**3. Piezoelectric MEMS in RF circuits**

#### **3.1. Switches and matrixes**

This section describes MEMS switches. These devices use mechanical movement to achieve an open or short circuit in the RF transmission line. RF MEMS switches are the specific micro‐ mechanical switches designed to operate at RF‐to‐millimeter wave frequencies (0.1–100 GHz). The forces required for the mechanical movement can be obtained using electrostatic, mag‐ netostatic, thermal or piezoelectric designs. Even if most MEMS RF switches are electrostatic‐ type switches [29], new switch topologies, based on piezoelectric topology, are now available.

The first piezoelectric material used to design switches has been AlN. Fully integrated RF MEMS switches [30] with piezoelectric actuation have been designed, fabricated and charac‐ terised using silicon bulk technology. First a resistive switch having a pure gold metal contact. The measured isolation and insertion loss of the resistive switch are −62 and −0.8 dB at a frequency of 5 GHz, respectively, for an actuation voltage of 3.5 V. A second capacitive switch exhibits an isolation of −18 dB and an insertion loss of −0.7 dB at a frequency of 5 GHz. The isolation curve of the capacitive switch is very flat over a very wide frequency range, from 0.5 to 30 GHz.

Another fully integrated RF MEMS switch with piezoelectric (PZT) actuation has been proposed and characterised by Lee et al. [31]. This switch is composed of a piezoelectric cantilever actuator with a floated contact electrode and isolated CPW transmission line suspended above the silicon substrate. The measured insertion loss and isolation are −0.22 and −42 dB at a frequency of 2 GHz, respectively. The main innovation of this switch is its very low actuation voltage of 2.5 V, instead of around 6–7 V, for more efficient electrostatic switches.

Another paper described a higher frequency switch that uses piezoelectric actuators [32]. This switch is based on a thin film spun of PZT deposited onto a high‐resistivity silicon substrate with coplanar waveguide transmission lines (**Figure 22**). Actuation voltages less than 10 V with switch operation demonstrated as low as 2 V. The series switch exhibits better than 20 dB isolation from DC up to 65 GHz and an insertion loss less than 1 dB up to 40 GHz. A new design from the same research team improves PZT switch performances at 10 V with better than 30 dB isolation and an insertion loss less than 0.5 dB from DC to 50 GHz [33].

**Figure 22.** PZT series switch.

Another feature of great interest in this switch technology is the opportunity to report on wafer‐ level transfer technologies to integrate PZT‐based RF MEMS switches into CMOS, as described by Guerre et al. [34]. Such heterogeneous integration can overcome the incompatibility of PZT materials with back‐end‐of‐the‐line (BEOL) CMOS technology. Switch characterisation draws out an insertion loss of less than 0.5 dB and an isolation better than 30 dB for the 0.4–6 GHz frequency range with 15 V actuation voltage.

In addition, these low loss and low actuation voltage piezoelectric switches can be correlated to realise a more complex commutation matrix: SP2T (Single Pole Two Throw) and SP4T (Single Pole Four Throw). For example, in the work of Chung et al. [35], as shown in **Fig‐ ure 23**, from DC to 50 GHz, the overall performance of the switches shows better than 20 dB isolation up to 50 GHz when the MEMS switches are in the off or zero‐volt state. When the switches are actuated with 7 V, the SP2T shows less than 1.8 dB of insertion loss while the SP4T shows less than 2 dB of insertion loss, on average, up to 40 GHz.

Some original application associated piezoelectric filters and switches together. Hummel et al. [36] demonstrated an innovative technology platform based on the monolithic integration of AlN resonators and PCM switches that is capable of delivering highly reconfigurable RF components, enabling new radio architectures with enhanced spectrum coverage.

**Figure 23.** Layout of the SP4T junction with PZT RF MEMS switches.

#### **3.2. Phase shifters**

Another paper described a higher frequency switch that uses piezoelectric actuators [32]. This switch is based on a thin film spun of PZT deposited onto a high‐resistivity silicon substrate with coplanar waveguide transmission lines (**Figure 22**). Actuation voltages less than 10 V with switch operation demonstrated as low as 2 V. The series switch exhibits better than 20 dB isolation from DC up to 65 GHz and an insertion loss less than 1 dB up to 40 GHz. A new design from the same research team improves PZT switch performances at 10 V with better

Another feature of great interest in this switch technology is the opportunity to report on wafer‐ level transfer technologies to integrate PZT‐based RF MEMS switches into CMOS, as described by Guerre et al. [34]. Such heterogeneous integration can overcome the incompatibility of PZT materials with back‐end‐of‐the‐line (BEOL) CMOS technology. Switch characterisation draws out an insertion loss of less than 0.5 dB and an isolation better than 30 dB for the 0.4–6 GHz

In addition, these low loss and low actuation voltage piezoelectric switches can be correlated to realise a more complex commutation matrix: SP2T (Single Pole Two Throw) and SP4T (Single Pole Four Throw). For example, in the work of Chung et al. [35], as shown in **Fig‐ ure 23**, from DC to 50 GHz, the overall performance of the switches shows better than 20 dB isolation up to 50 GHz when the MEMS switches are in the off or zero‐volt state. When the switches are actuated with 7 V, the SP2T shows less than 1.8 dB of insertion loss while the SP4T

Some original application associated piezoelectric filters and switches together. Hummel et al. [36] demonstrated an innovative technology platform based on the monolithic integration of AlN resonators and PCM switches that is capable of delivering highly reconfigurable RF

components, enabling new radio architectures with enhanced spectrum coverage.

than 30 dB isolation and an insertion loss less than 0.5 dB from DC to 50 GHz [33].

**Figure 22.** PZT series switch.

220 Piezoelectric Materials

frequency range with 15 V actuation voltage.

shows less than 2 dB of insertion loss, on average, up to 40 GHz.

Recent advances in piezoelectric actuated RF MEMS switches allow for the design of more complex functions and at present highly required phase shifters. A 2‐bit MEMS phase shifter incorporating PZT switches has been presented by Polcawich et al. [33]. A picture of the layout of the 2‐bit phase shifter based on PZT shunt switches is detailed in **Figure 24(a)**. The phase parameters have been measured against the frequency for the four configurations and are

**Figure 24.** (a) A 17 GHz 2‐bit reflection‐type phase shifter incorporating PZT shunt switches. (b) Measured normalised phase response.

presented in **Figure 24(b)**. In addition, this phase shifter has an average insertion loss of 2.96 dB using PZT shunt switches operating at 15 V.

A second topology (**Figure 25**) of a 2‐bit phase shifter based on two SP4T switch with piezoelectric MEMS switches with a compact 3D passive design on a liquid crystal polymer (LCP) organic substrate was described by Chung et al. [37]. A picture of the complete layout is shown in **Figure 25(a)**. The block diagram presented in **Figure 25(b)** describes the princi‐ ple based on two SP4T switch matrixes. The transmission phase measured results are detailed in **Figure 25(c)**. The multilayer LCP process allows a low‐cost and lightweight circuit that can easily be integrated with other RF front‐end components, such as an antenna, at the packag‐ ing level.

**Figure 25.** Proposed 3D phase shifter. (a) Layout with size comparison with a phase shifter with its footprint on a sin‐ gle layer. (b) Corresponding block diagram and measured normalised phase response of the 3D phase shifter. (c) Measured normalised phase response of the 3D phase shifter.

#### **3.3. RF varactors**

RF MEMS devices are competitive for handling high‐frequency microwave signals. In comparison with semiconductor devices, the performance of RF MEMS devices is highly linear, minimising signal distortion.

A 3 V operation RF MEMS variable capacitor using hybrid actuation of piezoelectric and electrostatic forces was presented by Ikehashi et al. [38] and Ikehashi et al. [39]. An image of this varactor is presented in **Figure 26(a)**. The measured capacitance ratio is *C*max/*C*min = 14. The hybrid actuation and the optimised bending enabled 2.6 V pull‐in voltage, with the pull‐out voltage as high as 2.0 V, as shown in **Figure 26(b)**. The piezoelectric actuator, which uses thin film PZT, enabled low voltage actuation, while the electrostatic actuator realised a large capacitance ratio.

**Figure 26.** (a) Top view of the variable capacitor. (b) *V* hysteresis curve with *V*piezo values of 2.5 and 0 V during pull‐in and pull‐out, respectively.


*5.2.3. Ecological demands*

Switchgrass will grow best on well-drained good quality soils but will also sustain lower quality soils and shallow rocky soils. It can grow on sand to clay loam soils and tolerates soils with pH values ranging from 4.9 to 7.6 [63]. It is drought tolerant, but the grass does not grow in locations where precipitation is below 300 mm per year. Switchgrass can tolerate shortterm waterlogging.

Switchgrass can be categorized into two groups or ecotypes classified by their habitat preference: the upland ecotype and the lowland ecotype. Upland ecotypes occur in upland areas that are not subject to flooding, while lowland ecotypes are found on floodplains and other areas that receive run-on water.

