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**Effects of Technologies on Food Quality**

**Effects of Technologies on Food Quality**

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10718953

**Chapter 6**

**Provisional chapter**

**Quality of Reduced-Fat Dairy Coffee Creamer: Affected**

This work aims to investigate the effects of inulin (0, 2.5, 5 and 7.5%, w/w) and maltodextrin (0, 15, 20 and 25%, w/w) as wall materials and fat replacers and drying techniques (i.e. spray drying and fluidized-bed drying) on physicochemical properties of regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers. The regular reduced-fat dairy creamer was produced by one-stage drying (i.e. spray drying), while the instant reduced-fat dairy creamer was produced by two-stage drying (i.e. spray drying followed by fluidized-bed drying). In this study, control (0% inulin and 0% maltodextrin) and two commercial regular and instant coffee creamers (A and B) were also considered for comparison purposes. The results showed that the regular creamer containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin had the largest particle size, highest viscosity and most desirable wettability among all formulated regular creamers. The yield of reduced-fat coffee creamer was significantly increased from 43.55 to 94.60% by increasing the amount of fat replacers to the maximum level (25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin). The current study revealed that the application of fluidized-bed drying for agglomeration led to significantly improve the wettability and instant properties of the instant creamer. In this study, the formulated instant creamer containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin was the most desirable product as

**Keywords:** reduced-fat dairy creamer, inulin, maltodextrin, spray drying, fluidized-bed

Coffee is one of the most vastly consumed beverages. Coffee drink is usually consumed in black or white form, depending on the taste of the consumer. Coffee creamers, also known as "coffee whitener" or "coffee sweetener", are liquid or granular substances intended to substitute for

**Quality of Reduced-Fat Dairy Coffee Creamer: Affected**

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76367

**by Different Fat Replacer and Drying Methods**

**by Different Fat Replacer and Drying Methods**

Simin Hedayatnia and Hamed Mirhosseini

Simin Hedayatnia and Hamed Mirhosseini

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76367

compared to all creamers.

drying

**1. Introduction**

**Abstract**

#### **Quality of Reduced-Fat Dairy Coffee Creamer: Affected by Different Fat Replacer and Drying Methods Quality of Reduced-Fat Dairy Coffee Creamer: Affected by Different Fat Replacer and Drying Methods**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76367

Simin Hedayatnia and Hamed Mirhosseini Simin Hedayatnia and Hamed Mirhosseini

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76367

#### **Abstract**

This work aims to investigate the effects of inulin (0, 2.5, 5 and 7.5%, w/w) and maltodextrin (0, 15, 20 and 25%, w/w) as wall materials and fat replacers and drying techniques (i.e. spray drying and fluidized-bed drying) on physicochemical properties of regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers. The regular reduced-fat dairy creamer was produced by one-stage drying (i.e. spray drying), while the instant reduced-fat dairy creamer was produced by two-stage drying (i.e. spray drying followed by fluidized-bed drying). In this study, control (0% inulin and 0% maltodextrin) and two commercial regular and instant coffee creamers (A and B) were also considered for comparison purposes. The results showed that the regular creamer containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin had the largest particle size, highest viscosity and most desirable wettability among all formulated regular creamers. The yield of reduced-fat coffee creamer was significantly increased from 43.55 to 94.60% by increasing the amount of fat replacers to the maximum level (25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin). The current study revealed that the application of fluidized-bed drying for agglomeration led to significantly improve the wettability and instant properties of the instant creamer. In this study, the formulated instant creamer containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin was the most desirable product as compared to all creamers.

**Keywords:** reduced-fat dairy creamer, inulin, maltodextrin, spray drying, fluidized-bed drying

#### **1. Introduction**

Coffee is one of the most vastly consumed beverages. Coffee drink is usually consumed in black or white form, depending on the taste of the consumer. Coffee creamers, also known as "coffee whitener" or "coffee sweetener", are liquid or granular substances intended to substitute for

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

milk or cream as an additive to coffee or other beverages [18, 28]. As stated by Tuot et al. [51], a desired coffee creamer should have specific physicochemical and functional characteristics particularly in terms of solubility, viscosity and stability. In addition, it should provide a good whitening effect after adding to hot coffee or similar hot beverages [41]. During the past few years, the demand of consumers for healthier products has significantly increased, lowering the tendency for consumption of high-fat foods. Hence, one of the main health issues for coffee drinkers is the presence of high percentage of fat in creamer formulation. As reported by Lambert [33], coffee creamer mainly contains high amount of vegetable fat (37–51%) and corn syrup (41–46%). Sudha et al. [47] suggested that the replacement of fat with various fat replacers led to the reduction of fat content and calories in food products.

the reduced-fat creamers. Inulin and maltodextrin have been used as a proper drying agent, fat replacer and wall material in powder technology and processing. It was hypothesized that there is a possibility to produce the reduced-fat coffee creamer with more nutritional benefit by partial replacement of its fat with proper fat replacer (like inulin and maltodextrin). In this study, water activity (aw), wettability, apparent viscosity, solubility, particle size and color of differently formulated regular and instant reduced-fat creamers were examined. The one-stage drying (i.e. spray drying) was applied to produce the regular reduced-fat dairy creamer (RRDC), while two-stage drying (i.e. spray drying followed by fluidized-bed drying) was employed to manufacture the instant reduced-fat dairy creamer (IRDC). All formulated creamers were compared with the properties of control (0% inulin and 0% maltodextrin) and commercial creamers (A and B). To the best of our knowledge, non-data of the different dry-

Quality of Reduced-Fat Dairy Coffee Creamer: Affected by Different Fat Replacer and Drying...

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76367

117

The following components were used in creamer formulation: Maltodextrin (DE = 10, Roquette Freres Co, Lestrem, France), long-chain inulin (Fibruline Xl, Warcoing, Warcoing, Belgium), silicon dioxide (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (Nacalai Tesque Co, Kyoto, Japan) and soy lecithin (Kordel's Co, CA, USA). Other ingredients such as commercial skim milk powder, an instant coffee (Brazilian freeze-dried Gold Bon CAFÉ), regular commercial coffee creamer (A) and instant commercial coffee creamer (B), hydrogenated palm kernel oil, sugar and vanilla were purchased from the supermarket (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). **Table 1** shows the composition of regular and instant commercial

Reduced-fat creamer emulsions were produced according to a method described by Hedayatnia et al. [22] with minor modification (**Figure 1**). Initially, the dispersed phase (**A**) containing the hydrogenated palm kernel oil (8% w/w) and soy lecithin (emulsifier, 0.5% w/w) was mixed in a 100-mL beaker and kept in a thermo-controlled water bath (70°C and rotated at 100 rpm for 20 min). The aqueous phase (**B**) which consists of sodium caseinate (2.5% w/w),

**Composition Regular commercial creamer A Instant commercial creamer B**

**Table 1.** The composition of regular and instant commercial creamers applied for comparison purposes.

Fat (%) 34.0 34.6 Carbohydrate (%) 57.1 56.9 Protein (%) 2.0 1.3

ing process and components were reported about reduced-fat dairy creamer.

**2. Materials and methods**

creamers applied for comparison purposes.

**2.2. Creamer preparation**

**2.1. Materials**

There are some difficulties for the drying of coffee creamer due to the low glass transition temperatures (Tg ) of the components such as high sugar and caseinate that leads to stickiness problems. In order to prevent stickiness and caking issue during storage, specific drying aids or wall materials (such as gum arabic, xanthan gum, maltodextrin, inulin, etc.) with high glass transition temperature (Tg ) are used [21]. Maltodextrin is a carbohydrate polymer made up of D-glucose units with dextrose-equivalent (DE) of under 20 [40, 52]. Maltodextrin is used as a dispersing aid, flavor carrier, bulking agent, fat replacer, volume enhancer, texture modifier, encapsulating agent and wall material [12]. It has many advantages such as highly soluble, relatively low cost, neutral aroma, taste, mouth feel and good protection of flavors against oxidation as compared to other drying aids [50].

Inulin is a non-digestible prebiotic soluble carbohydrate with very low energy value [17].  Dietary fibers such as inulin are functional ingredients which are commonly used in different food products in order to modify physical and structural properties of hydration, viscosity, texture, sensory characteristics and oil holding capacity and also prolong the shelf life of products [30, 37].

The final characteristics of the dried products are broadly affected by the drying type and condition. The spray drying techniques are one of the most commonly applied techniques for manufacturing creamer [4]. Spray drying involves the transformation of feed from a liquid or slurry form to dry powder [34]. Spray-dried powders may have small particles with low bulk density, leading to inadequate flowability and poor reconstitution properties, thus causing difficulties in handling, transportation and storage. Manufacturers require free-flowing powders without any dust, and these requirements are met just by applying agglomeration process [42]. Agglomeration is a combination of wetting and nucleation, consolidation and growth and attrition and breakage [25]. Fluidization is a promising alternative technology, which allows the simultaneous drying, encapsulation and agglomeration in a single stream, reducing operation costs, saving time, simultaneously reducing the caking issue and improving the physicochemical properties (i.e. flowability, density, dissolution and dispersion characteristics) of the powder [2, 5, 11, 39].

The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of inulin (0, 2.5, 5 and 7.5%, w/w) and maltodextrin (0, 15, 20 and 25%, w/w) and fluidized-bed drying on the characteristics of the reduced-fat creamers. Inulin and maltodextrin have been used as a proper drying agent, fat replacer and wall material in powder technology and processing. It was hypothesized that there is a possibility to produce the reduced-fat coffee creamer with more nutritional benefit by partial replacement of its fat with proper fat replacer (like inulin and maltodextrin). In this study, water activity (aw), wettability, apparent viscosity, solubility, particle size and color of differently formulated regular and instant reduced-fat creamers were examined. The one-stage drying (i.e. spray drying) was applied to produce the regular reduced-fat dairy creamer (RRDC), while two-stage drying (i.e. spray drying followed by fluidized-bed drying) was employed to manufacture the instant reduced-fat dairy creamer (IRDC). All formulated creamers were compared with the properties of control (0% inulin and 0% maltodextrin) and commercial creamers (A and B). To the best of our knowledge, non-data of the different drying process and components were reported about reduced-fat dairy creamer.

