**SOYBEAN PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY**

Edited by **Hany A. El-Shemy**

**INTECHOPEN.COM**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/1006 Edited by Hany A. El-Shemy

#### **Contributors**

Vlado Kovacevic, Aleksandra Sudarić, Manda - Antunovic, Marcelo De Carvalho Alves, Edson Ampélio Pozza, João de Cássia do Bomfim Costa, Luiz Gonsaga De Carvalho, James Board, Charanjit Kahlon, Qing Yu, Minobu Kasai, Karina Beatriz Balestrasse, Guillermo Noriega, Manuel López Lecube, Ethel Caggiano, Carla Zilli, Diego Santa Cruz, Maria Tomaro, Cristiane Fortes Gris, Édila Vilela De Resende Von Pinho, Carlos Raetano, Denise Rezende, Evandro Pereira Prado, Takuji Ohyama, Sayuri Ito, Shinji Ishikawa, Norikuni Ohtake, Kuni Sueyoshi, Yoshihiko Takahashi, Takashi Sato, Anibal Lodeiro, Julieta Perez-Gimenez, Juan Ignacio Quelas, Sonia Calvo, María Laura Salvador, Silvana Giancola, Melina Covacevich, Gabriela Iturrioz, Daniel Humberto Iglesias, Gustavo Fanaro, Anna Lucia Villavicencio, Ana Catarina Cataneo, João Carlos Nunes, Leonardo Cesar Ferreira, Natália Corniani, Marina Seiffert Sanine, José Claudionir Carvalho, Kuniyuki Saitoh, Katsuhisa Shimoda, Julian Chukwuemeka Anuonye, Andrea Cardoso, Ana Maria Heuminski De Avila, Hilton Silveira Pinto, Eduardo Delgado Assad, Seth Idowu Manuwa, Ali Coskan, Kemal Dogan, Masanori Koike, Mark Goettel, Erwin Temminghoff, Jesus Guajardo, Elpidio Morales, Francisco Lopez, Cristina Quintero, Martha Compean, Maria Eugenia Noriega, Jesús González Hernandez, Ruiz Facundo, Luciana Sanches

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*3.1. Mitochondrial Processing in P. duplex Resembles That Seen in C. reinhardtii*

We mapped the 5 and 3 termini of presumably mature *P. duplex* mitochondrial mR-NAs and found the 5- UTRs to be very short or non-existent, the 3- UTRs of varying lengths, the polycytidylation of 3 termini, and circularized full-length mRNAs. In the only other chlorophyte where mitochondrial RNA processing has been documented, *C. reinhardtii*, individual mRNAs are endonucleolytically cleaved from primary transcripts directly adjacent to the start codons, leaving no 5- UTR. The remaining intergenic region becomes the 3- UTR of an adjacent gene and is of varying lengths, presumably due to exonucleolytic processing [56]. It has also been demonstrated that non-template polycytidylation occurs on the 3 termini of *C. reinhardtii*, and that this phenomenon may be limited to the Phylum Chlorophyta since it has been found in representative species from Peridinophyceae, Prasinophyceae, Trebouxiophyceae, and Chlorophyceae, but not in a red alga (*Chondrus crispus* Stackhouse), a glaucophyte (*Cyanophora paradoxa* Korshikov), or embryophytes (*Physcomitrella patens* (Hedw.) Bruch & Schimp., *Arabidopsis thaliana* (L.) Heynh., and *Solanum tuberosum* L.) [55]. *Chlamydomonas* mitochondrial mRNAs are also 3- polyuridylylated and polyadenylated [54–57], but this was not observed in *P. duplex*.

Circular mRNAs are a common phenomenon across the biological spectrum, but their purpose has been difficult to determine [78]. In algal mitochondria mRNA circularization has been demonstrated in *Chlamydomonas*, where it appears to create translatable mRNAs and was hypothesized to be linked to polycytidylation [56]. In *P. duplex*, full-length coding regions were found to be circularized for seven of the twelve transcripts that were analyzed. The remaining five yielded no data so we are uncertain if they form circular transcripts. Circularization for five of the transcripts coincided with tandemly repeated templatederived motifs, AU repeats, GAACGAA, and GCGUCUU, which was not reported in *C. reinhardtii*. RNA circularization among nuclear genes occurs by way of an intron-exon back-splicing mechanism involving protein factors and conserved cis-elements [79,80], and perhaps a similar mechanism involving repeated elements occurs in mitochondria. The co-incidence of poly-cytidylation and circularization in *C. reinhardtii* led to a hypothesis that the poly(C) acted as a cis-element for circularization. In *P. duplex*, only one transcript, *atp9*, had circular mRNAs with full-length coding regions and a poly(C) addition. The other two transcripts with poly(C) additions, *atp6* and *cob*, were fragments of the coding region, suggesting that the poly(C) addition is not universally linked to the creation of translatable circular mRNAs and may not act as a signal for circularization.

