**3.11. Measurement of sound insulation**

An unwanted noise, a part of sound is irritating and which caused many problem of human related to mental and psychological aspects. Jute needle-punched nonwoven textile materials have good property to control sound if they are properly designed for this purpose. A simple design of such an instrument to measure the sound insulation of the textile nonwoven materials has been explained by Sengupta, 2010 [22]. It consists of a sound insulating box which is made out of 12 mm thick rigid plastic (acrylic sheet) and has a provision of removable top lid. Inside one vertical wall of this box, a sound source and a decibel meter (s) are fixed. In another movable (to adjust the distance between sound source and receiver) vertical wall, a decibel meter (R) is fixed coaxially opposite to the sound generator to measure the sound intensity. In between these two decibel meters, a sliding (to adjust the distance between sound source and fabric) arrangement is there to fix the fabric sample vertically. An electrical panel has been used to control the sound intensity. Figure 4 shows the schematic diagram of the sound insulation tester as described above [22].

**Figure 4.** Schematic diagram of sound insulator tester [22]

Operating the control panel, a sound of particular decibel sound is created. The source decibel and the receipt decibel are measured by two-decibel metres S and R, respectively, without and with fabric samples. The sound reduction responsible for fabric, where sound insulation is expressed as the difference between the decibel reduction with sample and decibel reduction without sample, is shown below:

$$db\_F = (dB\_S - dB\_R)\_{WS} - (dB\_S - dB\_R)\_{WOS}$$

where dBF is the sound reduction responsible for fabric; dBS is the sound intensity at source; dbR is the sound intensity at receiver; WS is with sample; and WOS is without sample.

#### **3.12. Measurement of electrical resistance**

Textile materials have good electrical insulation property provided they are in dry condition. There are many such applications where the textile materials (fibre/yarn/fabric) are used as electrical insulation purposed. The electrical insulation application of the textile materials are used in medium voltage ranges (within 415 V). To measure the electrical insulation a circuit is necessary which measures the current-voltage (V-I) characteristics of textile material as shown in Figure 5 [23-24].

Design, Development, Characterization, and Application of Jute-based Needle-Punched Nonwoven http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61705 289

**Figure 5.** Circuit for electrical resistance of nonwoven [23]

**Figure 6.** Sample holder

another movable (to adjust the distance between sound source and receiver) vertical wall, a decibel meter (R) is fixed coaxially opposite to the sound generator to measure the sound intensity. In between these two decibel meters, a sliding (to adjust the distance between sound source and fabric) arrangement is there to fix the fabric sample vertically. An electrical panel has been used to control the sound intensity. Figure 4 shows the schematic diagram of the

Operating the control panel, a sound of particular decibel sound is created. The source decibel and the receipt decibel are measured by two-decibel metres S and R, respectively, without and with fabric samples. The sound reduction responsible for fabric, where sound insulation is expressed as the difference between the decibel reduction with sample and decibel reduction

=- -- ( )( ) *F S R WS S R WOS db dB dB dB dB*

where dBF is the sound reduction responsible for fabric; dBS is the sound intensity at source; dbR is the sound intensity at receiver; WS is with sample; and WOS is without sample.

Textile materials have good electrical insulation property provided they are in dry condition. There are many such applications where the textile materials (fibre/yarn/fabric) are used as electrical insulation purposed. The electrical insulation application of the textile materials are used in medium voltage ranges (within 415 V). To measure the electrical insulation a circuit is necessary which measures the current-voltage (V-I) characteristics of textile material as shown

sound insulation tester as described above [22].

