of the nature of the current state of deformation of the monitoring subsidence in the mining area, but also of the nature of the further development of these deformations with the required time predictions [1, 2, 10, 19]. At the same time, when monitoring particularly important buildings located close to the subsidence, additional geophysical measurements of stress–strain states of the rock massif must be carried out underground (in the extracted mining space). Achievement of the unstressing states in the rock massif above the extracted space can be realized in many cases by the so-called destress blasting [27, 28].

Periodically repeating measurements on parts respectively on the whole geodetic network of some monitoring stations to measure deformations of the earth surface (e.g., subsidence) or construction objects and engineering structures can sometimes be complicated for objective reasons. Most of the monitoring stations consist of a network of firmly stabilized points (geodetic network) on the surveyed earth surface or on surveyed buildings and other engineering structures. By various geodetic methods, measurements are made on these points of the geodetic network to determine their 3D positions (i.e., coordinates *X*, *Y*, and *Z*) in the given Cartesian coordinate system [5, 14]. During the realization of long-term (multiyear or even several decades) geodetic measurements, undesirable and unpredictable obstructions and interventions into the monitoring station and so into the geometric structure of the geodetic network may also occur. In many cases, such undesirable interventions into the structure of the geodetic network include predominantly loss or damage to points due to uncontrolled earthworks or construction work in the territory of the monitoring station. Due to such undesirable interference with the monitoring station, the geometric and data structure of the points of the geodetic network is not homogeneous during all periodic deformation measurements.

This means that the measured elements of the applied geodetic measurements at the points of the geodetic network of the monitoring station at individual time epochs are no longer identical and cannot be maintained as they were at the time of the initial (primary, i.e., zero) measured epoch. When changing the geometrical structure of the points of the geodetic network, it is no longer possible to maintain, in particular, the spatial configuration of the measuring sights between the determined points of the network. Disturbance of stability or destruction and the loss of multiple points of the geodetic network also results in a disturbance of the geometric and thus data structure of the whole network of the monitoring station. In such cases, the re-stabilization of destroyed or lost points (in particular object points) at the original or other places of the geodetic network will not help either. Nor will it help to replace the original measured variables (which are no longer measurable in the subsequent monitoring epochs due to damage of the geodetic network points) by other measured variables [1, 10, 25, 29].

In the evaluation of deformation vectors and their 3D modelling, the time factor of the gradual creation of the subsidence over the mined-out space underground plays an important role in its overall evaluation of the earth ground movements.

The possibility in improving polynomial modeling of the subsidence is conditioned by the knowledge to detect position of the so-called breakpoints, i.e., the points in the surface in which the subsidence border with a zone of breaches and bursts start to develop above the mined mineral deposit. This means that the

is created on the earth surface as a result of underground extraction of the mineral deposits especially at the chamber mining by a caving method [1, 2]. In many cases, the mine subsidence represents the large-scale and very deep downthrown blocks that is dangerous for any movement of people in them [1–7]. As at the deep mining there are many large voids created in the rock massif (especially during the aforementioned mining by the chamber method), their collapse occurs with the manifestations of deformations on the earth surface mostly in the form of subsidence. The collapse of these cavities can occur at different time horizons, i.e., from the commencement of mining up to several years, or even decades or more after the end of mining. Especially for endangering the lives of people and their property, the most dangerous are the sudden and unexpected formation of invasions of the earth surface over the mined rock massif, which often happens even in some abandoned

In the sense of several scientific studies, as well as theoretical and practical knowledge on mining impacts on the earth surface, it is very difficult to accurately predict how long the movements in the subsidence will be in existence and when these movements will be ended [1, 2, 10–12]. Current statistics resulting from many deformation measurements in the subsidence confirm that around 60–90% of total subsidence movements occur within the first few weeks up to months after the excavation of the underground space in the rock massif. The remaining movements in the subsidence persist even after the end of mining, and at a decreasing rate these movements can last for 3–5 years and longer and in rare cases even several decades. In order to protect the lives of people and their property, as well as the complex environment, it is essential to constantly investigate any movements in the subsidence on the earth surface even after mining has ended [2, 13, 14]. The most investigated movements in the subsidence with their prediction based on three-