These data demonstrate that mitochondrial mRNA processing is conserved in the Chlorophyceae algal clade. The polycytidylation of mitochondrial mRNAs has already been shown to be conserved across the chlorophytic algae [55]. This study extends the similarities of mitochondrial mRNA processing to include the absence of a 5- UTR, despite *P. duplex* having larger intergenic regions than *C. reinhardtii*. Our data suggest that the cleavage of tRNAs plays a pivotal role in the maturation of two mRNAs (*cob* and *atp9*) in *P. duplex*, which is consistent with mitochondrial transcripts in all systems studied to date, from *C. reinhardtii* to humans. The difference is the size of the chondriome and the lengths of the intergenic regions. We found that the removal of tRNAs in *P. duplex* creates mature 3 ends that, at least in two cases, require no further processing other than polycytidylation. The 5 ends, however, are further processed until no 5- UTR remains (Figure 4). The lack of a 5- UTR and the accompanying translation mechanism required is not only due to the compressed chondriome of *C. reinhardtii*, but also its purposeful removal prior to translation. *Pediastrum* is in the order Sphaeropleales and is a sister clade to Volvocales, which contains *Chlamydomonas* [81], so it is possible that these processing events could be limited to those two Orders; however, we hypothesize that these processes are conserved across the Chlorophyceae.


**Abstract**

Cerebral Palsy (CP) is a limiting deficiency, characterized by a permanent neuromotor disorder which affects movements, resulting in non-progressive lesions of the immature brain during the neuro psychomotor stages. Epidemiological studies of premature births correlated with the presence of high levels of inflammation in the umbilical cord, amniotic fluid, and fetal blood, being that one of the most relevant underlying physiopathological mechanisms includes inflammation and intra-amniotic infection, with inflammatory response and damage to the developing brain. Recently attributed to the excessive production of cytokines, CP inflammation is mostly modulated through diet restriction, intestinal dysfunction, and drug intake. The high prevalence of convulsive crises in individuals with CP (77%) on its own does not bring about post inflammatory and post convulsive cytokine synthesis, treated with antiepileptic medication. In these individuals, there is high incidence of intestinal constipation (47%), besides oral dysbiosis, gingival bleeding and even greater increase in chronic inflammation. The dysbiosis causes an increase in mucous permeability (leaky-gut) of the gut-brain axis, and increase in seric endotoxin, demonstrating a persistent inflammatory state, and supporting the emergence of new side effects, which can become the object of future research.

**Keywords:** cerebral palsy, brain injury, neuroinflammation, inflammation, cytokines, constipation, antiepileptic drugs


**Author details**

Franc Solina Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

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2.5.2. SOD

Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was measured using an SD125 Ransod kit (Randox Ltd. Crumlin, Reino Unido) in whole blood. Xanthine and xanthine oxidase were used to produce superoxide anion (O2 •−), which responded with the 2-(4-iodophenyl)-3- (4-nitrophenol)-5-phenyltetrazolium chloride (INT) reactive and formed a red complex that is detectable at 420 nm. The SOD activity was measured as the inhibition degree of this reaction [26]. Results were expressed in U/g of Hb.

#### 2.5.3. Glutathione

The analysis of reduced glutathione (GSH) was performed using the glutathione-Stransferase assay described by Akerboom and Sies [27]. Calculation of GSH was performed from lymphocytes treated with perchloric acid at a final concentration of 6%, collecting the supernatant after vortexing and subsequent centrifugation for 10 min at 10,000 rpm. Following collection of the supernatants in vials, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to a Waters NH2 ODS S5 column (0.052, 25 cm) was conducted. Oxidized glutathione (GSSG) was analyzed using a similar method described by Asensi. [28].


**12. Clinical history**

By definition, neuropathic pain indicates direct pathology of the nervous system while nociceptive pain is an indication of real or potential tissue damage. Due to the distinction in pathophysiology, conventional treatments prescribed for nociceptive pain are not very effective in treating neuropathic pain and vice versa [78]. Therefore the first step towards meaningful pain relief is an accurate diagnosis.

Identifying neuropathic pain in a clinical setting begins with a thorough review of the patient's history through evaluation of previous medical records and verbal communication with the patient. Standardized screening tools such as the Leeds Assessment of Neuropathic Symptoms and Signs (LANSS) [79], the Douleur Neuropathique en 4 questions (DN4) [12], and painDE‐ TECT [13] can guide clinician through a series of questions aimed at indentifying possible neuropathic pain. In completing these questionnaires patients are asked to describe their pain in terms of quality (i.e. pricking, tingling, pins and needles, electric shocks/shooting, burning) and context (i.e. provoked by heat, cold, or pressure) [80]. In addition to verbal descriptors, the LANSS and DN4 also include a short bedside examination of sensory abnormalities. Although each screening tool is unique, they have similar sensitivity and specificity, between 80-85% for both parameters [80]. This suggests that approximately 1 in 5 patients who fit the criteria for neuropathic pain as determined by the screening tool and 20% of all individuals who've been evaluated are misdiagnosed. This reaffirms that careful clinical judgment is necessary to make an accurate diagnosis.

Additional information that is not included within the standardized questionnaires can also be useful in diagnosing neuropathic pain. Mapping pain topography allows the clinician to consider whether a lesion is anatomically logical, and descriptions of frequency (i.e. on-going, spontaneous) and intensity (e.g. mild, moderate, severe, excruciating or 1-10) can aid in identifying a potential mechanism [1].


**Preface to "Environmental Planning and Modeling"**

The focus of this Special Issue reprint book is environmental planning and modeling. Planning is critical in the effective management of the environment and its natural resources. The management of natural resources requires the evaluation of alternative options and selecting those that are optimal. A systemic view of the environment is taken in this Special Issue to ensure that models presented to manage the environment consider the multi-faceted nature of our natural environment as a system.