## **2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1. Materials**

milk or cream as an additive to coffee or other beverages [18, 28]. As stated by Tuot et al. [51], a desired coffee creamer should have specific physicochemical and functional characteristics particularly in terms of solubility, viscosity and stability. In addition, it should provide a good whitening effect after adding to hot coffee or similar hot beverages [41]. During the past few years, the demand of consumers for healthier products has significantly increased, lowering the tendency for consumption of high-fat foods. Hence, one of the main health issues for coffee drinkers is the presence of high percentage of fat in creamer formulation. As reported by Lambert [33], coffee creamer mainly contains high amount of vegetable fat (37–51%) and corn syrup (41–46%).  In order to prevent stickiness and caking issue during storage, specific drying aids or wall materials (such as gum arabic, xanthan gum, maltodextrin, inulin, etc.) with high glass

D-glucose units with dextrose-equivalent (DE) of under 20 [40, 52]. Maltodextrin is used as a dispersing aid, flavor carrier, bulking agent, fat replacer, volume enhancer, texture modifier, encapsulating agent and wall material [12]. It has many advantages such as highly soluble, relatively low cost, neutral aroma, taste, mouth feel and good protection of flavors against

Inulin is a non-digestible prebiotic soluble carbohydrate with very low energy value [17].  Dietary fibers such as inulin are functional ingredients which are commonly used in different food products in order to modify physical and structural properties of hydration, viscosity, texture, sensory characteristics and oil holding capac-

The final characteristics of the dried products are broadly affected by the drying type and condition. The spray drying techniques are one of the most commonly applied techniques for manufacturing creamer [4]. Spray drying involves the transformation of feed from a liquid or slurry form to dry powder [34]. Spray-dried powders may have small particles with low bulk density, leading to inadequate flowability and poor reconstitution properties, thus causing difficulties in handling, transportation and storage. Manufacturers require free-flowing powders without any dust, and these requirements are met just by applying agglomeration process [42]. Agglomeration is a combination of wetting and nucleation, consolidation and growth and attrition and breakage [25]. Fluidization is a promising alternative technology, which allows the simultaneous drying, encapsulation and agglomeration in a single stream, reducing operation costs, saving time, simultaneously reducing the caking issue and improving the physicochemical properties (i.e. flowability, density, dissolution and dispersion char-

The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of inulin (0, 2.5, 5 and 7.5%, w/w) and maltodextrin (0, 15, 20 and 25%, w/w) and fluidized-bed drying on the characteristics of

) of the components such as high sugar and caseinate that leads to stickiness

) are used [21]. Maltodextrin is a carbohydrate polymer made up of

ers led to the reduction of fat content and calories in food products.

temperatures (Tg

116 Descriptive Food Science

transition temperature (Tg

oxidation as compared to other drying aids [50].

ity and also prolong the shelf life of products [30, 37].

acteristics) of the powder [2, 5, 11, 39].

The following components were used in creamer formulation: Maltodextrin (DE = 10, Roquette Freres Co, Lestrem, France), long-chain inulin (Fibruline Xl, Warcoing, Warcoing, Belgium), silicon dioxide (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (Nacalai Tesque Co, Kyoto, Japan) and soy lecithin (Kordel's Co, CA, USA). Other ingredients such as commercial skim milk powder, an instant coffee (Brazilian freeze-dried Gold Bon CAFÉ), regular commercial coffee creamer (A) and instant commercial coffee creamer (B), hydrogenated palm kernel oil, sugar and vanilla were purchased from the supermarket (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). **Table 1** shows the composition of regular and instant commercial creamers applied for comparison purposes.

#### **2.2. Creamer preparation**

Reduced-fat creamer emulsions were produced according to a method described by Hedayatnia et al. [22] with minor modification (**Figure 1**). Initially, the dispersed phase (**A**) containing the hydrogenated palm kernel oil (8% w/w) and soy lecithin (emulsifier, 0.5% w/w) was mixed in a 100-mL beaker and kept in a thermo-controlled water bath (70°C and rotated at 100 rpm for 20 min). The aqueous phase (**B**) which consists of sodium caseinate (2.5% w/w),

**Table 1.** The composition of regular and instant commercial creamers applied for comparison purposes.

drying chamber. In the present study, spray drying procedure was set at the following condition: inlet temperature, 180 ± 5°C; outlet temperature, 80 ± 5°C; pressure, 552 kPa; and feed

Quality of Reduced-Fat Dairy Coffee Creamer: Affected by Different Fat Replacer and Drying...

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119

In this study, a laboratory scale fluidized-bed dryer (Aeromatic-Fielder AG, GEA Co, Copenhagen, Denmark) was used for agglomeration process under the following experimental condition: 50°C (inlet fluidizing air temperature), 5 mL/min (solution feed rate) and 1.5 m/s (atomizing air pressure) for 30 min. In this study, the creamer powder (150 g) was placed in a container. Then, 30-mL aqueous solution of lecithin concentration (2%, w/w) was fed by a peristaltic pump and sprayed from a spray nozzle, which was located at the top of the chamber. The lecithin solution acts as a binder during the drying process as recommended for fluidization process by Dhanalakshmi et al. [13]. The solution droplets fell down on the creamer powders, while the filtrated hot air from the bottom of the chamber flowed throughout the chamber to reduce the moisture content and dustiness of particles. The atomization of the feed solution was stopped for 5 min every 10 min during fluidization, and the gas flow rate was increased steadily to ensure the proper flow pattern of the solids, and the balance between the coating and agglomeration mechanisms (layering and particle coalescence) could be reached. This helps to compensate the moisture and prevent further stickiness in the drying chamber. Vanilla (5% w/w) was added at the final drying stage because of thermal sensitivity of aromatic compounds. Additional flavors could be added to enhance the overall

Water activity (aw) of all regular and instant creamers was measured in triplicate by using an AquaLab water activity metre (Series 3TE, Decagon Devices Inc., Pullman, WA, USA) with

Average particle size (D[4,3]) was determined by measuring the volume-weighted mean diameter (de Brouckere mean diameter, D4,3) in triplicate for each sample. The experiments was performed by means of a particle size analyzer with powder feeder unit (Model 2000 hydro S, Malvern Instrument, Worcestershire, UK) equipped with a Mastersizer software 2000 (Version 5.13). The volume-weighted mean diameter is estimated by the following equation:

[15].

is the number of particles with diameter Di

rate, 10 mL/min.

**2.4. Fluidized-bed drying**

flavor of the reduced-fat products [53].

**3. Analytical tests**

**3.1. Water activity (aw)**

±0.001 sensitivity at 21°C.

**3.2. Average particle size**

where ni

**Figure 1.** Schematic description of the preparation of reduced-fat creamer.

silicon dioxide (1.0% w/w), dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (2.5% w/w), skim milk powder 7% (w/w) and corn syrup solid (15% w/w) was prepared by gradually dispersing them into 100-mL hot distilled water (70 ± 5°C) and stirred consequently with a magnetic at 100 rpm for 5 min. Subsequently, different concentrations of inulin (0.0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% w/w) and maltodextrin (0, 15, 20 and 25%) (**C**) were gradually added to the aqueous phase (**B**) to prepare the emulsion continuous phase. Hot distilled water (70 ± 5°C) was added to each creamer formulation up to 100%. In the final stage, upon mixing the ingredients, dispersed phase (**A**) was gradually added to the premix and gently stirred for 10 min. Subsequently, the coarse creamer emulsion was homogenized by a high-pressure homogenizer (at 200- and 180-MPa pressure for 2 cycles) prior to the drying process. All formulated reduced-fat creamers and control were prepared under the same drying condition depending on the regular or instant case.

#### **2.3. Spray drying procedure**

After homogenization, the creamer emulsion was fed into a lab scale mini spray dryer (BÜCHI model B-290, Flawil, Switzerland). The samples were atomized with a rotary atomizer into the drying chamber. In the present study, spray drying procedure was set at the following condition: inlet temperature, 180 ± 5°C; outlet temperature, 80 ± 5°C; pressure, 552 kPa; and feed rate, 10 mL/min.

#### **2.4. Fluidized-bed drying**

In this study, a laboratory scale fluidized-bed dryer (Aeromatic-Fielder AG, GEA Co, Copenhagen, Denmark) was used for agglomeration process under the following experimental condition: 50°C (inlet fluidizing air temperature), 5 mL/min (solution feed rate) and 1.5 m/s (atomizing air pressure) for 30 min. In this study, the creamer powder (150 g) was placed in a container. Then, 30-mL aqueous solution of lecithin concentration (2%, w/w) was fed by a peristaltic pump and sprayed from a spray nozzle, which was located at the top of the chamber. The lecithin solution acts as a binder during the drying process as recommended for fluidization process by Dhanalakshmi et al. [13]. The solution droplets fell down on the creamer powders, while the filtrated hot air from the bottom of the chamber flowed throughout the chamber to reduce the moisture content and dustiness of particles. The atomization of the feed solution was stopped for 5 min every 10 min during fluidization, and the gas flow rate was increased steadily to ensure the proper flow pattern of the solids, and the balance between the coating and agglomeration mechanisms (layering and particle coalescence) could be reached. This helps to compensate the moisture and prevent further stickiness in the drying chamber. Vanilla (5% w/w) was added at the final drying stage because of thermal sensitivity of aromatic compounds. Additional flavors could be added to enhance the overall flavor of the reduced-fat products [53].

## **3. Analytical tests**

## **3.1. Water activity (aw)**

silicon dioxide (1.0% w/w), dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (2.5% w/w), skim milk powder 7% (w/w) and corn syrup solid (15% w/w) was prepared by gradually dispersing them into 100-mL hot distilled water (70 ± 5°C) and stirred consequently with a magnetic at 100 rpm for 5 min. Subsequently, different concentrations of inulin (0.0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% w/w) and maltodextrin (0, 15, 20 and 25%) (**C**) were gradually added to the aqueous phase (**B**) to prepare the emulsion continuous phase. Hot distilled water (70 ± 5°C) was added to each creamer formulation up to 100%. In the final stage, upon mixing the ingredients, dispersed phase (**A**) was gradually added to the premix and gently stirred for 10 min. Subsequently, the coarse creamer emulsion was homogenized by a high-pressure homogenizer (at 200- and 180-MPa pressure for 2 cycles) prior to the drying process. All formulated reduced-fat creamers and control were

**Figure 1.** Schematic description of the preparation of reduced-fat creamer.

prepared under the same drying condition depending on the regular or instant case.

After homogenization, the creamer emulsion was fed into a lab scale mini spray dryer (BÜCHI model B-290, Flawil, Switzerland). The samples were atomized with a rotary atomizer into the

**2.3. Spray drying procedure**

118 Descriptive Food Science

Water activity (aw) of all regular and instant creamers was measured in triplicate by using an AquaLab water activity metre (Series 3TE, Decagon Devices Inc., Pullman, WA, USA) with ±0.001 sensitivity at 21°C.

#### **3.2. Average particle size**

Average particle size (D[4,3]) was determined by measuring the volume-weighted mean diameter (de Brouckere mean diameter, D4,3) in triplicate for each sample. The experiments was performed by means of a particle size analyzer with powder feeder unit (Model 2000 hydro S, Malvern Instrument, Worcestershire, UK) equipped with a Mastersizer software 2000 (Version 5.13). The volume-weighted mean diameter is estimated by the following equation:

$$\mathbf{D} \text{ [}4, 3\text{]} = \Sigma \text{nħ} \text{D}\_{\text{i}}^{4} / \Sigma \text{nġ} \text{D}\_{\text{i}}^{3}$$

where ni is the number of particles with diameter Di [15].

#### **3.3. Wettability determination**

The wettability of creamers was determined according to the method described by Gong et al. [19] with minor modification. In this experiment, 100-mL hot distilled water (70 ± 5°C) was poured into a 250-mL glass beaker; then 10 g of creamer powder was poured into the beaker. The time required for the powder to completely become wet was recorded as wetting time. This measurement was carried out in triplicate for each sample.