The nature and magnitude of the subsidence on the earth surface depends mainly on tectonic and geological conditions and also on the overload of the rock massif above the excavated space. Knowing the range, i.e., localization of the edges (boundaries) of the subsidence in mining territories, may provide for more precise placement of technical barriers (fencings and warning boards) and thus help to prevent persons and animals from entering these danger zones. Geodetic methods for investigation of deformation vectors, which can be derived from the processing of some specific geodetic measurements at the monitoring stations based on these mining territories, are the priority methods for determining the extent of movement in the subsidence on the earth surface above the excavated underground space. The deformation vectors in their 3D model concept most markedly characterize any movements of the earth surface, buildings, and other civil engineering structures located in the mining territory with the occurrence of the subsidence. In many cases, 3D modeling of the deformation vectors is based on regular (periodic) monitoring of the spatial changes in suitably structured points of the geodetic network of a monitoring station located on the earth surface or on buildings and civil engineering structures. Such periodic monitoring of the spatial changes of 3D coordinates of the geodetic network points is mostly realized by the application of classical geodetic terrestrial methods (tacheometry, trigonometry, traverse surveying, leveling, etc.), which are used extensively up to now or are currently increasingly using advanced methods of the satellite technologies within the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) based on the US Global Positioning System (GPS), Russian Global Navigation Sputnik System (GLONAS), European Galileo, and Chinese Compass (BeiDou II). At present, very specific measurement technologies such as Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR), i.e., the radar surveying technology, and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), i.e., the laser

dimensional (3D) modeling are on coal fields [3, 5, 11, 12, 14–17].

mines [6, 8, 9].

*Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future*

**136**

breakpoints determine the edges of the subsurface at which the naturally consistent coherent of the earth surface is broken and the subsidence begins to form. 3D deformation vector models help to support the location of the breakpoints [10–13, 18, 21].

#### **2. Theory of the deformation vector specific solution**

As already mentioned in the Introduction, the geometric and thus data structure of the geodetic network of the monitoring station in the subsidence may be changed by some external intervention, such as some unforeseen earthworks and construction works at the monitoring station. Estimation of the structures of geodetic networks based on the Gauss-Markov model is the most used and the most effective method for their processing. In determining the statistical formulation of the Gauss-Markov model, we start from the following equations [11, 12, 17, 30–33]:

$$\boldsymbol{\sigma} = \mathbf{A} \left( \hat{\mathbf{C}} - \mathbf{C}^{\boldsymbol{\sigma}} \right) - \left( \mathbf{L}\_{(\mathbf{0})} - \mathbf{L}^{\boldsymbol{\sigma}} \right) = \mathbf{A} d \hat{\mathbf{C}} - d \mathbf{L} \tag{1}$$

$$
\Sigma\_L = \sigma\_0^2 \mathbf{Q}\_L \tag{2}
$$

*<sup>C</sup>*^ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* <sup>þ</sup> *<sup>A</sup>TQ*�**<sup>1</sup>**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91461*

transformed into the following equations:

According to Eqs. (6)–(9), the vectors ^

*Q*�<sup>1</sup> *<sup>L</sup> A* � ��<sup>1</sup>

*Q*�<sup>1</sup> *<sup>L</sup> A* � ��<sup>1</sup>

<sup>þ</sup> *<sup>A</sup><sup>T</sup>*

<sup>þ</sup> *<sup>A</sup><sup>T</sup>*

epochs *t*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> and *t*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* .

^ *<sup>C</sup>*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>*

^ *<sup>C</sup>*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>*

the subsidence.

structures *<sup>d</sup>C*^ and *<sup>d</sup>*^

equation will be valid:

**139**

of the deformation vector *<sup>d</sup>*^

*d*^ *<sup>C</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>*

the form

*<sup>L</sup> <sup>A</sup>* � ��**<sup>1</sup>**

*ATQ*�**<sup>1</sup>**

• Thus, for the deformation vector *dC*^ will be valid in the following equation:

*Specific Solution of Deformation Vector in Land Subsidence for GIS Applications to Reclaiming…*

where *L*ð Þ **<sup>0</sup>** and *L*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* are the vectors of the observed magnitude values in the

*<sup>t</sup>*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* is changed. Then the original matrixes and vectors *<sup>A</sup>*, *QL*, *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* and *Lo* are

Furthermore, we consider the case when there is a change in the geometric and thus in the data structure of the geodetic network of the monitoring station between the individual epochs of measurements. It means that the geometric and data structure of the geodetic network between the basic epoch *t*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> and the actual epoch

*<sup>C</sup>*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> and ^

*<sup>L</sup> <sup>L</sup>*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> � *<sup>L</sup>* � �*<sup>o</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>*

*<sup>L</sup> <sup>L</sup>*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* � *<sup>L</sup>* � �*<sup>o</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>*