The rise in the consumption and exploitation of the Earth's finite and limited resources requires that we adopt measures that are sustainable by changing our practices and seeking alternative substitutes. An increase in consumption is often fueled by increasing demands and growing population rates. To meet these demands, production has significantly increased over the years. This increase in production often requires the exploitation of energy and water resources, and land. Consequences abound as we continue to claim more land to build on, thus affecting natural biodiversity, which ultimately impacts the food chain. Deforestation is a problem in many countries as we continue to use forest reserves without measures to replace them. The energy demands to produce the items we consume encourage the use of fossil fuels. These activities lead to the generation of carbon and other greenhouse gases that affect the Earth's atmosphere. Thus, climate change is now more difficult to mitigate as we seek ways to adapt to it. There are also risks associated with our unsustainable activities, such as health hazards, the depletion of resources for future generations, and our inability to cope with climate change.

It is imperative that we take actions that address how we can live in a sustainable world. Such actions require that we develop effective plans to evaluate every available option, apply life cycle assessments in a systemic framework, and make decisions and policies that are supportive of a sustainable environment. Environmental planning enables us to adapt to the needs of our dynamic and changing world and avoid the risks, high costs, and irreparable losses that are associated with poor environmental practices. Modeling of proven effective practices is necessary to standardize the planning framework while still offering an adaptable framework that can be used in situation-specific areas.

The articles in this special edition have already been published online, but are worthy of greater circulation and exposure. The country-specific applications in this book can offer insight into how the models could be adapted in other areas. These articles are summarized in the editorial. The articles present potential areas for future research. They are also useful for application and practice orientation. It is our hope that other researchers can expand on the views espoused in this book. The book will, therefore, be of interest to researchers, students of sustainability and environmental management, policy planners, and decision makers.

> **Christian N. Madu** *Editor*

### *Editorial* **Editorial on Environmental Planning and Modeling**

**Christian N. Madu 1,2**

The aim of this Special Issue is to facilitate environmental decision making by considering the natural environment, as well as social, political, economic, and governance issues. This holistic approach of the natural environment around achieving sustainability offers a win–win for both society and the environment. It is therefore imperative that models developed as decision-supports to enhance environmental policy and decision making consider the vital influences of socio-economic, political, and governance issues in effective decision/policy making. This is even more important as concerns about climate change, food security, and resources limitations are linked with increasing population growth in developing countries. Our focus here was to solicit research papers that are systemic in scope and yet integrative of these factors; building a framework to consider these factors, developing novel methods or models, or applying existing models may be carried out to solve any of the environmental management problems. Many of the models available in the areas of mathematics, statistics, engineering, management, and social sciences have been found useful in solving an array of multi-faceted problems and are equally applicable in solving environmental problems. Specifically, papers that address optimization, or "satisficing" techniques to solve problems in the areas of environmental planning, resources allocation, biodiversity, and ecology, were of great interest to address some of the world's most pressing environmental problems. We successfully sought papers that may be conceptual, application-based, or theoretical.

The Special Issue presents five major papers that were published, each with uniqueness and contributions to the field of environmental planning and management. The views and models articulated in these articles can be beneficial in solving some of the environmental problems that confront the world today. This editorial summarizes the conclusions of our Special Issue which was highly successful. All the published papers have policy implications and are easier to read and interpret without losing the scientific component. It is our hope that the ideas espoused here will find wider applications in solving these important environmental problems. We aimed to address macro-environmental problems by understanding that environmental issues interface and interact with other subsystems on Earth. Environmental problems cannot be addressed by looking only at a problem as independent of all other subsystems that it interacts with. Some of the work has also attempted to draw parallels with sustainability development goals.

In this editorial, we shall briefly discuss the contributions of the five published papers in this Special Issue. We shall follow the sequence of publication by starting from the first published article to the last.

Shi, K., Zhou, Y., and Zhang, Z., in their article titled "Mapping the Research Trends of Household Waste Recycling: A Bibliometric Analysis", considered household waste recycling as a major cause of municipal solid waste pollution. They reviewed the status and mapped the research trend of research in household waste recycling published in the Web of Science database from 1991–2020. A bibliometrix analysis of these publications was carried out to identify the top contributing authors, countries, institutions, and journals. They note that most of the influential and well-cited articles focused on factors influencing residents'

**Citation:** Madu, C.N. Editorial on Environmental Planning and Modeling. *Sustainability* **2022**, *14*, 9728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su14159728

Received: 1 August 2022 Accepted: 4 August 2022 Published: 8 August 2022

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2022 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

recycling behavior. Recycling behavior is viewed primarily from an sociopsychology and economics perspective. However, research in house waste recycling now includes other areas such as e-waste, source separation, life cycle assessment, sustainability, organic waste, and circular economy. These studies are increasingly becoming interdisciplinary, thus suggesting a systemic view of household waste recycling.

The article is very informative and shows an exponential growth rate in the number of publications on household waste recycling from 1991 to 2020. This growth rate signifies the growing interest in this research field and may very well align with the growing concerns of the general society about climate change and the resultant effects of pollution (see Figure 1 of the paper). China, the United Kingdom, and the USA seem to be the leading countries in terms of research, based on the number of citations of work in this area. This may also suggest growing environmental consciousness and awareness, and also represents the growing, and concerning, volume of waste in those countries. Interestingly, none of the developing countries appear to be on the top ten list and only China and Japan appear from the Asian countries. More awareness is required to solve household waste problems. Although the number of publications and citations may not be indicative of the environmental burden in a country, it may show the level of awareness and environmental consciousness. Then again, the database that was used may affect the number of publications that may be obtainable from the different countries. We understand the fact that the Web of Science is the leading database for quality research, but this may not necessarily cover some of the local publications that exist in many of the other countries. It is however imperative that we make all countries understand the consequences of household waste. Research collaborations with researchers from other countries that are not listed here may help to promote research interests and illuminate research works in household recycling.

