**10. Tritrophic interactions and its manipulation for IPM**

Plant quality can affect herbivore fitness directly (as food of herbivores) and indirectly (by affecting foraging cues for natural enemies) [12, 23]. Until recently, there has been a tenden‐ cy by those involved in IPM to be principally concerned with effects on herbivores or inter‐ actions between just two trophic levels [185]. However, interest in the importance of interactions among the three or four trophic levels (Figure 6) that characterize most natural systems and agroecosystems has been increased rapidly during the last two decades [26].

the control of *H. armigera* in different cropping systems. Therefore, we need to make a con‐ certed effort to transfer pest resistance into genotypes with desirable agronomic and grain characteristics. Recent achievements of genetics and molecular biology have been widely implemented into breeding new crop cultivars and brought in many various traits absent from parent species and cultivars. Furthermore, new progress in biotechnology makes it fea‐ sible to transfer genes from totally unrelated organisms, breaking species barriers not possi‐ ble by conventional genetic enhancement. Today, transgenic plants expressing insecticidal proteins from the bacterium *B. thuringiensis*, are revolutionizing agriculture. *Bacillus thurin‐ giensis* has become a major insecticide because genes that produce *B. thuringiensis* toxins have been engineered into major crops grown on 11.4 million ha worldwide (including soy‐ bean, cotton, peanut, tomato, tobacco, corn and canola). These crops have shown positive economic benefits to growers and reduced the use of other insecticides. Genetically engi‐ neered cottons expressing delta-endotoxin genes from *B. thuringiensis* offer great potential to dramatically reduce pesticide dependence for control of *Helicoverpa* spp. and consequently offer real opportunities as a component of sustainable and environmentally acceptable IPM systems [16]. Certainly, for sustainable management of *H. armigera* in soybean cropping sys‐ tems, such soybean resistant cultivars could play pivotal role. Therefore, to achieve this goal, much works should be conducted in breeding new soybean cultivars expressing *Bt* toxins

The potential ecological and human health consequences of *Bt* crops, including effects on nontarget organisms, food safety, and the development of resistant insect populations, are being compared for *Bt* plants and alternative insect management strategies. However, *Bt* plants were deployed with the expectation that the risks would be lower than current or al‐ ternative technologies and that the benefits would be greater. Based on the data to date, these expectations seem valid [16]. The major challenge to sustainable use of transgenic *Bt* crops is the risk that target pests may evolve resistance to the *B. thuringiensis* toxins. *Helico‐ verpa armigera* is a particular resistance risk having consistently developed resistance to syn‐ thetic pesticides in the past [21]. For this reason a pre-emptive resistance management strategy was implemented to accompany the commercial release of transgenic cultivars. The strategy, based on the use of structured refuges to maintain susceptible individuals in the population, seeks to take advantage of the polyphagy and local mobility of *H. armigera* to achieve resistance management by utilizing gene flow to counter selection in transgenic crops. However, refuge crops cannot be treated with Bt sprays, and must be in close proxim‐ ity to the transgenic crops (within 2 km) to maximize the chance of random mating among

**10. Tritrophic interactions and its manipulation for IPM**

Plant quality can affect herbivore fitness directly (as food of herbivores) and indirectly (by affecting foraging cues for natural enemies) [12, 23]. Until recently, there has been a tenden‐ cy by those involved in IPM to be principally concerned with effects on herbivores or inter‐ actions between just two trophic levels [185]. However, interest in the importance of

against *H. armigera*.

262 Soybean - Pest Resistance

sub-populations [184].

**Figure 6.** Simple diagram of multitrophic interactions representing some important causal relationships among the trophic levels mediated by some important insect fitness parameters

It is interesting that many traditional cultural practices exert their effects through complex multitrophic interactions, but it is exactly this complexity that makes such systems difficult to assess experimentally or validate conclusively across a broad range of environments. For example, it has been demonstrated that toxic secondary compounds in an herbivore diet may affect development, survivorship, morphology and size of its natural enemies. This ef‐ fect of poor-quality plants can thus indirectly lead to poor-quality natural enemies [186].

As knowledge of interactions across multitrophic systems both in nature and in agroecosys‐ tems expands, researchers and pest management practitioners are beginning to find ways of manipulating interactions across different trophic levels in order to develop more sustaina‐ ble approaches to pest management. Accordingly, population ecologists are actively debat‐ ing the relative importance of bottom-up (resource-driven) and top-down (natural enemydriven) processes in the regulation of herbivores populations [22, 187, 188]. However, there are a number of key areas where manipulation of host plant-pest-natural enemy interactions could provide substantial benefits in pest management systems (manipulation of host plant quality, allelochemicals and crop diversification and genetic manipulation of insect) [26].

For many years, there was a widely held view that HPR should be seen as an integral com‐ ponent of IPM programmes, but it has been demonstrated that HPR is by no means always compatible with biological control [178]. The significant and growing evidence from funda‐ mental research in allelochemically mediated interactions hold substantial promise with re‐ gard to the development of novel IPM techniques. Allelochemicals mediated interactions in insect-host plant relationship have been recognized as the most important factors in the suc‐ cessful establishment of an insect species on a crop [189]. Furthermore, allelochemicals pro‐ duced by plants also have considerable influence on the prey/host selection behavior of natural enemies, so that plants, herbivores, and natural enemies are interconnected through the well-knit array of chemicals. The host plant volatiles play a key role in attracting/repel‐ ling or retaining the natural enemies, thereby causing considerable changes in pest popula‐ tions on different plant cultivars [190]. Hare [191] cited 16 studies where interactions between resistant cultivars and natural enemies (parasitoids) were studied and the out‐ comes show a spectrum of interactions, ranging from synergistic, to additive, to none appa‐ rent through to disruptive or antagonistic. Negative interactions can occur due to the presence of secondary chemicals that are ingested or sequestered by natural enemies feed‐ ing on hosts present on resistant or partially resistant plants [192]. For example, specific tox‐ ic components in partially resistant soybean plants can be particularly problematic in this regard [193]. In addition to allelochemicals, morphological traits of host plants such as tri‐ chome density and color complexion can affect insect fitness and effectiveness of its natural enemies. It was observed that plant cultivars were sufficiently differing in their trichome density and color complexion which were considered as main resource of variations in rate of parasitism on different plant cultivars. Cotton cultivars with low density of hairs on the upper leaf surface and high hair density on the lower leaf surface help in reduction of pest incidence [194]. The rates of parasitism were negatively associated with trichome density as revealed by Mohite and Uthamasamy [195]. In another study, Asifulla *et al.* [196] noticed higher parasitism by *T. chilonis* on *H. armigera* eggs in glabrous cotton species compared to hairy types.

