#### *3.1. Competence Discourse*

Our first subcategory reflects the prominence of competency-based learning in the educational discourse contained in the normative texts. This element is presented as the central axis of the curriculum of the different educational levels and as a definitive impetus for the educational changes that must take place in the classroom. This is expressed in the following fragment: "This Real Decreto is based on the promotion of learning by competences, integrated into the curricular elements in order to promote a renewal in teaching practice and in the teaching and learning process" (CODI-T2).

First of all, it is worth noting the variety of definitions of the term "competence" in texts which, in theory, should be consonant with each other. On the one hand, competence is defined as "a combination of practical skills, knowledge, motivation, ethical values, attitudes, emotions, and other social and behavioural components that are mobilised together to achieve effective action" (CODI-T2). Moreover, it is stated that competences "are conceptualised as 'know-how' that applies to a variety of academic, social and professional contexts" (CODI-T2). Particular emphasis is also placed on the importance of a proper understanding of the typology of knowledge present in competences.

Competence knowledge integrates a conceptual knowledge base: concepts, principles, theories, data and facts (declarative knowledge-knowing how to say); knowledge related to skills, referring to both observable physical action and mental action (procedural knowledge-knowing how to do); and a third component that has a strong social and cultural influence, and which involves a set of attitudes and values (knowing how to be). (CODI-T3)

Secondly, several benefits are associated with the interrelationships of the different components that characterise competence learning. One of these is the fact that this type of learning "favours the learning processes themselves and the motivation to learn" (CODI-T3). In this way, a direct and unquestionable correlation is established between work based on competences and the supposed stimulation of students. Another of the great virtues of competency-based learning is expressed in Orden ECD/65/2015, de 21 de enero, as "an integral training of people", which enables them to "reorganise their thinking and acquire new knowledge, improve their actions and discover new forms of action and new skills that enable them to perform tasks efficiently, favouring lifelong learning" (CODI-T3). From this perspective, competency-based learning is presented as a definitive and revolutionary approach to renew and improve the quality of any educational process.

As a complement to this apologetic approach, the same text indicates some of the keys to developing an effective process of competency-based learning at school.

Since competency-based learning is characterised by its transversality, its dynamism and its comprehensive nature, the competency-based teaching-learning process must be approached from all areas of knowledge and by the various entities that make up the educational community, in both formal and non-formal and informal spheres. Its dynamism is reflected in the fact that competences are not acquired at a given moment and remain unalterable, but involve a process of development through which individuals gradually acquire higher levels of performance in the use of these competences. (CODI-T3)

Focusing now on the process of integrating the competency-based learning model into the official Spanish curriculum, we can point out the international references identified in the normative texts. On the one hand, it was stated that UNESCO was the organisation that established the precursor principles for the application of competency-based teaching "by identifying the basic pillars of lifelong learning for the 21st century, consisting of 'learning to know', 'learning to do', 'learning to be' and 'learning to live together'" (CODI-T3). On the other hand, in line with what was noted in the theoretical framework, the direct reference for Spain is the European Union. According to the text, the guidelines of this institution raise the relevance of competences by defending the acquisition of these "as an indispensable condition for individuals to achieve full personal, social and professional development that meets the demands of a globalised world and makes economic development possible, linked to knowledge" (CODI-T3).

In fact, Spanish legislation adopts the concept of *key competences* as defined by the European Union: "those that all people need for their personal fulfilment and development, as well as for active citizenship, social inclusion and employment" (CODI-T2), adding, at another point, that these are "essential for the well-being of European societies, economic growth and innovation" (CODI-T2). The precedent, in the Spanish case, would be the Ley Orgánica de Educación (LOE) (2006), which included the term "basic competences" for the first time. In this sense, the LOMCE and the different regulatory texts that developed it claimed to go "further" in terms of the implementation of the curriculum of competences by including the term "competences" within the definition of the "basic curriculum" (CODI-T3).

Specifically, the two main sources with which the Orden ECD/65/2015 de 21 de enero claimed to align itself are "the results of educational research" and "the European trends set out in Recommendation 2006/962/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning" (CODI-T3). On this basis, Article 2 of the Orden established that the key competences in the Spanish education system are the following: (a) linguistic communication, (b) mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology, (c) digital competence, (d) learning to learn, (e) social and civic competences, (f) a sense of initiative and entrepreneurship, and (g) cultural awareness and expressions (CODI-T3). Article 4 ("Key competences and objectives of the stages") contains certain requirements for the integration of competences in the different educational stages. Among them, due to the originality it represents with respect to the ideas already discussed, the following should be highlighted: "the design of integrated

learning activities that enable progress to be made towards the learning outcomes of more than one competence at the same time" (CODI-T3).

At this point, it is necessary to know more specifically what the guidelines are for the integration of key competences in all curricular areas or subjects, which can be found in Article 5 of the same Orden we have just mentioned. These guidelines, which are summarised in the following table, constitute certain basic requirements to be taken into account by teachers when drawing up or redefining teaching programmes in terms of key competences (see Table 4).

**Table 4.** Selection of excerpts from the Orden ECD/65/2015, de 21 de enero, on the topic *guidelines for the integration of key competences in the curriculum*.

Considering all these requirements, this is the right moment to find out how the competency approach is included in the subject of Geography and History, according to the regulatory discourses. In this sense, one of the objectives of the subject contemplated in the Real Decreto 1105/2014, de 26 de diciembre can be used as an introduction to this new topic: "to continue acquiring the competences necessary to understand the reality of the world in which they live, past and present collective experiences, their orientation in the future, as well as the space in which life in society develops" (CODI-T2).

In the Orden de 14 de julio de 2016, which, among other aspects, develops the curriculum of secondary education in the region of Andalusia, we found a characterisation of the subject which specified that our subject will train students in certain "skills" for, on the one hand, "the understanding of the complexity of current societies" and, on the other, "the analysis and implementation of the strategies required to exercise responsible, participatory citizenship, aware of their identity, rights and obligations, in a plural and globalised environment" (CODI-T5). This last idea is mentioned again in the supposed transversal "contributions" of Geography and History to the overall ESO curriculum, referring to "the development of personal competences and social skills for the exercise of participation through the assessment of the various channels of citizen action and empowerment" (CODI-T5). At first glance, in the context of our subject, the concept of competence acquires a new significance that moves away from what has been said about key competences to focus on knowledge that is fundamentally attitudinal and related to the development of civic education.

In order to understand the supposed contribution of the subject of Geography and History to the development of competences, we must move forward in examining the same Orden. Below (see Table 5), we list some excerpts that allowed us to explore this issue in greater depth.

**Table 5.** Selection of excerpts on the topic *contribution of the subject of Geography and History to the learning of competences, according to the Orden de 14 de julio de 2016*.

All these discursive propositions have an impact on the way in which the "Objectives" (the title of the section) or "competences" (the term by which the list of objectives is finally referred to) are linked to how the subject of Geography and History is formulated. In this respect, it is interesting to note the use of the latter word as a synonym for "specific competences" of the subject, which may cause some confusion for teachers when interpreting the official curriculum. In fact, it would seem that the development of these "competences" would imply the implementation of several competences at the same time. As an example of this last idea, one of the 16 objectives or capacities established in the Andalusian curriculum is reproduced below: "To know and analyse the ways in which human society transforms the environment, and how the territory influences the organisation and identity of this society, reflecting on the dangers that human intervention generates in the environment, with special emphasis on the case of Andalusia" (CODI-T5).

#### *3.2. Disciplinary Reality*

In the area of Social Sciences, in particular, the contents are almost strictly conceptual, to the extent that there is a certain obsession with facts, dates, characters, data, features or geographical places on the map. Bearing in mind the importance we give to memorised exams, both in History and Geography, it is clear that these contents are understood as closed, almost timeless and, of course, classified in disciplinary compartments. Proof of this is that, from time to time, the Department asks us to include a series of notes and materials dating back fifty years. (DIRE-T12)

Our second subcategory represents the predominance of disciplinary contents in school practice as opposed to a competency-based approach to teaching and learning. Paradoxically, this situation arises in the very regulatory texts responsible for regulating the official curriculum, through the existence of certain contradictions. On the one hand, it is stated, as we saw a moment ago, that competences must be integrated into all curricular elements; on the other, we find that the way of stating certain elements may be indicative of a purely conceptual dimension rather than a competence dimension. In other words, the suspension of the discourse on competences, in some parts of the normative texts, implies the appearance of a discourse that is not very different from the traditional disciplinary organisation of curricular content.

As an example of this, we can reproduce some of the terms used in the Orden de 1 de julio de 2016 to characterise the most appropriate way of working on the elements considered to be "relevant" in the subject of Geography and History: "range of scientific references", "study", "conceptualising society", "global vision", "knowledge of historical facts", "understanding the position and relevance of Andalusia in the rest of Spain", "knowing and handling the vocabulary, and research and analysis techniques specific to the social sciences", "causes of war and conflict", "relevant characteristics of the natural environment both in Andalusia and the rest of the world", "gathering information", and so on (DIRE-T5).

The indications about the possible competences of the "objectives" of Geography and History are few and diffuse. In fact, among the consequences of working in this subject, the text cited does not highlight the development of any specific key competences but highlights the "appreciation" of the following aspects: "the connections between past and present and human beings and nature; the importance of the notions of change and continuity in social structure and dynamics and the value of comparative methodology together with diachronic and synchronic analysis" (DIRE-T5). The apparent abandonment of the competency discourse can also be verified by looking at the main actions that are mentioned in the objectives of our subject (not including those that make up subordinate clauses), which are grouped in Table 6 below according to their frequency of appearance.

**Table 6.** Main actions contemplated in the objectives of the subject of Geography and History, according to the Orden de 14 de julio de 2015.

The following excerpt, focused on the task of knowing, is a good example of the type of actions that articulate the objectives, which do not seem to have undergone any kind of transformation under the competence approach that is supposed to be present in all curriculum subjects: "Knowledge of society, its organisation and functioning over time is essential in order to understand today's world. Knowing the space where societies develop, the natural resources and the use that has been made of them, provides us with data about the past ( ... )" (DIRE-T2). Nor in the following words do we discover any clue as to the place that competences should occupy in these changes that the secondary stage represents with respect to primary education: "pupils will delve, in a more systematic, organised and profound way than in Primary Education, into the foundations of the identity and functioning mechanisms of human society, and the forms of relationship between them and with the environment, as well as the spatial dimension in which these arise and develop" (DIRE-T5).

Even when speaking of "transversal elements", no reference to competences is made, as such, but instead to what appear to be themes to be included in the conventional content blocks. Some examples are: "the situation of women throughout history and the struggle for the recognition of their rights ... ; the identity, projection and space of Andalusian culture in the rest of Spain and the world ... ; the economic growth and development of Andalusia in history and the present" (DIRE-T5). In general, in the regulatory texts, there is a predominant use of terms such as "disciplines" and a recognition of the usefulness of both Geography and History as well as all those disciplines linked to the area of Social Sciences, "for a better understanding of social reality" (DIRE-T2).

Despite the complexity and interdisciplinarity advocated in the normative texts, the organisation of curricular content is, at least in appearance, rather conventional: "Geography is organised, in the first cycle, in the blocks 'The physical environment' and 'Human space', and in the fourth year it focuses on globalisation. History studies societies over time, following a chronological criterion throughout the two cycles of ESO" (DIRE-T2).