*<sup>C</sup>*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* � ^

which not only expresses the 3D changes in the coordinates of the geodetic

obtained will not provide reliable data for testing the particular deformations in

The proposed and presented theory of the specific solution of the deformation vector in the case of any structural changes in the geodetic network will be acceptable for its proving in an analytical way, if we compare the deformation vector

<sup>þ</sup> *G L*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* � *<sup>L</sup>* � �*<sup>o</sup>* h i � *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* <sup>þ</sup> *G L*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> � *Lo* � � � �

*C* expressed according to Eqs. (5) and (12). Then the structure

<sup>¼</sup> *G L*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* � *Lo* � � � *G L*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> � *Lo* � � <sup>þ</sup> *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* � *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* (13)

*C* is expressed according to Eq. (12), and the further

coordinates of the observed points in the epochs *t*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> and *t*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* will be determined:

and then the deformation vector *dC*^ is expressed according to Eq. (5) in

*AT Q*�<sup>1</sup>

*AT Q*�<sup>1</sup>

> *d*^ *<sup>C</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> ^

network points between the individual epochs of measurement, but such deformation vector can also express changes in the overall structure (geometric

and data structure) of the geodetic network. The deformation vector *<sup>d</sup>*^

*<sup>L</sup> <sup>L</sup>*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* � *<sup>L</sup><sup>o</sup>* � � <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* <sup>þ</sup> *G L*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* � *<sup>L</sup><sup>o</sup>* � � (4)

*A* ¼ *A* þ *dA* (6) *QL* ¼ *QL* þ *dQL* (7) *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* <sup>þ</sup> *<sup>d</sup>C<sup>o</sup>* (8) *<sup>L</sup><sup>o</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>L</sup><sup>o</sup>* <sup>þ</sup> *<sup>d</sup><sup>L</sup>* (9)

*C*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* of the adjusted 3D

*C*ð Þ **<sup>0</sup>** (12)

<sup>þ</sup> *G L*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> � *<sup>L</sup>* � �*<sup>o</sup>* (10)

<sup>þ</sup> *G L*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* � *<sup>L</sup>*<sup>0</sup> � � (11)

*C* thus

*<sup>d</sup>C*^ <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>C</sup>*^ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* � *<sup>C</sup>*^ð Þ **<sup>0</sup>** <sup>¼</sup> *G L*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* � *<sup>L</sup><sup>o</sup>* � � (5)

where *v* is the vector of corrections of the measured (observed) values *L*,*A* is the configuration (modeling) matrix of the geodetic network (otherwise called also the Jacobian matrix), i.e., the matrix of the partial derivatives of functions *Lo* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>f</sup> <sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* ð Þ by the vector *C<sup>o</sup>* ,*C*^ is the vector of the aligned 3D coordinate values, *C<sup>o</sup>* is the vector of the approximate 3D coordinate values, *L*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> is the vector of the approximate observation magnitude values of the observed elements in the first measuring epoch *<sup>t</sup>*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> , *<sup>L</sup><sup>o</sup>* is the vector of the approximate observation magnitude values of the observed elements, *dC*^ is the deformation vector, *dL* is the vector of the measured values supplements, *Σ<sup>L</sup>* is the covariance matrix of the measured values, *σ*<sup>2</sup> <sup>0</sup> is a priori variance, and *QL* is the cofactor matrix of the observations.

It will also be appeared in the changed structures, let us say in a size of the matrixes and vectors *A*, *QL*, *C<sup>o</sup>* and *Lo* . These matrixes and vectors enter into the presupposed model of a network adjustment following out from the Gauss-Markov model [11, 12, 29–31].

#### **2.1 Deformation vector**

If between monitoring epochs there are no changes in the geometrical and observational structure of the geodetic network, then the matrixes and vectors *A*, *QL*, *C<sup>o</sup>* and *L<sup>o</sup>* remain identical for each epoch. Only in such case the deformation vector *dC*^ can be determined by a conventional procedure according to the following model [2, 16, 17]:

• In the basic (first) monitoring epoch *<sup>t</sup>*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> , we have the vector *<sup>C</sup>*^ð Þ <sup>0</sup> of the adjusted 3D coordinates of the observed points which are obtained according to the Gauss-Markov model:

$$\hat{\mathbf{C}}\_{(\mathfrak{0})} = \mathbf{C}^{\bullet} + \left(\mathbf{A}^{T}\mathbf{Q}\_{L}^{-1}\mathbf{A}\right)^{-1}\mathbf{A}^{T}\mathbf{Q}\_{L}^{-1}(L\_{(\mathfrak{0})} - L^{\bullet}) = \mathbf{C}^{\bullet} + \mathbf{G}\left(L\_{(\mathfrak{0})} - L^{\bullet}\right) \tag{3}$$