environmental concern and has repeatedly led to the development of resistance in this pest as well as the deleterious effects on nontarget organisms and environment. The common trend to‐ wards reducing reliance on chemicals for control of insect pests in agriculture renewed world‐ wide interest in integrated pest management (IPM) programmes and it seems that in most areas the aim must be integrated management, particularly on crops such as soybean where *H. armigera* is part of a diverse pest complex. Accordingly, in this chapter we attempt to introduce basic elements for implementation of sustainable management of *H. armigera*. For this, we re‐ viewed the main findings of different researchers and in some cases present our data. Howev‐ er, our findings revealed that for successful management of *H. armigera*, more attention should be devoted to some basic information such as monitoring efforts, forecasting activities and eco‐ nomic thresholds. In addition, more studies are needed to evaluate potential of novel control measures including selective insecticides and sublethal doses, HPR and genetically modified soybean cultivars and microbial pathogens (especially commercial formulations of *B. thurin‐ giensis* and NPV) for control of this noctuid pest. However, for future outlook of integrated management of *H. armigera* in soybean cropping systems, the development and use of resistant cultivars will play a crucial role. In other words, more works should be conducted to evaluate resistance of soybean cultivars to *H. armigera* in field conditions. Moreover, a further need is to evaluate tritrophic interactions among the soybean cultivars, *H. armigera* and its natural ene‐ mies and new studies should be included to evaluate such interactions. However, the informa‐ tion gathered in the current chapter could be valuable for integrated management of *H.*

Integrated Management of *Helicoverpa armigera* in Soybean Cropping Systems

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54522

265

*armigera* in soybean cropping systems.

Semi-Arid Tropics; 2006.

and Amin Sedaratian

varieties. Entomological Science 2009; 12 147-154.

Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran,

[1] Sharma HC. Integrated Pest Management Research at ICRISAT: Present Status and Future Priorities. Andhra Pradesh: International Crops Research Institute for the

[2] Naseri B, Fathipour Y, Moharramipour S, Hosseininaveh V. Comparative life history and fecundity of *Helicoverpa armigera* (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on different soybean

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
**Author details**

Yaghoub Fathipour\*

Iran

**References**

In conclusion, as a novel strategy for IPM programmes, well understanding of multitrophic interactions is critical to develop the sustainable, less pesticide-dependent or pesticide-free pest management programmes [197]. In the interest of agricultural sustainability, tritrophic manipulation, as a distinct approach to biological or cultural control, is probably to be pri‐ oritized increasingly by both researchers and those responsible for the development and practical implementation of pest management programmes. This process will be facilitated if improvements in the understanding of crop-pest-natural enemy evolution and their inter‐ actions are achieved [26, 197]. Information in this regard are essential in finding out what role the plant play in supporting the action of natural enemies and how this role could be manipulated reserving the natural enemies.


**3. Principles of restoring soil and plants health**

Regenerative Agriculture is organic agriculture, using only natural available resources. In organic agriculture, farmers are certified if they produce non-GMO plants without using synthetic chemicals, approaching soil conservation and preservation for biodiversity. Farmers are allowed to use only inputs from certified organic agriculture. In 2018, at Rodale Institute was introduced for the first time a new higher standard for the farmers working in a regenerative system called Regenerative Organic Certified (ROC) [35]. Regenerative Agriculture is the way to sustainable farming practice, regenerate soil fertility, grow healthy plants that create healthy soils, less sensible to draught. Using methods from Regenerative Agriculture technology, carbon is sequestered in the soil, soil structure and soil fertility improve, water retention, and crop yield increase, while drought and flood ameliorate [36]. Regenerative agriculture can be defined by a holistic system approach that starts with the soil characteristics and also includes the health of the plants, animals, farmers, and community. The main aims envisage to regenerate topsoil, restoring degraded soil biodiversity, enhancing ecosystem services, improving water cycling and improving the resilience of soil to extreme weather. Regenerative Agriculture focuses on improving soil health by following four main mandatory principles and one optional. All specialists in Regenerative Agriculture accept the four principles that include soil cover, living roots, biodiversity, and minimalizing soil disturbance. The last principle which is the integration of animals is partially accepted and can be even more important in a few specific situations.

Everything plants need is cycled by soil microorganisms before becoming available to plants' roots. Earth life is based on photosynthesis, a process that transforms photonic energy into chemical energy. It varies, depending on the availability of light, water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll concentration, and plant nutrition. Photosynthesis is the most efficient cycle and sustainable process in nature [37, 38], and it is the engine we can rely in Regenerative Agriculture. Farmers know that water, nitrogen, and high-temperature influence the photosynthesis process. During drought, plants switch from photosynthesis to photo-respiration process, when are consuming their reserve of proteins [39]. To avoid this happening, proper management has to be used that optimize nutrition. When monitoring fields frequently, one should notice nature needs [40].


A principal component analysis has been performed to examine whether the big five inventory of personality traits (BFI) and job satisfaction are multidimensional scales in nature. This is a necessary step that should precede multiple regression analysis in order to further purify the scales by extracting un-important items which would better improve the quality of analysis predictions. Table 3 shows that the BFI construct is replicable in the Egyptian sample but generates only three pure components and one bipolar component (openness Vs. extraversion). The bipolar component implies that the personality traits of openness to experience and extraversion melt together into one concept. This new concept may be of importance to sales management since that effective sales representatives are those who show social intelligence and the ability to experiment creative selling procedures according to the needs of their customers (Stevens and Macintosh, 2002). On the other hand, table 4 shows that job satisfaction is a uni-dimensional component that tests only the employee's general attitude concerning his job.

A multiple regression analysis has been conducted to better predict the relationship between personality traits and job satisfaction. Table 5 shows that the strongest predictor of job satisfaction is neuroticism (*B=-.374, P< .01)* which implies that neurotics are usually nonsatisfied employees because of their amplified negative emotions and frustrations about different life situations. The table, also, shows that conscientiousness is positively associated

Uncovering the Pre-Dispositional Roots of Job Satisfaction 133

**t VIF**

1.04 1.87 1.081

**Job satisfaction**

**Variable names The personality – satisfaction model**

Fig. 2. The personality – satisfaction relationship model :

**Neuroticism**

**Conscientiousness**

**Agreeableness**

the correlation matrix (table 2).