Regarding the discourses produced by the school's Department of Social Sciences, the first thing to note is that the question of competency-based learning appears, as in the normative texts, to be diluted and/or directly displaced. This can be seen in the discourse represented in the Geography and History subject guide for students in their first year of secondary education, where expressions such as "ask ourselves questions and draw conclusions", "write detailed answers and essays", "give a voice to historical figures", "broaden both our knowledge of our environment and our critical thinking", and so on (DIRE-T9) are used. One of the fragments where the survival of a habitual way of approaching teaching and learning processes can be best appreciated is the following one:

Our History of Art contents will run parallel to the History topics, and will also be worked on in relation to the general characteristics of each artistic style, from some well-known examples, as well as from the specific vocabulary that allows us to formally describe an artistic work. (DIRE-T9)

Leaving aside the didactic criteria of the Department, the particular way of conceiving and working on competences at the School (in this case, in relation to the assessment instruments used) was interpreted from the teaching perspective in a critical way:

I remember how stunned I was last year when I asked about the assessment of competences in our subjects. One of my senior colleagues said to me—completely convinced—: "Sure, here they are next to each question", pointing out to me the acronyms of the key competences, which he put next to questions that were 100% conceptual, the same ones he had been asking for thirty years. This is practically all the questions in our exams, with the exception of those on historical maps or some Geography graphs. (DIRE-T12)

The following diary note, again a critical one, provides further insight into the Department's priorities in teaching plans:

When I arrived at the school, I was struck by the fact that in 3rd Secondary level there were also History subjects. My Department argues that it is important that pupils should not spend a year without seeing historical content, so the Middle Ages are left for 2nd and the Modern Age for 3rd. The truth is that I think this is a good approach, although it follows the same chronological criteria as always and the weight of Geography is somewhat reduced in order to go deeper into data and references which, in my opinion, completely escape the purpose of the subject at these levels. (DIRE-T12)

To conclude this inside look at what was happening in our case study, the best way to confirm what type of content was being worked on in the subject of Geography and History is through the pupils' answers to the first question in the interview, specifically the second part: "Do you consider that the content of Social Sciences (History, Geography, Art, Music ... ) requires a lot of effort? What do you find most difficult?". The next graph shows

which aspects are the most difficult for students. The number of times each of these aspects was mentioned was taken into account, as well as the total number of aspects mentioned, in order to calculate the respective percentages. In Figure 1, the aspects are ordered from the highest to the lowest number of mentions received.

**Figure 1.** Typology of Social Sciences contents that generate greater difficulty for students.

Table 7 provides a representative selection of the responses from which the data shown in the graph above were obtained.

**Table 7.** Selection of student responses to the first interview question.

As we can see, the tasks that demand the most effort and time on the part of pupils have nothing to do with competences. Almost half of the pupils point to the memorised study of maps as the main challenge they face in the subject of Geography and History. This practice, in our case study, did not involve the use of any kind of digital technology, as the only resource needed to tackle it were paper maps of Spain and the world, both physical and political. As far as the History content is concerned, the development of the

topics, paradoxical as it may seem, did not represent a more important challenge than learning the abundant "names" and "dates" asked about in the written exams.

#### **4. Discussion and Conclusions**

This work has allowed us to approximate the true place of the competence discourse in many educational schools, revealing that in the reality of the classroom, it can go completely unnoticed beneath the great influence that the disciplinary paradigm still exerts when it comes to organising and working with educational content. Complementing some of the existing discussions in this regard (Guzmán Marín 2017; Liesa et al. 2018), we have been able to confirm the existence of a close link between the sub-discourse in favour of competency-based learning, the educational use of new technologies, and the promotion of emotional competences from what Solé Blanch (2020) characterised as the influence of positive psychology and the "happiness industry".

Despite their prominence in innovative discourses, in which the regulatory texts themselves participate, competences are not properly integrated into the curriculum of subjects such as Geography and History, nor are there significant relationships between different strands of knowledge or subjects, nor is there any specific work on the supposed "key competences". Proof of this is the absence of any mention of pupils' digital competence in the documents of the Department of Social Sciences, or in the testimonies of the research subjects. According with other authors (Pérez-Escoda et al. 2016), working on digital competence is fundamental for promoting the correct use of new technological resources.

Surprisingly, in the analysed regulations, we have found several slightly different definitions of the term "competence". As far as our subject is concerned, this concept has acquired a new meaning in these texts that moves away from the discourse on key competences by international institutions to focus on knowledge, mainly attitudinal knowledge, related to the development of civic education. This relative suspension or abandonment of the discourse on competences, the consequence of which is none other than the maintenance of the traditional disciplinary logic, is also perfectly palpable in the way in which the general objectives of the subject are formulated and how the curricular content is organised. These and other circumstances reflect certain tensions with regard to the supposed requirements of competency-based educational practice which teachers must take into account.

Similarly, competency-based learning did not appear in the guide of the Geography and History subject, either. This fact was confirmed by two other sources. On the one hand, the interviews conducted with the pupils revealed that the six most demanding tasks had nothing to do with working on key competences but with the memorisation of conceptual content (facts, dates, names, places, and so on); on the other hand, numerous observations recorded in the diary pointed to the excessively disciplinary nature of the knowledge worked on in the classroom as the major pedagogical and didactic problem in that school context. Some of the most representative didactic strategies of the traditional didactic model were the "respondones", which is a battery of 50 questions and short answers about each topic to memorise, or the numerous exams on geographical maps.

These dynamics based on the repetition of positive and decontextualised data fit perfectly with the so-called "teaching to the test" culture (Hursh 2013; Robinson and Dervin 2019). This is a pedagogical philosophy that, on the other hand, also responds to the technocratic concept of quality, which is characteristic of neo-liberal education and its interest in the acquisition of specific and perfectly measurable skills (Slater 2015; Sondel 2015). One of the best arguments to justify this neo-disciplinary model is, of course, the curricular overload that forces teachers to give priority to what is easiest to measure. The contradiction that this model presents with respect to many of the slogans of current educational innovation, including those related to competency-based, active, and personalised learning, is quite remarkable. The deviation towards traditional didactic formulas, despite pro-innovative intentions, has been identified by researchers such as Sigurðardóttir and Hjartarson (2015).

There is no doubt that the conscious maintenance of certain traditional educational objectives, content, and processes in the 21st century, despite the supposed discursive embrace of new educational slogans and approaches, has its own ideological connotations. In this respect, authors such as Cachinho and Reis (2007) have openly expressed their misgivings about "the need to change the paradigm of knowledge transmission for the development of competences" (p. 187) in a political context conditioned by "the most rancid conservatism" (p. 201). This is a debate that can only be approached from the premise that, as Soto and Pérez-Milans (2018) stated in their ethnographic work, the commodification of any type of pedagogical element is taking place on a global scale today.

In any case, the incorporation of the competency-based teaching model into the area of Social Sciences should not eclipse or suppress the work of the specific objectives and contents of this field but enrich them by rethinking the logic that organises the way they are worked on. In the words of Palma Valenzuela (2020), the disciplines "must facilitate attitudes, skills and abilities; together with basic conceptual schemes that allow for a deeper understanding of the individual and social reality and to intervene in a transformative way in both" (p. 91).

As our results have shown, we should not conceive of competency-based learning either as an educational change (since, at least in our case study, this approach had not yet been integrated) or as a strategy that guarantees change (since the factors that determine the possibility of undertaking change, e.g., the guidelines of a department, go far beyond the mere reproduction of a novel discourse). This contradicts, for example, the studies by Gulikers et al. (2018) or Poth and Searle (2021), which focused on how to assess competencybased learning, regarding the assumption that, in educational contexts, we can find the necessary conditions to work from this approach.

As the case study presented here shows, the fact of talking about competences does not imply either automatic motivation of the students or, even less, the development of a comprehensive education of the students. As an explanation for the propagandistic use of innovation by schools such as the one in this research, Pascual (2019) alluded to a need not for them to be competent "but only to demonstrate that they are", adding that "unfortunately, this mimicry can even reach the point where teachers cheat—intentionally or not—to ensure their permanence in the system" (p. 185).

In any case, an analysis focused on the new competences that teachers and principals should possess today (Greany 2019; Mohamed et al. 2017) is still pending, which will broaden the view of the professional knowledge currently required to teach. Furthermore, we must acknowledge that this work has not allowed us to observe the supposed drawbacks of the competency approach pointed out by several authors (Barrio 2013; Espinoza Aros 2014; Hirtt 2010; Jiménez Abad 2015; Tricot 2019), since this constitutes a perspective reduced to the purely discursive dimension of our object of study. In this sense, we could ask to what extent the competency-based approach is nothing more than a new criterion for classifying pupils using the new categories of "competent" and "incompetent" instead of "clever" and "clumsy", respectively. In any case, this new vocabulary allows us to keep talking about a desirable student in the context of the neo-liberal school.

All these questions encourage us to continue to broaden the perspective on what we have identified here as a conflict between the particularities of a discourse which attempts to impose itself from the top down, such as that of competency-based learning, and a practice, the classroom practice, which is still completely dominated by the traditional disciplinary culture.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, D.L. and J.A.P.-A.; methodology, D.L. and J.A.P.-A.; software, D.L.; formal analysis, D.L.; investigation, D.L.; resources, D.L.; writing—original draft preparation, D.L.; writing—review and editing, J.A.P.-A.; visualization, D.L. and J.A.P.-A.; supervision, J.A.P.-A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Data Availability Statement:** Not applicable.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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**Roberto García-Morís <sup>1</sup> and Ramón Martínez-Medina 2,\***

**Abstract:** Socio-environmental problems are some of the major concerns of today's society, and education is an essential area to raise awareness and mould future citizens who will be committed to sustainability. The purpose of this paper is to ascertain how future primary and secondary education teachers in the area of social sciences perceive the socio-environmental problems that affect today's society, for their subsequent inclusion in the curriculum. To this end, a study was carried out by means of a questionnaire, which showed that trainee primary and secondary teachers have a high consideration of these environmental problems, with hardly any differences noted according to sex or type of degree studied. This perception is positive in terms of the subsequent inclusion of socio-environmental problems in the development of the curriculum by the participating trainee teachers, who largely prefer an autonomous model for curricular implementation.

**Keywords:** teacher training; socio-environmental problems; environment; sustainability; social sciences

### **1. Introduction**

In 2020, Spain approved a new educational law (Ministerio de Educación 2022) that proposes an important renewal of the curriculum towards a more competence-based model in line with European recommendations and the Sustainable Development Goals (Moya and Zubillaga del Río 2020). However, the success of the new curriculum framework will be determined by the issues raised during teacher training, since initial training is essential to generate competent teachers for curricular development that includes environmental problems also from a social perspective (Moya and Zubillaga del Río 2020; López 2021; López-Fernández and Oller 2019), as is proposed for the training of students from other fields of knowledge (Boca and Saraçlı 2019). Therefore, it is important to start from the perceptions of trainee primary and secondary school teachers regarding the SDGs in a broad sense, and particularly with regard to the environment and climate change that we are experiencing on a global scale, as well as the role of environmental education (Tahsin 2003; Boon 2010; Fuster et al. 2021; Ministerio de Educación 2022; Massip et al. 2021; Medina and Castro 2021; Mosothwane 2002).