#### **3.4. Apparent viscosity measurement**

The apparent viscosity of all creamers was measured with a rheometer (RheolabQC Rheometer, Anton Paar Co, Österreich, Austria) at room temperature (25 ± 1°C). The experiment was conducted by reconstituting 20-g creamer with100-mL hot distilled water (70 ± 5°C). Then, 25 ml of prepared solution (20%, w/w) was shaken prior to analysis. Prior to shearing test, all samples were left 5 min to reach the equilibrium condition. Apparent viscosity was measured in triplicate for each sample.

#### **3.5. Color evaluation**

The color intensity of all creamers was measured by a Hunter Lab colorimeter (Model A60– 1012-402, Fairfax County, VA, USA). The color intensity was expressed in the CIELAB space as L\* (lightness; 0 = black, 100 = white) and b\* (+b = yellowness, −b = blueness) values [24]. For color measurement, 10 mg of sample was placed in a transparent polypropylene bag for analysis. The color measurement was done in triplicate for each sample.

#### **3.6. Yield determination**

The drying yield was measured according to the method described by Koocheki et al. [31]. The averages of three individual measurements were considered for each sample:

$$Y = 100 \times \left(^{\text{M}\_{\text{M}\_z}}\right)$$

M1 = mass of initial ingredients (g); M2 = mass of final powders (g).

#### **3.7. Experimental design and statistical analysis**

A full factorial design technique was considered to prepare different samples (**Table 2**). Oneway analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Fisher's multiple comparison tests were used to find out the significant (*p* < 0.05) or insignificant (*p* > 0.05) difference among all samples. Then, the data were subjected to two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine the main and interaction effects of inulin and maltodextrin on the creamer characteristics. The degree of significance of all independent variables could be determined with F-ratio. The factor or independent variable with higher F-ratio represents the factor with more significant powerful effect and vice versa [38]. Also, the t-test was applied to analyze the significant (*p* < 0.05) difference among mean values of samples before and after agglomeration process. Minitab

**Components** **CS**

Maltodextrin (%)

Inulin (%) HPKO (%) Sodium caseinate (%)

Skim milk powder (%)

DPHP (%) Silicon dioxide (%)

Lecithin (%) Solid corn (%)

Vanilla (%)

**Table 2.**

The compositions of different reduced-fat creamer slurries.

15.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0 HPKO, hydrogenated palm kernel oil; DPHP, dipotassium hydrogen phosphate; final volume was adjusted up to 100

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

ml by distilled water.

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

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15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

15.0

1.0 2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

7.0 2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

0 0 8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

2.5

5.0

7.5

0

2.5

5.0

7.5

0

2.5

5.0

7.5

0

2.5

5.0

7.5

0

0

0

15

15

15

15

20

20

20

20

25

25

25

25

**A**

**B**

**C**

**D**

**E**

**F**

**G**

**H**

**I**

**J**

**K**

**L**

**M**

**N**

**O**

**Formulations**

**3.3. Wettability determination**

120 Descriptive Food Science

**3.4. Apparent viscosity measurement**

in triplicate for each sample.

**3.5. Color evaluation**

**3.6. Yield determination**

The wettability of creamers was determined according to the method described by Gong et al. [19] with minor modification. In this experiment, 100-mL hot distilled water (70 ± 5°C) was poured into a 250-mL glass beaker; then 10 g of creamer powder was poured into the beaker. The time required for the powder to completely become wet was recorded as wetting time.

The apparent viscosity of all creamers was measured with a rheometer (RheolabQC Rheometer, Anton Paar Co, Österreich, Austria) at room temperature (25 ± 1°C). The experiment was conducted by reconstituting 20-g creamer with100-mL hot distilled water (70 ± 5°C). Then, 25 ml of prepared solution (20%, w/w) was shaken prior to analysis. Prior to shearing test, all samples were left 5 min to reach the equilibrium condition. Apparent viscosity was measured

The color intensity of all creamers was measured by a Hunter Lab colorimeter (Model A60– 1012-402, Fairfax County, VA, USA). The color intensity was expressed in the CIELAB space as L\* (lightness; 0 = black, 100 = white) and b\* (+b = yellowness, −b = blueness) values [24]. For color measurement, 10 mg of sample was placed in a transparent polypropylene bag for

The drying yield was measured according to the method described by Koocheki et al. [31].

A full factorial design technique was considered to prepare different samples (**Table 2**). Oneway analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Fisher's multiple comparison tests were used to find out the significant (*p* < 0.05) or insignificant (*p* > 0.05) difference among all samples. Then, the data were subjected to two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine the main and interaction effects of inulin and maltodextrin on the creamer characteristics. The degree of significance of all independent variables could be determined with F-ratio. The factor or independent variable with higher F-ratio represents the factor with more significant powerful effect and vice versa [38]. Also, the t-test was applied to analyze the significant (*p* < 0.05) difference among mean values of samples before and after agglomeration process. Minitab

*M*2 )

The averages of three individual measurements were considered for each sample:

analysis. The color measurement was done in triplicate for each sample.

M1 = mass of initial ingredients (g); M2 = mass of final powders (g).

*Y* = 100 × (*M*1⁄

**3.7. Experimental design and statistical analysis**

This measurement was carried out in triplicate for each sample.

**Table 2.** The compositions of different reduced-fat creamer slurries. version 16 (Minitab Inc., State College, PA, USA) was used to run the statistical analysis. All formulated creamers were compared with control and two commercial creamers (A and B) to investigate the impact of different fat replacers and drying techniques.

0.26 with increase in maltodextrin and inulin contents. The samples containing higher maltodextrin and inulin contents had lower water activity, while control sample (CS) had the highest water activity among all formulated creamers (**Figure 2**a). The control sample is probably more hygroscopic than the other formulated creamers. The result showed that the control creamer adsorbed more water than other formulated creamers. It had the highest stickiness and very poor reconstitution properties as well. In this case, Kumar and Mishra [32] explained that the proper water activity of powder should be between 0.20 and 0.25. Water activity (aw) of instant spray-dried samples also varied from 0.36 to 0.24 (**Figure 2**b). It was concluded that the single and interaction effects of inulin and maltodextrin significantly (*p* < 0.05) affected the water activity of regular and instant spray-dried creamers (**Table 3**). Maltodextrin has highly hygroscopic effect with the extensive ability to capture the free moisture, so aw reduction can

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123

**Table 4** also shows that the water activity of the creamer was significantly influenced by fluidized-bed drying. This difference was analyzed by comparing the water activity of the regular and instant creamer before and after fluidized-bed drying, respectively. Maltodextrin showed more significant (*p* < 0.05) effects than inulin as indicated by its higher F-ratio. It was observed that the agglomeration induced by fluidized-bed drying significantly (*p* < 0.05) decreased the water activity of instant creamers. This might be attributed to long residence time (about '30 min) and hot air (50°C) injected throughout fluidized-bed the dryer. The hot air caused

**Creamer Creamer characteristics Linear effect Interaction effect R2**

Regular Water activity 0.000 52 0.000 793 0.000 1 0.971

Instant Water activity 0.000 585 0.000 1389 0.000 12 0.998

particle size 0.000 14 0.000 1744 0.000 74 0.994 Apparent viscosity 0.000 48 0.000 1442 0.278a 1 0.990 Wettability 0.000 22 0.000 832 0.006 4 0.988 Lightness (L\*) 0.000 158 0.000 5181 0.000 40 0.997 Yellowness (b\*) 0.000 134 0.000 8691 0.000 22 0.999 Yield 0.367a 1 0.002 8 0.477a 1 0.690

particle size 0.000 108 0.000 2259 0.001 7 0.995 Apparent viscosity 0.000 859 0.000 38,957 0.000 95 0.999 Wettability 0.000 550 0.000 800 0.000 5 0.988 Lightness (L\*) 0.000 7609 0.000 265,995 0.000 206 0.999 Yellowness (b\*) 0.000 474 0.000 15,137 0.000 32 0.997 Yield 0.000 23 0.000 4009 0.000 12 0.998

**Table 3.** Two-way ANOVA showing the single main effect and interaction effect of inulin and maltodextrin on

**Inulin Maltodextrin Inulin\* Maltodextrin p-value F-ratio p-value F-ratio p-value F-ratio**

be due to such maltodextrin function.

a

Non-significant (*p* > 0.05).

characteristics of regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers.

#### **4. Results and dissociation**

#### **4.1. Effect of different fat replacers and drying techniques on water activity**

**Figure 2** shows that the water activity (aw) of the formulated creamers was significantly (*p* < 0.05) affected by the type and content of fat replacer as well as drying technique. As shown in **Figure 2**a, water activity of regular creamers significantly decreased from 0.36 to

**Figure 2.** Water activity of differently formulated regular creamers (a) and instant creamers (b) as compared to the control (CS) and two regular and instant commercial creamers (CO) (a and B). a–m Significant differences at the confidence level of *p* ≤ 0.05 (mean ± SD, n = 3); A–C: Creamers with 0% maltodextrin and 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. D–G: Creamers with 15% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. H–K: Creamers with 20% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. L–O: Creamers with 25% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively.

0.26 with increase in maltodextrin and inulin contents. The samples containing higher maltodextrin and inulin contents had lower water activity, while control sample (CS) had the highest water activity among all formulated creamers (**Figure 2**a). The control sample is probably more hygroscopic than the other formulated creamers. The result showed that the control creamer adsorbed more water than other formulated creamers. It had the highest stickiness and very poor reconstitution properties as well. In this case, Kumar and Mishra [32] explained that the proper water activity of powder should be between 0.20 and 0.25. Water activity (aw) of instant spray-dried samples also varied from 0.36 to 0.24 (**Figure 2**b). It was concluded that the single and interaction effects of inulin and maltodextrin significantly (*p* < 0.05) affected the water activity of regular and instant spray-dried creamers (**Table 3**). Maltodextrin has highly hygroscopic effect with the extensive ability to capture the free moisture, so aw reduction can be due to such maltodextrin function.

**Table 4** also shows that the water activity of the creamer was significantly influenced by fluidized-bed drying. This difference was analyzed by comparing the water activity of the regular and instant creamer before and after fluidized-bed drying, respectively. Maltodextrin showed more significant (*p* < 0.05) effects than inulin as indicated by its higher F-ratio. It was observed that the agglomeration induced by fluidized-bed drying significantly (*p* < 0.05) decreased the water activity of instant creamers. This might be attributed to long residence time (about '30 min) and hot air (50°C) injected throughout fluidized-bed the dryer. The hot air caused

**Table 3.** Two-way ANOVA showing the single main effect and interaction effect of inulin and maltodextrin on characteristics of regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers.

**Figure 2.** Water activity of differently formulated regular creamers (a) and instant creamers (b) as compared to the control (CS) and two regular and instant commercial creamers (CO) (a and B). a–m Significant differences at the confidence level of *p* ≤ 0.05 (mean ± SD, n = 3); A–C: Creamers with 0% maltodextrin and 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. D–G: Creamers with 15% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. H–K: Creamers with 20% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. L–O: Creamers with 25% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin,

version 16 (Minitab Inc., State College, PA, USA) was used to run the statistical analysis. All formulated creamers were compared with control and two commercial creamers (A and B) to

**Figure 2** shows that the water activity (aw) of the formulated creamers was significantly (*p* < 0.05) affected by the type and content of fat replacer as well as drying technique. As shown in **Figure 2**a, water activity of regular creamers significantly decreased from 0.36 to

investigate the impact of different fat replacers and drying techniques.