**5. Discussion**

United States.

Overall model coetficent of correlation (r) 0.462 F-ratio 10.141

Table 5. The regression analysis of the relationship between personality waits and job

 **= -0.374**

 **= 0.183**

 **= 0.118**

satisfaction. Finally, the table indicates that the weakest predictor of job satisfaction is agreeableness (*B= .118, P< .1)*. In this sense, it should be noted that hypotheses 1,2 and 3 have been met, whereas hypothesis 4 has not been met in congruence with the findings of

The findings confirm the pre-dispositional roots of job satisfaction. They reveal that the conscientious and agreeable salesmen tend to be generally satisfied with their jobs. The findings also indicate that neurotics are generally less satisfied with their jobs. These findings agree in substance with those of other dispositional research studies held in the

However, the study has also attempted to investigate the cultural background which may influence the personality-satisfaction relationship. Depending on the psycho-cultural analysis of Hofstede and McCrae (2004), it can be argued that a culture; a) shapes the personality traits of the individual and b) forms a strong basis from which these personality traits can actually influence the individual's attitudes regarding job and other issues. In the case of Egypt, it is proposed that high levels of uncertainty avoidance and power distance

Neuroticism Conscientiousness Agreeableness

satisfaction :

\* significant at p < 0.01 \*\* significant at p < 0.05 \*\* significant at p = 0.1

(a) Variamax orthogonal rotation and Kaiser normalization converging within 5 iterations (b) Factor loading below 0.5 are suppressed.

Table 3. The principle component analysis of the big five inventory scale :

(a) Variamax orthogonal rotation and Kaiser normalization converging within 5 iterations (b) Factor loading below 0.5 are suppressed.

Table 4. The principal component analysis of the job satisfaction scale.

with job satisfaction (*B= .183, P< .05)*. The finding clearly supports our hypothesis that conscientious employees are highly likely to be satisfied employees. Hard work usually brings rewards, intrinsic and/or extrinsic, which, in turn, positively influence job

\* significant at p < 0.01

132 Business Dynamics in the 21st Century

origin enthus assevt invent curuous

tense moody worries depress nerous

thoro efficien preserver

> trust forgive help

(a) Variamax orthogonal rotation and Kaiser normalization converging within 5 iterations

Table 3. The principle component analysis of the big five inventory scale :

**Construct name Factor title Item code Loading factor**

Performance attract

satisfaction satisfid

Table 4. The principal component analysis of the job satisfaction scale.

(a) Variamax orthogonal rotation and Kaiser normalization converging within 5 iterations

knowserve objective markshar knowneed relation contribt inform

> dislike prefer

with job satisfaction (*B= .183, P< .05)*. The finding clearly supports our hypothesis that conscientious employees are highly likely to be satisfied employees. Hard work usually brings rewards, intrinsic and/or extrinsic, which, in turn, positively influence job

**(a)**

0.802 0.759 0.688 0.622 0.521

0.77 0.731 0.633 0.632 0.54

0.845 0.621 0.513

0.798 0.668 0.603

**(a)**

0.854 0.834 0.831 0.827 0.815 0.798 0.771 0.538

0.895 0.794 0.634 **Variance extracted (b)**

0.1662

0.144

0.1233

0.115

**Variance extracted (b)**

0.623

0.611

**Construct name Factor title Items code Loading factor**

(1) Openness vs. Extraversion

(2) Neuroticism

(3) Conscientiousness

(4) Agreeableness

(b) Factor loading below 0.5 are suppressed.

(1) Employee performance

(2) Employee satisfaction

(b) Factor loading below 0.5 are suppressed.

\*\* significant at p < 0.05 \*\* significant at p = 0.1

Table 5. The regression analysis of the relationship between personality waits and job satisfaction :

Fig. 2. The personality – satisfaction relationship model :

satisfaction. Finally, the table indicates that the weakest predictor of job satisfaction is agreeableness (*B= .118, P< .1)*. In this sense, it should be noted that hypotheses 1,2 and 3 have been met, whereas hypothesis 4 has not been met in congruence with the findings of the correlation matrix (table 2).

## **5. Discussion**

The findings confirm the pre-dispositional roots of job satisfaction. They reveal that the conscientious and agreeable salesmen tend to be generally satisfied with their jobs. The findings also indicate that neurotics are generally less satisfied with their jobs. These findings agree in substance with those of other dispositional research studies held in the United States.

However, the study has also attempted to investigate the cultural background which may influence the personality-satisfaction relationship. Depending on the psycho-cultural analysis of Hofstede and McCrae (2004), it can be argued that a culture; a) shapes the personality traits of the individual and b) forms a strong basis from which these personality traits can actually influence the individual's attitudes regarding job and other issues. In the case of Egypt, it is proposed that high levels of uncertainty avoidance and power distance

Uncovering the Pre-Dispositional Roots of Job Satisfaction 135

future job satisfaction. Thus, it is necessary to conduct in-depth personality-based tests to uncover the applicant's true personality traits and investigate their suitability to the organizational values. Furthermore, the study recommends for HR specialists to critically analyze the cultural beliefs of the applicants. The cultural values of the applicant are believed to influence his personality traits and attitudes towards the job. However, this does not mean that an employee with a collectivist orientation can not work at an individualistoriented organization. Indeed, human beings differ from other living beings in terms of the ability to adapt and change. However, it is the responsibility of managers to educate the new comers about the cultural values of the organization and the country within which it operates. It is necessary to keep employees from different cultures informed with the new cultural values of the hosting society. The cultural education of new comers should allow them to understand differences in social interaction mechanisms. By carefully learning these new social mechanisms, the new employee would be able to adjust his own work-related expectations, and in turn, form his attitudes according to a newly learned code of workrelated values. I believe that the cultural education of new comers is a continuing education system that would effectively lead to results through the careful coaching of these employees. In other words, it is not a two-day session conducted at the organization's