The environment has a strong presence in Spain's new curricular framework, given that it is included as an interdisciplinary and cross-cutting component of the competencebased approach and school contents (Ministerio de Educación 2022). There is no doubt that for the environmental perspective to be successful in the development of the curriculum in schools, we must take action with regard to pre-service and in-service teacher training. Therefore, it is essential to understand the perceptions of trainee teachers regarding environmental problems in order to implement successful educational approaches (Morote et al. 2022; López 2021; Cucurachi et al. 2017). This study uses the concept of socio-environmental problems rooted in a holistic understanding of the concept: environmental problems are social, and most social problems also have an environmental perspective.

**Citation:** García-Morís, Roberto, and Ramón Martínez-Medina. 2022. Trainee Teachers' Perceptions of Socio-Environmental Problems for Curriculum Development. *Social Sciences* 11: 445. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/socsci11100445

Academic Editor: Alvaro Morote

Received: 22 July 2022 Accepted: 21 September 2022 Published: 28 September 2022

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**Copyright:** © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

Subjects included within the area of Social Sciences—Social Sciences at primary school and Geography and History at secondary school—are paramount when addressing socioenvironmental issues and promoting attitudes favourable to social change with an environmental perspective (Fuster et al. 2021). This global conception of the social and environmental components that characterise the environment cannot be alien to the curricular approach taken to social subjects, which is why this research was proposed, as it seeks to understand the perceptions of social and environmental problems held by future social science teachers, and to see whether there any differences between the views of future primary compared to future secondary school teachers.

The analysis of perceptions regarding the environment within the field of education has sparked interest for decades in different countries, analysing misconceptions held (Tahsin 2003), with recommendations on educational approaches in teacher training (Van Petegem et al. 2005), perceptions about Creative Thinking for environmental education (Daskolia et al. 2012) and environmental education it-self (Mosothwane 2002). Studies of the perceptions held by inservice teachers are also a constant thread running through the literature on the subject (Flogaitis and Agelidou 2003; Benavides-Lahnstein and Ryder 2020; Galvis-Riaño et al. 2020; Munoz et al. 2009).

With regard to Spain, the contributions of López-Fernández and Oller (2019) and López (2021) are particularly important, used as a reference here when selecting the social and environ-mental problems put forward in our research. These authors identified a good predisposition among trainee primary school teachers towards the inclusion of socio-environmental problems in school, although the proposals they design show little theoretical knowledge. Álvarez-García et al. (2015) presented a review of the existing literature in which they observed that research on Environmental Education has increased in recent years, highlighting the weak knowledge of trainee teachers on the subject (Tal 2010; Puk and Stibbards 2010; Kyridis et al. 2005) and suggesting its inclusion in learning and development plans for competence-based training as environmental educators (Boca and Saraçlı 2019; Yavetz et al. 2014).

Environmental Education is usually given a high level of consideration by future teachers, especially in the areas of Natural Sciences and Social Sciences, although knowledge of the subject is limited (Yavetz et al. 2014). In addition, it is developed more fully when addressing local environmental problems (Campo and García-Monteagudo 2020) and those influenced by the media (Tal 2010). Field trips are presented as favourable experiences (Tal 2010) for Environmental Education, whose introduction in teacher training plans is very useful for future curricular inclusion (Yates et al. 2019; Alcántara and Medina 2019).

The presence of Environmental Education in Spain's curricular framework has been gaining ground over the years. If we focus on the Primary curriculum, we see that issues related to Environmental Education were only broached very timidly until the enactment of the General Organic Law on the Education System (LOGSE) in 1990 (Ministerio de Educación 1990). The curricular development set out in this Law does not explicitly include any content related to the environment, although one of the objectives of the Law refers to the manifestations of human interventions, their scope, possible solutions, ecological balance, and the conservation of natural resources. In 2006, with the enactment of the new Organic Law on Education (LOE) (Ministerio de Educación 2006), other concepts related to the environment, such as sustainability and climate change, appear explicitly. In the recently repealed Law for the Improvement of Education Quality (LOMCE) (Ministerio de Educacíon 2013), environmental issues focus on the field of Social Sciences teaching. Sustainable development appears as a concept to be learned, and its teaching focuses on human intervention in the environment, environmental problems, and the sustainable use of resources (Martínez-Medina and Arrebola 2019).

The Organic Law amending Organic Law 2/2006, of 3 May, on Education (LOMLOE) of 2020 (Ministerio de Educación 2020) makes great strides towards facing the challenges of society in the 21st Century, focusing the whole process of teaching subjects on the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Moya and Zubillaga del Río 2020). In the new curriculum, the teaching of Natural and Social Sciences is unified once more in a single integrated area of knowledge in Primary Education. The subject is structured into specific competencies, evaluation criteria linked to these competencies, and core knowledge (Ministerio de Educación 2022).

Specific competency number 6 addresses all environmental issues. It aims to identify the causes and consequences of human intervention in the local and global environment, from various points of view (environmental, economic, social, etc.), seeking solutions and changes in the way we act to implement sustainable and respectful lifestyles to care for and protect people and planet.

Core knowledge is structured into three main blocks of contents: A. Scientific culture, B. Technology and digitisation and C. Societies and territories. The teaching of Social Sciences is integrated into this last block, which in turn is subdivided into four main sections (1. Challenges of today's world, 2. Societies in time, 3. Civic literacy and 4. Ecosocial awareness).

The Ecosocial awareness block proposes a gradation of learning according to the stages into which Primary Education is divided. Issues ranging from knowledge of the environment, landscapes, and human action on the environment to conservation actions, the responsible use of resources, and climate change are all tackled. Pupils progressively explore these issues in greater depth and breadth right through to the third stage, when they explore sustainable development, the SDGs, sustainable urban development, and the green economy.

As we can see, the curriculum change in Spain aims to build a society presided over by social justice and environmental sustainability, and education plays an important role in this, in terms of moulding citizens that are competent in this area. In other words, in line with the SDGs, the idea is that students gain knowledge and skills to promote sustainable development, SDG 4 Goal 7 (Moya and Zubillaga del Río 2020; Ministerio de Educación 2022). To achieve this goal, the new curriculum framework is not enough. Teachers must be trained and conscientiously in favour of Environmental Education. The purpose of this study is to ascertain the perceptions of future primary and secondary school teachers about socio-environmental problems and their curricular development.

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

#### *2.1. Objectives*

The general objective of this paper is to ascertain the perceptions of future Social Sciences teachers in Spain regarding socio-environmental problems. To this end, an analysis questionnaire has been prepared based on the results obtained previously in other reference works of research (López-Fernández and Oller 2019; López 2021). This overarching aim is developed through the following specific objectives:

#### *2.2. Participants*

The study was carried out with students enrolled on the bachelors' degree in Primary Education and the master's degree in Secondary Education Teaching at the universities of Cordoba, A Coruña, and Murcia (Spain). Sampling was based on accessibility and convenience, as individuals were easily accessible by the authors.

The final study sample consisted of 168 students, of whom 36.9% (n = 62) were men and 61.3% (n = 106) were women, aged between 20 and 59 years with a mean age of 23.6 (SD = 5.2).

Students were also divided by type of degree studied. In the case of Spain, this classification is relevant given that the training of primary school teachers is via the bachelor's degree in Primary Education (4 years) and the training of secondary teachers is via a postgraduate degree (master's degree in Compulsory Secondary Education Teaching) lasting one academic year. This postgraduate course is completed after the students receive their degree, which, in the case of Social Science teachers, is usually a degree in Geography, History or Art History (4 years). 50.6% of the participants were enrolled on the master's degree in Compulsory Secondary Education Teaching and 49.4% on the bachelor's degree in Primary Education (Table 1).

**Table 1.** Descriptive education variables.

#### *2.3. Instrument*

For the purposes of this research, a questionnaire was designed, the Survey to Evaluate Socio-Environmental Problems in the Initial Training of Social Sciences Teachers, which is based on the results of the study by López-Fernández and Oller (2019) and López (2021), on environmental problems in Primary Education Teacher Training. Beginning with the problems identified in this previous research, the study was extended to students enrolled on a master's degree in Secondary Education Teaching, with the intention of identifying differences both in the perception of socio-environmental problems and in their curricular inclusion.

The questionnaire contains a total of 31 questions organised into four analytical dimensions. Of the total number of questions, one is open ended, and the others are closed. In dimensions 1, 2 and 3, the closed questions were designed using a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 10, with 10 being the highest degree of importance and 1 being the lowest degree of importance.

The first dimension, which only contains three questions, seeks to ascertain whether future teachers attach greater importance to environmental or social problems, and their assessment of each one of them. The second dimension of the questionnaire tackles the participants' evaluation of environmental problems (climate change, pollution, greenhouse effect, etc.). The third dimension is structured in a similar way to the previous one and tackles social problems, their importance and assessment. In the last dimension, through an open-ended question, student teachers are asked about how they will address socioenvironmental issues in the classroom. In order to establish comparisons in the assessment of the different problems, the social and environmental problems were presented separately, also asking about the greater importance of some over others. The separate analysis of socio-environmental problems is based on the results obtained in the research carried out by López-Fernández and Oller (2019). Although these problems are conceived in an integrated way as socio-environmental for their curricular development, it was decided to present them in this way for the comparative analysis of the perceptions of future teachers.

#### *2.4. Data Analysis*

For the descriptive statistical analysis of the sample, basic descriptive methods were used. For qualitative variables, absolute and relative frequencies were calculated; and for quantitative variables, minimum, maximum, mean and standard deviation values were calculated.

Groups of quantitative variables between two groups were compared using Student's *t*-test for independent samples, having first verified the assumptions of normality (Kolmogorov–Smirnov test) and homogeneity of variances (Levene test). The effect size was studied by means of Cohen's d, considering 0.2 to be a small effect, 0.5 to be medium, and 0.8 to be large.

Statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS 26.0 for Windows. Differences were considered statistically significant with *p* < 0.05.

In the open-ended question of the last dimension, responses were categorised according to the models of curricular development (Canals and González-Monfort 2011), making a descriptive analysis of that categorisation.

#### **3. Results**

#### *3.1. Perception of Social and Environmental Problems*

With regard to the participants' perception of the most important problems, when asking about social and environmental problems in a differentiated way, 75.6% (n = 127) of the future teachers participating in the study believe that the main problems are social, whereas 24.4% (n = 41) believe they are related to the environment. In addition, looking at the importance attached to each type of problem, environmental problems have an average importance of 8.87 points out of 10 (Min–Max: 5–10, SD = 1.12), while social problems reach more relevant values, with a mean of 9.45 points (Min–Max: 7–10, SD = 0.85).

The questionnaire asked students to assess, on a scale of 0 to 10, a number of environmental issues. The results show that there is strong concern for all environmental problems, with air pollution and climate change being the top priority, while problems related to the use of fossil fuels and noise pollution are given a lower score, below 9, with the latter receiving the lower of the two scores, although still above 7 (Table 2). In other words, all the problems were rated highly on the scale.

**Table 2.** Relevance of environmental problems.

With regard to perceived social problems, the participants once again rate them very high on the scale, above 7 (Table 3). Interestingly, gender-based violence is perceived as the most important social problem. The fact that gender-based violence receives the highest score as a social problem by future teachers is very positive, since education is one of the most important fields for acting against this blight.