**4.1. Effect of different fat replacers and drying techniques on water activity**

**4. Results and dissociation**

122 Descriptive Food Science

respectively.

a Insignificant at *p* > 0.05.

**Table 4.** Student *t-*test for significant comparison of the regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers.

more water evaporation from the surface of the particles, thus providing less stickiness (wall deposition). The results showed that the regular creamers had higher water activity than the instant creamers, indicating a higher amount of freely available water for the undesirable biological reactions and consequently inducing shorter shelf life.

#### **4.2. Effect of different fat replacers and drying techniques on wettability and apparent viscosity**

**Table 5** shows the wettability and apparent viscosity of different reduced-fat dairy creamer as compared to two commercial creamers and control. The wettability and viscosity of the regular and instant dairy creamer were significantly (*p* < 0.05) affected by the different compositions and drying techniques. Wettability is an important instant property of powder, and it is defined as the ability of particles to overcome the surface tension between the liquid (solvent) and themselves [14]. It is also directly affected by the interactions between two phases [9]. In general, wettability is considered to be the rate-controlling step of the reconstitution process [29] with the surface content strongly affecting the wettability [16]. In the current study, the regular (75 s) and instant (63 s) control creamers showed the longest wetting time among all formulated creamers (**Table 5**). This might be explained by the effects of fat replacer and total solid contents on the wettability of the reduced-fat creamer (**Table 6**). The presence of free fat on the particle surface could reduce wettability of control sample due to its hydrophobicity, making it difficult for water to penetrate into the powder.

As shown in **Table 5**, the regular spray-dried creamers exhibited different levels of wettability (40–75.50 s), while the instant spray-dried creamers lower faster wettability (13–61 s) than regular creamers with similar formulations. This was comparable with the wettability of the regular commercial creamer A (43 s) and instant commercial creamer B (17 s), respectively. The results showed that the wetting time of regular and instant creamers was decreased by increasing the particle size and decreasing the water activity of creamers. Jakubczyk et al. [26] reported that the wettability of the apple puree powder was improved from '45 to '33 (s) by increasing maltodextrin from 6 to 15% (w/w). The amount of wall materials significantly affected the wettability of the final powder. The results showed that there was a reverse relationship between wetting time and the content of wall materials (i.e. inulin and maltodextrin).

**Sample Regular creamers Instant creamers**

**Yield (%) Wettability (s)**

Quality of Reduced-Fat Dairy Coffee Creamer: Affected by Different Fat Replacer and Drying...

66.50 ± 0.70bc 5.37 ± 0.02b 55.03 ± 0.04i 44.00 ± 2.12c 6.01 ± 0.01k 55.03 ± 0.04i

61.50 ± 0.83d 5.54 ± 0.01bc 61.45 ± 0.63h 39.50 ± 3.53d 6.18 ± 0.01j 61.45 ± 0.63h

58.50 ± 0.75e 5.81 ± 0.02cd 66.00 ± 1.41g 36.00 ± 1.41e 6.56 ± 0.02f 66.00 ± 1.41g

50.50 ± 0.65g 6.04 ± 0.03d 75.66 ± 0.48e 30.00 ± 0.00g 6.75 ± 0.02e 75.66 ± 0.48e

44.00 ± 1.40h 6.35 ± 0.01d 85.06 ± 0.09c 24.00 ± 0.73h 7.12 ± 0.01c 85.06 ± 0.09c

40.50 ± 0.77ij 6.53 ± 0.03d 94.60 ± 0.56a 13.00 ± 1.40j 7.32 ± 0.01b 94.60 ± 0.56a

43.00 ± 1.41hi 5.82 ± 0.02d — 17.00 ± 0.00i 7.29 ± 0.00b —

\*Control (0% inulin and maltodextrin); mean values ± standard deviation with different lowercase letters in the same

**Table 5.** Significant differences (*p* < 0.05) among different regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers as compared to

column indicating significant difference (*P* < 0.05); control (0%MA & 0%IN); MA, maltodextrin; IN, inulin.

two regular and instant commercial creamers in terms of wettability, apparent viscosity and yield.

Control\* 75.00 ± 0.82a 4.75 ± 0.19a 43.00 ± 1.83l 63.00 ± 0.00a 4.85 ± 0.01n 43.30 ± 1.20l MA0%, IN2.5% 75.50 ± 0.70a 4.88 ± 0.02ab 43.55 ± 0.62l 61.00 ± 1.4a 4.84 ± 0.01n 43.55 ± 0.62l MA 0%, IN 5% 75.50 ± 0.70a 5.04 ± 0.06b 47.00 ± 0.00k 56.50 ± 0.70b 5.21 ± 0.01m 47.00 ± 0.31k MA0%, IN7.5% 76.00 ± 0.93a 5.06 ± 0.05b 47.77 ± 0.31k 55.50 ± 0.70b 5.29 ± 0.01l 47.77 ± 0.31k MA15%, IN0% 69.00 ± 0.97b 5.32 ± 0.02b 53.35 ± 0.50 j 54.00 ± 1.41b 6.03 ± 0.02k 53.35 ± 0.50 j

MA15%, IN 5% 64.00 ± 1.06cd 5.46 ± 0.02b 60.55 ± 0.78h 40.00 ± 0.00d 6.21 ± 0.01i 60.55 ± 0.78h

MA20%, IN0% 58.50 ± 0.70e 5.76 ± 0.02cd 65.80 ± 1.13g 35.00 ± 3.53ef 6.49 ± 0.01h 65.80 ± 1.13g

MA20%, IN 5% 54.00 ± 1.21f 5.89 ± 0.01cd 70.60 ± 0.55f 32.50 ± 0.70fg 6.52 ± 0.00g 70.60 ± 0.55f

MA25%, IN0% 45.50 ± 2.05h 6.29 ± 0.00d 79.77 ± 0.48d 24.00 ± 1.41h 7.09 ± 0.01d 79.77 ± 0.48d

MA25%, IN 5% 40.00 ± 0.09j 6.41 ± 0.01d 89.45 ± 0.77b 19.00 ± 1.40i 7.35 ± 0.01a 89.45 ± 0.77b

**Apparent viscosity**

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**Yield (%)**

125

**(mPa.s)**

**Apparent viscosity (mPa.s)**

**Wettability (s)**

MA15%, IN2.5%

MA15%, IN7.5%

MA20%, IN2.5%

MA20%, IN7.5%

MA25%, IN2.5%

MA25%, IN7.5%

Commercial creamers

\*Control (0% inulin and maltodextrin); mean values ± standard deviation with different lowercase letters in the same column indicating significant difference (*P* < 0.05); control (0%MA & 0%IN); MA, maltodextrin; IN, inulin.

more water evaporation from the surface of the particles, thus providing less stickiness (wall deposition). The results showed that the regular creamers had higher water activity than the instant creamers, indicating a higher amount of freely available water for the undesirable

**Table 5** shows the wettability and apparent viscosity of different reduced-fat dairy creamer as compared to two commercial creamers and control. The wettability and viscosity of the regular and instant dairy creamer were significantly (*p* < 0.05) affected by the different compositions and drying techniques. Wettability is an important instant property of powder, and it is defined as the ability of particles to overcome the surface tension between the liquid (solvent) and themselves [14]. It is also directly affected by the interactions between two phases [9]. In general, wettability is considered to be the rate-controlling step of the reconstitution process [29] with the surface content strongly affecting the wettability [16]. In the current study, the regular (75 s) and instant (63 s) control creamers showed the longest wetting time among all formulated creamers (**Table 5**). This might be explained by the effects of fat replacer and total solid contents on the wettability of the reduced-fat creamer (**Table 6**). The presence of free fat on the particle surface could reduce wettability of control sample due to its hydrophobicity,

biological reactions and consequently inducing shorter shelf life.

**Creamers Mean p-value T-value Test**

RSRC 0.33 0.000 5.87 Water activity (aw)

RSRC 5.66 0.000 −12.84 Apparent viscosity

RSRC 58.68 0.000 29.55 Wettability

RSRC 66.05 0.000 −9.96 Particle size

RSRC 84.33 0.000 12.61 Lightness (L\*)

RSRC 13.79 0.000 −14.99 Yellowness (b\*)

RSRC 64.40 0.360a −0.92 Yield

making it difficult for water to penetrate into the powder.

**apparent viscosity**

ISRC 0.29

124 Descriptive Food Science

ISRC 37.97

ISRC 6.30

ISRC 120.15

ISRC 81.01

ISRC 15.70

ISRC 66.59

Insignificant at *p* > 0.05.

a

RSRC: Regular spray-dried reduced-fat creamer. ISRC: Instant spray-dried reduced-fat creamer.

**4.2. Effect of different fat replacers and drying techniques on wettability and**

**Table 4.** Student *t-*test for significant comparison of the regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers.

**Table 5.** Significant differences (*p* < 0.05) among different regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers as compared to two regular and instant commercial creamers in terms of wettability, apparent viscosity and yield.

As shown in **Table 5**, the regular spray-dried creamers exhibited different levels of wettability (40–75.50 s), while the instant spray-dried creamers lower faster wettability (13–61 s) than regular creamers with similar formulations. This was comparable with the wettability of the regular commercial creamer A (43 s) and instant commercial creamer B (17 s), respectively. The results showed that the wetting time of regular and instant creamers was decreased by increasing the particle size and decreasing the water activity of creamers. Jakubczyk et al. [26] reported that the wettability of the apple puree powder was improved from '45 to '33 (s) by increasing maltodextrin from 6 to 15% (w/w). The amount of wall materials significantly affected the wettability of the final powder. The results showed that there was a reverse relationship between wetting time and the content of wall materials (i.e. inulin and maltodextrin).

creamers was significantly (*p* < 0.05) increased by increasing the concentration of maltodextrin and inulin in the creamer formulation. This could be due to increasing the total solids of samples and positive effect of inulin and maltodextrin on the formation of a stable particle gel with tridimensional network in the present of aqueous phase which led to enhance the viscosity of creamer. Debon et al. [10] also reported the similar observation. They reported that the addition of 5% inulin to the formulation significantly increased the apparent viscosity of low-fat fermented milk. It might be due to several different factors such as (i) the interaction between inulin and milk protein (i.e. sodium caseinate) leading to enhance the viscosity, (ii) the high inulin capacity to retain water [46] and (iii) the capacity to retain water by formation of small aggregates of inulin microcrystal [20]. This might be due to the increase in the

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The apparent viscosity of the spray-dried creamers was greatly enhanced after agglomeration via fluidized-bed drying (**Table 5**). This could be explained by the significant (*p* < 0.05) effects of the agglomeration on the intermolecular interactions among creamer particles which resulted in higher viscosity. In addition, the lower moisture content and higher total solid content can be also responsible for the higher viscosity of the instant creamers. Water acts as a mobility enhancer, resulting in a larger free volume and a reduction in the viscosity [48].