I strongly suggest that future dispositional research incorporate the concept of cultural values while analyzing the relationship between personality traits and work-related attitudes. National culture differences contribute to the variances in evaluating different life situations among human beings. It is necessary to investigate the dimensions of cultural values that specifically influence the dynamics of personality-attitude relationships among nations. In this sense, future dispositional research should put more attention to crosscultural analyses to better spot differences in organizational behaviour across nations. Indeed, one of the weakest points in modern organizational behaviour studies is the shortage of having an international focus which deeply affects issues of research

The current study is not without limitations. It depends on a convenient sample of a relatively moderate sample size. A bigger sample size is needed with a focus on different types of jobs to better accomplish generalizability. Besides, the study is cross-sectional which may prohibit inferences of causality. However, cross-sectional studies enable readers to effectively predict associations between the examined variables. Finally, the study evaluates the general attitudes of employees concerning the job. It did not analyze intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. However, it should be noted that this research study was part of a larger project that aims to investigate the associations between personality traits and different employee attitudes and behaviours (Hawass, 2011). In other words, the study is

Abdulla, J., Djebarni, R. and Mellahi, K. (2011). Determinants of job satisfaction in the UAE: A case study of the Dubai police. *Personnel review*. Vol. 40, No. 1. PP. 126-146.

training center.

generalizability.

**6. References**

**5.2 Future research directions and limitations**

constrained by the analysis of the original research project.

shape the Egyptians' personality traits and, consequently, influence their attitudes regarding the job. High uncertainty avoidance societies are usually risk-averse and prefer to work under a heavy institutionalized system of rules and written operating procedures. These standardized working systems motivate individuals to work hard according to roles in order to attain the desired benefits and rewards which, consequently, contribute to the employee's sense of happiness. Besides, recent research has found that conscientious employees tend to be less adaptable to rapid work-related changes (Griffin and Hesketh, 2005) which may also explain why an Egyptian 'conscientious' employee is satisfied with a job in a heavy standardized organizational system. In this sense, rapid work-related changes is a condition which might not be tolerated in a society high in uncertainty avoidance.

On the other hand, the relationship between agreeableness and job satisfaction can also be attributed to the Egyptian cultural values of high power distance and collectivism. In high power distance societies with a collectivist cultural orientation, the individual regards the manager as a parent who deserves respect, commitment and obedience because of his superior skills, qualifications and work experience. In the Egyptian society, agreeableness may be regarded a key personality trait which guarantees success and satisfaction at work. In such cultures, the employee should value friendships at work, develop strong ties with the boss and colleagues and be of sincere help to them, even at the expense of organizational order, in order to gain positive views from the top management. In this sense, it is not preferred to have different point of views, especially, when the opposing employee is at a fairly lower job rank in comparison to the management. Different points of views are not socially tolerated at work and might negatively influence the management's attitudes and evaluations of the employee. Thus, in order to gain social acceptance at work and overall job satisfaction, the employee should consistently show signs of an agreeable personality.

The negative relationship between neuroticism and job satisfaction, in the Egyptian sample, is believed to be associated with uncertainty avoidance values. The need for a clearly defined work system that well presents an appropriate career path for the employee is an Egyptian dream. An old Egyptian proverb effectively describes the true risk-avoidant nature of the Egyptian person by emphasizing that 'what we know is much better than what we don't' (Hawass, 2011). In this context, many reasons can inflate the negative emotions of the neurotic employee such as organizational injustice, corruption and damaged manageremployee relationship. These factors keep the Egyptian 'neurotic' employee in a foggy condition where he feels that job security can easily be compromised. This would, certainly, lead to job dissatisfaction.

#### **5.1 Research implications**

It is widely believed that job satisfaction might be of considerable value to organizational growth and development. Satisfied employees can be highly committed to organizational objectives, perform organizational functions more effectively than others and show higher levels of sincere citizenship behaviours. Earlier research studies have emphasized that personal characteristics and work-related characteristics are the dominant antecedents of job satisfaction. However, recent dispositional research has indicated that job satisfaction can also be partially influenced by the personality traits of the individual. This study confirms the dispositional roots of job satisfaction in the Egyptian context. The results imply that the employee's personality plays an essential role in determining the employee's potential for

shape the Egyptians' personality traits and, consequently, influence their attitudes regarding the job. High uncertainty avoidance societies are usually risk-averse and prefer to work under a heavy institutionalized system of rules and written operating procedures. These standardized working systems motivate individuals to work hard according to roles in order to attain the desired benefits and rewards which, consequently, contribute to the employee's sense of happiness. Besides, recent research has found that conscientious employees tend to be less adaptable to rapid work-related changes (Griffin and Hesketh, 2005) which may also explain why an Egyptian 'conscientious' employee is satisfied with a job in a heavy standardized organizational system. In this sense, rapid work-related changes is a condition which might not be tolerated in a society high in uncertainty avoidance.

On the other hand, the relationship between agreeableness and job satisfaction can also be attributed to the Egyptian cultural values of high power distance and collectivism. In high power distance societies with a collectivist cultural orientation, the individual regards the manager as a parent who deserves respect, commitment and obedience because of his superior skills, qualifications and work experience. In the Egyptian society, agreeableness may be regarded a key personality trait which guarantees success and satisfaction at work. In such cultures, the employee should value friendships at work, develop strong ties with the boss and colleagues and be of sincere help to them, even at the expense of organizational order, in order to gain positive views from the top management. In this sense, it is not preferred to have different point of views, especially, when the opposing employee is at a fairly lower job rank in comparison to the management. Different points of views are not socially tolerated at work and might negatively influence the management's attitudes and evaluations of the employee. Thus, in order to gain social acceptance at work and overall job satisfaction, the employee should consistently show signs of an agreeable personality.

The negative relationship between neuroticism and job satisfaction, in the Egyptian sample, is believed to be associated with uncertainty avoidance values. The need for a clearly defined work system that well presents an appropriate career path for the employee is an Egyptian dream. An old Egyptian proverb effectively describes the true risk-avoidant nature of the Egyptian person by emphasizing that 'what we know is much better than what we don't' (Hawass, 2011). In this context, many reasons can inflate the negative emotions of the neurotic employee such as organizational injustice, corruption and damaged manageremployee relationship. These factors keep the Egyptian 'neurotic' employee in a foggy condition where he feels that job security can easily be compromised. This would, certainly,

It is widely believed that job satisfaction might be of considerable value to organizational growth and development. Satisfied employees can be highly committed to organizational objectives, perform organizational functions more effectively than others and show higher levels of sincere citizenship behaviours. Earlier research studies have emphasized that personal characteristics and work-related characteristics are the dominant antecedents of job satisfaction. However, recent dispositional research has indicated that job satisfaction can also be partially influenced by the personality traits of the individual. This study confirms the dispositional roots of job satisfaction in the Egyptian context. The results imply that the employee's personality plays an essential role in determining the employee's potential for

lead to job dissatisfaction.