Nnadi, V.E., Madu, C.N., and Ezeasor, I.C., in their article titled, "A systematic technic of prioritization of biodiversity conservation in Nigeria", developed a multi-criteria decision model to prioritize biodiversity conservation. This model is based on the use of analytic hierarchy process (AHP)—a multicriteria decision-making model. A group of biodiversity experts in the country was used to rank the three biodiversity conservation approaches, namely eco-system-, area-, and species-based approaches. The result showed the high performance of countries using eco-system-based approaches, followed by area-based and species-based approaches, respectively. The priorities developed were subsequently applied in resource allocation modeling. The research identifies areas for performance gap in the country and offers a policy-making approach for allocating limited resources to solve biodiversity conservation problems. This paper introduced management techniques and operational research models that can be used to address biodiversity problems. Although it is focused on a particular country, it has wider application since the frameworks and the model approaches presented can be applied in different settings.

Nantasaksiri, K., Charoen-amornkitt, P., Machimura, T., and Hayashi, K. titled their paper "Multi-Disciplinary Assessment of Napier Grass Plantation on Local Energetic, Environmental and Socioeconomic Industries: A Watershed-Scale Study in Southern Thailand". They investigated the potentials of using Napier grass in power generation in Southern Thailand. Napier grass is supposedly an energy crop that has far-reaching impacts on energy, environment, and socioeconomic features. A soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) is used to investigate its impacts on runoff, sediment, and nitrate loads in Songkhla Lake Basin (SLB), Southern Thailand. The results obtained show that Napier grass decreased the average surface runoff and sediment in the watershed. These results were applied in a multidisciplinary framework for decision support. It is shown that Napier grass provides benefits to hydrology and water quality when nitrogen fertilizers were applied at the levels of 0 and 125 kgN ha−1. Conversely, benefits in terms of reducing energy supply, farmer's income, and carbon dioxide were highest when 500 kgN ha−1 of nitrogen fertilizer was applied. The paper concludes that the planting of Napier grass should be supported to increase energy supply; provide jobs; and reduce surface runoff, sediment yield, nitrate load, and carbon dioxide emission. The findings of this research are of particular importance, especially as we aim to decrease the demand on fossil fuel for energy consumption. Napier grass is a renewable source of energy. It is clean and sustainable and can contribute in reducing the generation of carbon dioxide, thereby helping to reduce global warming. While biogas energy generated from organic matters may release carbon in generating power, they are carbon-neutral, as crops also absorb the same amount of carbon during their growth. This is, however, not the only benefit of biogas as they also have higher yields and shorter life cycles. This ensures a stable fuel supply. This study should encourage an exploration of other organic matters and renewable resources, in terms of their efficiency in replacing, substituting, or reducing the use of fossil fuels.

H. Jiang and Y. He, in their paper titled "Evaluation of Optimal Policy on Environmental Change through Green Consumption", explored the association between green consumption and sustainable economic growth. They looked at the demand side of green consumption and how to use it to design an environmental policy package, in order to achieve economic growth and optimal social allocation. Using mathematical models, they concluded that: (1) green consumption does not necessarily have to be supply-side-driven to improve the environment; (2) green consumption driven by the demand side is better than the supply side in improving the environment and increasing the social welfare; (3) environmental change is more efficient when the environmental policy package includes green consumption. It is important to note that production activities that drive the economy will impact both the environment and social welfare. It is therefore significant to investigate the demand-side policy, which is exemplified by green consumption, and compare it to the supply-side policy, exemplified by green production on how they influence and/or are associated with environmental changes and social welfare.

Koo, J., Kim, J., Ryu, J., Shin, D.-S., Lee, S., Kim, M.-K., Jeong, J., and Lim, K.-J., in "Development of Novel QAPEX Analysis System Using Open-Source GIS", developed an Agricultural Policy/Environmental eXtender (APEX) interface that uses an open-sourcebased GIS software to simulate water quality impacts on various management practices for local farming activities. This model provides opportunities for farm/small watershed management and for local farmers, especially in developing countries, since there is no fee payment to use the interface. This new interface is also more flexible than the existing interface that requires paid license subscription. Furthermore, it can simulate hydrology and water quality with considerable precision. This model also presents visual output, making it easier to interpret simulation results. The open source model may also be used to derive data for sustainable agricultural practices and to develop effective policies on the different agricultural farming practices.

This Special Issue presents five different articles that took different approaches to address sustainability issues from planning and modeling perspectives. These articles are holistic in their considerations and are multidisciplinary as they adopt modeling approaches from other areas of learning, especially from management. They also emphasize the need to serve as decision support for policy and decision making. It is worth noting that to address the issues of sustainability and climate change, which are crucial in environmental planning and modeling, we must be cognizant of human involvement and the different worldviews that may inform such policies and decisions. The papers offer policy guidelines and framework, making the outcomes easier to implement. These articles address some of the complex issues in environmental planning and modeling. However, they are not exhaustive. Rather, they provide a stepping-stone for more work on developing approaches that can help to address these important problems. We do not necessarily need to start from scratch or reinvent the wheel. We can borrow from existing knowledge and models, and also take advantage of the multidisciplinary nature of environmental issues. We should also view the environment as a system that interacts with other systems and strive to develop a systemic approach to problem solving. The issues raised here are thought-provoking and aim to solve some crucial existing problems. The insights gained here could be used to solve other problems and to develop effective implementation plans. Ongoing research and future studies are required to continue to explore environmental problems and/or climate change issues from a holistic perspective, while considering other stakeholders to develop an efficient and effective solution.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declared no conflict of interest.