288 Non-woven Fabrics

**Figure 4.** Schematic diagram of sound insulator tester [22]

**3.12. Measurement of electrical resistance**

in Figure 5 [23-24].

without sample, is shown below:

This circuit consists of sample holder (S), variac (B), rectifier unit (D), ammeter (A), voltmeter (V), and 10 MΩ discrete resistance (R). Two bulldog-clips are used between which the sample is placed (Fig. 6) with gauge lengths 2.54, 5.08, and 10.16 cm. The sample is in series with a known resistance (10 MΩ) and is connected to a D.C. power supply. The voltage is varied from 80V to 220V in 5 steps and corresponding current through the sample is measured after 10s to calculate the resistance [25-26]. The measurement is done at 27ºC and 65% relative humidity. Five sets of voltage-current readings are taken for plotting V-I characteristic curves. The slope (voltage/current) or resistance for each V-I characteristic is determined. The specific resistance has been calculated normalizing the resistance by thickness [multiplying/dividing the resistance (Mega ohm) by thickness (cm).


**4. Conclusion**

The study revealed that the stages of regeneration of bone tissue (inflammation, proliferation of osteoblasts, collagenogenesis and ossification) are accompanied by changes in the immunological status. When delayed consolidation of bone tissue revealed differences of response of individual parts of the immune system, a comparative study of the immunological parameter dynamics at normal and slow osteogenesis is possible to establish criteria for delayed consolidation of bone tissue. Prognostic criteria to the operations include increasing the concentration of IgM

and decreasing in concentration of C-reactive protein in the early postoperative period-increasing the number of leukocytes, the concentration of tumor necrosis factor, IgM, the production of superoxide anion in nitro blue tetrazolium test, as well as reducing the number of CD45+ CD3+ -cells, complement activity and the content of lactoferrin.

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[7] Hauser CJ, Joshi P, Jones Q, Zhou X, Livingston DH, Lavery RF. Suppression of natural killer cell activity in patients with fracture/soft tissue injury. The Archives of Surgery. 1997;**132**(12):

[8] Buchinsky FJ, Ma YF, Mann GN, Rucinski B, Bryer HP, Paynton BV, et al.

[9] Buchinsky FJ, Ma Y, Mann GN, Rucinski B, Bryer HP, Romero DF, et al. T-lymphocytes play a critical role in the development of cyclosporin A-induced

Endocrinology. 1996;**137**:2278-2285.

Piccirillo CA, Thornton AM. Control of

[11] Takayanagi H, Ogasawara K, Hida S, Chiba T, Murata S, Sato K, et al. T-cellmediated regulation of osteoclastogenesis by signaling cross-talk between RANKL and IFN. Nature. 2000;**408**:600-605.

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[12] John V, Hock JM, Short LL, Glasebrook AL, Galvin RJ. A role for CD8+ T-lymphocytes in osteoclast differentiation in vitro. The Journal of Endocrinology. 1996;**137**:2457-2463. DOI: 10.1210/endo.137.6.8641199

[13] Grèeviæ D, Lee SK, Marušiæ A, Lorenzo JA. Depletion of CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocytes in mice in vivo enhances

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suppressor T-cells. Immunological Reviews. 2001;**182**:58-67. DOI: 10.1034/

Bone mineral metabolism in T lymphocyte-deficient and -replete strains of rat. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 1995;**10**:1556-1565

[2] Miyamoto T, Arai F, Ohneda O, Takagi K, Anderson DM, Suda T. An adherent condition is required for formation of multinuclear osteoclasts in the presence of macrophage colonystimulating factor and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand. Blood. 2000;**96**:4335-4343. DOI: 10.1182/ blood.V96.13.4335.h8004335\_4335\_

[3] Ducy P, Schinke T, Karsenty G. The osteoblasts: A sophisticated fibroblast under central surveillance. Science. 2000;**289**:1501-1504. DOI: 10.1126/

[4] Askalonov AA, Gordienko SM, Avdyunicheva OE, Bondarenko AV, Voronkov SF. The role of T-system immunity in reparatory regeneration of the bone tissue in animals. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology, and Immunology. 1987;**31**(2):219-224.