**5.1 Research implications**

future job satisfaction. Thus, it is necessary to conduct in-depth personality-based tests to uncover the applicant's true personality traits and investigate their suitability to the organizational values. Furthermore, the study recommends for HR specialists to critically analyze the cultural beliefs of the applicants. The cultural values of the applicant are believed to influence his personality traits and attitudes towards the job. However, this does not mean that an employee with a collectivist orientation can not work at an individualistoriented organization. Indeed, human beings differ from other living beings in terms of the ability to adapt and change. However, it is the responsibility of managers to educate the new comers about the cultural values of the organization and the country within which it operates. It is necessary to keep employees from different cultures informed with the new cultural values of the hosting society. The cultural education of new comers should allow them to understand differences in social interaction mechanisms. By carefully learning these new social mechanisms, the new employee would be able to adjust his own work-related expectations, and in turn, form his attitudes according to a newly learned code of workrelated values. I believe that the cultural education of new comers is a continuing education system that would effectively lead to results through the careful coaching of these employees. In other words, it is not a two-day session conducted at the organization's training center.

#### **5.2 Future research directions and limitations**

I strongly suggest that future dispositional research incorporate the concept of cultural values while analyzing the relationship between personality traits and work-related attitudes. National culture differences contribute to the variances in evaluating different life situations among human beings. It is necessary to investigate the dimensions of cultural values that specifically influence the dynamics of personality-attitude relationships among nations. In this sense, future dispositional research should put more attention to crosscultural analyses to better spot differences in organizational behaviour across nations. Indeed, one of the weakest points in modern organizational behaviour studies is the shortage of having an international focus which deeply affects issues of research generalizability.

The current study is not without limitations. It depends on a convenient sample of a relatively moderate sample size. A bigger sample size is needed with a focus on different types of jobs to better accomplish generalizability. Besides, the study is cross-sectional which may prohibit inferences of causality. However, cross-sectional studies enable readers to effectively predict associations between the examined variables. Finally, the study evaluates the general attitudes of employees concerning the job. It did not analyze intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. However, it should be noted that this research study was part of a larger project that aims to investigate the associations between personality traits and different employee attitudes and behaviours (Hawass, 2011). In other words, the study is constrained by the analysis of the original research project.

#### **6. References**

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**7**

*University of Johannesburg*

*South Africa*

**An Exploratory Study of Problems Facing**

The construction industry has unique characteristics that sharply distinguish it from other sectors of the economy. It is fragmented, very sensitive to the economic cycles and political environment, and has a significantly high rate of business failure (Enshassi, Al-Hallaq and Mohamed, 2006). The South African construction industry is an industry that is increasingly becoming more complex in terms of growth which is caused by the amount of investments made by the public and the private sectors in constructions projects. The industry's fortunes tend to fluctuate with the general economy, and it has a cyclical nature and quick response

Ogunlana. (1996) stated that the industry's problems in developing economies can be categorized into three areas: (1) problems of shortages or inadequacies in industry infrastructure, (2) problems caused by clients and consultants, and (3) problems caused by contractor's incompetence/inadequacies. Ogunlana and Olomolaiye (1989) indicated that the major problems faced by contractors in developing countries have been classified as problems imposed by the industry's infrastructure, problems of inaccurate information and frequent changes in instructions and failure to meet obligations on the part of clients and consultants, and problems imposed by their own shortcomings. In 2004 minister Stella

*"Liquidation is one indicator of poor sustainability and the failure rate is unacceptably high. It is evident from the findings on industry performance, which follow, that the high rate of failure reflects demand volatility and high levels of competition. Industry respondents confirmed that there has been a long-term decline in profitability in the industry and many companies confirm profit levels as low as two percent. Many of the enterprise failures are taking place in the emerging sector, which is of particular concern, reflecting low entry levels, the awarding of contracts at unprofitable levels, poor and inconsistent procurement practices, abuse of*

*subcontractors by main contractors, and an oversupply of micro and small businesses."*

Any person who goes into business, their ultimate goal is to get maximum profit and it is no different to the contractors, which means them cutting their profit margins is making them run their business in difficult situations and having to cut costs in almost everything they

to the changes in the economy (Enshassi, Al-Hallaq and Mohamed, 2006).

**1. Introduction**

Sigcau was quoted saying:

**Small and Medium Sized Contractors in**

**the Free State Province of South Africa**

Wellington Didibhuku Thwala and Godfrey Mofokeng *Department of Construction Management and Quantity Surveying,*


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Nicolas J. Pillon and Christophe O. Soulage *Université de Lyon, INSA de Lyon, CarMeN, INSERM U1060, Univ Lyon-1, F-69621, Villeurbanne, France*

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**3. External movement**

As indicated above, according to Jensen et al. [78], hypnosis can be viewed as a use of suggestions for creating changes in thoughts, feelings, or behaviors when the clinician views the client as having enough theta power to be able to respond to those suggestions. Jensen indicates that "hypnotic strategies, then, could include (1) *any* strategy that enhances slow oscillations (using traditional hypnotic inductions, but also any technique that has been or is ultimately shown to increase slow oscillations) and/or being aware of behavioral signs indicating an increase in or adequate level of theta, coupled with (2) suggestions that enhance existing connections among neuron assemblies (e.g., those consistent with the subject experiencing of himself or herself with useful images or having a positive view of the future) or that create new ones" ([78], p. 15). It is, therefore, relevant to note that there is an increase in theta activity and a corresponding increase in either alpha activity or a global increase in spectral power (including within the alpha and theta bands) during exercise [140, 141]. Fascinatingly, there is even evidence of a higher degree of both alpha and theta activity during eyes-closed restful wakefulness in proficient athletes [142].

These converging lines of thought together with Dietrich [143, 144] support the connection between hypnosis, meditation, and acute exercise, which all result in prefrontal hypoactivation. Consequently, we now address the presence of increased theta activity following specifically structured bodily movement, focusing on several specific examples involving different degrees of diagonal movement.