Meet the editor

Professor Zhang Yong prepared the first high-entropy single-crystal alloys. He proposed a balance criterion of high-entropy alloys to predict the phase formation for amorphous and solid solutions and found that trace rare earth elements can improve the glass-forming ability of metallic alloys. He has studied high-entropy alloy fibers and high-entropy alloy spectral selective absorption films and authored and edited several

books. His book, *Advanced High-entropy Alloy Technology*, won first prize from the China Petroleum and Chemical Industry Federation, first prize in Natural Science from the Ministry of Education, and second prize from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. Professor Yong is a fellow member of the Chinese Materials Research Society and a committee member of the Chinese Nuclear Society. He has organized and served as chairman of numerous conferences on high-entropy alloys and serration behavior. He is a doctoral supervisor, a flexibly appointed professor for the North Minzu University, China, a scientific special commissioner of Guangdong Province, and a guest professor at the North University of China. Professor Yong studies serration behavior, high-throughput technology, and collective effect in materials science.

## Contents


*8.2. Comparative Study*

Performance of the proposed algorithm is compared with the algorithms used for the detection of faults in the presence of renewable energy using DWT [12,13] and Stockwell transform (ST) [14,15]. It is observed that the DWT-based technique effectively detects the faults; however its performance is adversely affected by the presence of noise above 50 dB SNR and generates false tripping signals. Hence, DWT-based technique is not effective for the detection of faults when high noise level of 10 dB SNR is present. The Stockwell transform-based algorithm uses the patterns of various contours and plots for the fault detection, which ranges from half cycle to one cycle. The protection scheme based on the application of proposed WD-index individually will be slow and fault detection time will be high. However, its performance is least affected by the noise. The proposed ALN-index is effective for reducing the fault detection time because it has the merit of sharp change at the time of fault incidence. However, this cannot be used as a standalone protection scheme because at the time of fault incidence, its magnitude increases for the faulty as well as healthy phases. Furthermore, the performance of ALN-index-based method is adversely affected by the presence of high noise level. Therefore, proposed algorithm, obtained using WD-index and ALN-index has the combined merits of these indexes and provide fast performance of protection scheme, further it is not affected by the noise. Hence it is established that the performance of proposed algorithm is superior as compared to DWT, Stockwell transform, standalone WD-index and standalone ALN-index.


**2.6 IR thermal camera sensor**

Thermal imaging is a tool that uses heat energy to detect the surface of an object. Currently, thermal imaging technology has been used in various fields, including engineering, health, military, environment, to health.

*Non-Invasive Approach for Glucose Detection in Urine Quality Using Its Image Analysis DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104791*

**Figure 4.** *LCD 16×2.*

IR Thermal Camera is a non-contact sensor device that can detect heat or infrared energy and convert it and convert it into electrical energy or electronic signal, which can then produce a thermal image. In addition to generating thermal images, these electronic signals can also be used to perform temperature calculations or measurements.

Visualization of AMG8833 sensor is shown in **Figure 5**. The AMG8833 is a thermal imaging camera sensor with an 8×8 pixel thermal sensor family manufactured by Panasonic. The AMG8833 only supports I2C and has a configurable interrupt pin, which can be activated when each pixel is above or below the required threshold.

The detector on the AMG8833, as shown in **Figure 6**, consists of a thermopile sensor using MEMS (micro electro mechanical system) technology which is arranged in an 8×8 pixel array. A thermopile is a temperature sensor composed of a layer of the silicon film, which contains many thermocouples so that the infrared energy

**Figure 5.** *Visualization of AMG8833 sensor.*

**Figure 6.** *Sensor IR thermal camera AMG8833.*

emitted from the object will be absorbed and converted into electrical energy. After turning into electrical energy, signal processing is carried out. In the signal processing process, first, amplify the electrical energy or electrical signal obtained, then use an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to convert it into a digital signal. Then the digital signal enters the control system for calculation, comparison, and correction so that the output temperature is Celsius.


**5. Conclusions**

With the recent knowledge gained on nanoscience and nanomaterials, and the complex interaction that nanoparticles have in the environment, there is a new insight toward nanoparticles generated from the nuclear technology. It is a fact that long-term nuclear waste disposals and nuclear reactors are sources of UO2 and actinide- and lanthanide-doped UO2 nanoparticles. Therefore there is an effort to produce nanoparticles of these compositions to study not only their behavior in special physicochemical conditions but also their advantageous properties in the design of new fuel elements and processes.

There exist many ways to obtain nanoparticles of UO2, but until now all of them start from a solution of U6+ and reduces it to U4+. The way in which the nanoparticle is formed or the reduction is done differentiates one of the other processes. In the precipitation routes, the pH generates nanoparticles of U6+ salts that after intermediate- to high-temperature thermal treatments in reducing conditions convert to