[5] Santavirta S, Konttinen YT, Nordstrom D, Mäkelä A, Sorsa T, Hukkanen M, et al. Immunologic studies

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Bogdanov EG, Parfilova TV. Immunity changes and nonspecific factors of patient protection who have suffered from severe mechanical polytrauma [Izmeneniya immuniteta i faktorov nespecificheskoj zashchity u postradavshih ot tyazheloj mekhanicheskoj politravmy (in

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**171**


3.1.4. Water Retention

According to the registration of the five values (mv, ma, ms, mw, and m) of the mass of the set, the water/fresh mortar factor (AF) and the water retention (Ra) were then calculated, considering each mixture in the different substitutions (0%, 10%, 30% and 60%) in the three types of Portland cement (CP II, CP III and CP V), as shown in Tables 10–12.

**Table 10.** Water retention in mortar with Portland cement type CP II.

**Table 11.** Water retention in mortar with Portland cement type CP III.

**Table 12.** Water retention in mortar with Portland cement type CP V.

Analyzing the water retention in Portland cement type CP II, it appears that the mortar with the lowest retention was the one with 10% of sand replacement by OSPW with 95.81%, while the mortar with the highest retention was the one with 60% of replacement with 99.07%. The same characteristics are found in cement type CP III; the mortar produced with 10% replacement has the lowest retention with 97.71% and the mortar with 60% replacement has the highest retention with 99.27%.

Considering the Portland cement type CP V, there is a difference from the others. The mortar with the lowest retention is the one with 30% replacement with 98.45% instead of 10%, as in the CP II and CP III cements. The one with the highest retention is the 60% replacement with 98.94%, as in the other cements.

Examining the control mortar (0% OSPW), it is noted that the lowest value is found in CP II cement with 96.29%, while the highest is found in CP III with 98.73% retention. At 10% replacement, the lowest value is also found in CP II cement with 95.81%, while the highest is for CP V with 98.90% retention.

As for the analysis of the mortars with 30% replacement, it is noted that the lowest value is found in the CP III cement with 98.42%, while the highest is found in the CP II with 99.03% of retention. At 60% replacement, the lowest value is found in CP V cement with 98.94%, while the highest is found in CP III with 99.27% retention.


**4. Transformations of playgrounds in Slovak mass housing estates and current trends**

Open public spaces are spaces intensively reflecting the cotemporary needs of the communities for their use. Public spaces reflect the society and its culture [19]. The new socio-economic conditions after the change of the communist regime have created new demands of the society toward the open public spaces in the mass housing estates, and today, the current requirements continue to transform them [9].

The residential aging of homogenous social structure of mass housing estates, previously composed of young families with children, caused that during the lifespan of housing estates, the demand for amenities like kinder gardens, elementary schools and also playgrounds decreased. Children's playgrounds became underused and fell into decay. The concept of generously designed broad green open spaces, which belonged to the most characteristic features of the mass housing estates, and were used as play areas, had its failings and shortcomings, too. Broad green open spaces suffered problems of maintenance, loss of control, or safety [9, 12].

The last decade of the twentieth century were the years of changing intra-urban patterns, which arose from the various processes conditioned by the political, economic, and social changes symptomatic for the post-socialist or transition period [20]. Since the 1990s of the twentieth century, densification of housing estates by additions of new residential, commercial, or administration buildings, and, as well as, increasing demand for car parking spaces caused losses of green open spaces [9], and also disappearance of children's playgrounds.

Today, the social structure of the mass housing estates becomes again more heterogeneous, what puts new requirements on the design of open public spaces and, as well as, on the regeneration of children's playgrounds and their design to serve adequately to the rising demands of inhabitants. While during the socialist period market with flats did not exist and was limited only to a mutual exchange of flats, after 1990, the emergence and development of real estate market with flats enabled new inhabitants to buy and move in the flats in housing estates, and today, the new generation of young families with children again creates the demand for children's playgrounds.

Many of the former playgrounds which during the previous period fell into decay have been revitalized. However, only in few cases, the playgrounds have preserved their original design structure and the original play elements (**Figure 12**). Today, the original steel playground elements, as for example the popular "Globe," do not fulfill the safety requirements according the current technical standards.