The upland ecotype is generally thinner stemmed and shorter than lowland ecotypes, is adapted to drier and wetter environments, and is generally derived from accessions collected in the northern regions of North America. Lowland plants have a later heading date and are taller with larger and thicker stems. Lowland ecotypes are tetraploids, while upland ecotypes are either octoploids or tetraploids. There are ecotypical differences among switchgrass ecotypes for important compositional features, such as fiber, nitrogen, and ash, among others. Dry matter produced by lowland ecotypes has higher cellulose and hemicellulose contents and lower N and ash contents than upland ecotypes, and dry matter produced by upland ecotypes contains higher lignin contents [64]. Upland and lowland tetraploids have been crossed to produce F1 hybrids that have an increase in yield of 30–50% over the parental lines. These hybrids are promising sources of high yield biomass cultivars [64]. Most seedlings of switchgrass will germinate after 3 days at 29.5°C. However, they germinate very slowly when the soil temperature is below 15.5°C [63].

#### *5.2.4. Biomass yields and characteristics*

The highest biomass yields per hectare can be obtained when switchgrass is harvested once or twice per year. In fact, one- or two-cut systems often provide similar average yields [65]. Wullschleger et al. [66] compiled 1190 biomass yield observations for both lowland and upland types of switchgrass grown on 39 sites across the USA, from field trials in 17 states, from Texas to North Dakota to Pennsylvania. In this study, it was found that much of the differences in biomass yields could be explained by the variation in the growing season, precipitation, annual temperature, nitrogen fertilization, and the type of switchgrass grown in a specific region. Annual yields averaged 12.9 t DM ha−1 for lowland and 8.7 t DM ha−1 for upland ecotypes. Some field sites in Texas, Oklahoma, and Alabama reported biomass yields greater than 28 t DM ha−1 using the lowland cultivars "Kanlow" and "Alamo."

Generally, a single harvest during the growing season maximizes biomass recovery, but harvest after a killing frost will ensure stand productivity and persistence, particularly when drought conditions occur, and reduce requirements of nitrogen fertilizers. Delaying the harvest until spring will reduce moisture and ash contents of the biomass; however, the yield loss can be as high as 40% compared to an autumn harvest [73]. With proper management, productive stands can be maintained for more than 10 years. It is not recommended to harvest

Bioenergy from Perennial Grasses

11

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74014

Reed canarygrass (*Phalaris arundinacea* L.) is a member of the Poaceae family. It is a coolseason grass that is less productive than warm-season grasses. It is a sod-forming, perennial wetland grass, native to the temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and North America. It is usu-

Reed canarygrass is a tall, coarse, and erect grass with a C3 photosynthetic pathway, which reaches a canopy height of up to 300 cm. This grass has vigorous rhizomes that form 1 cm

Its inflorescence is a narrow and compressed panicle. The leaves are wide and flat with prominent nodes. The stems are robust, smooth, and occasionally branching at the nodes. Its ligules are membrane-shaped and obtuse and have a pointed-folded tip. Seeds are shiny brown. The seed production of the species is unreliable due to the seed shattering and occasionally the production of deficient panicles [11]. The presence of several types and concentrations of poisonous alkaloids has restricted the use of reed canarygrass as a forage crop [75]. The esti-

Reed canarygrass is a persistent species, which grows well on most types of soils, except droughty sands. It is one of the best grass species for poorly drained soils and tolerates floods better than other cold-season grasses. However, the highest yield can be obtained on organic soils. Reed canarygrass is adapted to and grows very well in a cool temperate climate and has also good winter hardiness. In order to induce flowering, this grass requires exposure to short days (primary induction) followed by long days for initiation of floral primordial and

There are considerable differences in yield between different soils. Kukk et al. [77] reported that soils with low N content produce yields of almost 1 t DM ha−1 in years with unsuitable weather conditions for plant growth. On the other hand, it is possible to achieve an average

thick and short branches and a root system that reaches to more than 3 m [74].

mated life time of a reed canarygrass plantation is approximately 10 years [76].

inflorescence development (secondary induction) [77].

*5.3.4. Biomass yields and characteristics*

switchgrass in summer or after flowering when there are drought conditions.

ally found in wet areas such as lake shores and along the rivers.

**5.3. Reed canarygrass**

*5.3.1. Origin and distribution*

*5.3.2. General species description*

*5.3.3. Ecological demands*

The main characteristics of switchgrass biomass are listed in **Table 1**. Sladden et al. [67] compared eight switchgrass genotypes that were cut at the same maturity and found the six upland types did not vary much in their biomass composition. However, "Alamo" and "Kanlow" showed significantly lower N contents and higher fiber contents in their biomass which is explained by the later harvest date at maturity instead of differences in nutrient partitioning.

#### *5.2.5. Switchgrass as a bioenergy crop*

Switchgrass is established mainly by seeding. Successful stand establishment during the seeding year is essential for economically viable switchgrass as a bioenergy crop [68]. Stand failure as a result of poor seed quality or seedling physiology will have important implications on the cost of switchgrass biomass. However, weed competition is the major reason for switchgrass stand failure. Acceptable switchgrass production can be delayed by one or more years due to poor weed management and deficient stand establishment [69]. Switchgrass is readily established when high-quality seed of an adapted cultivar is used with the appropriate planting date, seeding rate, seeding method, and proper weed control. Switchgrass can be drilled in a conventional seedbed or by direct seeding methods. According to Sladden et al. [67], a row spacing of 80 cm is recommended because this led to higher yields in the second and third years than row spacing of 20 cm. Before planting, soil tests are recommended. N fertilizer is not recommended during the planting year since it will promote weed growth, increase competition for establishing seedlings, and increase economic risk and cost associated with establishment if stands should fail [70]. Economically viable yields will require N fertilization rates between 50 and 100 kg ha−1 yr.−1 [71]. N fertilizer should be given in late spring. P and K can be applied before seeding to promote root growth and encourage rapid establishment. Switchgrass can tolerate moderately acid soils, but optimum germination of the seed occurs when the soil pH is between 6 and 8 [72].

Weeds can be an important obstacle for switchgrass establishment, especially summer annuals. Spraying herbicides to control broadleaf weeds is usually needed only once or twice every 10 years in established and well-managed switchgrass stands. One year before planting, the field must be plowed or chiseled [63]. A reduction of weed competition can also be achieved by cutting infrequently at 10 cm. In order to control grasshoppers, crickets, and other insects which may affect the new seedlings of switchgrass an insecticide may be needed [63].

Generally, a single harvest during the growing season maximizes biomass recovery, but harvest after a killing frost will ensure stand productivity and persistence, particularly when drought conditions occur, and reduce requirements of nitrogen fertilizers. Delaying the harvest until spring will reduce moisture and ash contents of the biomass; however, the yield loss can be as high as 40% compared to an autumn harvest [73]. With proper management, productive stands can be maintained for more than 10 years. It is not recommended to harvest switchgrass in summer or after flowering when there are drought conditions.


**Survival benefits of BIMA versus Single Internal Mammary Artery (SIMA)**

Several observational, retrospective studies have found that there are significantly greater long-term survival benefits in patients who received BIMA grafting compared to SIMA grafting. Lytle *et al.* studied 10,124 elective CABG patients receiving either SIMA or BIMA grafts with or without any additional vein grafts in a retrospective, non-randomized study with a mean follow-up of 10 post-operative years. Hospital mortality rates were identical for the SIMA and BIMA groups (0.7%). However, over 12 years of post-operative follow up, survival rates for BIMA patients were significantly better than for SIMA patients (79.1% versus 71.6% respectively, p < 0.001) [9]. In a follow-up to the original study, which extended the mean post-operative follow up to 16.5 years, survival rates for BIMA and SIMA patients at 20 years were 50% versus 37% respectively (p < 0.0001), demonstrating a significant long-term survival advantage for patients receiving two internal mammary grafts compared to just one [10].

Nasso *et al.* aimed to determine whether or not there were significant benefits to using two arterial conduits rather than just a single arterial conduit. 815 patients were randomized to one of four revascularization strategies: *in situ* LIMA to LAD plus isolated RIMA Y graft, *in situ* RIMA to LAD plus *in situ* LIMA, *in situ* LIMA to LAD plus free radial artery, and *in situ* LIMA to LAD with saphenous vein grafts as a control. All revascularization groups received saphenous vein grafts to bypass the remaining coronary occlusions, if needed. Although the authors found no significant overall survival advantage between any of their revascularization groups over a follow-up period of two years, there was a significant difference in survival when considering cardiac event-free survival. Patients in groups receiving two arterial grafts had significantly better cardiac event-free survival rates when compared to patients who only received a single internal mammary artery (LIMA) grafted to the LAD with saphenous vein grafts. These arterial revascularization strategies were also seen to convey significantly better cardiac event-free survival rates to elderly (> 75 years) patients as well. The study did not find any significant differences in survival based on the choice of either the RIMA or the radial artery as the second arterial conduit [11].