The participants also have a strong perception of poverty and racism, but interestingly illegal immigration receives one of the lowest scores. Among the social problems included in the questionnaire, there were some that significantly affect the school population, both primary and secondary, and these were rated from highest to lowest as follows: bullying, unemployment, eating disorders, drug addiction, youth emigration, alcoholism, consumerism, and overweight.

**Table 3.** Importance of social problems.

It is likely that the main reason bullying is classed as one of the top four social problems is because the respondents are studying to become teachers. However, this is a social problem, not just an educational one, and it is perceived and rated as such by the students participating in the study. It is also striking that overpopulation, that is to say, the unchecked growth of the world's population, is the least valued social problem of all, since it scores lower than an 8 in quantitative terms, when it is a problem that is closely linked to other social and also environmental problems.

When analysing perceived social and environmental problems by sex (Table 4), with regard to environmental problems, the only difference observed is in relation to noise pollution, a problem that women consider to be more important than men, but in both cases this problem receives the lowest score.

With regard to social problems there are differences in relation to alcoholism, social inequality, drug addiction, lack of values, illegal immigration, marginality, unemployment, poverty, overpopulation and eating disorders, which women consider to be more important than men.

Gender-based violence is given a higher score by women, but one particularly positive finding is that the perception of men in the study is very close to that of women, with little difference between the two, and in both cases, it is the highest rated problem.

The lack of values is a problem that ties in very well with the teaching of Social Sciences, since one of the aims of this field is to provide an education in values. This lack of values as a social problem receives an average score of 9.38 among women and 8.85 among men, a more significant difference.

When analysing the data according to the degree course studied (Table 5), environmental problems only yield differences in their assessment in the case of deforestation, which students on the master's degree in secondary education teaching consider to be more important than students on the primary education degree. The former rank deforestation as the main environmental problem whereas the latter rank air pollution as the highest. Grouping responses by degree course studied, noise pollution is once again placed last.

In terms of social problems, there are no differences between undergraduate and master's degree students with regard to any of the problems. Gender-based violence is once again at the top of the leader board and receives a higher score among future primary teachers than secondary teachers, as does bullying and a lack of values, although with unsignificant differences. While overpopulation continues to appear in both cases as one of the least relevant problems.

**Table 4.** Descriptive and comparative statistics of the importance given by men and women to environmental and social problems.

SD: Standard deviation. d: Cohen's d (effect size).

**Table 5.** Descriptive and comparative statistics regarding the importance given by students on the undergraduate and master's degree courses to environmental and social problems.

**Table 5.** *Cont.*

SD: Standard deviation. d: Cohen's d (effect size).

#### *3.2. Curricular Approach to Social and Environmental Problems for Curricular Development*

Having analysed the perceptions of socio-environmental problems held by future primary and secondary social science teachers, the fourth and final dimension of the questionnaire dealt with how they would address these problems in their future teaching practice.

In the previous section, we found that, despite the differences in the degree courses studied by teachers for Primary and Secondary education, their perceptions of socioenvironmental problems did not differ significantly. This is significant because the course required to become a primary school teacher is a 4-year honours degree that spans a very diverse curriculum of subjects, but all related to education. On the other hand, future secondary teachers take a teaching specialisation master's degree, following on from a four-year honours degree in History and Geography mainly devoted exclusively to these disciplines. Therefore, a priori, trainee primary school teachers would have less disciplinary training related to the environment than trainee secondary school teachers. Therefore, this last part of the investigation seeks to ascertain how the different problems will be addressed in the classroom, and whether there is a difference according to the degree studied by the participants.

Given that the question was open-ended, the responses were categorised by models of curricular development in Social Sciences, taking into account three models: traditional, autonomous, and critical (Canals and González-Monfort 2011). The traditional model is the positivistic model, which has been the prevailing model used in schools for the longest time, consisting of the reproduction of knowledge with pupils playing a fairly passive role. The autonomous or active teaching model gives greater prominence to pupils and their relationship with the environment, with procedural proposals predominating. Finally, the critical model introduces relevant social problems, thinking about the future and promoting social change (Canals and González-Monfort 2011; Cebrián et al. 2021; Massip et al. 2021) to foster "the formation of reflective, critical and creative thinking, the analysis of values and social practices, and learning about decision making and problem solving" (Canals and González-Monfort 2011, p. 53).

The critical model has an important presence (30.49%), the autonomous model is the dominant one (57.32%), and the traditional model is proposed in 12.19% of cases (Table 6). This model has a token presence in the case of trainee primary school teachers (3.66%) and more important in the case of trainee secondary school teachers (20.73%). In part, it is understandable that students who have spent less time focusing on education-related studies would have a more traditional view of curricular approaches, probably due to their previous experiences, because of the disciplinary training they have received over the course of their studies.

**Table 6.** Educational proposals by curricular models and by type of degree studied.

Proposals to address these topics categorised under the traditional model link socioenvironmental problems with the other contents in the curriculum for a better understanding of them. As we can see in the following narratives, socio-environmental problems are not at the heart of the didactic proposal itself but are linked to the conclusions of the topics or so as to highlight them throughout history, but always related to the subject contents themselves or to improve the assimilation thereof, never as the central elements of the didactic proposal, and always through a transmissive approach to socio-environmental problems.

Trying to relate them to the subject contents covered in class, with activities that help them to understand the subject contents and socio-environmental problems. (Cod. 16, Secondary, Male)

Correlating these problems with the Social Sciences content covered in class. Especially when we design activities for students to highlight the relationships between theoretical contents. (Cod. 35, Secondary, Male)

Based on a thorough analysis of the causes and consequences of any historical or geographical issue, conclusions can be drawn that affect the present day at all levels. (Cod. 96, Secondary, female)

Explaining in class the evolution of ecosystems throughout history, [ ... ] up to the present day. [ ... ] In Geography class, working in class on factors that pollute rivers, what a drainage basin is, etc. (Cod. 103, Secondary, female)

When considering how to approach these issues in school through the subjects of Social Sciences, we observe a tendency to follow the autonomous curricular model, that is, focusing interventions more on students and methodological aspects rather than from the critical approach, which focuses on decision-making and problem solving. This model is more present in primary (67.07%) than secondary school (47.56%) and mainly emphasises practical training and student motivation.

I would develop them in a fun way, such as making models, school trips, etc. so that students learn about the importance of these problems in a didactic and visual way. (Cod. 55, Secondary, female)

With a programme based on experiences and visual explanations, and a lot of support material, such as documentaries or films, experiences told by first-hand by those affected . . . (Cod. 164, Primary, male)

In addition to the examples focused on methodological strategies and motivating resources, special importance is given to field trips around the local area, which is very characteristic of the autonomous model. Although some of the responses categorised in this model might approximate the critical model, inclusion in the autonomous model was chosen when the main argument of the proposal focused on methodological issues more than the problematisation of content, the search for solutions, and the promotion of social participation.

Asking them questions to find out the children's point of view and knowledge and then taking a trip to a recycling centre. (Cod. 84, Primary, female)

Through activities and field trips related to the local area where they can directly see how these issues affect their daily lives, to achieve greater awareness. (Cod. 32, Secondary, male)

The critical model is present in 30.49% of the proposals made by students, which is very positive. The representativeness of this model is found in a fairly balanced proportion between primary (29.27%) and secondary (31.71%) teachers. In other words, despite the greater presence of the traditional model among future secondary school teachers, the critical model also has an important representation at this stage.

Through activities that will develop critical thinking in these areas so that students can begin to play an active role in their resolution or, at least, in more sustainable maintenance. (Cod. 93, Secondary, female)

Through issues that affect their closest environment and foster real student involvement. Taking advantage of something that is happening in the city in order to be able to work from within the problem, going on trips, analysing, proposing solutions, putting them into practice . . . (Cod. 107, Primary, female)

Through environmental awareness activities (recycling, sustainability) as well as social activities that foster values, respect, make the students aware of social differences, as well as present-day socio-environmental problems; working with them on possible solutions to diminish their influence. (Cod. 152, Primary, female)

In this model, responses that focused on the active role of the student were included, prioritising awareness and social intervention, although an important part focused on environmental issues. In other words, the important thing is for students to be aware of their own system of values, of what they think and of the search for possible alternatives, emphasising educational aims such as education in democracy, participation, and the formation of critical citizens who are involved in the management of space and institutions (Morales et al. 2015; Fuster et al. 2021; Cebrián et al. 2021; Benejam 1997; Oller 2011).

#### **4. Discussion**

The student teachers who took part in this research rated social problems as being more important than environmental problems, although high scores were given to both types of problems: 9.45 points (Min–Max: 7–10, SD = 0.85) for social problems and 8.87 points out of 10 (Min–Max: 5–10, SD = 1.12) in the case of environmental ones. This assessment coincides with the role that trainee teachers give to environmental issues (Moya and Zubillaga del Río 2020; López 2021; Yavetz et al. 2014; Yates et al. 2019) which they consider a current and future social challenge, although they have little grounding in these topics (Ghosn-Chelala and Akar 2021; Miles et al. 2006) especially among those who have studied disciplines that are not closely linked to the environment (Yavetz et al. 2014).

In this research, we set two goals aimed at ascertaining the perceptions of future teachers based on their studies, but we did not find any significant differences based on this. In other words, the assessment of social and environmental problems did not differ greatly between future primary and secondary teachers despite differences in their initial training.

One of the most significant elements mentioned above was that, among future primary and secondary teachers, gender-based violence was rated the most important social problem. Given that we are working with future teachers, this assessment is important, because of the role education plays in combating gender violence, especially bearing in mind that

recent Spanish studies have shown how the percentage of young men (15 to 29 years) who deny gender violence or diminish its importance has increased recently (Rodríguez et al. 2021), and that this is a problem that nonetheless affects the younger population (Instituto de la Juventud 2022). If we analyse the data by sex, although the assessment of gender violence is a little lower in the case of the male future teachers interviewed, the difference is not significant compared to female teachers.

Following the analysis of perceptions based on a list of social and environmental problems (López-Fernández and Oller 2019; López 2021), concluding that most of the problems received a high score, the future teachers were asked about how they would address these problems in their future teaching work. The model that was found to be the most prevalent was the autonomous curriculum development model, centred on students, on experiences in their immediate environment, and on practical activities, although there is difficulty in identifying environmental problems in the immediate environment (López 2021). Among the proposed activities, good environmental practices related to good recycling and waste management habits are strongly present, which also coincides with educational experiences in more degraded environments (Ghosn-Chelala and Akar 2021).

The fact that many of the proposals in this model focus on experiences with students in the surrounding environment is significant. Other research, such as Yavetz et al. (2014), finds that, despite their area of specialism, most students recognise the importance of the environment for their future work as teachers. Addressing local socio-environmental problems yields good results (Tal 2010; Oller 2011) and helps to identify global problems (Ghosn-Chelala and Akar 2021).

In the critical curriculum, content takes centre stage. It is enriched and diversified. It is no longer exclusively factual content as in the traditional model, or content subordinate to the interest of the students who have to discover it, as in the autonomous curriculum model (Pagès 1994). Although content is at the heart of this model, the responses of the participating students focus not so much on the identification of topics, but on how they are approached, making references to awareness, to the problematisation of contents or with activities for the development of critical thinking.