**Figure 11.** Wood and ropes—new materials used in the design of playground elements in the housing estate Petržalka

**Figure 10.** Examples of the play elements used in the playgrounds of the housing estate Petržalka in Bratislava, districts

Háje and Lúky, in 1980–1986, design by Eva Grébertová and Jozef Slíž. Source: Author's personal archive.

the playgrounds of the Petržalka housing estate, districts Háje and Lúky, built in the years 1980–1986 and designed by architects Eva Grébertová and Jozef Slíž (**Figures 10** and **11**).

Open public spaces are spaces intensively reflecting the cotemporary needs of the communities for their use. Public spaces reflect the society and its culture [19]. The new socio-economic conditions after the change of the communist regime have created new demands of the society toward the open public spaces in the mass housing estates, and today, the current require-

**4. Transformations of playgrounds in Slovak mass housing estates**

(1980–1986), by architects Eva Grébertová and Jozef Slíž. Source: Author's personal archive.

**and current trends**

46 Housing

ments continue to transform them [9].

**Figure 12.** The preserved original steel play equipment, in front the "Globe" and the "Rocket," in the small play area in the housing estate in Šaľa. Source: Photograph by author, 2018.

In most of the cases, the old steel play elements have been replaced by new equipment, usually using the former landscape architectural setting and the former concrete elements, as could be seen, for example, in many playgrounds in the housing estate Petržalka in Bratislava (**Figure 13**).

Current examples of the children's playgrounds from Slovak mass housing estates also show that nowadays the typified design of the standardized catalog type elements is used and preferred (**Figure 14**); however, some of them show individual design (**Figure 15**).

Another characteristic feature of the children's playgrounds in the housing estates is that they become in many cases fenced (**Figure 16**). Sand and concrete are not used today, or are used very rarely. Nowadays, mostly rubber surfaces are used for the safety surfacing under play elements (**Figure 17**). In the cases of "natural" playgrounds, usually woodchips are used.

**Figure 13.** The original landscape architectural concept of the playground at the Gessayova Street in the Petržalka housing estate is still readable from the abstract geometrical forms of concrete platforms, which host new play elements. Source: Author's personal archive.

Specific art-design play objects, designed as sculptures, have disappeared from today's playgrounds. The reason is that today, every new play element installed in the playground must meet the requirements of Slovak and European technical standards—STN EN 1176, which determines general safety requirements and test methods for playground equipment and surfacing, and STN EN 1177, which determines impact attenuating playground surfacing and critical fall height. The play elements installed in playgrounds must have either a certificate or

**Figure 16.** The example of fenced and gated playground with typified and standardized play equipment in the housing

**Figure 15.** Some of the typified catalog play elements show individual design, play structure "Ant" situated in the

Children's Playgrounds in Slovak Mass Housing Estates: History and Current Trends

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78384

49

courtyard of housing estate Veča in Šaľa. Source: Photograph by author, 2018.

estate Veča in Šaľa. Source: Photograph by author, 2018.

As noted by Herrington [21], reliance on mass-produced play structures and standardized mass equipment as the primary source of outdoor play has led to playgrounds that do not relate to a community's local environment. Children seek novelty and stimulation and the playgrounds consisting only from repeated mass-produced elements ceased to be an exciting, inspiring places.

declaration of conformity with the norm, what is a complicated process.

**Figure 14.** Typified and standardized play elements are mostly used in the playgrounds—the example from housing estate in Šaľa. Source: Photograph by author, 2018.

In most of the cases, the old steel play elements have been replaced by new equipment, usually using the former landscape architectural setting and the former concrete elements, as could be seen, for example, in many playgrounds in the housing estate Petržalka in Bratislava

Current examples of the children's playgrounds from Slovak mass housing estates also show that nowadays the typified design of the standardized catalog type elements is used and

Another characteristic feature of the children's playgrounds in the housing estates is that they become in many cases fenced (**Figure 16**). Sand and concrete are not used today, or are used very rarely. Nowadays, mostly rubber surfaces are used for the safety surfacing under play elements (**Figure 17**). In the cases of "natural" playgrounds, usually woodchips are used.