In the longest reported retrospective analysis of CABG procedures, ranging from 6 weeks to 32 years of follow up, Kurlansky *et al.* conducted a review of 4,584 isolated CABG procedures between 1972 and 1994. When patient differences were accounted for and comparisons made between 2,197 matched patients, survival was 16.5% for SIMA patients and 28.5% for BIMA patients after 25 years (p = 0.001). The median survival for SIMA patients was 11.8 years compared to 15.9 years for BIMA patients. There were no significant differences between the two groups in the rates of non-fatal myocardial infarction, reoperation, percutaneous coronary intervention, permanent stroke, or composite freedom from late adverse cardiac events. [12

The location of the distal anastomosis of the RIMA graft also does not appear to significantly affect clinical outcomes of patients undergoing BIMA grafting. Kurlansky *et al.* performed a propensity-matched study of 2,215 patients undergoing BIMA CABG procedures having the RIMA grafted to either the right coronary system or to the left coronary system. In both the matched and unmatched analyses, there was no significant difference in operative or late mortality between the two groups. The median survival for propensity-matched patients in both groups was 16.1 years (p = 0.671) [13]. In another study by Rankin *et al.* there were no significant differences in long-term outcomes based on grafting territory of BIMA grafts as long as they are anastomosed to the two largest coronary systems [14].

Not all studies have found significantly increased survival rates for BIMA use over SIMA use. In a study performed by Dewar *et al.*, there was not a significant difference in the 5 or 7-year survival rates for patients undergoing either unilateral or bilateral IMA grafting with supple‐ mental vein grafts. 5-year survival rates for SIMA and BIMA revascularization for patients less than 60 years of age were 94.4% and 94.8%, respectively (p = not significant). There was also no significant difference in 5-year survival rates for patients over 60 years of age. However, the authors did note that there was a trend in lower rates of angina in the patient group receiving BIMA grafts less than 60 years of age [15].


**Assisted On-Job Training**

Cláudio Teixeira and Joaquim Sousa Pinto *University of Aveiro Portugal*

#### **1. Introduction**

22 E-Learning – Engineering, On-Job Training and Interactive Teaching

Vassileva, D., Bontchev, B., Grigorov, S. (2009) Mastering Adaptive Hypermedia

Vassileva, D. (2010). Storyboard Design for Adaptive E-learning Based on Learning Styles,

Vassileva, D., Bontchev, B. (2011). Storyboard Design for Courseware Adaptation to Learner

Velsen., L. (2008). User-centered evaluation of adaptive and adaptable systems: a literature

Weber, G., Hans-Christian, K., and Weibelzahl, S. (2001). Developing Adaptive Internet

pp. 57–62.

9526-71-4, pp. 22-29.

23:3, pp. 261–281.

pp. 226-238.

July 2011, ISBN:<PHONE_NUMBER>-38-0, pp.157-164.

Courseware, *Acta Electrotechnica et Informatica*, ISSN: 1335-8243, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2009,

*Proc. of Second Int. Conf. S3T*, September 11-12, 2010, Varna, Bulgaria, ISBN 978-954-

Style and Knowledge, *Proc. of IADIS Int. Conf. e-Learning 2011*, Rome, Italy, 20-23

review, *The Knowledge Engineering Review Journal*, Cambridge University Press, Vol.

Based Courses with the Authoring System NetCoach, Hypermedia: Openness, Structural Awareness, and Adaptivity, *LNAI, Vol. 2266*, ISBN: 978-3-540-43293-7, When dealing with critical systems that users must comprehend to take full advantage of their functionalities, deployment and support teams must take special care with users' training. Even when the development process takes in consideration testers' feedback, there is always the need for more users' hands-on training.

Of course, this is easier said than done. Users tend to be overloaded with regular tasks and finding time to assist a regular formation course is difficult, if not impossible in most cases.

This chapter presents the work being done in Cape Verde relating this subject. We have been developing an information system, named SIPP, to be used in the Courts of law in Cape Verde. SIPP stands for *Sistema de Informação do Processo Penal* (Criminal Proceedings Information System). SIPP is a joint initiative, sponsored by the Ministry of Justice of Cape Verde and developed from scratch by the University of Aveiro and University of Cape Verde. The SIPP has been in testing phase since June 2010 and will be put in production phase on October 2011.

Being a project developed from scratch, there were some barriers (cultural, practical and technical) that we had to overcome to succeed in the project.

One of our main concerns was to help users apprehend how the system works; so, along with online and printed material, we have developed a teaching system that simulates the different actors and automatically checks if the right information was collected from a given textual document, giving feedback to the users about the task's outcome.

To do so, we've deployed a training platform with the same web interface, but different data. On this platform, users could rest at ease on regards of the correctness of the information inserted. Moreover, this was a controlled scenario, so we could monitor and act accordingly when the actions made by the user were distinct from the expected ones. This chapter explains briefly the overall information system and explains in depth the workflow architecture used to deploy the assisted learning process.

From the preliminary results, there are a few key aspects worth mentioning:

 Being a country divided in 10 islands, regular user's training, using traditional classroom approaches is very expensive (mainly due to the country's geography) and bothersome, mainly due to the shear amount of regular court work left behind during training stage;

Assisted On-Job Training 25

course materials, work deliveries and discussion forums are amongst the most used

In (Thibault, 2011) authors compare both e-learning platforms. Two of the most widely used Learning Management Systems are almost identical in terms of functionality (roughly 95%). The author states that with added plugins and extensions, it is possible to obtain 100%

Considering our scenario: teach users how to use a specific application, besides the approach of (Borchardt & Grap, 2010), no other approach seemed to benefit the teaching of SIPP's functionalities. Therefore, we started developing a model where users could not only

SIPP is a web-based information system, developed to support the digital workflow of law case files in the Courts of Cape Verde. With this system, the different may interact with the

SIPP's users are the Court's administrative staff, Judges, District Attorneys, Lawyers, the

SIPP is an N-tier system, composed, in fact by two distinct applications: a web-based application and a service-oriented workflow engine. Figure 1 outlines SIPP's architecture.

Each user will access the application and expects to be able to execute the same tasks as it would on Court. This means that access to sensitive information within the case files must be handled with care: each user cannot access more data that it would on the paper case

The database layer consists of a high availability SQL Server cluster. This cluster holds database records and stored procedures for better query performance on complex queries.

practice, but also learn to use the system. This will be discussed in later sections.

Court's Presidents and Members of the Supreme Councils.

features.

coverage of site's functionality.

**3. SIPP overview**

Fig. 1. SIPP Overview

**3.1 Database and business logic**

files.

case files.

**2.2 On-job training – Final thoughts**

The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows: section 2 briefly presents the state of the art on the On-job training subject, while section 3 presents an overview of SIPP. Section 4 contextualizes SIPP in Cape Verde and Section 5 details the assisted on-job approach in SIPP. Finally, section 6 presents the conclusions of the presented work.

#### **2. Online on-job training – State of the art**

Considering the online training and e-learning platforms, several different approaches have been followed, from simple online tutorials, to adaptive context-aware (Bahreininejad & Yaghmaie, 2011) and platforms based on semantic infrastructures context-aware (Yu, Zhou, & Shu, 2010).

With web 2.0, these e-learning applications evolved to social networking applied to elearning (Abel et al., 2010; Angelaccio & Buttarazzi, 2010).

Regardless of the information model underneath the e-learning process, useful skills and knowledge, resulting from the investment in human capital has been preconized as a distinctive factor for employees and employers alike (Schultz, 1961). Life-long learning is considered an important aspect for both employees and employers (Wu & Huang, 2007).

On-job training contributes to the enhancement and development and human capabilities, according with the trained topic (AlAli, 1997). More importantly, continuous on-job training helps users feel more satisfied with their current position (Georgellis & Lange, 2007).

However, as pointed out by (Borchardt & Grap, 2010), e-learning systems are usually targeted at traditional learning institutions and at big enterprises. This is mainly due to the costs per trainee of developing the information structure with the specificities and particularities of each small and medium enterprise.

#### **2.1 E-learning in higher education**

In more traditional education environments, like higher education institutions, e-learning frameworks have been in use for decades. Most of the e-learning platforms available have the ability of presenting information in terms of single lectures or courses.

According to (Lokken, Womer, & Mullins, 2008), the most used e-learning frameworks in the US in 2007 were Blackboard, Angel and Moodle.

**Blackboard** (Blackboard Inc., 2011) is a commercial e-learning solution, featuring options for almost all requirements in teaching. Course materials, work deliveries and discussion forums and amongst the most used features.

**Angel** was acquired by Blackboard in May 2009, so its features became an integrant part of the Blackboard's core.

**Moodle** (Moodle Trust, 2011) is an open source Learning Management System, that has been gaining momentum and supporters throughout the academic community. Again

 When users started working with the assisted on-job training, the overall opinion was that such system enabled them to understand the several available options faster and

The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows: section 2 briefly presents the state of the art on the On-job training subject, while section 3 presents an overview of SIPP. Section 4 contextualizes SIPP in Cape Verde and Section 5 details the assisted on-job approach in

Considering the online training and e-learning platforms, several different approaches have been followed, from simple online tutorials, to adaptive context-aware (Bahreininejad & Yaghmaie, 2011) and platforms based on semantic infrastructures context-aware (Yu, Zhou,

With web 2.0, these e-learning applications evolved to social networking applied to e-

Regardless of the information model underneath the e-learning process, useful skills and knowledge, resulting from the investment in human capital has been preconized as a distinctive factor for employees and employers alike (Schultz, 1961). Life-long learning is considered an important aspect for both employees and employers (Wu & Huang, 2007).