### **3.1 Diagonal movement**

It has been suggested that rhythmical bilateral diagonal body movement improves motor and cognitive functions [145, 146], such as creativity and cognitive flexibility, similar to findings for hypnosis/mediation. However, no study that we are aware of has actually examined electrophysiological changes during diagonal body movements. The diagonal axis has the role of a metaphorical rule-breaker in relation to *the way of thinking*, as suggested by the definition of "diagonal thinking" as a mixture of logical (i.e., vertical) and creative (i.e., lateral) thinking [147]. Diagonal movements are widely used in disciplines based on whole-body movements such as tai chi, and recent paradigms such as Quadrato Motor Training, which will be discussed below.

Shapiro [148, 149], in her original description of EMDR, proposed that its directed eye movements mimic the saccades of rapid eye movement sleep (REM), known to be electrophysiologically related to synchronous theta waves [75, 150]. In addition, Stickgold [151, 152] proposed that the repetitive redirecting of attention during EMDR induces a neurobiological state similar to that of REM sleep. Additional study findings have supported the hypothesis that EMDR promotes the

**81**

*Inner Navigation and Theta Activity: From Movement to Cognition and Hypnosis…*

transfer of episodic memory to semantic memory, which will then be consolidated

Rimbert et al. [5] reported modulation in sensorimotor beta and theta activity during real movement and motor imagery; Marson et al. [161] also found biphasic modulation of alpha activity related to the second part of vertical movements (*each movement was composed of two parts, a forward and comeback period, the biphasic response in the comeback period during vertical movement).* More specifically, the decreased alpha activity was observed immediately after the start of the comeback period, and, consequently, there was an increase in the same frequency band tied to the end of the movement. The decreased alpha activity observed immediately after the end of the second movement could reflect a decrease in internalized attention, as decreased alpha activity is classically related to decreased focus on internal states and amplified processing of environmental information through sensorial inputs,

4 More specifically, as Pagani et al. [154] detail, delta activity is related to slow wave sleep, which in turn is related to transferring edited memories from the hippocampus to the neocortex, as well as to stimulating the integration of these into neocortical neuronal networks, while theta activity is related to REM sleep. Bilateral stimulation typical of EMDR causes immediate slowing of the depolarization rate of neurons from the dominant waking state frequency of around 7 Hz to about 1.5 Hz. Interestingly, as Pagani [154] further noted, animal research has demonstrated that low-frequency (5 Hz) stimulation can cause a depotentiation of amygdala AMPA receptors involved in the retention of traumatic memory and 900 stimuli at 1–5 Hz depotentiated synapses mediating memory, suggesting that memories aroused during therapy are reactivated, replayed, and encoded into existing memory networks. Interestingly, delta activity occurs as waves during bilateral stimulation in other frequency waves (such as beta) and is related to eye movements. Lastly, Pagani et al. [154] suggested that the consolidation of emotional memory in the neocortex during an EMDR session, which often results in a sudden symptoms disappearance, is associated with periods in which slow (1.5 Hz) and faster (theta-alpha) activity are elicited by

5 Similarly to EMDR, also binaural beat, which requires bilateral stimulation, by presenting two slightly different wave forms to each ear via stereophonic headphones, thus generating a third "beat" frequency, was found to be related to hypnotic susceptibility and theta activity ([154–156], yet see [42]), suggesting in turn also complex dynamic interactions between the two hemispheres [157]. For example, beat frequencies in theta and alpha range both increased interhemispheric coherence selectively at alpha frequencies [158].

. As mentioned above, activation of frontal areas and especially the anterior cingulate

that occurs during hypnosis matches well with the behavioral changes occurring in hypnotic state, such as the intensification of focused attention (for review see [159]). Importantly, the anterior cingulate has known anatomical connections with the frontal eye field and supplementary eye field and thus plays a prominent role in regulating eye movements, such as maintenance of visual fixation and suppression of reflexive saccades [159]. For example, classical behavioral marker of hypnosis, namely, the *hypnotically induced stare*, *is* a glazed look in the eyes accompanied by a highly reduced eye blinking rate and inimitable changes in the patterns of eye movements and pupil size [159]. Pupil size was recently found to be closely related to a variety of cognitive processes, such as decision-making [160]. In turn positive correlations were only found in the high-gamma band (60–100 Hz) and were similar in both wake and sleep conditions. Only a few recent studies have examined electrophysiological changes during diagonal movements. A rare pioneering study [161] has found increased frontal theta activity during the initiation of diagonal movement, compared to purely vertical movements, which were also studied. The increased frontal theta was possibly due to greater computational effort [86, 95, 140]. Source localization further showed that the increased frontal theta activity was generated in the middle frontal cortex. In addition, the authors found a biphasic pattern of frontoparietal alpha/

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92755*

during REM-like (4–6 Hz) states [153]4,5

beta modulations during vertical movements.

the alternation of bilateral stimulation and improved cognition.

### *Inner Navigation and Theta Activity: From Movement to Cognition and Hypnosis… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92755*

transfer of episodic memory to semantic memory, which will then be consolidated during REM-like (4–6 Hz) states [153]4,5 .

As mentioned above, activation of frontal areas and especially the anterior cingulate that occurs during hypnosis matches well with the behavioral changes occurring in hypnotic state, such as the intensification of focused attention (for review see [159]). Importantly, the anterior cingulate has known anatomical connections with the frontal eye field and supplementary eye field and thus plays a prominent role in regulating eye movements, such as maintenance of visual fixation and suppression of reflexive saccades [159]. For example, classical behavioral marker of hypnosis, namely, the *hypnotically induced stare*, *is* a glazed look in the eyes accompanied by a highly reduced eye blinking rate and inimitable changes in the patterns of eye movements and pupil size [159]. Pupil size was recently found to be closely related to a variety of cognitive processes, such as decision-making [160]. In turn positive correlations were only found in the high-gamma band (60–100 Hz) and were similar in both wake and sleep conditions.

Only a few recent studies have examined electrophysiological changes during diagonal movements. A rare pioneering study [161] has found increased frontal theta activity during the initiation of diagonal movement, compared to purely vertical movements, which were also studied. The increased frontal theta was possibly due to greater computational effort [86, 95, 140]. Source localization further showed that the increased frontal theta activity was generated in the middle frontal cortex. In addition, the authors found a biphasic pattern of frontoparietal alpha/ beta modulations during vertical movements.