Students whose response can be classed within the critical model show, as in the study by, that socio-environmental problems are part of their ethical responsibilities as future teachers to foster social and environmental change. The cross-cutting nature of socioenvironmental problems, which can be addressed globally or through different subjects, is repeatedly highlighted (Álvarez-García et al. 2015), as is the use of media and news for the development of critical thinking and the promotion of participation (Tal 2010). Civic engagement within the community and school is also partly present in curriculum inclusion proposals pertaining to the critical model (Yates et al. 2019; Medina and Castro 2021; Torres-Porras and Martínez-Medina 2021; López 2004).

#### **5. Conclusions**

Knowing the perceptions of future teachers in both primary and secondary education is useful for the development of Environmental Education and for the implementation of the new Spanish curriculum framework. The training about sustainable development that student teachers have received throughout the education system is important, but the role given to socio-environmental problems and their curricular inclusion in teacher training studies is also vital.

Knowing the perceptions of future teachers about social and environmental problems is necessary to subsequently analyse how these teachers will integrate socio-environmental problems into their curriculum in the future, because it is essential for teachers to be aware in this regard. The new curriculum framework, in line with European recommendations and the SDGs, opens up new possibilities for teaching and learning about socio-environmental problems, which must undoubtedly be exploited within teacher training, as teachers are important agents of change.

The participating students give more importance to social problems than environmental ones, but with a high assessment of all of them. This aspect is positive to include socio-environmental problems in the initial training of future Primary and Secondary teachers, so that they are competent in a critical curricular development that incorporates environmental issues in a holistic way, aligned with the SDGs and with the new Spanish curricular framework.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, resources, writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, R.G.-M. and R.M.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was funded by Junta de Andalucía with the support of FEDER Funds, grant number PYC20 RE 013 UCO.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** Data are contained within the article.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

## *Article* **Did the Characteristics of Kosovar Teachers Influence the Results of Students in TIMSS 2019? Findings from the Performance of Kosovar Students in TIMSS 2019**

**Fadil Latifi <sup>1</sup> and Endrit Latifi 2,\***

**Abstract:** This paper aimed to explore the impact of Kosovar teachers' characteristics on the performance of fourth-grade students in TIMSS 2019. The paper addressed the characteristics of teachers, demographic, and academics, which are closely related to the overall performance of students. In this research, data from the TIMSS 2019 database were used, for which 4435 Kosovar students were tested, and 192 teachers were surveyed. The findings show that Kosovar students did not perform well in TIMSS 2019. They achieved 444 points in the field of mathematics and 413 points in science (average TIMSS 500 points) and were ranked 49th out of 56 countries participating in the test. Data from the teacher survey show that the characteristics of teachers, such as age, professional development, pre-service education, contemporary approach to teaching, etc., also played an important role in the low-scoring performance of Kosovar students in TIMSS 2019. Students who had a teacher with an average age of 30–60 years had a better performance on the test, achieving a difference of 20 points more, compared to students who had new or older teachers (under 30 years and over 60 years). The lack of professional development of teachers also had a major impact on student performance. On average, 25% of teachers in the last 2 years had attended training in certain areas, while on average 80% of them were willing to attend training programs that would improve the profile of their competencies.

**Keywords:** characteristics of teachers; Kosovo; performance; TIMSS 2019; professional development

#### **1. Introduction**

Teacher quality is extremely important for student achievement, even though there is still no standard definition for what we mean by teacher quality (Seebruck 2015; Hanushek 2011). According to Barton and Coley (2009), among the factors that influence the creation of gaps in student achievement, in addition to educational policies, curriculum design, and the use of technology in teaching, are also the pre-service preparation of teachers and their experience. There is a high theoretical correlation for the relationship between student achievement and the quality of teachers (Prince 2002). There have been debates over time about the effects that school can have on student performance. There are opinions that schools have less influence compared to the social aspect of students (Coleman et al. 1966). There are others who think that the key factors in student achievement are both the classroom (Mosteller 1995) and the teachers (Dearling 2000). The quality of teaching creates a gap that can cause irreparable damage (Seebruck 2015). Curriculum reforms, textbook revision, and teacher professional development are interlinked and provide clear guidance on the ongoing changes in educational processes (Mullis and Martin 2012). The provision of constructive feedback to students by teachers, identifying needs, and easier approaches to child learning, are just some of the elements that influence student outcomes (Shala et al. 2021b).

**Citation:** Latifi, Fadil, and Endrit Latifi. 2022. Did the Characteristics of Kosovar Teachers Influence the Results of Students in TIMSS 2019? Findings from the Performance of Kosovar Students in TIMSS 2019. *Social Sciences* 11: 344. https:// doi.org/10.3390/socsci11080344

Academic Editor: Alvaro Morote

Received: 4 July 2022 Accepted: 1 August 2022 Published: 3 August 2022

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

On the other hand, in recent decades, professional development has been a subject of particular interest for teachers, through whom new educational practices have been disseminated (Borko et al. 2010; Ponte 2010). Teacher professional development programs are an important instrument for the implementation of educational policies at practical levels in terms of transferring new knowledge, skills, and values acquired in practice by students (Sasson and Miedijensky (2020). Such programs have allowed teachers to learn from research activities and practices (Ponte 2010)). "Professional development is defined as activities that develop an individual's skills, knowledge, expertise and other characteristics as a teacher" (OECD 2009). "How can we prepare students for jobs that have not yet been created, tackle social challenges that we can not yet imagine, and use technologies that have not yet been invented?"(OECD 2019).

Dam and Janssen (2021) have found that in recent years, many reforms have been initiated which have not had a direct impact on raising the quality of education because there has been a lack of oversight of their implementation. Rapid changes ranging from student diversity (different geographical areas where students come from) to developments in technology require teachers to be coherent and flexible in their work (Zeggelaar et al. (2020). Professional development should also be based on the motivation of teachers, their needs, and aspirations in terms of their professionalism in the field of teaching (Ungar 2020). It puts into function some of the characteristics of teachers (Zhang et al. (2021). The quality that teachers with students have to offer is essential in the implementation of the competencies and personal profile that they have built during their years of study as well as the attitude they have built towards the teaching processes in general (Karlberg and Bezzina (2020). In reflective teaching, the profile of teacher competencies should be as high and specific as possible (Jong et al. 2011). According to Mahler et al. (2018), two of the characteristics that teachers should have are motivation and certain knowledge of the given field. Research developed by Baier et al. (2019) emphasizes that the characteristics of teachers can influence quantitative change in the quality of teaching. Professional development of teachers from narrow fields, such as mathematics and pedagogical function, is essential to maximize the impact that teachers can have during their work with students (Bolyard and Baker 2021). According to Rubie-Davies (2006), young teachers are more interested in changes in education, and they have higher expectations of students. The concept of employing teachers for the teaching and learning process is a vague process, while these concepts are crucial in providing quality teaching which has an impact on student learning (Jacobs et al. 2014). Dybowski et al. (2017) have pointed out that students who are exposed to good teachers are more likely to increase and develop their competencies.

Sanders and Rivers (1996), who conducted a study observing the results of students from the second to fifth grade, observed that student achievement was related to teacher characteristics. While there may be abundant literature in international contexts which explains the link between teacher characteristics and student achievement, the reality is that there is a lack of evidence in the case of Kosovo. Conducting international large-scale assessments in the country has contributed to the development of large databases which could be used to explain which variables mediate student achievement in the case of Kosovo. However, despite available datasets, publications on the achievement of Kosovar students are very scarce, and among those existing, no study evaluates the impact of teacher characteristics on achievement. The present study aimed to mitigate this situation by researching the link between teacher characteristics and the performance of Kosovar students in the TIMSS 2019 study.

Research on the impact of teacher characteristics is particularly important in a country such as Kosovo, which has faced major reforms and challenges.

Since the declaration of Kosovo's independence in February 2008, Kosovo has faced various challenges in all fields, in particular in the field of education. Poor-quality education in both the pre-university and university systems, frequent changes in the education system, a lack of training for certain areas, supervision of the implementation of new approaches adopted during training, etc., are just some of the challenges we still face. An unsatisfactory level of education has been introduced in recent years on the occasion of the development of several international assessments. Identifying the factors that have influenced the unsatisfactory results of Kosovar students is extremely difficult (Jepsen 2005) given that Kosovo has slow economic development and an almost unsupervised education system. Numerous researchers have analyzed these results and presented research on the unsatisfactory results of Kosovar students in PISA and TIMSS (Shala et al. 2021a), but the country's institutions have not treated these results as something worrying. This paper aimed to precisely point out the above-mentioned characteristics of teachers which we consider to have had a direct impact on the performance of Kosovar students in TIMSS 2019.

TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) is an international assessment that serves to measure students' knowledge in two areas, mathematics and science, as well as to compare education systems (Mullis et al. 2020). This test is organized every four years; 2019 was the seventh evaluation cycle, in which Kosovo participated for the first time. In this research, the characteristics of teachers that were taken as reference points were: age, experience, quality of studies, their approach to teaching and learning, traditional teaching methodologies, lack of training, lack of supervision during the implementation of training, frequent curricular changes, and the inability to follow the trends in technology.

An important element within all these factors is the preparation of new teachers before service, or "academic and professional potential". The "academic potential" of the graduates in Kosovo, as a number, is not lacking when it is known that there are universities in the five cities of Kosovo, where there are also faculties of education that prepare new teachers, but in Kosovo, there is a lack of professional preparation of young people to face the demands of the 21st century, namely the developments in all areas, especially in the integration of technology in teaching. Teaching in these universities generally takes place through traditional methods and forms and does not make the student part of the construction of his own knowledge. Lectures are carried out in the full sense of the word "lectures", without constructiveness, creativity, and interactivity. Such teaching cannot prepare the teacher for the future. The same fact is shown by the results of the teachers' survey, which was cross-referenced with the performance results of fourth-grade students in the TIMSS 2019 test, for which young teachers' *(up to the age of 30)* students had weaker results, which proves that pre-service education has not achieved its mission.

Starting from the premise that "no matter how good the pre-service teacher education is, our expectations may not be realistic if we think they can meet all the challenges of education" (OECD 2009), we noticed that in Kosovo, both pre-service education and the professional development of the teachers were not in line with the needs of the students.

In recent years in Kosovo, programs for professional development (PD) of teachers have been offered, which in many cases have had as their goal the substantive aspect of teaching or even the methodical one, but the contemporary approaches that have been offered through the contents of the training have almost never been implemented as requested.

"Effective professional development is continuous, includes training, practice, and feedback, and provides the right time and follow-up support. Successful programs involve teachers in learning activities that are similar to those they will use with their students and encourage the development of teacher-learning communities " (OECD 2009).

Middle-aged teachers (30–60 years old) usually participate in these trainings. Teachers over 60 years old are reluctant to participate in these trainings considering that they are close to retirement age (65 years old), while in certain cases young teachers (under 30) are thought to have been prepared during pre-service studies. The percentage of teachers declaring to belong to these ages was 32.1%. So, if we look at the results of students who had, for their teacher, a person under 30 or over 60 years old, which constituted approximately 1/3 of the surveyed teachers, we see that these students performed worse when they were tested (an average of 20 points less).