*Uranium Dioxide Nanoparticulated Materials DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91017*

micrometer agglomerates of UO2 nanoparticles of 80–120 nm and fcc crystal phase. Other chemical routes use U6+ organic salts in an organic solvent as dibenzyl ether, with amines and organic acids as stabilization agents, to induce the precipitation of non-agglomerated and highly crystalline UO2 nanoparticles of less than 5 nm during a low-temperature thermal treatment. In the sol-gel type syntheses, nanoparticles with U6+ are generated in the continuous solid phase, sometimes mediated by the addition of organic molecules. The gel is dried after and reduced to obtain micrometer-sized agglomerates of UO2 nanoparticles of around 90 nm crystallite size. In the electrochemical-assisted syntheses, electrons are directly supplied at the cathode to the uranyl solution to reduce the uranium ions to U4+, which precipitates as moderately agglomerated powders of 53 nm formed by 4–14 nm crystal size UO2 nanoparticles. The processes assisted by radiation consist in generating strongly reducing organic agents by irradiating a secondary alcohol with electrons or photons. These species reduce the U6+ to U4+ in the solution forming UO2, which aggregates in crystalline nanoparticles. In case of electron irradiation, small particles with a narrow size distribution (22–35 nm) were obtained, while for gamma irradiation 3.5–5 nm particles were formed. In case of X-rays photons, the product obtained are precursors of nanoparticles and need a subsequent intermediatetemperature thermal treatment to definitely form the UO2 nanoparticles with 3–15 nm and fcc crystal phase.


**Acknowledgements**

This work was supported by a grant from the Human Resources Development program (No.<PHONE_NUMBER>1250) of the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) funded by the Korean Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy and the Korea Ministry of Environment (MOE) as a "Waste-to-Energy Technology Development Project".


**2.3 Direct potentiometric method**

264 Mass Transfer - Advanced Aspects

Smolenski, 2010; Smolenski et al., 2008a, 2008b, 2009] to those of actinides [Fusselman et al., 1999; Morss, 2008; Osipenko et al., 2010, 2011; Roy et al., 1996; Sakamura et al., 1998; Serp et al., 2004, 2005a, 2005b, 2006; Serrano & Taxil, 1999; Shirai et al., 2000] hence separation between these groups of elements is very difficult. For this reason, a good knowledge of the

The goal of these investigations is to determine the electrochemical and thermodynamic properties of some fission products (Tm and Yb), their mass transfer, and behavior in different fused solvents using transient electrochemical techniques, and potentiometric

The solvents LiCl (Aldrich, 99.9%), NaCl (Aldrich, 99.9%), KCl (Aldrich, 99.9%), and CsCl(Aldrich, 99.9%) were purified under vacuum in the temperatures range 293-773 K. Then the reagents were fused under dry argon atmosphere. Afterwards these reagents were purified by the operation of the direct crystallization [Shishkin & Mityaev, 1982]. The calculated amounts of prepared solvents were melted in the cell before any experiment

Dry lanthanide trichlorides (LnCl3) were obtained by the way of well-known method

• First, the crystalline hydrate (LnCl3⋅nH2O, where *n* is 4.5-5.0) was prepared by direct interaction of Ln2O3 (Tm2O3 OST 46-205-81 TuO-1 and Yb2O3 IbO-L TU 48-4-524-90)

• Second, dry LnCl3 was prepared by using the operation of carbochlorination of crystalline hydrate during heating in CCl4 stream vapor in horizontal furnace. The obtained lanthanide chlorides (LnCl3) were kept into glass ampoules under atmosphere of dry argon in inert glove box. Ln3+ ions were prepared by direct addition of anhydrous

The experiments were carried out under inert argon atmosphere using a standard electrochemical quartz sealed cell using a three electrodes setup. Different transient electrochemical techniques were used such as linear sweep, cyclic, square wave and semiintegral voltammetry, as well as potentiometry at zero current. The electrochemical measurements were carried out using an Autolab PGSTAT30 potentiostat-galvanostat (Eco-

The inert working electrode was prepared using a 1mm metallic W wire (Goodfellow, 99.9%). It was immersed into the molten bath between 3 - 10 mm. The active surface area was determined after each experiment by measuring the immersion depth of the electrode. The counter electrode consisted of a 3 mm vitreous carbon rod (SU - 2000). The Cl–/Cl2 electrode is the most convenient reference electrode because it can be used for the direct thermodynamic calculations. It standard construction is the following. The quartz tube with porous membrane in the bottom and molten solvent in it has the graphite tube for chlorine gas introduction into the system. The chlorine gas is bubbling through the melt during the

basic properties of REE in the proposed separation media is very important.

method (*emf*).

**2. Experimental**

[Korshunov et al., 1979].

[Revzin, 1967] in two steps:

with HCl acid solution.

LnCl3 to the fused electrolytic bath.

experiment [Smirnov, 1973].

**2.2 Transient electrochemical technique**

Chimie) with specific GPES electrochemical software (version 4.9).

**2.1 Preparation of starting materials**

The potentiometric study was carried out using an Autolab PGSTAT30 potentiostat-galvanostat (Eco-Chimie) with specific GPES electrochemical software (version 4.9). The electrochemical techniques were used such as potentiometry (zero current) and coulometry methods.

The electrochemical set-up for potentiometric investigations is shown in Fig. 1. The inert working electrode was prepared using a 5 mm vitreous carbon rod (SU - 2000) which was located in BeO crucible with the investigated melt. It was immersed into the molten bath between 3 - 5 mm. During the experiments Ln3+ ions were electrochemically reduced to Ln2+ ions up to ratio Ln3+/Ln2+ equals one. The counter electrode consisted of a 3 mm vitreous carbon rod (SU - 2000) which was placed in quartz tube with porous membrane in the bottom with solvent melt and located in vitreous carbon crucible (SU - 2000) with pure solvent without lanthanide chlorides*.* The Cl–/Cl2 electrode was used as reference electrode.