Rimbert et al. [5] reported modulation in sensorimotor beta and theta activity during real movement and motor imagery; Marson et al. [161] also found biphasic modulation of alpha activity related to the second part of vertical movements (*each movement was composed of two parts, a forward and comeback period, the biphasic response in the comeback period during vertical movement).* More specifically, the decreased alpha activity was observed immediately after the start of the comeback period, and, consequently, there was an increase in the same frequency band tied to the end of the movement. The decreased alpha activity observed immediately after the end of the second movement could reflect a decrease in internalized attention, as decreased alpha activity is classically related to decreased focus on internal states and amplified processing of environmental information through sensorial inputs,

*Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis*

networks [138].

athletes [142].

movement.

**3.1 Diagonal movement**

which will be discussed below.

**3. External movement**

As in the case of perceptual deprivation, different meditative states have also been found to be related to decreased DMN activity [73, 135–137]. Similarly, hypnosis was found to be related to decreased DMN activity [138] and suspending habitual modes of attention and achieving refined states of meta-awareness [139]. In fact, hypnotic induction increased subjective ratings of attentional absorption and decreased ratings of mind-wandering. Moreover, these changes were associated with decreased DMN activity and increased activity in prefrontal attention

As indicated above, according to Jensen et al. [78], hypnosis can be viewed as a use of suggestions for creating changes in thoughts, feelings, or behaviors when the clinician views the client as having enough theta power to be able to respond to those suggestions. Jensen indicates that "hypnotic strategies, then, could include (1) *any* strategy that enhances slow oscillations (using traditional hypnotic inductions, but also any technique that has been or is ultimately shown to increase slow oscillations) and/or being aware of behavioral signs indicating an increase in or adequate level of theta, coupled with (2) suggestions that enhance existing connections among neuron assemblies (e.g., those consistent with the subject experiencing of himself or herself with useful images or having a positive view of the future) or that create new ones" ([78], p. 15). It is, therefore, relevant to note that there is an increase in theta activity and a corresponding increase in either alpha activity or a global increase in spectral power (including within the alpha and theta bands) during exercise [140, 141]. Fascinatingly, there is even evidence of a higher degree of both alpha and theta activity during eyes-closed restful wakefulness in proficient

These converging lines of thought together with Dietrich [143, 144] support the connection between hypnosis, meditation, and acute exercise, which all result in prefrontal hypoactivation. Consequently, we now address the presence of increased theta activity following specifically structured bodily movement, focusing on several specific examples involving different degrees of diagonal

It has been suggested that rhythmical bilateral diagonal body movement improves motor and cognitive functions [145, 146], such as creativity and cognitive flexibility, similar to findings for hypnosis/mediation. However, no study that we are aware of has actually examined electrophysiological changes during diagonal body movements. The diagonal axis has the role of a metaphorical rule-breaker in relation to *the way of thinking*, as suggested by the definition of "diagonal thinking" as a mixture of logical (i.e., vertical) and creative (i.e., lateral) thinking [147]. Diagonal movements are widely used in disciplines based on whole-body movements such as tai chi, and recent paradigms such as Quadrato Motor Training,

Shapiro [148, 149], in her original description of EMDR, proposed that its directed eye movements mimic the saccades of rapid eye movement sleep (REM), known to be electrophysiologically related to synchronous theta waves [75, 150]. In addition, Stickgold [151, 152] proposed that the repetitive redirecting of attention during EMDR induces a neurobiological state similar to that of REM sleep. Additional study findings have supported the hypothesis that EMDR promotes the

**80**

4 More specifically, as Pagani et al. [154] detail, delta activity is related to slow wave sleep, which in turn is related to transferring edited memories from the hippocampus to the neocortex, as well as to stimulating the integration of these into neocortical neuronal networks, while theta activity is related to REM sleep. Bilateral stimulation typical of EMDR causes immediate slowing of the depolarization rate of neurons from the dominant waking state frequency of around 7 Hz to about 1.5 Hz. Interestingly, as Pagani [154] further noted, animal research has demonstrated that low-frequency (5 Hz) stimulation can cause a depotentiation of amygdala AMPA receptors involved in the retention of traumatic memory and 900 stimuli at 1–5 Hz depotentiated synapses mediating memory, suggesting that memories aroused during therapy are reactivated, replayed, and encoded into existing memory networks. Interestingly, delta activity occurs as waves during bilateral stimulation in other frequency waves (such as beta) and is related to eye movements. Lastly, Pagani et al. [154] suggested that the consolidation of emotional memory in the neocortex during an EMDR session, which often results in a sudden symptoms disappearance, is associated with periods in which slow (1.5 Hz) and faster (theta-alpha) activity are elicited by the alternation of bilateral stimulation and improved cognition.

5 Similarly to EMDR, also binaural beat, which requires bilateral stimulation, by presenting two slightly different wave forms to each ear via stereophonic headphones, thus generating a third "beat" frequency, was found to be related to hypnotic susceptibility and theta activity ([154–156], yet see [42]), suggesting in turn also complex dynamic interactions between the two hemispheres [157]. For example, beat frequencies in theta and alpha range both increased interhemispheric coherence selectively at alpha frequencies [158].

especially the visual system [159, 160]. Similar to Rimbert et al. [5], Marson et al. [161] further found post-movement beta rebound [162] between consecutive trials, namely, increased beta activity both in diagonal and vertical movements.

### **3.2 Quadrato Motor Training (QMT)**

Quadrato Motor Training is a mindful movement practice based on the Sphere Model of Consciousness. Participants are asked to move within a square (*quadrato,* in Italian), according to a specific sequence of instructions. QMT requires a high level of attention divided between the body and the spatial coordinates incorporated in the quadrato space, as well as silent waiting for the next instruction. Previous studies showed that QMT enhances theta activity and improves cognition (for a recent review, see [163, 164]). At the behavioral level, these changes have been associated with improvements in cognitive and psycho-emotional functioning [162, 165–167], considered important aspects of health and well-being.