The participation and implementation of trainings are also legally regulated. According to the Administrative Instruction (MEST, UA-5/2017), to obtain their work license and to move from one level of license to a more advanced level, teachers need 100 h of training. This process has almost passed in formality and does not achieve its effect in practice. Differences in student outcomes based on teacher age have also been observed by TIMSS 2019 researchers in Turkey, Sezer and Çakan (2022), who relate student outcomes to teachers' age and experience.

According to Hanushek (1992), even if for only one year a child has as a teacher a person who is not effective in his work, in the future this student will find it impossible to cover these created gaps, and in this case, it is also the main variable (Prince 2002). Schools can do the most important thing for their students, and that is offering them good teachers, according to Hanushek (2011). Furthermore, Clotfelter et al. (2006) conclude that "the effect of teacher credentialing on student achievement is large and, therefore, credentialing is important enough to be considered in public policy decisions aimed at improving student achievement".

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

*2.1. The Hypothesis*

**H1.** *There is a link between the age of teachers and the points achieved by their students in the TIMSS 2019 test.*

**H2.** *Teachers' expectations for students' achievement in the test are higher than the real test results of students.*

**H3.** *Teachers do not implement the curriculum according to the parameters required by the central institutions.*

**H4.** *The needs of teachers for professional development are great, both in terms of mathematical and scientific content as well as for the implementation of the curriculum, the development of students' critical thinking, etc.*

#### *2.2. Research Methods*

This research was based on data from the TIMSS 2019 database, and only the data from Kosovo were used. TIMSS 2019 used quantitative methods, with the development of a test for fourth-grade students, as well as a questionnaire for the teachers. For the purposes of the research, we used the (TIMSS 2019 database) data from the teachers' survey as well as the average results from the students' tests in two fields, namely in mathematics and science. The data from the teacher questionnaire were cross-referenced in each case by comparing both demographic issues and the statements in the questionnaire with the average points achieved by the students on the test.

#### *2.3. Respondents*

In 2019, Kosovo participated for the first time in the TIMSS test. The sample work included (N) 4435 fourth-grade students and (M) 192 teachers from 145 schools. In terms of gender, 23.5% were male teachers and 76.5% were female.

#### *2.4. Instruments*

The paper used data from the 2019 International Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), which contained two observations for each student, one in mathematics and one in science. The main outcome variable was students' math and science test scores compared to teachers' questionnaire statements about their characteristics. Then, the teachers' statements regarding their characteristics were cross-referenced with the students' achievements in the test to see the impact of these characteristics. The test was conducted on a hard copy, even though 50% of students at the general state level were tested in computer form (Mullis et al. 2020).

#### **3. Results**

#### *3.1. The Performance of Kosovar Students in TIMSS 2019*

Since 2015, Kosovo has participated in five international assessments The published results of assessments such as PISA 2015, PISA 2018, and TIMSS 2019 show the serious situation in Kosovar education. The performance of Kosovar students in these evaluations was very low. Out of 56 participating countries, Kosovo ranked 49th in the TIMSS 2019 test. The findings show that there were many factors that influenced this result, and one of these factors was the teachers' characteristics. Some of these characteristics were related to the age of teachers, the preparation of students before the service, the professional preparation of teachers through training in different fields, the frequent changes in the education system, etc.

A total of 4435 students from 145 schools in Kosovo participated in the TIMSS 2019 test. On this occasion, 192 teachers who taught these classes were surveyed. From the data obtained from the TIMSS 2019 database and presented in Table 1, it can be noticed that the majority (F, 76.5%) of the surveyed teachers were female, while the minority (M, 23.5%) were male. Male teachers achieved better success with their students in the test in the field of mathematics (M, 453.4 points), while female teachers' were more successful with their students in science (F, 416.3 points). The data show that teachers had an average teaching experience of 16.3 years of work experience in teaching, while the most frequent frequency was 10. The majority of teachers (76.6%) were qualified and had completed bachelor studies or a similar 4-years program (240 ECTS), while a significant percentage (7.6%) completed master's studies.

**Table 1.** Teacher demographic data cross-referenced with student test scores.

The data in Table 2 show that the majority of teachers were between the ages of 30 and 59 years old (67.9% of them). When we crossed the data of the age of the teachers and the average number of points the students achieved on the test, we noticed that it was exactly this age of teachers (30–59 years old) that managed to better prepare their students, who achieved more points on the test. Data from Table 2 show that students who had a teacher between the ages of 30 and 59 had a better performance in mathematics (average 452 points) and in science (average 422 points) compared to students who had young teachers (under 30) or those over 60 years old, performing worse in mathematics (on average 25 points lower) and in science (on average 28 points lower).

**Table 2.** Teachers' calendar age compared to students' TIMSS 2019 scores.

Knowing that Kosovar students in total achieved 444 points in mathematics and 413 points in science, we noted that students scoring above this average had as a teacher a person who was older than 30 years and younger than 60 years. They managed to accumulate an average of 451 points in mathematics and 421 points in science. Looking at the differences between the generations of teachers (young teachers without experience, as well as older teachers), we could estimate that there were a large number of factors that affected these ages, starting from the impossibility of implementing the new educational system, quality in universities regarding the preparation of new teachers, the small amount of training for new teachers, lack of teaching experience, lack of energy needed for successful work by older teachers, older teachers' approach to educational reforms, the use of technology in teaching at scale, etc.

#### *3.2. How Much Influence Do the Teachers' Characteristics Have on the Students' Results?*

Table 3 combines the opinions of teachers regarding the content and methodological aspects of teaching with the results achieved by students. The results show that the percentage of teachers stating they had implemented the curriculum at a *very high* level (18.2%) was insufficient, while a more favorable percentage of teachers implemented it a high level (52.3%). The data in the table below show that teachers who had a high degree of success in implementing the curriculum achieved better results in both mathematics (450.7) and science (418.0).

#### **Table 3.** TIMSS 2019 scores according to teacher characteristics.

Although the percentage of teachers who understand the goals of the curriculum very well was low, this percentage still made a difference in student outcomes. Their students achieved a total average of 434.3 points in math (450.5) and science (418.4) with a difference of 34 points compared to the students of teachers who did not understand the curricular goals.

The data from Table 3 show us that about 21% of the teachers had high expectations for their students regarding their assessment with the TIMSS test. The students of these teachers achieved poorer results (on average 12 points less) compared to the students of teachers who had lower expectations. The percentage of teachers who had average expectations (3.0%) for their students was lower compared to other statements, but it was noted that these students had achieved higher points in mathematics (446.1) and science (418.1), with a mean of 439.8 points.

According to the teachers' statements regarding the students' inspiration for work, it seems that such an inspiration did not happen, because the teachers who circled the average alternative had better results with their students. Based on the teachers' statements, they felt very enthusiastic and inspired about the work they do. When we compared these two elements (enthusiasm and inspiration) as a percentage of the statement in all the participating countries, Kosovo had the highest percentage of all the participating countries (87.4% and 90.7%), despite the fact that the students did not manage to reach the average score determined by TIMSS of 500 points.

From the data collected and presented in Tables 3 and 4, in some cases, we noticed a discrepancy between the teachers' statements and the students' actual results. This made us understand that the theoretical part (the statements in the questionnaire) did not coincide with the practical part (the test results). These elements encourage us to further expand the field of research regarding the TIMSS assessment in the future.

**Table 4.** TIMSS 2019 scores according to teacher characteristics.

*3.3. Professional Development of Teachers Compared with Average Scores of Students in Mathematics and Science*

Post-war Kosovo (1999) has found the education system in a miserable state. From the year 2000 onwards, many international organizations have assisted with training education in various forms. Valuable help is also provided in terms of training, which is organized for teachers of different levels and in various fields. The programs offered through these training have enabled a change in teachers' approaches to teaching and learning in general. What has been lacking during these 20 years, and what is lacking today, is the systematic oversight of the entire teaching process as well as responsibility and accountability. In the statements of teachers (Table 4), it was noted that they were enthusiastic about work, adored their profession, and were very inspired, but, despite these facts, the results of international evaluations were not good. Out of 56 countries participating in the TIMS 2019 test, Kosovo ranked 49th with 444 points in mathematics and 413 points in science. Additionally, in the TIMSS 2019 test, Kosovo ranked last among the countries in the region. Teacher training plays an extraordinary role in raising the quality of teaching. If we look at the data in Table 5, it can be seen that in the last two years, teachers attended very little training in the field of mathematics and (Table 5) science (Table 6). Based on their statements, only 23.5% had attended any training in mathematics during the last two years, while the percentage was even lower for science training (15.9%). The percentage of teachers did not increase even when asked if they had attended training related to the pedagogical aspect (math, 20.5%. science, 16.0%).

**Table 5.** The professional development of teachers compared with the average scores of students in mathematics.

**Table 6.** The professional development of teachers compared with the average scores of students in science.

Approximate percentage values were obtained if we noticed other statements of teachers regarding curriculum training, integration of technology in mathematics and science, improving critical thinking or problem-solving skills of students, student assessment, or even addressing the individual needs of students. The highest average of training-related statements was 39.4% for teachers who had attended training to improve critical thinking skills.

If we analyze the data from Table 4 based on the training that the teachers had attended in the last 2 years and compared their professional development with the students' test scores, we can see that the students who were lucky enough to be part of classes taught by teachers stating they had attended training were more successful in the test. When teachers stated that they attended training in mathematical content, students achieved approximately 4 points more. In the case where the teachers participated in pedagogical and methodical instruction training, the students achieved 10 points more compared to their peers, who were in classes taught by teachers that did not attend pedagogical and methodical training.

There are small but substantial differences in student results, offering evidence for a correlation between the training attended by teachers and the students' results on the test.

Students of teachers who attended training for the pedagogical aspect of teaching achieved better results in mathematics (10 points more) as opposed to those of teachers who stated that they had not attended any such training.

When we analyzed the data from Table 6 based on the training that the teachers had attended in the last 2 years and compared their professional development with the students' test results, we could see that the results of the students who had the trained teacher were several points higher. When teachers stated that they attended training in science content, students achieved approximately 5 points more. In the case where the teachers participated in pedagogical and methodical instruction training in science, the students achieved 2 points more compared to their peers, who were in classes taught by teachers who did not attend pedagogical and methodical training. There were also such differences in the teachers' statements about other areas, such as evaluating and addressing students' needs.

If we look at Figure 1, the part where teachers evaluated professional development, it can be seen that they were willing to attend training in the above areas. Teachers' identification of these training needs means that they may potentially have difficulty addressing certain issues with students. Each of the statements given in the questionnaire, which required teachers to declare whether or not they needed a different kind of training, reached a very high percentage, even going up to 87% in certain cases (addressing the individual needs of students). All the facts prove that there is a close connection between the professional development of teachers and the results achieved by students. The more programs we have for the professional development of teachers, the higher the student results will be.