• In the other following epochs *<sup>t</sup>*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* , we also obtain the vector *<sup>C</sup>*^ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* of the adjusted 3D coordinates of the observed points according to the equation:

*Specific Solution of Deformation Vector in Land Subsidence for GIS Applications to Reclaiming… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91461*

$$\hat{\mathbf{C}}\_{(i)} = \mathbf{C}^{o} + \left(\mathbf{A}^{T}\mathbf{Q}\_{L}^{-1}\mathbf{A}\right)^{-1}\mathbf{A}^{T}\mathbf{Q}\_{L}^{-1}(\mathbf{L}\_{(i)} - \mathbf{L}^{o}) = \mathbf{C}^{o} + \mathbf{G}\left(\mathbf{L}\_{(i)} - \mathbf{L}^{o}\right) \tag{4}$$

• Thus, for the deformation vector *dC*^ will be valid in the following equation:

$$d\hat{\mathbf{C}} = \hat{\mathbf{C}}\_{(\hat{\mathbf{t}})} - \hat{\mathbf{C}}\_{(\mathbf{0})} = \mathbf{G} \left( \mathbf{L}\_{(\hat{\mathbf{t}})} - \mathbf{L}^{\sigma} \right) \tag{5}$$

where *L*ð Þ **<sup>0</sup>** and *L*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* are the vectors of the observed magnitude values in the epochs *t*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> and *t*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* .

Furthermore, we consider the case when there is a change in the geometric and thus in the data structure of the geodetic network of the monitoring station between the individual epochs of measurements. It means that the geometric and data structure of the geodetic network between the basic epoch *t*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> and the actual epoch *<sup>t</sup>*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* is changed. Then the original matrixes and vectors *<sup>A</sup>*, *QL*, *<sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* and *Lo* are transformed into the following equations:

$$
\overline{\mathbf{A}} = \mathbf{A} + d\mathbf{A} \tag{6}
$$

$$\overline{\mathbf{Q}}\_{L} = \mathbf{Q}\_{L} + d\mathbf{Q}\_{L} \tag{7}$$

$$\overline{\mathbf{C}}^{\boldsymbol{\theta}} = \mathbf{C}^{\boldsymbol{\circ}} + d\mathbf{C}^{\boldsymbol{\circ}} \tag{8}$$

$$
\mathbf{L}^o = \mathbf{L}^o + d\mathbf{L} \tag{9}
$$

According to Eqs. (6)–(9), the vectors ^ *<sup>C</sup>*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> and ^ *C*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* of the adjusted 3D coordinates of the observed points in the epochs *t*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> and *t*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* will be determined:

$$\hat{\overline{\mathbf{C}}}\_{(0)} = \overline{\mathbf{C}}^{\rho} + \left(\overline{\mathbf{A}}^{T} \overline{\mathbf{Q}}\_{L}^{-1} \overline{\mathbf{A}}\right)^{-1} \overline{\mathbf{A}}^{T} \overline{\mathbf{Q}}\_{L}^{-1} (\mathbf{L}\_{(0)} - \overline{\mathbf{L}}^{\rho}) = \overline{\mathbf{C}}^{\rho} + \overline{\mathbf{G}} (\mathbf{L}\_{(0)} - \overline{\mathbf{L}}^{\rho}) \tag{10}$$

$$
\hat{\overline{\mathbf{C}}}\_{(i)} = \overline{\mathbf{C}}^{\boldsymbol{\rho}} + \left(\overline{\mathbf{A}}^{T} \overline{\mathbf{Q}}\_{L}^{-1} \overline{\mathbf{A}}\right)^{-1} \overline{\mathbf{A}}^{T} \overline{\mathbf{Q}}\_{L}^{-1} (\mathbf{L}\_{(i)} - \overline{\mathbf{L}}^{\boldsymbol{\rho}}) = \overline{\mathbf{C}}^{\boldsymbol{\rho}} + \overline{\mathbf{G}} \left(\mathbf{L}\_{(i)} - \overline{\mathbf{L}}^{\boldsymbol{\rho}}\right) \tag{11}
$$

and then the deformation vector *dC*^ is expressed according to Eq. (5) in the form

$$d\hat{\overline{\mathbf{C}}} = \hat{\overline{\mathbf{C}}}\_{(i)} - \hat{\overline{\mathbf{C}}}\_{(\mathbf{0})} \tag{12}$$

which not only expresses the 3D changes in the coordinates of the geodetic network points between the individual epochs of measurement, but such deformation vector can also express changes in the overall structure (geometric and data structure) of the geodetic network. The deformation vector *<sup>d</sup>*^ *C* thus obtained will not provide reliable data for testing the particular deformations in the subsidence.