On-job training contributes to the enhancement and development and human capabilities, according with the trained topic (AlAli, 1997). More importantly, continuous on-job training

However, as pointed out by (Borchardt & Grap, 2010), e-learning systems are usually targeted at traditional learning institutions and at big enterprises. This is mainly due to the costs per trainee of developing the information structure with the specificities and

In more traditional education environments, like higher education institutions, e-learning frameworks have been in use for decades. Most of the e-learning platforms available have

According to (Lokken, Womer, & Mullins, 2008), the most used e-learning frameworks in

**Blackboard** (Blackboard Inc., 2011) is a commercial e-learning solution, featuring options for almost all requirements in teaching. Course materials, work deliveries and discussion

**Angel** was acquired by Blackboard in May 2009, so its features became an integrant part of

**Moodle** (Moodle Trust, 2011) is an open source Learning Management System, that has been gaining momentum and supporters throughout the academic community. Again

the ability of presenting information in terms of single lectures or courses.

helps users feel more satisfied with their current position (Georgellis & Lange, 2007).

without worries of destroying real life work due to incorrect system operation.

SIPP. Finally, section 6 presents the conclusions of the presented work.

Computer illiteracy had to be tackled first

**2. Online on-job training – State of the art**

learning (Abel et al., 2010; Angelaccio & Buttarazzi, 2010).

particularities of each small and medium enterprise.

the US in 2007 were Blackboard, Angel and Moodle.

forums and amongst the most used features.

the Blackboard's core.

**2.1 E-learning in higher education**

& Shu, 2010).

course materials, work deliveries and discussion forums are amongst the most used features.

In (Thibault, 2011) authors compare both e-learning platforms. Two of the most widely used Learning Management Systems are almost identical in terms of functionality (roughly 95%). The author states that with added plugins and extensions, it is possible to obtain 100% coverage of site's functionality.

#### **2.2 On-job training – Final thoughts**

Considering our scenario: teach users how to use a specific application, besides the approach of (Borchardt & Grap, 2010), no other approach seemed to benefit the teaching of SIPP's functionalities. Therefore, we started developing a model where users could not only practice, but also learn to use the system. This will be discussed in later sections.

#### **3. SIPP overview**

SIPP is a web-based information system, developed to support the digital workflow of law case files in the Courts of Cape Verde. With this system, the different may interact with the case files.

SIPP's users are the Court's administrative staff, Judges, District Attorneys, Lawyers, the Court's Presidents and Members of the Supreme Councils.

SIPP is an N-tier system, composed, in fact by two distinct applications: a web-based application and a service-oriented workflow engine. Figure 1 outlines SIPP's architecture.

Fig. 1. SIPP Overview

Each user will access the application and expects to be able to execute the same tasks as it would on Court. This means that access to sensitive information within the case files must be handled with care: each user cannot access more data that it would on the paper case files.

#### **3.1 Database and business logic**

The database layer consists of a high availability SQL Server cluster. This cluster holds database records and stored procedures for better query performance on complex queries.

Assisted On-Job Training 27

decision received earlier. Despite seeming as an additional and cumbersome task, it is vital for the correct functioning of the entire system. The top-level workflows (*Habeas Corpus*, Regular Process and Appeals) are triggered based on the information extracted by the administrative staff. The upside of this extra step is the ability to latter extract a series of reports and statistical information from the entire system, at no extra cost. Request and decision workflow consists mainly of three events: request received, decision received and

*Habeas Corpus* **Service** – This workflow handles the entire process related with *Habeas Corpus* case files. It receives events triggered from the request and decision workflow and

**Regular Process Service** – This workflow handles the regular court case files, regardless of the process' complexity. Regular Court process case files are divided into four categories, depending on the nature of the crimes and the Judge's decision. It receives events triggered

**Appeals Service** – This workflow handles the case files on Higher Court instances. It receives events triggered from the request and decision workflow, from the Habeas Corpus

User-wise, the web application is the single point of interaction with the system. For security reasons, the communication between the workflow service and the web application

The web application enables users to access the system and work on their tasks and

is restricted to just that; users may not directly communicate with the workflows.

portfolio. In this scenario, portfolio refers to the active case files of a given user.

from the request and decision workflow and from the Appeals workflow.

explanation received. Each event is triggered by a different actor.

Fig. 2. Detailed view of the workflow service

and from the regular process workflows.

from the Appeals workflow.

**3.3 Web application**

The business logic consists of a set of classes and transformations for simpler queries and for regular CRUD (Create, Retrieve, Update and Delete) operations. Enhanced retrieve operations (information of related objects, complex cross table queries, etc.) is also handled on the business logic layer. All database handling is processed by this layer. This enables a one point entry for audit and log tracking of operations. Also, security enforcement mechanisms are in place at this layer, to prevent erroneous or misbehaved application or user access.

#### **3.2 Workflow service**

The workflow service is deployed on an application cluster, enabling high availability of the service. The service is built upon Microsoft.Net Workflow Foundation (Zhu, 2010). Service communication is built upon Windows Communication Framework (Resnick, Crane, & Bowen, 2008).

To orchestrate and manage the information flow from the handling of case files, we decided to use a workflow engine. This seemed like a natural step towards the dematerialization of the case files. Workflow engines are capable of handling long running processes. In this particular case, a single process may stretch for several years, depending on its complexity and number of appeals. One other feature that we intended to explore using workflow engines was the dynamic update of a given workflow. When referring to laws and systems that must adhere to the strict regulation of laws, if significant changes in the law are made, then systems must be updated. However, the updating method must consider the specificities of running processes and how these should be treated: in some cases, the new laws will only apply to new case files, in other cases the new laws will apply to all new case files and to some (or all) running process. The use of a workflow service enables us to handle these specificities and more.

SIPP's workflow service is based on several smaller services and workflows, as illustrated in Figure 2. Most of the workflows in place are internal to the service, meaning that they are only available for communication with other workflows. The main entry point of communication with the overall workflow service is the Versioning Service.

**Versioning Service** – This workflow handles document edition. Documents are edited online, using the web application. The versioning service handles any kind of data, from simple document edition to N-step forms. At any given time, users may save their work and resume it when needed. If required, they may continue editing the document on any given saved version (actual or older).

**Request and Decision** – This workflow handles the basic process of submitting the request (by any party in the case file) and decision of the request (usually by the judge of the case). Judges may also issue decisions with no pending request. This workflow is used on both cases. Workflow actions are triggered by the reception of completed documents from the versioning service. This workflow mimics most of the traditional (manual) information process. However, given the inability for computer systems to accurately understand textual documents and automatically extract meaningful information from it, we have added an extra step (when comparing with the traditional paper version) to the workflow: after the decision document is received, the administrative staff must extract the meaningful information from the document, "explaining" to the application what to do with the

The business logic consists of a set of classes and transformations for simpler queries and for regular CRUD (Create, Retrieve, Update and Delete) operations. Enhanced retrieve operations (information of related objects, complex cross table queries, etc.) is also handled on the business logic layer. All database handling is processed by this layer. This enables a one point entry for audit and log tracking of operations. Also, security enforcement mechanisms are in place at this layer, to prevent erroneous or misbehaved application or

The workflow service is deployed on an application cluster, enabling high availability of the service. The service is built upon Microsoft.Net Workflow Foundation (Zhu, 2010). Service communication is built upon Windows Communication Framework (Resnick, Crane, &

To orchestrate and manage the information flow from the handling of case files, we decided to use a workflow engine. This seemed like a natural step towards the dematerialization of the case files. Workflow engines are capable of handling long running processes. In this particular case, a single process may stretch for several years, depending on its complexity and number of appeals. One other feature that we intended to explore using workflow engines was the dynamic update of a given workflow. When referring to laws and systems that must adhere to the strict regulation of laws, if significant changes in the law are made, then systems must be updated. However, the updating method must consider the specificities of running processes and how these should be treated: in some cases, the new laws will only apply to new case files, in other cases the new laws will apply to all new case files and to some (or all) running process. The use of a workflow service enables us to

SIPP's workflow service is based on several smaller services and workflows, as illustrated in Figure 2. Most of the workflows in place are internal to the service, meaning that they are only available for communication with other workflows. The main entry point of

**Versioning Service** – This workflow handles document edition. Documents are edited online, using the web application. The versioning service handles any kind of data, from simple document edition to N-step forms. At any given time, users may save their work and resume it when needed. If required, they may continue editing the document on any given

**Request and Decision** – This workflow handles the basic process of submitting the request (by any party in the case file) and decision of the request (usually by the judge of the case). Judges may also issue decisions with no pending request. This workflow is used on both cases. Workflow actions are triggered by the reception of completed documents from the versioning service. This workflow mimics most of the traditional (manual) information process. However, given the inability for computer systems to accurately understand textual documents and automatically extract meaningful information from it, we have added an extra step (when comparing with the traditional paper version) to the workflow: after the decision document is received, the administrative staff must extract the meaningful information from the document, "explaining" to the application what to do with the

communication with the overall workflow service is the Versioning Service.

user access.