**Figure 1.** Teachers' needs.

#### **4. Discussion**

The results of the paper show that the characteristics of teachers are of great importance in increasing the performance of students and achieving higher results in both local and international assessments. According to Hanushek (2011), the quality of teaching and teacher characteristics are decisive factors for student learning. Ribers et al. (2021), among others, have emphasized that the practice of lifelong learning by teachers gives teachers the "right mastery". Pedagogical practices cannot be improved other than through professional development (Tang et al. 2022). Data from the literature show that for a student who spends 1 year with an ineffective teacher, this time can never be compensated for, while when spending 1 year with an active teacher, the student's benefits are doubled (Seebruck 2015). According to Grajcevci and Shala (2021), although it is known that the characteristics of teachers play a decisive role, it is still not so clear what the characteristics of a good teacher are. The analysis conducted in this study revealed that when teachers had an overall positive outlook regarding professional development, students also performed higher in mathematics and science. In addition, students tended to perform higher when teachers were at least in their 40s, which may also underline the importance of not only pedagogical knowledge but also teaching experience. Hence, future studies should focus more in depth on the impact that teacher experience has on student performance and possibly what variances in student performance this factor accounts for. Finally, in terms of professional development, TIMSS results reveal that Kosovar students benefited from any type of professional development teachers attended; however, it should be kept in mind that these improvements were not large enough to be significant, which is why they need to be reported cautiously.

Lifelong learning enables teachers to learn the best skills and practices in this area (Ribers et al. 2021). Tang et al. (2022) have emphasized that professional development is needed to improve teachers' pedagogical approaches. The experiences of teachers that are passed on to them through professional development can dramatically affect students (Didion et al. 2020; Fischer et al. 2018; Piper et al. 2018). Education is an ongoing process that does not end with graduation. Teachers are constantly improving their skills and becoming more proficient and agile in teaching (Quins University Charlote n.d.). We cannot imagine the contemporary teacher without professional and sustainable development. This development goes beyond the teaching content while also ensuring professional sustainability (Washington, 17 September 2019). Although the skills that teachers gain during their schooling are related to methodological and evaluative aspects, teacher training still plays a key role in curriculum implementation (Burgess et al. 2016).

Baumert et al. (2010) have emphasized that the teacher's pedagogical knowledge is one of the determining characteristics of a favorable student result. During the analysis of the results, it was observed that the pedagogical aspect was not one of the strengths of Kosovar teachers. They had major setbacks in understanding the curriculum as well as in its implementation in practice. The lack of basic knowledge, both from the pedagogical and methodological aspects, leads us to failure. Some of the characteristics of teachers that can have a direct impact on student achievement were the qualification of teachers, their age, teaching experience, knowledge and understanding of basic documents from the pre-university education system, lack of training in certain areas both in terms of content and pedagogy, lack of integration of technology in teaching, methodical approach regarding the development of students' critical thinking, student assessment, addressing students' individual needs, etc. Teachers' training needs were generally oriented towards the use of technology in teaching, curriculum implementation, assessment, and addressing the individual needs of students—individualized teaching. It is almost impossible to increase student success in international assessments without the professional development of teachers. The more quality training programs are offered to teachers in certain areas, the higher the student outcomes will be.

#### **5. Conclusions**

Teachers and the activities they conduct with students are very important, but even though their education in terms of duration is the same, they are different. This variability has to do with some of the characteristics they have built up over time. Researchers Jordan et al. (1997), while conducting research in Texas, observed that students who had more effective teachers achieved better results in assessments, reaching over 35 points in reading and about 50 points more in mathematics. Such effectiveness is also missing among Kosovar teachers, although this conclusion relies on data from international research. The education of pre-service teachers is lacking; seeing that teachers do not follow the trends of developments in education through professional training, we can conclude that Kosovo should take the findings so far seriously and design educational policies that foresee in-depth reforms of university and pre-university education. The ranking of Kosovar students in the TIMSS 2019 test in 49th place out of 56 participating countries (444 points in mathematics and 413 in science) is not accidental. Several factors led to this unsatisfactory result. It is very difficult to identify all the factors that caused Kosovar students to have such a low performance in this international assessment. According to Gjelaj et al. (2018), the key factor in the low quality of education is the small number of children attending preschool institutions, as we know that only 10% of children attend these institutions. Research shows that teachers are about 90% qualified, but (OECD 2009) pre-service education does not mean that teachers are ready to face all challenges. It reflects the aspirations, enthusiasm, and commitment of teachers (Ungar 2020). Research data show that the surveyed teachers have an average age of 16.3 years. Although a very young average age, the intersection of information between the calendar age of teachers and the points achieved by students in the TIMSS 2019 test proves that teachers under the age of 29 and those over 60 had lower scores by contrast with teachers aged 30–49. The difference between these two categories of teachers grouped by age was observed in the points that students accumulated on the test, and significant differences were recorded with an average of 20 points in mathematics and 22 points in science. Teachers' expectations regarding the results of their students were extremely high, but this was not reflected in the scores of their students. According to Rubie-Davies (2006), young teachers have higher expectations of their students. Teachers who had lower expectations (19.4%) for student testing were shown to be more accurate in the international ranking, while achieving better results with their students domestically. Research data show that teachers expressed that they can inspire students to learn, were very satisfied with their work (87%), were very enthusiastic at work (87.4%), and that working as teachers inspired them (90.7%). Research data show that the percentage of teachers very enthusiastic about work was over 87% *(the first in the list compared to the statements of the 56 countries participating in the test about enthusiasm*), over 90% were inspired, and 80% had high expectations for their students. Despite the enthusiasm and inspiration of the teachers, the students' results show the opposite. Out of 56 countries participating in the test, Kosovar students achieved 444 points in mathematics and 413 points in science, ranking in 49th place. The average score set by TIMSS 2019 was 500 points. Poor results of Kosovar students in international measurements, especially in the TIMSS 2019 test, are an alarm for researchers. Based on data from the TIMSS 2019 test, the professional development of teachers is an immediate need. Only 23.5% of teachers stated that they had attended training for mathematical content, while 15.9% had attended training for content in science. Approximate percentages are also given for other areas in which teachers had attended any training. Regarding pedagogical instructions, approximately 20% had attended training in mathematics and 16% in science, and regarding the integration of technology in teaching, 16.3% had attended training in mathematics and only 9.3% in science. Teachers expressed full readiness to attend training in certain fields. In each field, the percentage of teachers who stated they would attend training ranged from 74% to 88%.

All the data presented in this paper allow us to understand that the characteristics of teachers, such as quality education before service, the age of teachers, teachers' professional development, pedagogical and methodical preparation, and knowledge and implementation of the curriculum, are some of the factors that influenced the poor results of Kosovar students in TIMSS 2019. The rise and development of teachers' characteristics is largely based on the new approaches that universities in Kosovo should offer. A new approach implies teaching based on creativity and constructivity, a type of teaching dominated by responsibility and accountability. This responsibility and accountability should also pass to other levels, especially the pre-university ones, when teachers are faced with their work with students. The data from this research, as well as the data from other research related to the field of youth education, should encourage institutions to draw up long-term policies and strategies in order to get out of this vicious circle as soon as possible.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, F.L. and E.L.; methodology, F.L.; software, E.L.; validation, F.L. and E.L.; formal analysis, F.L.; investigation, E.L.; resources, F.L.; data curation, E.L.; writing original draft preparation, F.L.; writing—review and editing, F.L.; visualization, E.L.; supervision, F.L.; project administration, F.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** The authors received no financial support for the review, authorship and/or publication of this article.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** TIMSS 2019 database, https://timss2019.org/reports/achievement/ (accessed on 13 October 2021).

**Acknowledgments:** We would like to thanks IEA TIMSS & PIRLS, International Study Center 2019 for presenting the data of all participating states, and in this case the data of Kosovo We would like to thank Endrit Latifi for the engagement and coordination of the research.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

#### **References**

Hanushek, A. Eric. 2011. The economic value of higher teacher quality. *Economics of Education Review* 30: 466–79. [CrossRef]

## *Article* **Social Sciences Teaching: Building a Holistic Approach from Student Teachers' Social Representations**

**Yamilé Pérez-Guilarte 1,\*, Francisco Xosé Armas-Quintá <sup>2</sup> and Xosé Carlos Macía-Arce <sup>3</sup>**

**Abstract:** The dynamics that today's society is facing require critical citizens capable of understanding the complexity of problems from their various dimensions. This work aimed to investigate the social representations that future primary school teachers have about socio-environmental problems, sustainability, purposes of socio-environmental education, and strategies to train in Global Citizenship Education and in Education for Sustainable Development. An exploratory case study was carried out, framed in an action-research approach in the classes of Social Sciences Teaching of the Primary Education Degree of two universities in Galicia (Spain): the University of A Coruña and the University of Santiago de Compostela. A quantitative and qualitative analysis was developed by applying a questionnaire to a sample of 200 students. The results showed that students focus on problems such as climate change or environmental pollution, leaving aside issues such as social inequalities, poverty, or gender issues. In addition, they have difficulties in recognizing the strategies by which teachers can provide their students with critical thinking that leads to social transformation. Significant differences were observed in some researched aspects according to the university of origin, the grade, and the gender of the students, with gender being the one that influenced the greatest number of questions.

**Keywords:** social sciences teaching; socio-environmental problems; Global Citizenship Education; Education for Sustainable Development; critical thinking; primary school

#### **1. Introduction**

Today, society is facing a myriad of highly complex problems, health crises, armed conflicts, media wars, and geopolitical tensions, just to mention a few. Teachers face a great challenge, that of preparing students in the development of skills that enable them to face these problems and make decisions aimed at seeking a more sustainable society. For this, it is essential that schools adopt a holistic approach to problems that allows for the formation of a critical global citizenship (González et al. 2020) that is based on the understanding of the multiple dimensions involved: social, cultural, economic, philosophical, political, climatic, territorial, etc. For example, although problems such as climate change or the depletion of non-renewable resources are worked on in schools, it is not easy for them to relate to production, distribution, and consumption models (González Reyes and Rodríguez 2020). However, problems such as gender violence, racism, or poverty, in a major way, are attributed to social problems without a connection to environmental dynamics (Massip et al. 2021).

This disjointed approach between the disciplines hinders the effective resolution of problems, since, although of different natures, they are closely linked. In this way, a problem such as climate change or extreme poverty cannot be solved without considering its link to other problems, such as the irresponsible consumption of goods and services. In

**Citation:** Pérez-Guilarte, Yamilé, Francisco Xosé Armas-Quintá, and Xosé Carlos Macía-Arce. 2022. Social Sciences Teaching: Building a Holistic Approach from Student Teachers' Social Representations. *Social Sciences* 11: 307. https:// doi.org/10.3390/socsci11070307

Academic Editor: Alvaro Morote

Received: 17 June 2022 Accepted: 10 July 2022 Published: 14 July 2022

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

this sense, the science of sustainability constitutes a backbone, an approach that permeates all disciplines (Vilches and Gil 2021). Nevertheless, education for sustainability still needs a collective reflection on these problems that avoids a biased and reductionist treatment (Barrón et al. 2010).

In the training of future Social Sciences teachers, the introduction of this interdisciplinary teaching is essential. However, previous studies show that the degree of knowledge of future teachers about socio-environmental problems is limited (Zamora-Polo et al. 2019), meaning that they are unable to train competent citizens set to face the challenges of this century (Moreno-Crespo and Moreno-Fernández 2015). Therefore, the areas of Social Studies Teaching and Experimental Sciences Teaching at universities must consider a joint approach to current problems (Massip et al. 2021; Alcántara-Manzanares and López-Fernández 2021).