1 – Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouple; 2- Cover of thermocouple; 3- Section; 4- Capsule of chlorine electrode; 5- Nickel screen; 6- Alumina tube; 7- Cl- /Cl2 reference electrode/counter electrode; 8- Getter of zirconium; 9- Current contact; 10- Vitreous carbon working electrode; 11- Quartz test-tube with cover; 12- Beryllium oxide crucible; 13- Vitreous carbon crucible; 14- Investigated salt system; 15- Asbestos diaphragm.

Fig. 1. Experimental set-up for potentiometric study

The total lanthanide concentrations were determined by taking samples from the melt which were dissolved in nitric acid solutions and then analysed by ICP-MS. The concentration of the reduced form of lanthanides was determined by volumetric method.

Electrochemistry of Tm(III) and Yb(III) in Molten Salts 267

0.1 V/s 0.2 V/s 0.3 V/s 0.4 V/s 0.5 V/s 0.75 V/s

> 0.08 V/s 0.1 V/s 0.2 V/s 0.3 V/s 0.4 V/s 0.5 v/s

Fig. 4. Linear sweep voltammograms of fused NaCl-KCl-CsCl-YbCl3 salt at different sweep

At low frequencies a linear relationship between the cathodic peak current and the square root of the frequency was found. Under these conditions the system can be considered as reversible and equation 1 can be applied [Bard & Faulkner, 1980]. The number of electrons exchanged was close to 1. The same results were obtained in NaCl-KCl, NaCl-KCl-CsCl and

Potentiostatic electrolysis at potentials of the cathodic peaks for all systems studied did not show the formation of the solid phase of tungsten surface after polarization. There is no plateau on the dependences potential – time. Also the working electrode did not undergo any visual change. X-ray analysis of the surface of the working electrodes after experiments

rates at 873 K. [Yb(III)] = 7.45·10-2 mol kg-1. Working electrode: W (S = 0.36 cm2)

Fig. 3. Linear sweep voltammograms of fused NaCl-KCl-YbCl3 (3.79·10-2 mol/kg) for the reduction of Yb(III) to Yb(II) ions at different sweep potential rates at 973 K. Working

electrode: W (surface area = 0.27 cm2)

0

also show an absence of formation of solid phase.

**I/A**

CsCl media.

**I/A**

0


**2.4 Ultra-fast spectroscopic studies of DCM**

As described in previous sections, since steady-state absorption and fluorescence studies were not conclusive about the nature of emitting state, one would always ask whether fluorescence emission is from direct charge-transfer state (CT) or relaxed CT state which is originated from locally excited state as shown in **Figure 3**. To answer this question, it is not necessary to have ultra-fast spectroscopy data; in fact simple steady-state fluorescence data would be sufficient to explain the nature of the emitting state. Suppose if it is encountered that the transition dipole moments for absorption (CT ← S0) and emission (CT → S0) are the same, one can conclude that the DCM photophysics are involved in two states (ground and CT states) [27]. Further, in such

*Photophysics, Photochemical and Substitution Reactions - Recent Advances*

smaller fraction of charge transfer than that of DMABN.

electron donor-acceptor (EDA) molecules.

**2.3 Fluorescence lifetimes**

a gradual shift in the position of the fluorescence band is observed from a non-polar aprotic solvent to a polar solvent. Further, interpretation of the additional long-wavelength fluorescence was not that easy as expected; however, the preliminary fluorescence lifetime data suggest that it is generated from excited DCM in a new ICT state which is formed during the lifetime of the lowest excited singlet state and equilibrates with the ICT state emitting at 610 nm. It was suggested that the dual fluorescence originates from the excited DCM in the ICT state with a twisted conformation formed by internal rotation of the donor moiety with simultaneous ICT from this group to a suitable acceptor orbital. The new state is commonly known as twisted intramolecular charge transfer state (TICT) which was first reported by Grabowski and co-workers [21] to explain dual fluorescence of structurally different compounds such as p-cyano and p-(9-anthryl) derivatives of N,N-dimethylaniline in polar solvents [17, 22]. Typically, the TICT state is characterized by a perpendicular conformation of donor and acceptor moieties which is responsible for dual fluorescence of p-N,Ndimethylaminobenzonitrile (DMABN). However, unlike DMABN molecule, it should be noted that the difference between the short- and long-wavelength maxima of the dual fluorescence of DCM is somewhat smaller than that calculated for DMABN. This may be because the larger separation between the D and A moieties in DCM leads to a

Contrary to the above three-state model, a combined experimental and theoretical study revealed quite different results from the measured absorption and steadystate emission spectra of DCM dye upon its comparison with Nile red in a series of aprotic solvents with similar refractive index and different polarity [16]. Unlike many other studies reported earlier, the observed spectral behavior is interpreted to two-state electronic model accounting for the coupling to internal molecular vibrations and to an effective solvation coordinate. This study pointed out that change in band shapes upon varying solvent cannot be accounted as an evidence for two different emitting states and explained all the observed solvatochromic behavior of absorption and fluorescence spectra. Based on the consistency between experimental and calculated spectral data, a two-state model was suggested for understanding DCM photophysical properties which is generally also valid for most of the of the