The proposed and presented theory of the specific solution of the deformation vector in the case of any structural changes in the geodetic network will be acceptable for its proving in an analytical way, if we compare the deformation vector structures *<sup>d</sup>C*^ and *<sup>d</sup>*^ *C* expressed according to Eqs. (5) and (12). Then the structure of the deformation vector *<sup>d</sup>*^ *C* is expressed according to Eq. (12), and the further equation will be valid:

$$\begin{aligned} d\hat{\overline{\mathbf{C}}} &= \left[ \overline{\mathbf{C}}^{\theta} + \overline{\mathbf{G}} \left( \mathbf{L}\_{(i)} - \overline{\mathbf{L}}^{\theta} \right) \right] - \left[ \mathbf{C}^{\theta} + \mathbf{G} \left( \mathbf{L}\_{(0)} - \mathbf{L}^{\bullet} \right) \right] \\ &= \overline{\mathbf{G}} \left( \mathbf{L}\_{(i)} - \mathbf{L}^{\bullet} \right) - \mathbf{G} \left( \mathbf{L}\_{(0)} - \mathbf{L}^{\bullet} \right) + \overline{\mathbf{C}}^{\theta} - \mathbf{C}^{\theta} \end{aligned} \tag{13}$$

breakpoints determine the edges of the subsurface at which the naturally consistent

As already mentioned in the Introduction, the geometric and thus data structure of the geodetic network of the monitoring station in the subsidence may be changed by some external intervention, such as some unforeseen earthworks and construction works at the monitoring station. Estimation of the structures of geodetic networks based on the Gauss-Markov model is the most used and the most effective method for their processing. In determining the statistical formulation of the Gauss-Markov model, we start from the following equations [11, 12, 17, 30–33]:

*<sup>Σ</sup><sup>L</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>σ</sup>*<sup>2</sup>

of the approximate 3D coordinate values, *L*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> is the vector of the approximate observation magnitude values of the observed elements in the first measuring epoch *<sup>t</sup>*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> , *<sup>L</sup><sup>o</sup>* is the vector of the approximate observation magnitude values of the observed elements, *dC*^ is the deformation vector, *dL* is the vector of the measured

values supplements, *Σ<sup>L</sup>* is the covariance matrix of the measured values, *σ*<sup>2</sup>

It will also be appeared in the changed structures, let us say in a size of the

presupposed model of a network adjustment following out from the Gauss-Markov

If between monitoring epochs there are no changes in the geometrical and observational structure of the geodetic network, then the matrixes and vectors

vector *dC*^ can be determined by a conventional procedure according to the

*ATQ*�**<sup>1</sup>**

3D coordinates of the observed points according to the equation:

• In the basic (first) monitoring epoch *<sup>t</sup>*ð Þ <sup>0</sup> , we have the vector *<sup>C</sup>*^ð Þ <sup>0</sup> of the

adjusted 3D coordinates of the observed points which are obtained according

• In the other following epochs *<sup>t</sup>*ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* , we also obtain the vector *<sup>C</sup>*^ð Þ*<sup>i</sup>* of the adjusted

and *L<sup>o</sup>* remain identical for each epoch. Only in such case the deformation

priori variance, and *QL* is the cofactor matrix of the observations.

matrixes and vectors *A*, *QL*, *C<sup>o</sup>* and *Lo*

where *v* is the vector of corrections of the measured (observed) values *L*,*A* is the configuration (modeling) matrix of the geodetic network (otherwise called also the Jacobian matrix), i.e., the matrix of the partial derivatives of functions *Lo* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>f</sup> <sup>C</sup><sup>o</sup>* ð Þ

,*C*^ is the vector of the aligned 3D coordinate values, *C<sup>o</sup>* is the vector

� *<sup>L</sup>*ð Þ **<sup>0</sup>** � *<sup>L</sup><sup>o</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>A</sup>dC*^ � *<sup>d</sup><sup>L</sup>* (1)

. These matrixes and vectors enter into the