Bowen, 2008).

**3.2 Workflow service**

handle these specificities and more.

saved version (actual or older).

decision received earlier. Despite seeming as an additional and cumbersome task, it is vital for the correct functioning of the entire system. The top-level workflows (*Habeas Corpus*, Regular Process and Appeals) are triggered based on the information extracted by the administrative staff. The upside of this extra step is the ability to latter extract a series of reports and statistical information from the entire system, at no extra cost. Request and decision workflow consists mainly of three events: request received, decision received and explanation received. Each event is triggered by a different actor.

Fig. 2. Detailed view of the workflow service

*Habeas Corpus* **Service** – This workflow handles the entire process related with *Habeas Corpus* case files. It receives events triggered from the request and decision workflow and from the Appeals workflow.

**Regular Process Service** – This workflow handles the regular court case files, regardless of the process' complexity. Regular Court process case files are divided into four categories, depending on the nature of the crimes and the Judge's decision. It receives events triggered from the request and decision workflow and from the Appeals workflow.

**Appeals Service** – This workflow handles the case files on Higher Court instances. It receives events triggered from the request and decision workflow, from the Habeas Corpus and from the regular process workflows.

#### **3.3 Web application**

User-wise, the web application is the single point of interaction with the system. For security reasons, the communication between the workflow service and the web application is restricted to just that; users may not directly communicate with the workflows.

The web application enables users to access the system and work on their tasks and portfolio. In this scenario, portfolio refers to the active case files of a given user.

Assisted On-Job Training 29

As mentioned, the process of detailing or dissecting the information within a decision was called a "Decision explanation". In this stage, the user (usually an administrative Court staff member) must extract meaningful information to feed the system. This means that for each type of considered meaningful information there is an explanation form associated. Figure 4 presents the explaining form of a final sentence on a case file. In this case, the accused was

In Figure 4 this information as already submitted by the user. The next step is to fill out the information related to the Crimes (on which was the user found guilty on which was he found not guilty) (1), the main sentence (2) with information on days in prison, fine amount, etc., accessory sentences (3) as inhibition to drive, and finally, information regarding civil

Cape Verde is an archipelago of 10 islands that cover around 4,000 square kilometres of ground. Across these islands, there are 16 regular Courts and 3 higher instance Courts, where this application must be available, and with which the District Attorneys, Judges and Court staff must be at ease. These 16 regular Courts are unevenly divided, with most of the

Communications wise, the government sponsors a public network, available for all the country's public services, Courts included. Figure 5 depicts such network. All communications converge to the main island, Santiago. Most of the national online services are based on Santiago and, more importantly, it is through Santiago that all International network traffic flows. Inter-island communication links are usually saturated at about 95%, during working hours. Despite this obstacle, regular internet communication is feasible from almost every public office, thanks to strong cache mechanisms and quality of service

islands with just one Court, consisting of less than 10 users per Court.

found guilty as charged and condemned.

damages (4).

Fig. 4. Decision explanation

**4. Demographics and regional concerns**

rules imposed by the network administrators.

Workflow usage was kept to the minimum, meaning that only effective workflow-like tasks were to be deployed as workflow services. The remaining information access is done by reaching directly to the business logic layer. When triggered, the workflow layer processes information and permanently stores it in the database, through the business logic layer. Therefore, it is possible to assess all information by using the business logic layer. Besides giving a faster access to information, it lessens the load on the workflow engine, making it available to other requests.

9. System and page loading information.

Fig. 3. SIPP look and feel

Workflow usage was kept to the minimum, meaning that only effective workflow-like tasks were to be deployed as workflow services. The remaining information access is done by reaching directly to the business logic layer. When triggered, the workflow layer processes information and permanently stores it in the database, through the business logic layer. Therefore, it is possible to assess all information by using the business logic layer. Besides giving a faster access to information, it lessens the load on the workflow engine, making it

3. Main menu: this area controls the top level sections available to each user. Depending

4. User's control panel: the area holds the user's identification and session termination options. It also enables the access to the user's control panel, where he may edit

5. Portfolio case file holder: this section lists the user related court file process in progress. 6. Court file process information: the information about any given process is organized in

8. Pending actions: lists all on-going user tasks related to a given process. These are organized by vertical tabs. On-going tasks are usually related to versioning documents

1. Figure 3 presents the look and feel of the web application, with 8 areas marked: 2. User's location: enables the user to rapidly identify the currently working area;

on the user's roles, the available options may differ.

7. Case file tasks: lists all pending tasks related to a given process.

available to other requests.

personal information.

tabs, for easier reading.

and decision processes.

Fig. 3. SIPP look and feel

9. System and page loading information.

As mentioned, the process of detailing or dissecting the information within a decision was called a "Decision explanation". In this stage, the user (usually an administrative Court staff member) must extract meaningful information to feed the system. This means that for each type of considered meaningful information there is an explanation form associated. Figure 4 presents the explaining form of a final sentence on a case file. In this case, the accused was found guilty as charged and condemned.

In Figure 4 this information as already submitted by the user. The next step is to fill out the information related to the Crimes (on which was the user found guilty on which was he found not guilty) (1), the main sentence (2) with information on days in prison, fine amount, etc., accessory sentences (3) as inhibition to drive, and finally, information regarding civil damages (4).

Fig. 4. Decision explanation

#### **4. Demographics and regional concerns**

Cape Verde is an archipelago of 10 islands that cover around 4,000 square kilometres of ground. Across these islands, there are 16 regular Courts and 3 higher instance Courts, where this application must be available, and with which the District Attorneys, Judges and Court staff must be at ease. These 16 regular Courts are unevenly divided, with most of the islands with just one Court, consisting of less than 10 users per Court.

Communications wise, the government sponsors a public network, available for all the country's public services, Courts included. Figure 5 depicts such network. All communications converge to the main island, Santiago. Most of the national online services are based on Santiago and, more importantly, it is through Santiago that all International network traffic flows. Inter-island communication links are usually saturated at about 95%, during working hours. Despite this obstacle, regular internet communication is feasible from almost every public office, thanks to strong cache mechanisms and quality of service rules imposed by the network administrators.

Assisted On-Job Training 31

usage usually involves repetitive tasks, consisting on text edition and printing. Given the overload of case files per Court, staff usually does not have the on-job time (or at ease) to

Considering the concerns that were raised on the previous section, we had to devise a way to overcome the staff related problems and to mitigate the impact of the infrastructural problems. As mentioned, the infrastructure problems were mitigated by enabling users to

The staff related problems, however, posed a new set of challenges. How could we guarantee a satisfactory level of basic computer skills to all Court staff, Judges and District Attorneys? How could we teach them to use a new application, with minimal downtime of the Court's service? Considering the different social stratus amongst the Court staff, how could we ensure a teaching service where each person would feel comfortable to reach out

To ensure a satisfactory level of computer skills, the University of Cape Verde was put in charge of an ambitious program of teaching all Courts' administrative staff on basic computer skills. These sessions were conducted in several islands, giving the opportunity to the staff to refresh or learn basic computer skills, as scanning, text processing, spread sheet

Following this learning program, users apprehended most of the skills required to the next level: SIPP specific training. Considering the responsibilities of each person and the available features for each role, we were required to perform different learning sessions,

When the first prototype was deployed, still on early testing phase, we started the training of the users and the validation of the prototype concept. After each round of testing and training, we delivered to the development team a set of results and opinions of the users about the system. This way, we could try to improve the perceived usability of the system to the next round. The first rounds, until the interface concept was considered stabilized by the users, were done with the same participants. This way they could better understand the

As mentioned, in most islands there is just on Court of law. In each Court, there are at least one Judge, one District Attorney and four administrative staff elements working every day. This meant that we would either move all personnel to common facilities during the SIPP training, or we would take the teaching team in a visit to all Courts. Due to the country's geography and considering the shear costs of transporting all the Court's personnel to a common location, the choice of having an itinerant teaching team prevailed. This team would perform one-to-one on-job sessions, with no need to close the Court to the public, since this would be done based on pre-set scheduling, adjusting regular tasks with this

pursue on practicing, discovering and learning additional features.

and express his difficulties, without being judged by others?

covering the different features assigned to the different roles.

**5. Assisted on-job training using SIPP**

post-process documents.

processing and web browsing.

**5.1 Human assisted on-job training**

impact of their opinions in the system.

additional task.

Along with the heavily packed inter-island network, one other technical difficulty usually arises: power outage. Given its archipelago nature, each island must be able to produce its own electricity. From time to time, due to generator problems, excessive demand and other reasons, an island region is left in the dark. With no electricity there is no communications and therefore, no web services. This holds true not only for the physical location (Court, lawyer's office, etc.), but for power outages along the network routing to the datacentre. This means that, depending on the outage location, a region or the entire country may unable to access any given web service.