In the current study, the average particle size of different creamers was determined by measuring the volume-weighted mean. The particle size of the powder can significantly affect its appearance, flowability, wettability and dispensability [43]. **Figure 4** showed a significantly increase in the particle size of different formulated creamers. The results showed that the creamer O containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin exhibited the largest particle size (101.45 μm), while the control sample had the smallest particle size among all regular spray-dried dairy creamers, respectively (**Figure 4a**). As stated by Master [36], the particle size is highly influenced by the viscosity of the feed. Similar observations were previously reported by Jinapong et al. [27] wherein increasing the solids content of instant spray-dried soymilk powders from 5.2 to 13.0%

**Figure 4b** shows that agglomeration process by fluidized-bed drying technique significantly (*p* < 0.05) increased the volume-weighted mean (D4, 3) or particle size of the instant spray creamers compared to the regular creamers. As stated by Chen and Özkan [8], agglomeration results in larger particles, bigger particle clusters and better flow characteristics than one-stage drying. The instant spray-dried creamers exhibited different particle size, ranging from 46.45 to 193.26 μm compared to control creamer (47.35 μm) and the commercial instant creamer B (190.94 μm) (**Figure 4b**). As stated by Carić [7], the most suitable particle size for rapid dispersion is around 150–200 μm. Binder in the wet agglomeration process leads to the enlargement of particle size, thereby improving the flowability of the final powder [3, 44]. Jinapong et al. [27] reported that the particle size of the instant spray-dried soymilk was increased from 25 to 260 μm after subjecting the sample to fluidized-bed drying. This finding was also reported also by Machado et al. [35] wherein agglomerated soy protein had much larger particles than non-agglomerated regular creamer. In addition, it was found that the agglomeration through fluidized-bed drying also caused stickiness reduction and flowability

**4.3. Effect of different fat replacers and drying techniques on average particle size**

significantly resulted in enlargement of the particle size from 14.54 to 23.59 (μm).

amount of soluble materials and reduction in the moisture content.

r = r Pearson correlation; significant at *p* < 0.05; r > 0.9 represents positive strong correlation, while and r > −0.9 represents negative strong correlation.

**Table 6.** Correlation analysis between total solid content, inulin and maltodextrin contents and creamer characteristics.

**Figure 3.** Dissolution timeline for regular and agglomerated (instant) powder showing the overlaps between different phases with time [14].

The creamer containing the highest maltodextrin (25%) and inulin (7.5%) showed the shortest wetting time among all formulated creamers (**Table 5**).

The instant creamer exhibited significantly higher wettability (shorter wettability) than the regular creamer (**Table 5**) due to large particles exhibiting more empty spaces among themselves, resulting in easier penetration by the liquid (i.e. water) [15]. Lecithin can modify the flowability and wettability of dried powders due to its potential surface active properties with higher porosity and better wettability [13]. **Figure 3** clearly shows the schematic of dissolution timeline for standard and agglomerated powder [14] by correlation between the wettability, dispersibility and solubility in the regular (non-agglomerated) and instant creamers.

As shown in **Table 5**, the apparent viscosity of regular spray-dried creamers varied from 4.88 to 6.53 (mPa.s) as compared to the control (4.75 mPa.s) and regular commercial creamer A (5.82 mPa.s). In addition, the viscosity of the instant spray-dried creamers varied from 4.84 to 7.35 (mPa.s) compared to the commercial instant creamer B (7.29 mPa.s) and control sample (4.85 mPa.s) (**Table 5**). The result showed that the apparent viscosity of regular and instant creamers was significantly (*p* < 0.05) increased by increasing the concentration of maltodextrin and inulin in the creamer formulation. This could be due to increasing the total solids of samples and positive effect of inulin and maltodextrin on the formation of a stable particle gel with tridimensional network in the present of aqueous phase which led to enhance the viscosity of creamer. Debon et al. [10] also reported the similar observation. They reported that the addition of 5% inulin to the formulation significantly increased the apparent viscosity of low-fat fermented milk. It might be due to several different factors such as (i) the interaction between inulin and milk protein (i.e. sodium caseinate) leading to enhance the viscosity, (ii) the high inulin capacity to retain water [46] and (iii) the capacity to retain water by formation of small aggregates of inulin microcrystal [20]. This might be due to the increase in the amount of soluble materials and reduction in the moisture content.

The apparent viscosity of the spray-dried creamers was greatly enhanced after agglomeration via fluidized-bed drying (**Table 5**). This could be explained by the significant (*p* < 0.05) effects of the agglomeration on the intermolecular interactions among creamer particles which resulted in higher viscosity. In addition, the lower moisture content and higher total solid content can be also responsible for the higher viscosity of the instant creamers. Water acts as a mobility enhancer, resulting in a larger free volume and a reduction in the viscosity [48].

#### **4.3. Effect of different fat replacers and drying techniques on average particle size**

The creamer containing the highest maltodextrin (25%) and inulin (7.5%) showed the shortest

**Figure 3.** Dissolution timeline for regular and agglomerated (instant) powder showing the overlaps between different

The instant creamer exhibited significantly higher wettability (shorter wettability) than the regular creamer (**Table 5**) due to large particles exhibiting more empty spaces among themselves, resulting in easier penetration by the liquid (i.e. water) [15]. Lecithin can modify the flowability and wettability of dried powders due to its potential surface active properties with higher porosity and better wettability [13]. **Figure 3** clearly shows the schematic of dissolution timeline for standard and agglomerated powder [14] by correlation between the wettability,

As shown in **Table 5**, the apparent viscosity of regular spray-dried creamers varied from 4.88 to 6.53 (mPa.s) as compared to the control (4.75 mPa.s) and regular commercial creamer A (5.82 mPa.s). In addition, the viscosity of the instant spray-dried creamers varied from 4.84 to 7.35 (mPa.s) compared to the commercial instant creamer B (7.29 mPa.s) and control sample (4.85 mPa.s) (**Table 5**). The result showed that the apparent viscosity of regular and instant

dispersibility and solubility in the regular (non-agglomerated) and instant creamers.

wetting time among all formulated creamers (**Table 5**).

**Characteristics Inulin Maltodextrin Total solid**

0.180 0.506

−0.156 0.564

0.656 0.045\* 0.938 0.000\*

−0.925 0.000\*

0.907 0.000\*

r = r Pearson correlation; significant at *p* < 0.05; r > 0.9 represents positive strong correlation, while and r > −0.9 represents

**Table 6.** Correlation analysis between total solid content, inulin and maltodextrin contents and creamer characteristics.

Viscosity r-correlation

126 Descriptive Food Science

Wettability r-correlation

Particle size r-correlation

negative strong correlation.

phases with time [14].

p-value

p-value

p-value

**content**

0.950 0.000\*

−0.931 0.000\*

0.924 0.000\* **Wettability Viscosity**

— —

—

0.941 0.000\*

−0.988 0.000\*

−0.903 0.001\*

> In the current study, the average particle size of different creamers was determined by measuring the volume-weighted mean. The particle size of the powder can significantly affect its appearance, flowability, wettability and dispensability [43]. **Figure 4** showed a significantly increase in the particle size of different formulated creamers. The results showed that the creamer O containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin exhibited the largest particle size (101.45 μm), while the control sample had the smallest particle size among all regular spray-dried dairy creamers, respectively (**Figure 4a**). As stated by Master [36], the particle size is highly influenced by the viscosity of the feed. Similar observations were previously reported by Jinapong et al. [27] wherein increasing the solids content of instant spray-dried soymilk powders from 5.2 to 13.0% significantly resulted in enlargement of the particle size from 14.54 to 23.59 (μm).

> **Figure 4b** shows that agglomeration process by fluidized-bed drying technique significantly (*p* < 0.05) increased the volume-weighted mean (D4, 3) or particle size of the instant spray creamers compared to the regular creamers. As stated by Chen and Özkan [8], agglomeration results in larger particles, bigger particle clusters and better flow characteristics than one-stage drying. The instant spray-dried creamers exhibited different particle size, ranging from 46.45 to 193.26 μm compared to control creamer (47.35 μm) and the commercial instant creamer B (190.94 μm) (**Figure 4b**). As stated by Carić [7], the most suitable particle size for rapid dispersion is around 150–200 μm. Binder in the wet agglomeration process leads to the enlargement of particle size, thereby improving the flowability of the final powder [3, 44]. Jinapong et al. [27] reported that the particle size of the instant spray-dried soymilk was increased from 25 to 260 μm after subjecting the sample to fluidized-bed drying. This finding was also reported also by Machado et al. [35] wherein agglomerated soy protein had much larger particles than non-agglomerated regular creamer. In addition, it was found that the agglomeration through fluidized-bed drying also caused stickiness reduction and flowability

The low yield was observed for the control. This could be due to the stickiness of this sample to the spray drying chamber and cyclone wall. This might be because the control did not contain inulin and very low percentage of maltodextrin as a drying aid. Stickiness is one of the main technological issues in the production of powders such as coffee creamer because it results in a reduction of the yield and stability. The result showed significant improvement in the production yield by increasing the maltodextrin and inulin content in the formulation (**Table 5**). This was in agreement with the previous finding reported by Shrestha et al. [45] for spray-dried tomato pulp. In fact, the addition of drying aids such as maltodextrin with high glass transition temperature (>145°C) to the premix is one of the most suitable ways to increase the stability, decrease the stickiness and improve the yield [21, 45]. In addition, maltodextrin can help to shorten the drying time, thus reducing the input energy required for spray drying process. According to Adhikari et al. [1], the improvement of yield (recovery) might be due to the formation of a thin protein-rich membrane at the particle-air interface. The high glass transition temperature of this surface layer causes the conversion of this thin membrane into a glassy state, which prevents particles from sticking to each other and to the walls of the dryer which resulted in the decrease of the wall deposition during drying and increase of the yield. As shown in **Table 3**, maltodextrin with higher F-ratio had higher significant effects than inulin on the yield. There was no significant (*p* > 0.05) difference between the yields of single- or double-step drying processes for regular and instant creamer, respectively.

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**Figure 5.** The appearance of regular commercial creamer (a) as compared to the control creamer (b) and regular

formulated-reduced-fat creamer containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin.

**Figure 4.** Volume-weighted mean (or average particle size) of differently formulated regular creamers (a) and instant creamers (b) as compared to the control (CS) and two regular and instant commercial creamers (CO) (a and B). a–m Significant differences at the confidence level of *p* ≤ 0.05 (mean ± SD, n = 3); A–C: Creamers with 0% maltodextrin and 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. D–G: Creamers with 15% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. H–K: Creamers with 20% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. L–O: Creamers with 25% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively.

improvement in the creamer. As the particle size increases, the adhesive forces decrease due to the attractive forces (i.e. van der Waals) among creamer particles [54]. However, the application of the spray drying process followed by the agglomeration process resulted in a significant (*p* < 0.05) better flowability and reconstitution properties than the spray drying alone. Dhanalakshmi et al. [13] indicated that the powder flowability and reconstitution are highly affected by the particle size, shape and distribution, the particle surface properties as well as the geometry of the system. As shown in **Table 3**, the linear and interaction effects of the inulin and maltodextrin had significant (*p* < 0.05) effect on the volume-weighed mean (or particle size) of spray-dried creamers.