**Figure 14.** Typified and standardized play elements are mostly used in the playgrounds—the example from housing

**Figure 13.** The original landscape architectural concept of the playground at the Gessayova Street in the Petržalka housing estate is still readable from the abstract geometrical forms of concrete platforms, which host new play elements.

estate in Šaľa. Source: Photograph by author, 2018.

Source: Author's personal archive.

preferred (**Figure 14**); however, some of them show individual design (**Figure 15**).

(**Figure 13**).

48 Housing

**Figure 15.** Some of the typified catalog play elements show individual design, play structure "Ant" situated in the courtyard of housing estate Veča in Šaľa. Source: Photograph by author, 2018.

**Figure 16.** The example of fenced and gated playground with typified and standardized play equipment in the housing estate Veča in Šaľa. Source: Photograph by author, 2018.

Specific art-design play objects, designed as sculptures, have disappeared from today's playgrounds. The reason is that today, every new play element installed in the playground must meet the requirements of Slovak and European technical standards—STN EN 1176, which determines general safety requirements and test methods for playground equipment and surfacing, and STN EN 1177, which determines impact attenuating playground surfacing and critical fall height. The play elements installed in playgrounds must have either a certificate or declaration of conformity with the norm, what is a complicated process.

As noted by Herrington [21], reliance on mass-produced play structures and standardized mass equipment as the primary source of outdoor play has led to playgrounds that do not relate to a community's local environment. Children seek novelty and stimulation and the playgrounds consisting only from repeated mass-produced elements ceased to be an exciting, inspiring places.

should be accessible to disabled users, to be able to play together with others and should provide for the possibility of choosing from a variety of equipment. The playground should offer different game options, should allow the children of different ages to play together, and it should allow to test the children's skills. The playground should accommodate the needs of the community; therefore, the community should be involved in its design, which should be the result of general consensus. The playground should be properly maintained and it should

Children's Playgrounds in Slovak Mass Housing Estates: History and Current Trends

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51

Access to playgrounds is an important urban amenity, enhancing the quality of housing and

In the Slovak mass housing estates of the second half of the twentieth century, unique concepts of children's playgrounds have been applied, designed by architects and artist, and inspired by the best European experiences, for example by the landscape design of the Stockholm school, or by the playgrounds of Aldo van Eyck. Design of public open spaces and public playgrounds in the Slovak mass housing estates represented the architectural qualities of the modernism of the second half of the twentieth century, but their main problem was the lack

Today, the trend to use the mass-produced play equipment in playgrounds does not respect the site specifics, reduces the potential of playgrounds to stimulate children's imagination, the trend to fence and gate the play areas, and shift them to specific zones and indoor, and

We would like to thank the Centre for Landscape Architecture of the Faculty of Architecture, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, for providing support for this research, the Faculty of Architecture, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava for financial support,

and to Juraj Illéš, who has contributed to the site research and data collection.

Faculty of Architecture, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovak Republic

[1] Bacová A, Duarte P, Iranmanesh A, Joklová V, Madrazo L, Malovaný M, Nabizadeh S, Ooms T, Rivera O, Scherlinck K, Tijjani Y, Tučný J. OIKODOMOS Housing Concepts. 2011. Available from: http://www.oikodomos.org/resources/housing\_concepts.pdf [Accessed:

allow changes according to the needs arising over time.

of maintenance, resulting from the lack of resources.

Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
reduces the access of children to play.

**Acknowledgements**

**Author details**

Katarína Kristiánová

**References**

30-03-2018]

living environment.

**Figure 17.** The rubber surface is laid under the typified and standardized mass-produced play equipment in the playground of the mass housing estate in Šaľa. Source: Photograph by author, 2018.