These conditions mean that any given online system deployed in these conditions, to be considered "environmentally full proof", must be able to support off-site processing. In this case, the option was to go back paper trail and later proceed with the digitization of the record produced during the inaccessibility period.

Fig. 5. National network for public services (Monteiro, S., & Teixeira, 2010)

Adding to these tough conditions, the familiarity of the court's staff with computer systems is below the desirable level. Most of them have, in fact, a computer standing in their desks. And most do use them for work tasks (and received training to do it). However, the regular

Along with the heavily packed inter-island network, one other technical difficulty usually arises: power outage. Given its archipelago nature, each island must be able to produce its own electricity. From time to time, due to generator problems, excessive demand and other reasons, an island region is left in the dark. With no electricity there is no communications and therefore, no web services. This holds true not only for the physical location (Court, lawyer's office, etc.), but for power outages along the network routing to the datacentre. This means that, depending on the outage location, a region or the entire country may

These conditions mean that any given online system deployed in these conditions, to be considered "environmentally full proof", must be able to support off-site processing. In this case, the option was to go back paper trail and later proceed with the digitization of the

Fig. 5. National network for public services (Monteiro, S., & Teixeira, 2010)

Adding to these tough conditions, the familiarity of the court's staff with computer systems is below the desirable level. Most of them have, in fact, a computer standing in their desks. And most do use them for work tasks (and received training to do it). However, the regular

unable to access any given web service.

record produced during the inaccessibility period.

usage usually involves repetitive tasks, consisting on text edition and printing. Given the overload of case files per Court, staff usually does not have the on-job time (or at ease) to pursue on practicing, discovering and learning additional features.

#### **5. Assisted on-job training using SIPP**

Considering the concerns that were raised on the previous section, we had to devise a way to overcome the staff related problems and to mitigate the impact of the infrastructural problems. As mentioned, the infrastructure problems were mitigated by enabling users to post-process documents.

The staff related problems, however, posed a new set of challenges. How could we guarantee a satisfactory level of basic computer skills to all Court staff, Judges and District Attorneys? How could we teach them to use a new application, with minimal downtime of the Court's service? Considering the different social stratus amongst the Court staff, how could we ensure a teaching service where each person would feel comfortable to reach out and express his difficulties, without being judged by others?

To ensure a satisfactory level of computer skills, the University of Cape Verde was put in charge of an ambitious program of teaching all Courts' administrative staff on basic computer skills. These sessions were conducted in several islands, giving the opportunity to the staff to refresh or learn basic computer skills, as scanning, text processing, spread sheet processing and web browsing.

#### **5.1 Human assisted on-job training**

Following this learning program, users apprehended most of the skills required to the next level: SIPP specific training. Considering the responsibilities of each person and the available features for each role, we were required to perform different learning sessions, covering the different features assigned to the different roles.

When the first prototype was deployed, still on early testing phase, we started the training of the users and the validation of the prototype concept. After each round of testing and training, we delivered to the development team a set of results and opinions of the users about the system. This way, we could try to improve the perceived usability of the system to the next round. The first rounds, until the interface concept was considered stabilized by the users, were done with the same participants. This way they could better understand the impact of their opinions in the system.

As mentioned, in most islands there is just on Court of law. In each Court, there are at least one Judge, one District Attorney and four administrative staff elements working every day. This meant that we would either move all personnel to common facilities during the SIPP training, or we would take the teaching team in a visit to all Courts. Due to the country's geography and considering the shear costs of transporting all the Court's personnel to a common location, the choice of having an itinerant teaching team prevailed. This team would perform one-to-one on-job sessions, with no need to close the Court to the public, since this would be done based on pre-set scheduling, adjusting regular tasks with this additional task.

Assisted On-Job Training 33

Fig. 6. Inspector bounded in the workflows

This on-job, one-to-one teaching method, proved to be extremely effective. Trainees were at ease to pose any question they felt like, for more basic that it would seem to them. This could only be achieved in such personalized and private environment as the user's office or desk. This way, we could assess the effects of the basic skill learning program: based on the ease revealed during SIPP training and based on their technical questions.

SIPP's human assisted on-job training consisted of two separated phases: an overall user related explanation of features (done by the teacher) and a hands-on experience, where the teacher would observe and ask for the fulfilment of a set of given tasks. On every session, this was the stage where most of the time was spent. During the first iterations, teachers often had to assist users and walk them through the required task. The session was considered as terminated when users were able to execute a fair amount of tasks without the teacher's intervention. During the entire process, teachers would take notes referring to the user's interaction. These notes were then reported to the development team, for user interface refining.

Even before the first SIPP on-job training session, a new set of questions were raised. How will users keep their learnt skills? How often can we make this kind of intervention? The answer to the last question was easy: if possible, never again. Just one visit per Court was planned. Despite being cheaper than closing the Court for two or three days and moving everyone to different places, with the intrinsic costs on travel, accommodation and meals, this approach still has the cost of having the teaching teams on the field. To answer the first question, we deployed a testing web application, similar to the online system, where users could exercise what they had learnt and continue exploring the application. This testing application will still be available when SIPP enters production phase.

As always, this led us to a new question: How to assess and validate the users' training without human supervision?

#### **5.2 Computer assisted on-job training**

To answer the question raised in the last section, we developed a computer assisted on-job training agent, an inspector, that could overcome the lack of human supervising and, at the same time, reassure users about the outcome of their practice.

This inspector is bounded to the main workflows: Habeas Corpus Process, Regular Process and Appeals. To validate the information state of a given electronic case file, we partially adapted our unit test framework, so that we could validate on the fly the information being inserted (resulting of the decision's explanation) with the expected information.

Every time a decision is explained and an event on these workflows is triggered, this agent inspects the outcome of the explanation, and compares it to the expected outcome. In the event of mismatch, the agent triggers a new decision for that process, explaining to the user his mistake, and what to do to correct it. When the outcome of the explanation matches the expected outcome, the agent signals the main workflow to proceed the information processing.

Figure 6 shows the overhead processing in the workflow engine to support the computer assisted training. It represents a triggered event, the reception of the explained decision of

This on-job, one-to-one teaching method, proved to be extremely effective. Trainees were at ease to pose any question they felt like, for more basic that it would seem to them. This could only be achieved in such personalized and private environment as the user's office or desk. This way, we could assess the effects of the basic skill learning program: based on the

SIPP's human assisted on-job training consisted of two separated phases: an overall user related explanation of features (done by the teacher) and a hands-on experience, where the teacher would observe and ask for the fulfilment of a set of given tasks. On every session, this was the stage where most of the time was spent. During the first iterations, teachers often had to assist users and walk them through the required task. The session was considered as terminated when users were able to execute a fair amount of tasks without the teacher's intervention. During the entire process, teachers would take notes referring to the user's interaction. These notes were then reported to the development team, for user

Even before the first SIPP on-job training session, a new set of questions were raised. How will users keep their learnt skills? How often can we make this kind of intervention? The answer to the last question was easy: if possible, never again. Just one visit per Court was planned. Despite being cheaper than closing the Court for two or three days and moving everyone to different places, with the intrinsic costs on travel, accommodation and meals, this approach still has the cost of having the teaching teams on the field. To answer the first question, we deployed a testing web application, similar to the online system, where users could exercise what they had learnt and continue exploring the application. This testing

As always, this led us to a new question: How to assess and validate the users' training

To answer the question raised in the last section, we developed a computer assisted on-job training agent, an inspector, that could overcome the lack of human supervising and, at the

This inspector is bounded to the main workflows: Habeas Corpus Process, Regular Process and Appeals. To validate the information state of a given electronic case file, we partially adapted our unit test framework, so that we could validate on the fly the information being

Every time a decision is explained and an event on these workflows is triggered, this agent inspects the outcome of the explanation, and compares it to the expected outcome. In the event of mismatch, the agent triggers a new decision for that process, explaining to the user his mistake, and what to do to correct it. When the outcome of the explanation matches the expected outcome, the agent signals the main workflow to proceed the information

Figure 6 shows the overhead processing in the workflow engine to support the computer assisted training. It represents a triggered event, the reception of the explained decision of

inserted (resulting of the decision's explanation) with the expected information.

ease revealed during SIPP training and based on their technical questions.

application will still be available when SIPP enters production phase.

same time, reassure users about the outcome of their practice.

interface refining.

without human supervision?

processing.