#### **4.4. Effect of different fat replacers and drying techniques on yield**

**Table 5** shows the yield of regular and instant dairy creamers compared to the control sample. The control sample had remarkably lower yield (43%) than other regular spray-dried creamers. The low yield was observed for the control. This could be due to the stickiness of this sample to the spray drying chamber and cyclone wall. This might be because the control did not contain inulin and very low percentage of maltodextrin as a drying aid. Stickiness is one of the main technological issues in the production of powders such as coffee creamer because it results in a reduction of the yield and stability. The result showed significant improvement in the production yield by increasing the maltodextrin and inulin content in the formulation (**Table 5**). This was in agreement with the previous finding reported by Shrestha et al. [45] for spray-dried tomato pulp. In fact, the addition of drying aids such as maltodextrin with high glass transition temperature (>145°C) to the premix is one of the most suitable ways to increase the stability, decrease the stickiness and improve the yield [21, 45]. In addition, maltodextrin can help to shorten the drying time, thus reducing the input energy required for spray drying process. According to Adhikari et al. [1], the improvement of yield (recovery) might be due to the formation of a thin protein-rich membrane at the particle-air interface. The high glass transition temperature of this surface layer causes the conversion of this thin membrane into a glassy state, which prevents particles from sticking to each other and to the walls of the dryer which resulted in the decrease of the wall deposition during drying and increase of the yield. As shown in **Table 3**, maltodextrin with higher F-ratio had higher significant effects than inulin on the yield. There was no significant (*p* > 0.05) difference between the yields of single- or double-step drying processes for regular and instant creamer, respectively.

improvement in the creamer. As the particle size increases, the adhesive forces decrease due to the attractive forces (i.e. van der Waals) among creamer particles [54]. However, the application of the spray drying process followed by the agglomeration process resulted in a significant (*p* < 0.05) better flowability and reconstitution properties than the spray drying alone. Dhanalakshmi et al. [13] indicated that the powder flowability and reconstitution are highly affected by the particle size, shape and distribution, the particle surface properties as well as the geometry of the system. As shown in **Table 3**, the linear and interaction effects of the inulin and maltodextrin had significant (*p* < 0.05) effect on the volume-weighed mean (or particle

**Figure 4.** Volume-weighted mean (or average particle size) of differently formulated regular creamers (a) and instant creamers (b) as compared to the control (CS) and two regular and instant commercial creamers (CO) (a and B). a–m Significant differences at the confidence level of *p* ≤ 0.05 (mean ± SD, n = 3); A–C: Creamers with 0% maltodextrin and 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. D–G: Creamers with 15% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. H–K: Creamers with 20% maltodextrin and 0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively. L–O: Creamers with 25% maltodextrin and

**Table 5** shows the yield of regular and instant dairy creamers compared to the control sample. The control sample had remarkably lower yield (43%) than other regular spray-dried creamers.

**4.4. Effect of different fat replacers and drying techniques on yield**

size) of spray-dried creamers.

0, 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5% inulin, respectively.

128 Descriptive Food Science

**Figure 5.** The appearance of regular commercial creamer (a) as compared to the control creamer (b) and regular formulated-reduced-fat creamer containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin.

It means that there was not any material loss or stickiness to the wall during fluidized-bed dying process. This could be attributed to the high efficiency of such drying technique.

creamer A (**Table 7**). According to Roland et al. (1999), reduced-fat ice cream made by only maltodextrin exhibited similar whiteness to 10% fat ice cream. Moreover, the control and creamer containing 0% maltodextrin and 2.5% inulin had the highest b\*among all samples. On the other hand, the regular and instant samples containing 25% maltodextrin exhibited similar yellowness (b\*) as compared to regular and instant commercial samples (A and B). The instant commercial creamer B and the formulated creamer containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin had the lowest b\* among all instant creamers (**Table 7**). The lightness (L\*) and yellowness (b\*) of the instant creamers were slightly decreased after applying the agglomeration process. This might be attributed to the effects of binder solution and Maillard reaction on the lightness of the instant creamer. Szulc and Lenart [49] also reported similar findings for the agglomerated dairy powders. They explained that Maillard reaction was responsible for the color changes during agglomeration (i.e. fluidize-bed drying). Color can change during the drying process due to several chemical reactions. Most of the time, enzymatic activity is not desirable, because it affects the amount of nutrients in food (e.g. hydrolysis of lecithin by phospholipase) or the color of the products. The yellowish color of regular and instant creamer is mainly due to the non-enzymatic reaction, either by caramelization or by Maillard reactions. The caramelization process is a complex series of chemical reactions promoted by the direct heating of sugars [6].

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The present work describes the possibility of producing regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers by spray and fluid-bed drying and the changes in some of the physical, chemical and powder properties of the creamer powders depending on the maltodextrin and inulin levels. A significant effect of the type and concentration of the fat replacers (wall materials) on the process yield, wettability, viscosity, solubility, color, water activity and particle size was found. The results showed that the process has some difficulties for drying of control samples. The use of wall materials (maltodextrin and inulin) significantly improved the drying process and leads to improve the physicochemical properties of reduced-fat dairy creamer functionality. The highest wettability, viscosity, solubility, yield and lightness and lowest water activities were obtained from the samples containing the highest contents of maltodextrin (25% w/w) and inulin (7.5%). As a result, the current study also revealed that the instant formulated-reduced-fat creamers from two-stage drying (spray drying followed by fluidizedbed drying) showed significantly (*p* < 0.05) better quality than regular creamer from one-stage drying (spray dying only). The current study suggests optimizing the fluidized-bed drying condition for preparation and commercialization of instant reduced-fat dairy creamer.

Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Department of Food Technology, University Putra

**5. Conclusions**

**Author details**

Simin Hedayatnia and Hamed Mirhosseini\*

Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
#### **4.5. Effect of different fat replacers and drying techniques on color**

**Figure 5** shows the appearance of the regular creamer as compared to the control and commercial creamer. The results indicated that differently formulated creamers, control and commercial creamer had significant (*p* < 0.05) different color intensity in terms of L\* and b\* (**Table 7**). In general, the lightness (L\*) of all formulated regular and instant creamers was enhanced by increasing maltodextrin and inulin concentrations in the creamer formulation. The result indicated that the addition of maltodextrin and inulin to the creamer formulation led to decrease the stickiness and increase the lightness of samples. Similar observation was reported by Shrestha et al. [45] on spray-dried orange juice. The regular and instant creamer with 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin had the highest L\*, while the control showed the lowest L\*among all samples due to the caramelization reaction (**Table 7**). The regular creamer containing the highest maltodextrin content (25%) exhibited almost similar color to the regular commercial

\*Control (0% inulin and maltodextrin); mean values ± standard deviations with different lowercase letters in the same column indicating significant difference (*P* < 0.05); MA, maltodextrin; IN, inulin.

**Table 7.** Significant different (*p* < 0.05) color intensity of different regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers as compared to two regular and instant commercial creamers.

creamer A (**Table 7**). According to Roland et al. (1999), reduced-fat ice cream made by only maltodextrin exhibited similar whiteness to 10% fat ice cream. Moreover, the control and creamer containing 0% maltodextrin and 2.5% inulin had the highest b\*among all samples. On the other hand, the regular and instant samples containing 25% maltodextrin exhibited similar yellowness (b\*) as compared to regular and instant commercial samples (A and B). The instant commercial creamer B and the formulated creamer containing 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin had the lowest b\* among all instant creamers (**Table 7**). The lightness (L\*) and yellowness (b\*) of the instant creamers were slightly decreased after applying the agglomeration process. This might be attributed to the effects of binder solution and Maillard reaction on the lightness of the instant creamer. Szulc and Lenart [49] also reported similar findings for the agglomerated dairy powders. They explained that Maillard reaction was responsible for the color changes during agglomeration (i.e. fluidize-bed drying). Color can change during the drying process due to several chemical reactions. Most of the time, enzymatic activity is not desirable, because it affects the amount of nutrients in food (e.g. hydrolysis of lecithin by phospholipase) or the color of the products. The yellowish color of regular and instant creamer is mainly due to the non-enzymatic reaction, either by caramelization or by Maillard reactions. The caramelization process is a complex series of chemical reactions promoted by the direct heating of sugars [6].

## **5. Conclusions**

It means that there was not any material loss or stickiness to the wall during fluidized-bed dying process. This could be attributed to the high efficiency of such drying technique.

**Figure 5** shows the appearance of the regular creamer as compared to the control and commercial creamer. The results indicated that differently formulated creamers, control and commercial creamer had significant (*p* < 0.05) different color intensity in terms of L\* and b\* (**Table 7**). In general, the lightness (L\*) of all formulated regular and instant creamers was enhanced by increasing maltodextrin and inulin concentrations in the creamer formulation. The result indicated that the addition of maltodextrin and inulin to the creamer formulation led to decrease the stickiness and increase the lightness of samples. Similar observation was reported by Shrestha et al. [45] on spray-dried orange juice. The regular and instant creamer with 25% maltodextrin and 7.5% inulin had the highest L\*, while the control showed the lowest L\*among all samples due to the caramelization reaction (**Table 7**). The regular creamer containing the highest maltodextrin content (25%) exhibited almost similar color to the regular commercial

**Regular creamers Instant creamers**

95.44 ± 0.40a 7.00 ± 0.07l 88.59 ± 0.00d 8.20 ± 0.02m

\*Control (0% inulin and maltodextrin); mean values ± standard deviations with different lowercase letters in the same

**Table 7.** Significant different (*p* < 0.05) color intensity of different regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers as

column indicating significant difference (*P* < 0.05); MA, maltodextrin; IN, inulin.

compared to two regular and instant commercial creamers.