For Social Sciences teaching to be oriented toward a holistic teaching–learning process, it is essential to analyze the social representations of students (Santisteban 2009; Pagès and Santisteban 2014). Hence, the present work aimed to investigate the social representations that future primary school teachers have about socio-environmental problems, sustainability, the purposes of socio-environmental education, and the strategies to train in Global Citizenship Education and in Education for Sustainable Development. The purpose of this study was that the authors, teachers in the area of Social Sciences Teaching, can introduce improvements in these subjects in the Degrees of Primary Education at two public universities in the University System of the Autonomous Community of Galicia (Spain), namely the University of A Coruña and the University of Santiago de Compostela.

#### *1.1. A Holistic Approach of Social Sciences Teaching*

In the scientific literature on Social Studies Teaching, there seems to be a consensus regarding the need to work in the classroom with real, current, complex, controversial problems that encourage students to reflect and take social action. In this sense, a group of terms have been consolidated to refer to these relevant issues that should be part of the curriculum. The term *issues-centered social studies* was introduced in the work of Evans and Saxe (1996), which had a great impact on critical social studies. In the Spanish context, it was translated as *problemas sociales relevantes* (socially relevant problems) (Pagès 1994; Benejam 1997; Santisteban 2004, 2011, 2019), while in the Francophone context, the term *questions socialement vives* (socially relevant issues) emerged (Legardez 2004; Legardez and Simonneaux 2006). Likewise, the term *controversial issues* has been used (Eulie 1966; Wellington 1986; Hess 2008) as an essential element of education and democracy for the formation of critical thinking (Santisteban 2017).

Similarly, the term *environmental problems* has gained prominence in the face of the progressive worsening of problems such as climate change, resource exploitation, water pollution, etc. There is no doubt that the relationships between causes and consequences linked to both social and environmental dimensions can be established in these problems. In this way, it is no longer possible to speak of any environmental problem that does not originate from human action in the biosphere, nor of any social problem that is not related, to a lesser or greater extent, to the management of natural resources and its needs (Massip et al. 2021). In fact, if we understood the environment as a complex system of interrelationships between all its parts, including human beings (Martínez-Medina and Torres-Porras 2021), the term *environmental* would already include the social component.

To avoid falling into the error of treating environmental problems only from their ecological dimension, some authors propose terms such as *socio-environmental problems* (Amador and Esteban 2011; Moreno-Crespo and Moreno-Fernández 2015; Ortega-Sánchez et al. 2020; Rodríguez-Marín et al. 2020; Bonilla and Garzón 2021; Martínez-Medina and Torres-Porras 2021; Massip et al. 2021) or *eco-social problems* (González Reyes and Rodríguez 2020; Santana et al. 2021). Apart from this terminological debate, Social Sciences teaching must contribute to a holistic approach to the problems of today's society. This need has recently been reflected in Spain, as a result of the new education law. In this way, Royal Decree 157/2022, of 1 March, which establishes the organization and minimum teachings of Primary Education, indicates that "the link between key competences and challenges of the 21st century is what will give meaning to learning, by bringing the school closer to real situations, issues and problems of everyday life" (Boletín Oficial del Estado 2022, p. 24402). Likewise, this Royal Decree establishes that these challenges require the following:

Require transcending the local perspective to analyse and also commit to global problems. All this requires, on the one hand, a complex mind, capable of thinking in systemic, open terms and with a high level of uncertainty, and, on the other, the ability to empathise with relevant aspects, even if they do not affect us directly, which implies assuming the values of social justice, equity and democracy, as well as developing a critical and proactive spirit towards situations of injustice, inequality and exclusion. (Boletín Oficial del Estado 2022, p. 24402)

In this educational process based on the problems of today's society, in its understanding and intervention in the search for social and environmental justice, Education for Sustainable Development constitutes a fundamental pillar. Thus, the *Goal 4 Quality Education* of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) of the 2030 Agenda of the United Nations Organization, in its goal 4.7, establishes the following:

By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture's contribution to sustainable development. (UNDP 2022, p. 10)

Achieving these goals set out in the new educational legislation and in the SDGs depends, to a large extent, on the ability of acting teachers to concretize the curriculum (Moya and Zubillaga del Río 2020) and on the training of future teachers. Regarding the latter, some recent works show that there is still a long way to go. This is the case of the study by López-Fernández and Oller (2019), who show that the didactic proposals on environmental education designed by future primary school teachers show little concreteness in relation to reality. These focus on the development of habits such as recycling, reusing, and reducing, without questioning the current model of consumerist and capitalist society (Stiglitz 2015). In addition, the conceptual knowledge they had about the environment and the problems generated, directly and indirectly, by society was quite ambiguous.

#### *1.2. Social Representations of Teachers in Initial Training*

Professional training should start from the investigation of social representations on the role of the teacher and on the teaching of social disciplines. In this way, students have a starting point to become aware of the rationality that hides behind their social representations, so that they can assess it and, based on the results, choose to modify or maintain it (Pagès and Santisteban 2014).

Social representations are specific ways of understanding and communicating reality that influence the form of social interaction as they evolve. They represent the concepts, statements, and explanations that originate in everyday life during interpersonal communications (Moscovici 2011). The notion of representation interrelates the psychological and social approach, laying the foundations for the creation of knowledge, based on personal experiences and the influence received from society (Jodelet 1989). Therefore, knowledge can be built from the rupture of initial representations through a process consisting of the following stages (Dalongeville 2003): emergence of representations and awareness; confrontation with a situation/problem that calls the representations into question; reconstruction of new representations that reorganize the old ones and integrate the new ones; and metacognition of the processes that the subject, individually and in a group, has put into practice.

The representations belong, in part, to the field of stereotypes, prejudices, and social values, so, by studying them, a starting point can be established to be able to change the students' ideas (Santisteban 2009). Hence, social representations of future teachers are a widely researched topic (Bravo Pemjean 2002; Allieu-Mary et al. 2005; De Lourdes and Santisteban 2016; GREDICS 2018). Likewise, various investigations have shown their interest in the field of socio-environmental problems and Education for Sustainable Development (Moreno-Crespo and Moreno-Fernández 2015; Solís-Espallargas and Valderrama-Hernández 2015; Ortega-Sánchez et al. 2020; Rodríguez-Marín et al. 2020; Massip et al. 2021).

However, as appreciated in this literature review, more interdisciplinary teaching is needed to train future Social Sciences teachers from a holistic approach. This means that educational practice and research must be oriented to train competent citizens to understand the complexity of 21st century challenges. For this, it is essential that the problems of today's society be analyzed in classes, from different perspectives, to help students to develop critical thinking. In this process, analyzing student teachers' social representations is crucial to direct teaching–learning toward the construction of significant knowledge and constant improvement of teaching practice.

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

This work is framed in an action-research approach, understanding it as a selfreflection on the actions and social situations experienced by teachers, which allows them to identify their practical problems and direct actions to solve them (Elliott 2000). Actionresearch is constituted as a critical science that allows improved rationality and justice: of social or educational practices, of the understanding of the participants (teachers, students, directors, etc.) about it, and of the social situation in which it takes place (classrooms, schools, etc.) (Kemmis and McTaggart 1988). Specifically, an exploratory case study (Yin 1989) is carried out through inductive reasoning, allowing for the discovery of relationships and concepts in the context under study, contrasting them with others and designing an action strategy for change (Muñoz and Muñoz 2001; Bisquerra 2009).

The study is framed in the Autonomous Community of Galicia, which has the highest density of forest masses in Spain, but, at the same time, the least protected by Natura 2000, the European network of protected areas. In this sense, knowing the students' perception of Nature, society, and sustainability seemed very appropriate. This research is a continuity of previous collaborations between teachers from the area of Social Studies Teaching of two public universities in the Autonomous Community of Galicia (Spain): the University of A Coruña and the University of Santiago de Compostela. They are two out of three public universities that exist in Galicia, where students from practically all Galicia study the Primary Education Degree. Thus, this sample covers an important part of the study region.

The purpose of this research is to guide teaching practice toward the training of future primary school teachers who are competent and committed to achieving a more sustainable society. Therefore, the study was carried out from a convenience sample of 200 students in the second and third years of the Primary Education Degree from both universities.

Students from the University of Santiago de Compostela made up 70% of the sample, of which 60% were in the second year and 40% in the third. The students from the University of A Coruña, comprising 30% of the whole sample, were all in their third year. The average age of the students was 21 years. By age ranges, the distribution was as follows: 78.5% between 19 and 21 years old, 14.5% between 22 and 24 years old, 3.5% between 25 and 27 years old, 1.5% between 28 and 30 years old, and 2% were over 30 years old. In relation to gender, 66.5% identified themselves as female, 32.5% as male, and 2% as non-binary.

To investigate the social representations of future primary school teachers, a questionnaire was used as an instrument for collecting information. The one proposed by Solís-Espallargas and Valderrama-Hernández (2015) was adapted, since it is a validated instrument that includes an important part of the questions that are the object of this study. In addition, this questionnaire has been used by other authors (Ortega-Sánchez et al. 2020), allowing the results of this research to be compared with previous studies on this subject.

To respond to the objectives of this research, the questionnaire was structured in three parts: (1) social representations about socio-environmental problems, (2) social representations about socio-environmental education and Education for Global Citizenship, and (3) social representations on sustainability and Education for Sustainable Development. The adaptations to the questionnaire (Solís-Espallargas and Valderrama-Hernández 2015), which are explained below, made possible a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the data. Thus, it was made up of twelve questions, four in part 1 of the questionnaire, two in each of the parts 2 and 3, and four in the personal information part. Of these, four closed nominal questions with a single answer collected the information on the students' profile (university of study, grade, age, and gender), allowing an inferential analysis to know if they present any causal relationship with the research issues. Moreover, in this same question, typology students were also asked whether they had received training on socio-environmental topics during the degree or not.

Likewise, the scale of the three metric questions was modified. The central value was eliminated, since it was considered that the term *tending to agree* does not reflect a clear positioning of the respondent. Therefore, to better qualify the answers, the scale was made up of the following categories: totally disagree, quite disagree, slightly disagree, slightly agree, quite agree, and totally agree. Each of the metric questions encompasses several topics that can be seen in the text and graphics of Section 3. Finally, for the qualitative analysis, four open-ended questions allowed the following to be known: the subjects in which the students had training in socio-environmental problems during the degree, their capacity to define what a socio-environmental problem is, their priorities of socioenvironmental problems to work on in a primary school class, and what they understand as sustainability.

To check the reliability and internal consistency of the questionnaire items, the Cronbach Alpha values were calculated through MAXQDA, a program that also allowed for the quantitative and qualitative analysis of all the research data. To calculate the Cronbach Alpha values, the questions were grouped into two groups. The first was related to the questions that investigated the degree of knowledge about socio-environmental problems and sustainability, yielding a value of 0.8. The second grouped the questions about the role of education and the strategies that teachers should follow, also obtaining a value of 0.8. Therefore, the questionnaire items have good consistency, as indicated by Oviedo and Campo-Arias (2005) for Cronbach Alpha values between 0.7 and 0.9.

The questionnaire was designed by using *Microsoft Forms* and was applied to the students of the University of Santiago de Compostela December 2021 and to those of the University of A Coruña in March 2022. In addition, it is important to point out that, although the questionnaire was in Spanish, some students responded in Galician, the co-official language in Galicia. This was taken into account when performing the statistical processing, so that similar responses in both languages were counted. All data were treated anonymously, and their use is limited to research purposes and to make improvements in this area of knowledge.