What appears to make QMT different from other forms of physical activity is its impact on interhemispheric functional connectivity in the theta and alpha bands. In contrast to studies of other types of physical activity that focused on local changes in activity and have usually not reported changes in long-range connectivity, studies of healthy populations engaging in QMT have demonstrated both increased EEG power [168, 169] and coherence [170–173], especially in the theta and alpha bands. Indeed, both single sessions and protracted periods of QMT were found to result in increased intra- and interhemispheric functional connectivity in the theta and alpha bands [170–173]. Increased theta and alpha functional connectivity is thought to reflect improved cognitive functions and higher states of consciousness, due to better integration of information and communication across brain regions [174–176]. As such, these findings provide additional evidence relating to QMT's capacity to promote cognitive and psycho-emotional well-being.

Moreover, Ben-Soussan et al. [170] also found improved spatial cognition and reflectivity in groups who underwent a single session of QMT, in comparison to two control groups that underwent either simple motor or verbal training. The improvements were thought to stem from changes in functional connectivity, as evidenced by changes in intra- and interhemispheric coherence in theta and alpha bands [170].

Until recently, there has been a paucity of studies that investigated neural modulation during meditative movement. In a recent pilot study, De Fano et al. [163] examined five volunteers performing a single session of QMT characterized by three "blocks" which are rounds of the QMT routine. Since QMT requires executive control, which involves frontal theta activity, higher frontal theta power toward the last of the three QMT blocks, compared to the starting one, is expected. Indeed, a trend of increased theta activity was observed toward the last two blocks compared to the first one, which may reflect not only the cognitive control required by QMT performance but also the increase in cognitive effort that occurs overtime [163].

Going back to the theme of navigation and its connection to attention and salience dorsal and ventral streams discussed above, which are further related to the superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculi [177], 6 weeks of daily QMT was further found to increase white matter integrity as indicated by increased fractional anisotropy in the superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculi, as well as in additional tracts related to sensorimotor and cognitive functions [165].

#### **3.3 Tai chi and qigong**

Another meditative movement paradigm, tai chi, has been more heavily studied. Several electroencephalography EEG studies have reported that tai chi can produce

**83**

**Figure 1.**

*Inner Navigation and Theta Activity: From Movement to Cognition and Hypnosis…*

**4. The Sphere Model of Consciousness and the position**

The Sphere Model of Consciousness [15] aims to symbolize the phenomenology of consciousness utilizing the geometrical properties of spatial coordinates within a

changes in mental state or electroencephalogram patterns associated with other alterations of cognitive or physical indices. An early study by Pan et al. [178] examined the difference in EEG theta between concentrative and non-concentrative qigong states, demonstrating that the frontal midline theta rhythm was related to the concentrative qigong state. As the theta rhythm has been suggested as one of the normal EEG patterns occurring in mental concentration, the authors concluded that the theta rhythm is an indicator of mental concentration during qigong. Notably, Field et al. [179] observed that performance on math computations significantly improved after a 20-min tai chi/ yoga training course and was associated with increased frontal theta activity. Field et al. [179] further found a trend of increased theta activity and decreased self-reported anxiety, and the authors attributed this to the relaxation effects of tai chi. This increased frontal theta activity was replicated in a study of skilled female tai chi practitioners, showing a pattern typically occurring during states of relaxation and attention [180]. Additional support for the importance of external movement, in parallel to inner movement and their possible connection, related to theta activity, comes from the fact that frequent movement is preferable to one's health over sedentary behavior, making movement therapies, when applied correctly, beneficial to chronic pain conditions, by ameliorating pain and related symptoms [181]. Moreover, the reported benefits are not only strictly related to musculoskeletal or vascular function but also with the mental dimension of well-being. For example, mindful movement practices, such as tai chi, have been found to significantly help in chronic pain management, for conditions such as osteoarthritis, low back pain, and fibromyalgia

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92755*

(for review, see [182]).

**within the sphere**

spherical framework (see **Figure 1**).

*The Sphere Model of Consciousness (adapted from [11, 13, 15]).*

## *Inner Navigation and Theta Activity: From Movement to Cognition and Hypnosis… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92755*

changes in mental state or electroencephalogram patterns associated with other alterations of cognitive or physical indices. An early study by Pan et al. [178] examined the difference in EEG theta between concentrative and non-concentrative qigong states, demonstrating that the frontal midline theta rhythm was related to the concentrative qigong state. As the theta rhythm has been suggested as one of the normal EEG patterns occurring in mental concentration, the authors concluded that the theta rhythm is an indicator of mental concentration during qigong. Notably, Field et al. [179] observed that performance on math computations significantly improved after a 20-min tai chi/ yoga training course and was associated with increased frontal theta activity. Field et al. [179] further found a trend of increased theta activity and decreased self-reported anxiety, and the authors attributed this to the relaxation effects of tai chi. This increased frontal theta activity was replicated in a study of skilled female tai chi practitioners, showing a pattern typically occurring during states of relaxation and attention [180].

Additional support for the importance of external movement, in parallel to inner movement and their possible connection, related to theta activity, comes from the fact that frequent movement is preferable to one's health over sedentary behavior, making movement therapies, when applied correctly, beneficial to chronic pain conditions, by ameliorating pain and related symptoms [181]. Moreover, the reported benefits are not only strictly related to musculoskeletal or vascular function but also with the mental dimension of well-being. For example, mindful movement practices, such as tai chi, have been found to significantly help in chronic pain management, for conditions such as osteoarthritis, low back pain, and fibromyalgia (for review, see [182]).


*Article* **Emotional Intelligence and Social Support: Two Key Factors in Preventing Occupational Stress during COVID-19**

**Giusy Danila Valenti \*, Palmira Faraci and Paola Magnano**

Faculty of Human and Social Sciences, University of Enna Kore, 94100 Enna, Italy<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(P.F<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(P.M.)

**\*** Correspondence<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
**Abstract:** Emotional intelligence (EI) and social support are among the most investigated hypothesized variables that affect stress at work. The current study aims to evaluate the direct association between EI and occupational stress and its indirect relationship mediated by three sources of social support during the spread of the COVID-19. The total sample was composed of 367 individuals (53.7% males), aged from 20 to 68 (*M* = 37.84, *SD* = 10.39), who filled out an online questionnaire. A mediation analysis was performed to test the hypothesized relationships. Our findings showed that EI has a direct effect on psychological effects and an indirect effect on almost all the facets of occupational stress. The significant mediators were social support from both family and friends. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed and directions for future studies are suggested.

**Keywords:** occupational stress; emotional intelligence; social support; COVID-19