Sample L\* b\* L\* b\*

Commercial creamers (Regular and instant)

130 Descriptive Food Science

Control\* 71.07 ± 0.05l 22.49 ± 0.21a 70.73 ± 0.21o 24.57 ± 0.05a MA0%, IN2.5% 73.28 ± 0.33k 22.04 ± 0.06b 71.20 ± 0.11n 23.71 ± 0.21b MA0%, IN5% 72.67 ± 0.27k 21.09 ± 0.13c 72.23 ± 0.00m 23.62 ± 0.11b MA0%, IN7.5% 71.48 ± 0.55l 20.14 ± 0.04d 70.46 ± 0.02p 22.50 ± 0.47c MA15%, IN0% 78.91 ± 0.07j 18.37 ± 0.36e 74.05 ± 0.00l 20.69 ± 0.09d MA15%, IN2.5% 82.30 ± 1.47i 18.09 ± 0.07e 76.38 ± 0.03k 20.42 ± 0.17d MA15%, IN 5% 84.63 ± 0.21h 17.46 ± 0.53f 79.13 ± 0.02j 17.47 ± 0.00e MA15%, IN7.5% 85.57 ± 0.19g 15.15 ± 0.00g 80.48 ± 0.01i 17.44 ± 0.00e MA20%, IN0% 87.46 ± 0.24f 11.63 ± 0.02h 82.11 ± 0.00h 13.92 ± 0.00f MA20%, IN2.5% 87.12 ± 0.01f 11.03 ± 0.02i 84.05 ± 0.11g 13.32 ± 0.00g MA20%, IN 5% 89.28 ± 0.17e 10.28 ± 0.01j 84.30 ± 0.02f 12.61 ± 0.02h MA20%, IN7.5% 89.80 ± 0.00de 10.83 ± 0.08i 86.73 ± 0.02e 11.76 ± 0.03i MA25%, IN0% 90.90 ± 0.50c 7.73 ± 0.00k 88.73 ± 0.02c 10.79 ± 0.11j MA25%, IN2.5% 90.51 ± 0.00cd 7.22 ± 0.30l 88.71 ± 0.01c 9.21 ± 0.00k MA25%, IN 5% 92.56 ± 0.57b 6.99 ± 0.00l 89.17 ± 0.19b 8.56 ± 0.01l MA25%, IN7.5% 95.32 ± 0.00a 6.85 ± 0.07l 90.15 ± 0.01a 8.08 ± 0.07m

**4.5. Effect of different fat replacers and drying techniques on color**

The present work describes the possibility of producing regular and instant reduced-fat dairy creamers by spray and fluid-bed drying and the changes in some of the physical, chemical and powder properties of the creamer powders depending on the maltodextrin and inulin levels. A significant effect of the type and concentration of the fat replacers (wall materials) on the process yield, wettability, viscosity, solubility, color, water activity and particle size was found. The results showed that the process has some difficulties for drying of control samples. The use of wall materials (maltodextrin and inulin) significantly improved the drying process and leads to improve the physicochemical properties of reduced-fat dairy creamer functionality. The highest wettability, viscosity, solubility, yield and lightness and lowest water activities were obtained from the samples containing the highest contents of maltodextrin (25% w/w) and inulin (7.5%). As a result, the current study also revealed that the instant formulated-reduced-fat creamers from two-stage drying (spray drying followed by fluidizedbed drying) showed significantly (*p* < 0.05) better quality than regular creamer from one-stage drying (spray dying only). The current study suggests optimizing the fluidized-bed drying condition for preparation and commercialization of instant reduced-fat dairy creamer.

## **Author details**

Simin Hedayatnia and Hamed Mirhosseini\*

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Department of Food Technology, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

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**Chapter 7**

**Provisional chapter**

**Effects of Radiation Technologies on Food Nutritional**

**Effects of Radiation Technologies on Food Nutritional**

Generally, foods are thermally processed to destroy the vegetative microorganisms for food preservation. However, only thermal treatment triggers many unwanted biochemical reactions, which leads to undesirable sensorial and nutritional effects. Therefore, a number of nontraditional preservation techniques are being developed to satisfy consumer demand with regard to nutritional and sensory aspects of foods. Ensuring food safety and at the same time meeting such demands for retention of nutrition and quality attributes has resulted in increased interest in emerging preservation techniques. These emerging food preservation technologies can extend the shelf life of unprocessed or processed foods by inactivating the enzymes, reducing the food spoiling microbial growth rate or viability without altering the food quality attributes including flavor, odor, color, texture, and nutritional value. On the emerging technology, sphere promising results have been attained by the radiation processes. Ionizing radiation has been widely used in industrial processes, especially in the sterilization of medicals, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic products, and in food processing. Nonionizing radiation has been used in surface decontamination, as on the packaging sector. Although radiation techniques, as the other traditional or emerging techniques, can impair alterations that can modify the chemical composition and the nutritional value of foods, these changes depend on the food composition, the irradiation dose and factors such as temperature and presence or absence of oxygen in the irradiating environment. The aim of this chapter is to discuss retention or loss of vitamins and minerals in several food products submitted to a radiation process (gamma irradiation, short wave ultraviolet, microwave, and pulsed electric fields). **Keywords:** nutritional, nonionizing radiation, ionizing radiation, micronutrient,

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.80437

Fabiana Lima, Kássia Vieira, Miriam Santos and

Fabiana Lima, Kássia Vieira, Miriam Santos

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**Quality**

**Quality**

Poliana Mendes de Souza

**Abstract**

and Poliana Mendes de Souza

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80437

macronutrient, emerging technologies

#### **Effects of Radiation Technologies on Food Nutritional Quality Effects of Radiation Technologies on Food Nutritional Quality**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.80437

Fabiana Lima, Kássia Vieira, Miriam Santos and Poliana Mendes de Souza Fabiana Lima, Kássia Vieira, Miriam Santos and Poliana Mendes de Souza

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80437

#### **Abstract**

Generally, foods are thermally processed to destroy the vegetative microorganisms for food preservation. However, only thermal treatment triggers many unwanted biochemical reactions, which leads to undesirable sensorial and nutritional effects. Therefore, a number of nontraditional preservation techniques are being developed to satisfy consumer demand with regard to nutritional and sensory aspects of foods. Ensuring food safety and at the same time meeting such demands for retention of nutrition and quality attributes has resulted in increased interest in emerging preservation techniques. These emerging food preservation technologies can extend the shelf life of unprocessed or processed foods by inactivating the enzymes, reducing the food spoiling microbial growth rate or viability without altering the food quality attributes including flavor, odor, color, texture, and nutritional value. On the emerging technology, sphere promising results have been attained by the radiation processes. Ionizing radiation has been widely used in industrial processes, especially in the sterilization of medicals, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic products, and in food processing. Nonionizing radiation has been used in surface decontamination, as on the packaging sector. Although radiation techniques, as the other traditional or emerging techniques, can impair alterations that can modify the chemical composition and the nutritional value of foods, these changes depend on the food composition, the irradiation dose and factors such as temperature and presence or absence of oxygen in the irradiating environment. The aim of this chapter is to discuss retention or loss of vitamins and minerals in several food products submitted to a radiation process (gamma irradiation, short wave ultraviolet, microwave, and pulsed electric fields).

**Keywords:** nutritional, nonionizing radiation, ionizing radiation, micronutrient, macronutrient, emerging technologies

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **1. Introduction**

The first food preservation methods were developed by men in the beginning of its existence. Since ancient times, radiation has been used as a preserve food method, when used to preserve meats, fish, fruits, and vegetables from solar energy. In the drying method, the men realized that some fruits and vegetables were still edible and the meat lasted longer without spoiling, once this process consists in removal of part of the water from the food to a final concentration. The microorganisms present in food need water for their vital functions, and by reducing the water content, it is possible to decrease considerably the microbiological growth in the food [1].

The growing demand from the consumers for high quality products reveals the need to apply of new food preservation techniques that provide microbiological safety in the production, increasing the commercial validity, and still provide minimal biochemical alterations, promoting the maintenance of the nutritional and sensorial quality of the products [2].

Some of the currently proposed methods inhibit microbial growth, even in some cases, they cause enzyme inactivation, without the considerable increase of the product temperature. Moreover, these processes promote little damage to pigments, flavor compounds, and vitamins; and in contrast to conventional processes that apply high temperatures, the original sensory and nutritional characteristics of the food are maintained, with no significant loss of fresh product quality [3].

Throughout the centuries, the food preservation techniques have been improving with the increase of scientific development. These methods include freezing, drying, canning, pickling preparation, pasteurization, fermentation, cooling, controlled atmosphere storage, and application of preservatives, and among the emerging technologies, the highlight is the radiation technique [4].

wavelengths in the visible range. Sir Isaac Newton was the first to realize this fact in the late 1660s by passing the sunlight into a rainbow using a prism and turning it back into white light

Effects of Radiation Technologies on Food Nutritional Quality

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139

In search for new and better food preservation methods, the research has turned to the possibility of using radiations in different ranges of frequencies, such as nonionizing radiations. This type of radiation does not have sufficient energy to break molecular bonds or remove electrons from atoms; in other words, perform ionization. The types of frequencies characterized as nonionizing are ultraviolet, infrared, radiofrequency, laser, microwave, and visible light [9, 10]. However, the use of nonionizing radiation has low interest as a food preservation

Electromagnetic energy in the microwave region (300 MHz–300 GHz) has been extensively studied as an alternative energy source for sterilization. Microwave radiation has enormous applications in our daily routine, from communication systems, medical applications, to the

Microwave radiation does not carry enough energy to ionize food molecules or to generate free radicals [13]. The basic principle of the process is the baking by molecular vibration that

with a second prism [8].

**Figure 1.** Electromagnetic spectrum.

**2.1. Microwave radiation**

**2. Nonionizing radiation**

method, in contrast to ionizing radiations [7].

level of industrial application [11, 12].

The terminology radiation refers to the physical processes of emission and propagation of energy, either by means of wave phenomena, or by the kinetic energy from the particles. In a simpler way, radiation is energy that spreads from one point to another in space or in a material environment. Irradiation is the process of applying this energy to a material, such as food, with the purpose of sterilizing or preserving them through the destruction of microorganisms, parasites, insects, and other pests [5, 6].

There are various forms of radiant energy emitted in various ways that belong to the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, and these include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. These forms of energy differ in the wavelength, frequency, force of penetration, and other effects that they exert on biological systems. As can be observed in **Figure 1**, in general, it can be said that in the electromagnetic spectrum, there are two types of radiation: ionizing and nonionizing [7].

Of all the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, the best known is the narrow band of visible light, shown in the expanded form in the **Figure 1**. The human brain recognizes these wavelengths as the different colors ranging from violet to red. The sunlight, as the human being is able to see with the naked eye, is the sum of multiple electromagnetic waves with different

**Figure 1.** Electromagnetic spectrum.

**1. Introduction**

138 Descriptive Food Science

growth in the food [1].

fresh product quality [3].

ganisms, parasites, insects, and other pests [5, 6].

there are two types of radiation: ionizing and nonionizing [7].

technique [4].

The first food preservation methods were developed by men in the beginning of its existence. Since ancient times, radiation has been used as a preserve food method, when used to preserve meats, fish, fruits, and vegetables from solar energy. In the drying method, the men realized that some fruits and vegetables were still edible and the meat lasted longer without spoiling, once this process consists in removal of part of the water from the food to a final concentration. The microorganisms present in food need water for their vital functions, and by reducing the water content, it is possible to decrease considerably the microbiological

The growing demand from the consumers for high quality products reveals the need to apply of new food preservation techniques that provide microbiological safety in the production, increasing the commercial validity, and still provide minimal biochemical alterations, pro-

Some of the currently proposed methods inhibit microbial growth, even in some cases, they cause enzyme inactivation, without the considerable increase of the product temperature. Moreover, these processes promote little damage to pigments, flavor compounds, and vitamins; and in contrast to conventional processes that apply high temperatures, the original sensory and nutritional characteristics of the food are maintained, with no significant loss of

Throughout the centuries, the food preservation techniques have been improving with the increase of scientific development. These methods include freezing, drying, canning, pickling preparation, pasteurization, fermentation, cooling, controlled atmosphere storage, and application of preservatives, and among the emerging technologies, the highlight is the radiation

The terminology radiation refers to the physical processes of emission and propagation of energy, either by means of wave phenomena, or by the kinetic energy from the particles. In a simpler way, radiation is energy that spreads from one point to another in space or in a material environment. Irradiation is the process of applying this energy to a material, such as food, with the purpose of sterilizing or preserving them through the destruction of microor-

There are various forms of radiant energy emitted in various ways that belong to the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, and these include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. These forms of energy differ in the wavelength, frequency, force of penetration, and other effects that they exert on biological systems. As can be observed in **Figure 1**, in general, it can be said that in the electromagnetic spectrum,

Of all the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, the best known is the narrow band of visible light, shown in the expanded form in the **Figure 1**. The human brain recognizes these wavelengths as the different colors ranging from violet to red. The sunlight, as the human being is able to see with the naked eye, is the sum of multiple electromagnetic waves with different

moting the maintenance of the nutritional and sensorial quality of the products [2].

wavelengths in the visible range. Sir Isaac Newton was the first to realize this fact in the late 1660s by passing the sunlight into a rainbow using a prism and turning it back into white light with a second prism [8].