In Slovakia, it is possible to notice also the trend of commercialization of playgrounds [22]. The children's play has shifted from the housing estates and neighborhoods playgrounds to the specialized purpose designed centers, provided by shopping centers, or by profit making organizations. The play often moves also indoor, to play zones of retail outlets, family pubs, restaurants. Parents restrict children to use the neighborhood space around the home, to protect them from perceived social dangers [23], and to regulate where children play. The trend toward transporting children to leisure and a drift from public toward the private provision of opportunities for leisure [22] has become characteristic for playground provision in Slovak urban environment, too.

As technology evolves and becomes smarter, designing playgrounds for interaction with networks of devices has become more challenging, and using mobile phones becomes an important feature of the playgrounds [24]. However, the current trend of intelligent, interactive playgrounds, using advanced digital technologies [25, 26] is not observed, and not used, yet, in the public playgrounds of Slovak housing estates.


Abstract

First, the liquid drop model assumes a priori; to the atomic nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, as an incompressible nuclear fluid that should comply with the Navier–Stokes 3D equations (N-S3D). Conjecture, not yet proven, however, this model has successfully predicted the binding energy of the nuclei. Second, the calculation of nuclear pressure p0 ∈1:42, 1:94�1032Pa and average viscosity η ¼ 1:71 � 1024 fm2 =s , as a function of the nuclear decay constant k ¼ p0 2η ¼ 1 T1=2 , not only complements the information from the National Nuclear Data Center, but also presents an analytical solution of (N- S3D). Third, the solution of (N-S3D) is a Fermi Dirac generalized probability function P xð Þ¼ , y, z, t 1 1þe p0 2η t�μ x2þy2þz2 ð Þ1=2 , Fourth,

the parameter μ has a correspondence with the Yukawa potential coefficient μ ¼ αm ¼ 1=r, Fifth, using low energy X-rays we visualize and measure parameters of the nuclear surface (proton radio) giving rise to the femtoscope. Finally, we obtain that the pressure of the proton is 8.14 times greater than the pressure of the neutron, and 1000 times greater than the pressure of the atomic nucleus. Analyzed data were isotopes: 9≤Z ≤ 92 and 9≤ N ≤200:

Keywords: femtoscope, Navier Stokes 3D, nuclear viscosity, minimum entropy


*4.6. Data Analysis and Statistics*

The values in the text are given as mean ± standard deviation (SD) with *n* ≥ 5. To test for effects' significance, paired *t*-tests (drug versus control) or ANOVA were used, as appropriate, via the IBM SPSS Statistics software package (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA). OriginPro 8.1 (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, USA) was used for fitting of the data.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, V.Y.S. and D.B.T.; Formal analysis, V.Y.S.; Funding acquisition, D.B.T.; Investigation, V.Y.S.; Methodology, N.N.P. and D.B.T.; Project administration, N.N.P.; Resources, N.N.P. and V.E.G.; Supervision, D.B.T.; Visualization, V.Y.S.; Writing—original draft, V.Y.S. and D.B.T.; Writing—review and editing, V.Y.S., V.E.G., and D.B.T.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Acknowledgments:** Authors would like to thank A. Staruschenko (Medical College of Wisconsin, WI, USA) for ASIC3 plasmid.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**The Clinical Utility of Food Addiction and Eating Addiction**

Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in *Nutrients* Stephanie Cassin and Sanjeev Sockalingam Edited by

www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients


Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)

For the quantification of TNF-α in the conditioned medium at each time point, sandwich TNF-α ELISA (KHC3012, TermoFisher Scientific, Carlsbad, CA, USA) was performed according to the manufacturer. Absorbance was read at 450 nm on a microplate reader (Synergy HT, BioTek, Winooski, VT, USA). A standard curve was built with concentrations ranging from 0 to 1000 pg/ml. The final concentrations were calculated by subtracting the value of each sample (i.e., testing conditions 1–3) to the conditioned culture medium baseline (i.e., testing condition 4), and the average was plotted for each testing condition along time.