**5.2 Computer assisted on-job training**

Fig. 6. Inspector bounded in the workflows

Assisted On-Job Training 35

planner inspects the current process execution phase and acts accordingly, impersonating the remaining parties of case file. It is up to the case file planner to devise the actual

As with the case file generator, the planner was also inspired by our internal testing

More than simply generating random case files using pre-defined situations and models, we needed users to experiment the full length of the process, according to their responsibilities. This way, users could help us assess the validity of each workflow and propose

A simple path for a case file would be, for example: 1) when the judgement day is marked, issue a new witness request; and, 2) on the judgement day, issue the final judgement act, with the final decision about the accused party. As with the testing tool, probabilistic pathways could also be defined, providing a wider range of training options, with the same

Each request/decision issued will then be validated by the inspector agent previously

The case file planner is an iterative agent that prepares tasks according with user's expertise on the system. To do that, it needs to understand the user's evolution so, as in a computer game, it ranks users' achievements. This way, it may plan more complex case file paths to more experienced users and more simple tasks to users starting their training or struggling

The user interaction is recorded jointly by the planner and the enforcer, allowing the supervising team to personally compare the expected outcome with the actual outcome

When we started this process, users were apprehensive about what to expect as an outcome. This was the third attempt that the government had made to implement such a system and users who had participated on previous attempts were reluctant to start yet another project. The project's initial risk was in fact high. The fear factor associated to a new system combined with the perception of a possible "Big Brother", working for the Ministry of Justice and against the Justice personnel, were more than enough to put us in an

We managed to get around the user's initial misbeliefs by presenting them the advantages (and disadvantages) of such system. These presentations have shown us that people were eager to use an electronic system to support their work, as long as the infrastructural and technological problems were solved and the security and privacy concerns could be verified

The development process included elements of each perceived role in the Court. This benefited the overall result, since these members were the first to see the developments, to comment and propose new directions on what they felt was incorrect. More importantly,

traversed workflow for any given process.

mechanisms.

presented.

with the system.

**6. Conclusion**

at all times.

uncomfortable starting position.

modifications, if required.

amount of supervision preparation.

produced by the user. This additional debugging feature

setting a judgement day for the case file (1). Upon reception, we check whether the process is a training case file or a regular case file (2). Being a training case file, we make a second check, to compare the information received with the expected information (in this case, this would be the time, date and place for the judgement, along with the defendant lawyer (if necessary) (3). If everything is as expected, or if this process is not a training case file, then the inspector allows the workflow to continue (4). Otherwise, it will not allow the workflow to continue and will issue a new request/decision, stating what was wrong and how to correct it (5).

#### **5.3 Case file generator**

The final piece for this puzzle was a case file generator, where we could define training session parameters, like the number of case files to open, the case file state (according to the main workflows), the initial process information and a set of requests and/or decisions (depending on the user's role) for users to process.

We developed a model-based random text generator that would open case files, submit requests and decisions and, most importantly, record the expected outcome of the request or decision.

Pending user's action, the inspector agent compares both data and decides whether to allow the workflow's execution or not.

This case file generator is used during all training phases (teacher assisted and computer assisted). This way, users were already familiarized with the generator's way of producing textual requests and decisions when they started using the computer assisted on-job training application.

The case file generator was inspired on our internal testing mechanisms. Besides single unitary tests, we also need to test the workflow as a hole. However, it is impossible to test the same case file with all the options available at the workflow. To handle this challenge, we developed a testing tool that simulates the web application, communicating directly with the Business Layer and with the Workflow Service.

The test tool would issue new case files, inquire on the available state options to trigger and selectively choose one event to trigger. Testing would continue until the case file was terminated. The test tool was preloaded with a set of rules and conditions to guarantee that we had covered nearly all options within the workflows. These rules and conditions could be in the form of probabilistic influence (when in state X give an N% probability to event Z) or the form of closed pathways (when in state X, proceed with event Z).

The test tool also served another important aspect: assessing the overall system performance. Since the testing tool, workflow service and database were detached modules, these could be executed from different computers. This way, we could test the limitations of our approach and proceed accordingly, early on the development phase.

#### **5.4 Case file planner**

Along with the case file generator, we developed the case file planner. After the case file generator publishes a new process, for every process state change triggered, the case file

setting a judgement day for the case file (1). Upon reception, we check whether the process is a training case file or a regular case file (2). Being a training case file, we make a second check, to compare the information received with the expected information (in this case, this would be the time, date and place for the judgement, along with the defendant lawyer (if necessary) (3). If everything is as expected, or if this process is not a training case file, then the inspector allows the workflow to continue (4). Otherwise, it will not allow the workflow to continue and will issue a new request/decision, stating what was wrong and how to

The final piece for this puzzle was a case file generator, where we could define training session parameters, like the number of case files to open, the case file state (according to the main workflows), the initial process information and a set of requests and/or decisions

We developed a model-based random text generator that would open case files, submit requests and decisions and, most importantly, record the expected outcome of the request or

Pending user's action, the inspector agent compares both data and decides whether to allow

This case file generator is used during all training phases (teacher assisted and computer assisted). This way, users were already familiarized with the generator's way of producing textual requests and decisions when they started using the computer assisted on-job training

The case file generator was inspired on our internal testing mechanisms. Besides single unitary tests, we also need to test the workflow as a hole. However, it is impossible to test the same case file with all the options available at the workflow. To handle this challenge, we developed a testing tool that simulates the web application, communicating directly

The test tool would issue new case files, inquire on the available state options to trigger and selectively choose one event to trigger. Testing would continue until the case file was terminated. The test tool was preloaded with a set of rules and conditions to guarantee that we had covered nearly all options within the workflows. These rules and conditions could be in the form of probabilistic influence (when in state X give an N% probability to event Z)

The test tool also served another important aspect: assessing the overall system performance. Since the testing tool, workflow service and database were detached modules, these could be executed from different computers. This way, we could test the limitations of

Along with the case file generator, we developed the case file planner. After the case file generator publishes a new process, for every process state change triggered, the case file

correct it (5).

decision.

application.

**5.4 Case file planner**

**5.3 Case file generator**

the workflow's execution or not.

(depending on the user's role) for users to process.

with the Business Layer and with the Workflow Service.

or the form of closed pathways (when in state X, proceed with event Z).

our approach and proceed accordingly, early on the development phase.

planner inspects the current process execution phase and acts accordingly, impersonating the remaining parties of case file. It is up to the case file planner to devise the actual traversed workflow for any given process.

As with the case file generator, the planner was also inspired by our internal testing mechanisms.

More than simply generating random case files using pre-defined situations and models, we needed users to experiment the full length of the process, according to their responsibilities. This way, users could help us assess the validity of each workflow and propose modifications, if required.

A simple path for a case file would be, for example: 1) when the judgement day is marked, issue a new witness request; and, 2) on the judgement day, issue the final judgement act, with the final decision about the accused party. As with the testing tool, probabilistic pathways could also be defined, providing a wider range of training options, with the same amount of supervision preparation.

Each request/decision issued will then be validated by the inspector agent previously presented.

The case file planner is an iterative agent that prepares tasks according with user's expertise on the system. To do that, it needs to understand the user's evolution so, as in a computer game, it ranks users' achievements. This way, it may plan more complex case file paths to more experienced users and more simple tasks to users starting their training or struggling with the system.

The user interaction is recorded jointly by the planner and the enforcer, allowing the supervising team to personally compare the expected outcome with the actual outcome produced by the user. This additional debugging feature

#### **6. Conclusion**

When we started this process, users were apprehensive about what to expect as an outcome. This was the third attempt that the government had made to implement such a system and users who had participated on previous attempts were reluctant to start yet another project. The project's initial risk was in fact high. The fear factor associated to a new system combined with the perception of a possible "Big Brother", working for the Ministry of Justice and against the Justice personnel, were more than enough to put us in an uncomfortable starting position.

We managed to get around the user's initial misbeliefs by presenting them the advantages (and disadvantages) of such system. These presentations have shown us that people were eager to use an electronic system to support their work, as long as the infrastructural and technological problems were solved and the security and privacy concerns could be verified at all times.

The development process included elements of each perceived role in the Court. This benefited the overall result, since these members were the first to see the developments, to comment and propose new directions on what they felt was incorrect. More importantly,

Assisted On-Job Training 37

After the initial training, we monitored user's activity in the system, and realized that users were in fact using and testing the system on their own. Some users were just exploring the SIPP's features, while other were in fact doing their homework, working on the case files generated for training purposes. Despite being on-job training, some users were actually

However, the amount of users actively using the system after the initial training started to decay around two weeks after the one-on-one training. Despite being a relatively normal situation, since users cannot neglect their regular tasks, it is far from the desired usage patterns. With low usage patterns, users tend to forget, at least partially what they had already learnt about the system. We expect that with the paced adoption of the system on all Courts during the next months, users will find time to refresh their SIPP's knowledge.

Abel, F., Bittencourt, I. I., Costa, E., Henze, N., Krause, D., & Vassileva, J. (2010).

*Transactions on Learning Technologies, 3*(2), 165-176. doi: 10.1109/Tlt.2009.40 AlAli, S. (1997). An assessment of on-job training programmes in Kuwait. *International*

Angelaccio, M., & Buttarazzi, B. (2010). A Social Network Based- Enhanced Learning

Borchardt, U., & Grap, F. (2010). E-Learning Application Support for SME. *Perspectives in*

Georgellis, Y., & Lange, T. (2007). Participation in continuous, on-the-job training and the

Lokken, F., Womer, L., & Mullins, C. (2008). Tracking the Impact of E-Learning at

Monteiro, A., S., P. J., & Teixeira, C. (2010). *E-government services in scarce bandwidth locations*.