## **2. Nonionizing radiation**

In search for new and better food preservation methods, the research has turned to the possibility of using radiations in different ranges of frequencies, such as nonionizing radiations. This type of radiation does not have sufficient energy to break molecular bonds or remove electrons from atoms; in other words, perform ionization. The types of frequencies characterized as nonionizing are ultraviolet, infrared, radiofrequency, laser, microwave, and visible light [9, 10]. However, the use of nonionizing radiation has low interest as a food preservation method, in contrast to ionizing radiations [7].

#### **2.1. Microwave radiation**

Electromagnetic energy in the microwave region (300 MHz–300 GHz) has been extensively studied as an alternative energy source for sterilization. Microwave radiation has enormous applications in our daily routine, from communication systems, medical applications, to the level of industrial application [11, 12].

Microwave radiation does not carry enough energy to ionize food molecules or to generate free radicals [13]. The basic principle of the process is the baking by molecular vibration that penetrates superficially in the foods, and the depth of penetration ranges from 2 to 4 cm. The process makes the food vibrates and consequently heating the water, fat, and sugar molecules. However, microwave heating leads to uneven distribution of the temperature in the product. In addition, the products do not show nonenzymatic darkening and surface crust formation, which might be advantageous in some applications [10].

UV-light is a physical process that offers several advantages, such as it does not produce by-products that could change the characteristics of the food, does not generate chemical residues, and it is a cold process, dry, simple, effective, and low cost in relation to other steril-

UV-light has been applied in water purification and has been used in beverage industries; in industries, it has been applied in final cleaning, in the rinsing water of CIP (Clean-in-Place)

The pulsed electric field (PEF) technology, also known as high-intensity electric field pulses

between two electrodes [22]. The inactivation of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria, yeasts, and some enzymes related to food quality have been demonstrated by several authors, although

) in a product situated

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141

ization processes, besides not generating any type of ionizing radiation [21].

systems and in the disinfection of packaging surfaces and storage tanks [20].

(HELP), refers to the application of high voltage pulses (20–80 kV cm−1

**2.3. Pulsed electric field**

**Figure 2.** Outline of pulsed electric field.

The use of microwave energy has been reported in the literature as a method used for improving microbiological quality and extending shelf life. The use of microwave irradiation resulted in the conclusion that microbial cell death occurs due to the heat produced by the irradiation and due to the electric field created by the microwaves, which promotes a change in the secondary and tertiary structure of the microorganism proteins [12, 14]. Currently, microwave energy has been applied in the pharmaceutical industry, and in drying, thawing and sterilization processes in the food industry.

Despite the limitations of this technology, the application of microwave energy has advantages in the decontamination of utensils and in the process time, which entails the reduction of energy costs and also eliminates the chemicals commonly used in some of the conventional methods. All these reasons make this technology economically and environmentally viable, to be implemented in industrial systems, provided that its limitations are reviewed, such as the lack of uniformity in the distribution of heating in systems without temperature and power control [14, 15].

#### **2.2. Ultraviolet radiation**

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation was discovered in 1801 by the German scientist Johan Ritter, who perceived an invisible form of light beyond violet capable of oxidizing silver halides, which was named ultraviolet light at the end of the nineteenth century [16]. The UV-light occupies a wide wavelength range in the nonionizing region of the electromagnetic spectrum, between X-rays (100 nm) and visible light (400 nm) [17]. The wavelength of UV-light is divided into three bands—UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C.

The long (UV-A, 400–320 nm) and middle (UV-B, 320–280 nm) wavelengths are present in sunlight and have some germicidal value. However, the short wavelengths or UV-C (280–100 nm) have high germicidal capacity and do not naturally exist, having to be produced by the conversion of electric energy [18].

The UV-light can be applied as a continuous or pulsed mode. The continuous mode is the conventional method, the light being emitted continuously without interruption. In pulsed UV-light mode, the UV-light is released as intermittent pulses using a capacitor, which allow to increase the energy intensity per pulse. Therefore, the pulsed mode is more effective for microbiological inactivation and the most used method [19].

The use of UV-light as a nonchemical disinfection method is increasingly gaining acceptance by its germicidal power. The equipment used in the UV method has a low maintenance cost, besides being considered an "eco-friendly" technology that eliminates the need to use many chemical treatments, while is able to guarantee high levels of security [20].

UV-light is a physical process that offers several advantages, such as it does not produce by-products that could change the characteristics of the food, does not generate chemical residues, and it is a cold process, dry, simple, effective, and low cost in relation to other sterilization processes, besides not generating any type of ionizing radiation [21].

UV-light has been applied in water purification and has been used in beverage industries; in industries, it has been applied in final cleaning, in the rinsing water of CIP (Clean-in-Place) systems and in the disinfection of packaging surfaces and storage tanks [20].

### **2.3. Pulsed electric field**

penetrates superficially in the foods, and the depth of penetration ranges from 2 to 4 cm. The process makes the food vibrates and consequently heating the water, fat, and sugar molecules. However, microwave heating leads to uneven distribution of the temperature in the product. In addition, the products do not show nonenzymatic darkening and surface crust

The use of microwave energy has been reported in the literature as a method used for improving microbiological quality and extending shelf life. The use of microwave irradiation resulted in the conclusion that microbial cell death occurs due to the heat produced by the irradiation and due to the electric field created by the microwaves, which promotes a change in the secondary and tertiary structure of the microorganism proteins [12, 14]. Currently, microwave energy has been applied in the pharmaceutical industry, and in drying, thawing and steriliza-

Despite the limitations of this technology, the application of microwave energy has advantages in the decontamination of utensils and in the process time, which entails the reduction of energy costs and also eliminates the chemicals commonly used in some of the conventional methods. All these reasons make this technology economically and environmentally viable, to be implemented in industrial systems, provided that its limitations are reviewed, such as the lack of uniformity in the distribution of heating in systems without temperature and power

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation was discovered in 1801 by the German scientist Johan Ritter, who perceived an invisible form of light beyond violet capable of oxidizing silver halides, which was named ultraviolet light at the end of the nineteenth century [16]. The UV-light occupies a wide wavelength range in the nonionizing region of the electromagnetic spectrum, between X-rays (100 nm) and visible light (400 nm) [17]. The wavelength of UV-light is divided into

The long (UV-A, 400–320 nm) and middle (UV-B, 320–280 nm) wavelengths are present in sunlight and have some germicidal value. However, the short wavelengths or UV-C (280–100 nm) have high germicidal capacity and do not naturally exist, having to be pro-

The UV-light can be applied as a continuous or pulsed mode. The continuous mode is the conventional method, the light being emitted continuously without interruption. In pulsed UV-light mode, the UV-light is released as intermittent pulses using a capacitor, which allow to increase the energy intensity per pulse. Therefore, the pulsed mode is more effective for

The use of UV-light as a nonchemical disinfection method is increasingly gaining acceptance by its germicidal power. The equipment used in the UV method has a low maintenance cost, besides being considered an "eco-friendly" technology that eliminates the need to use many

formation, which might be advantageous in some applications [10].

tion processes in the food industry.

control [14, 15].

140 Descriptive Food Science

**2.2. Ultraviolet radiation**

three bands—UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C.

duced by the conversion of electric energy [18].

microbiological inactivation and the most used method [19].

chemical treatments, while is able to guarantee high levels of security [20].

The pulsed electric field (PEF) technology, also known as high-intensity electric field pulses (HELP), refers to the application of high voltage pulses (20–80 kV cm−1 ) in a product situated between two electrodes [22]. The inactivation of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria, yeasts, and some enzymes related to food quality have been demonstrated by several authors, although

**Figure 2.** Outline of pulsed electric field.

bacterial spore is not eliminated through this treatment [23, 24]. Regarding to this limitation, other methods are used in combination with irradiation technologies for the elimination of bacterial spores.

source) to produce gamma rays, or less frequently, by an equipment which emits high electron-beam energy [32, 33]. Gamma radiation is produced from the excited nucleus of radioac-

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The process of irradiation by gamma rays has several advantages: low heat generation, low energy requirements, irradiation of packaged or frozen products, and cause changes in the food nutritional value similar or inferior to other methods of conservation [36]. Nevertheless, as disadvantages of the gamma radiation are the high initial cost and difficulty in establishing the necessary doses, because certain doses can cause the death of some insects, however, others still can be found alive [37]. Despite all the benefits, a number of barriers still persist and prevent irradiated foods from being widely marketed, mainly related to the cost of their use and the resistance from the consumers due to a lack of information on food induced

In order to ensure the quality of a food, from the microbiological point of view and the nutritional quality, several methods are available for the food industries, including the use of radiation. In view of the requirements of consumers for assurance of microbiological safety and maintaining the natural characteristics of the product, the present chapter focuses on nutritional variation in food products submitted to radiation processes, such as gamma irra-

The radiation techniques have been widely studied and, like most food processing techniques, can induce some changes that are able to modify the chemical and nutritional characteristics on foods. These changes are dependent on some factors such as the radiation dose, the constitution of the irradiated food, the type of packaging, and how it was processed, besides the variables of the process as temperature and oxygen saturation on the

Activists and consumers have been questioned about the nutritional value of foods submitted to these processing techniques. The main questions and hypotheses about the use of irradiation are related to the excessive denaturation of nutrients, the conception that there is generation of toxic substances in irradiated foods, and they became radioactive [39, 40]. However, research conducted since the 1950s does not confirm these hypotheses of radioactivity in food, demonstrating there is no induction [21, 41]. Thus, the radiation methods used in food are considered safe and effective, according to several agencies such as the Food and Drug

Among the advantages cited by studies related to food irradiation are the minimal changes caused in food constituents [44]. According to research, macronutrients—carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids—are relatively stable when they come in contact with doses of ionizing

Regarding to micronutrients, in particular vitamins are perceived since they are sensitive to any processing technique. Thus, vitamins are unstable in food and dependent on specific

tive elements, such as Cobalt 60 (60Co) and Cesium 137 (137Cs) [34, 35].

diation, UV-C, microwave, and pulsed electric fields.

**4. Effects of radiation on food nutritional composition**

Administration (FDA) and the United Nations (UN) [42, 43].

radioactivity [38].

atmospheric [39].

radiation up to 10 kGy [39, 45].

The technology consists of subjecting the product to repeated high-intensity fields with short-time electrical pulses, (ms or μs), with the purpose of causing the inactivation of enzymes and destruction of microorganisms [25]. The outline of pulsed electric field technology is shown in **Figure 2**.