Moodle Trust. (2011). Moodle.org: open-source community-based tools for learning

Resnick, S., Crane, R., & Bowen, C. (2008). *Essential Windows Communication Foundation*

Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in Human-Capital. *American Economic Review, 51*(1-2), 1-17.

*Collaborative Enterprises (Wetice 2010)*, 94-95. doi: 10.1109/Wetice.2010.59 Bahreininejad, A., & Yaghmaie, M. (2011). A context-aware adaptive learning system using

Blackboard Inc. (2011). Blackboard - Home Retrieved 30th of June, 2011, from

Recommendations in Online Discussion Forums for E-Learning Systems. *Ieee*

System. *19th Ieee International Workshops on Enabling Technologies: Infrastructure for*

agents. *Expert Systems with Applications, 38*(4), 3280-3286. doi:

impact on job satisfaction: longitudinal evidence from the German labour market. *International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18*(6), 969-985. doi:

Community Colleges, 2007 Distance Education Survey Results: Instructional

Paper presented at the CENTERIS 2010 - Conference on Enterprise Information

accessing the system from their homes, since the system is available online.

*Journal of Educational Development, 17*(1), 83-90.

10.1016/j.eswa.2010.08.113

10.1080/09585190701321112

Technology Council.

*Business Informatics Research, 64*, 62-72.

Systems Viana do Castelo, Portugal.

Retrieved 30th of June, 2011, from http://moodle.org/

*(WCF): For .NET Framework 3.5* (1st ed.): Addison Wesley.

http://www.blackboard.com/

**7. References**

they would comment with their colleagues on the developments of the system and on the possibilities that the system already possessed. This information dissemination generated a positive expectation wave along the users. This was indeed observed when the general testing and training phase started.

Throughout the training process, we realized that some users were still struggling with basic computer skills. To help them overcome this situation, a new computer course was proposed, more specific and focused on the user's difficulties.

We produced printed and electronic versions of the system's manual, adapted to each user's roles. Along with this help, we pursued on a one-on-one on-job teaching methodology. With this approach, users were more collaborative than on initial group sessions. Moreover, they would feel comfortable enough to pose questions relating both SIPP and general computer subjects.

In this chapter we presented SIPP and explained in detail the workflow architecture used to deploy the on-job assisted learning process. The on-job assisted training was performed on two separated phases: one-on-one human assisted training and computer assisted training. The first phase helped users understand the insights and working mechanisms required by the SIPP. The second phase helped users gain confidence about their autonomy and ability to use the system.

To give users the proper feedback, even on the second training phase, we developed an inspector agent. This agent had the responsibility to assess user's submitted information and instruct the main workflows on the outcome of such information. In the event of erroneous information submitted, the agent would also issue a new request/decision, impersonating the requestor/judge of the case file. With such feedback, users were reinsured that the training would produce the desired results.

The case file planner enabled us to understand where some unforeseen problems were. When several users struggle to perform a planned task or work plan, the planner informs the management team to further investigate on the roots of the problem. It may be an interface deficiency, a programming bug or a modelling fault.

The training application inherited most of the features we had in place internally for testing purposes. This way, the training application was relatively cheap, since it consisted of refactoring the test framework and deploying a series of agents, for inspecting and for producing test information.

Trainees found that this training application was helpful to understand the several available options faster and without worries of destroying real life work due to incorrect system operation. The project managers, however, found that most of the trainees (Court staff) lacked on sufficient computer usage knowledge. This was an important assessment that triggered an initial course on computer usage for all Court staff, prior to launching this application.

The initial goal for this project was met: deploy an on-job assisted learning application, with the same look and feel of the "real" application, where users could try all the application's features without worries of doing things wrong.

they would comment with their colleagues on the developments of the system and on the possibilities that the system already possessed. This information dissemination generated a positive expectation wave along the users. This was indeed observed when the general

Throughout the training process, we realized that some users were still struggling with basic computer skills. To help them overcome this situation, a new computer course was

We produced printed and electronic versions of the system's manual, adapted to each user's roles. Along with this help, we pursued on a one-on-one on-job teaching methodology. With this approach, users were more collaborative than on initial group sessions. Moreover, they would feel comfortable enough to pose questions relating both SIPP and general computer

In this chapter we presented SIPP and explained in detail the workflow architecture used to deploy the on-job assisted learning process. The on-job assisted training was performed on two separated phases: one-on-one human assisted training and computer assisted training. The first phase helped users understand the insights and working mechanisms required by the SIPP. The second phase helped users gain confidence about their autonomy and ability

To give users the proper feedback, even on the second training phase, we developed an inspector agent. This agent had the responsibility to assess user's submitted information and instruct the main workflows on the outcome of such information. In the event of erroneous information submitted, the agent would also issue a new request/decision, impersonating the requestor/judge of the case file. With such feedback, users were reinsured that the

The case file planner enabled us to understand where some unforeseen problems were. When several users struggle to perform a planned task or work plan, the planner informs the management team to further investigate on the roots of the problem. It may be an

The training application inherited most of the features we had in place internally for testing purposes. This way, the training application was relatively cheap, since it consisted of refactoring the test framework and deploying a series of agents, for inspecting and for

Trainees found that this training application was helpful to understand the several available options faster and without worries of destroying real life work due to incorrect system operation. The project managers, however, found that most of the trainees (Court staff) lacked on sufficient computer usage knowledge. This was an important assessment that triggered an initial course on computer usage for all Court staff, prior to launching this

The initial goal for this project was met: deploy an on-job assisted learning application, with the same look and feel of the "real" application, where users could try all the application's

testing and training phase started.

subjects.

to use the system.

training would produce the desired results.

features without worries of doing things wrong.

producing test information.

application.

interface deficiency, a programming bug or a modelling fault.

proposed, more specific and focused on the user's difficulties.

After the initial training, we monitored user's activity in the system, and realized that users were in fact using and testing the system on their own. Some users were just exploring the SIPP's features, while other were in fact doing their homework, working on the case files generated for training purposes. Despite being on-job training, some users were actually accessing the system from their homes, since the system is available online.

However, the amount of users actively using the system after the initial training started to decay around two weeks after the one-on-one training. Despite being a relatively normal situation, since users cannot neglect their regular tasks, it is far from the desired usage patterns. With low usage patterns, users tend to forget, at least partially what they had already learnt about the system. We expect that with the paced adoption of the system on all Courts during the next months, users will find time to refresh their SIPP's knowledge.

#### **7. References**

**3**

*Iran*

**Self-Directed Learning Readiness Factors in**

**the Continuing Medical Education Programs**

*1Educational Development Center (EDC), Kerman University of Medical Sciences,*

*2Neuroscience Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman,*

The implementation of e-learning as part and parcel of the delivery mechanism for training and education requires tremendous amount of investment on the part of an organization or institution. However, in this highly-computerized age, learning needs are dynamic and elearning is one of the many responses to the society's thirst for efficient, effective and appealing strategy for delivering information and knowledge. As a result, e-learning opens new ways of teaching and learning, leading to new methods of thinking and organizing learning content (Askar & Halici, 2004). One of the natural settings for e-learning is in the area of continuing education. In considering a large number of the adults as learners in an elearning setting or in any traditional classroom for that matter, it is necessary to plan the needs of the employee, the educator and the organization involve in the learning process. Goldstein and Ford (2001) argued that more organizations are progressively considering continuous learning as an important factor in maintaining their competitive advantage. Borotis and Poulymenakou (2004) believed that e-learning initiatives can be considered as the proper solution for delivering continuing educational programs at a lower cost with ubiquitous offering of a wide range of information and knowledge that are different from the traditional approach. Also Hall (2001) posed that e-learning can be an effective method of learning for adults who have busy schedules or live in remote areas, and unable to attend an everyday traditional classrooms. This innovation allows the learners to learn at their own pace, saving time and money, and they can pursue continuing education on computers in

In the area of Andragogy, it is argued that adult learners need to know why they have to learn something before undertaking it. At the same time, they are motivated to learn only to the extent that they perceive the knowledge will help them perform tasks they confront in their life situations (Knowles, 1987). Since the learners are ready and willing to take the responsibility for their own learning, the participants' learning style is a factor that may affect learner readiness for e-learning process. Rosenberg (2001) argues that willingness to learn and motivation for successful training and learning are very important and suggests

**1. Introduction**

the workplace or in the home (Randell, 2001).

**Physicians for Implementing E-Learning in**

Tahereh Eslaminejad1 and Nouzar Nakhaee2

*Kerman Medical University (KMU),*


**11. Comparison of possibilities of unauthorized fission materials proliferation at different technologies of fuel cycles**

Nonproliferation regime in common case is supplied by IAEA control. With control the possibility of proliferation is limited by value less than detection error. The base of this error is inaccuracy of mass detection at chemical reprocessing of irradiated in core material. Typical value of the error can be in our case ~0.1 % from reprocessed mass of 233U.

For thermal reactor of 1000 MW requirement in 233U is about 10 kg per annum. Accordingly, in ideal case of reprocessing conducting, possible error in 233U is less than 10 g per annum. If inaccuracy of the error is 10 %, than proliferation is not much than 1 g per annum. For minimal warhead in this case is needed more than 1000 years.