Fluorescence lifetimes of DCM were measured in six different solvents for the first time, and it is found that the fluorescence times (τ) depend upon the polarity of the solvent [8]. Later on, wavelength dependent fluorescence decay profiles of DCM in protic-polar solvent (ethanol) and other solvents were measured, and it is found that all the decays profiles are fitting with single exponential function despite the strong overlap between the two fluorescence bands [9]. Moreover, these studies clearly reveal that the fluorescence lifetime value of DCM in a given solvent is independent of the fluorescence wavelength at which the measurement was made. In order to obtain more information about the nature of the emitting states of DCM in polar solvents, the fluorescence spectra of DCM in DMSO were recorded at various times after excitation. From typical time-resolved emission spectral data, it was observed that both short- and long-wavelength fluorescence bands appear within the 0.75 ns after excitation. Further, their relative intensities change with time until a time-independent intensity ratio is reached, at about 2.25 ns. Wavelengthdependent time-resolved fluorescence measurements also suggest that DCM exhibits dual fluorescence in polar solvents which is assigned to the two well-separated different emitting states. Based on the steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence data, Hsing-Kang and co-workers suggested two different intramolecular charge

**8**

**Figure 3.**

*Potential energy curves against generalized coordinates which include intramolecular and solvent modes for (A) direct vertical excitation to CT-state (B) population of LE state followed by LE → CT transition from ground state.*

a case, the solvatochromism of absorption and emission should be consistent with ground- and excited-state dipole moments and their difference. On the other hand, if fluorescence anisotropy of DCM is substantially smaller than 0.4, then it is possible that the fluorescence emission could be from a different state than that of populated by photoexcitation, perhaps it is direct indicative of a three-state system (ground, LE, and CT states). Therefore, explicit evidence of such a three-state system can only be obtained by time-resolved spectroscopy through the direct observation of the LE → CT transition. However, because of the interference of both population transfer and relaxation (solvent, vibration) in spectral dynamics, the interpretation of the transient spectra can sometimes be sensitive and may to lead confusion. Easter et al. have investigated ultra-fast dynamics of DCM for the first time and observed temporal evolution of its stimulated emission in methanol and ethylene glycol at several wavelengths using sub-picosecond pump-probe spectroscopy [28]. The observed temporal changes of the fluorescence intensity measured during the first 100 ps after excitation were assigned to the dynamic Stokes shift of the fluorescence emission from the CT state following its direct optical excitation. Time-resolved transient absorption spectroscopic studies of DCM solutions in weakly polar and polar were carried out by Martin and co-workers, and corresponding data exhibits an isosbestic point in the net gain spectra within a few picoseconds after excitation which suggest rapid evolution of an emissive intermediate state from the initial excited S1 state [29]. Solvatochromic behavior of the gain spectral position and its time-resolved redshift in slowly relaxing solvents support the CT character of the emissive intermediate state. Further, the overall intramolecular CT process is observed to take place within 30 ps in all solvents, and solvent relaxation time appears as an important parameter in the observed kinetics. Moreover, it was also found that the time constants associated with these changes depend upon the solvent polarity and vary from 2 ps (in acetonitrile) to 8 ps (in methanol). All these dynamics of DCM were interpreted to a transition that occurs from optically populated LE state to the CT state. However, there was no evidence of the twisted nature of this CT state which was suggested earlier [26].

Population relaxation within the fluorescent state was selectively monitored by Glasbeek and co-workers using femtosecond fluorescent up-conversion technique with a time-resolution of ~150 fs which does not permit to probe any influence of the dynamics within the electronic ground state [30]. It has been shown that intramolecular charge separation is taking more than 300 fs after the pulsed excitation. Following the pulsed excitation of the molecule, the integrated intensity of the spontaneous fluorescence decreased to approximately 50% of its initial value within few picoseconds. Moreover, it was observed that a significant portion of the charge

**11**

*Photophysical Properties of 4-(Dicyanomethylene)-2-Methyl-6-(4-Dimethylaminostyryl)-4*H*…*

separation trajectory (~30%) is controlled by the solvation process on a picosecond time scale. Therefore, it is inferred that LE and CT states of photoexcited DCM strongly coupled adiabatically in the inverted region where a large extent of the charge separation process occurs on a picosecond time scale controlled by the excited state solvation process. However, subsequent high-resolution (<100 fs) fluorescence up-conversion studies of the DCM dye molecule in methanol and chloroform reveal that there is no change of the integrated spectral intensity during the first 25 ps after vertical excitation for the LE → CT transition [31]. Besides, for all times only one fluorescent excited state was noticeable, and the observed dynamic Stokes shift is attributed to solvent relaxation. Mean position of the time-resolved fluorescence spectrum of DCM in methanol shifts towards the red side with bi-exponential (175 fs and 3.2 ps) behavior, while in chloroform the spectral position remains practically unchanged for all times. The collected time-resolved data concluded that DCM has a

single emitting state, which is directly populating upon photoexcitation.

separation (≥70%) is completed within 300 fs of the pulsed excitation.

and the CN stretching region, ~2208 cm−1

state absorption bands in the fingerprint region (1495 cm−1

1520, and 1590 cm−1

Later, time-resolved visible pump and infrared (IR) probe transient absorption measurements of the DCM and its isotopomer DCM-*d*6 were studied by Fleming and co-workers to probe the ultra-fast charge-transfer state formation in polar solvents: dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) and acetonitrile (MeCN) [34]. Transient infrared absorption bands at both a fingerprint region between 1440 and 1620 cm−1

is assigned to the LE state of DCM, while the higher-frequency absorptions (1495,

frequency upshift and/or changes in band shape on a few ps time scale (∼1–2 ps) which was attributed to the formation of the excited state and charge-transfer state via twisting and pyramidalization of the C–N(Me)2 group and associated changes in C–C bonding character throughout the molecule. That is the fast rise in the CT bands was assigned to the rapid evolution of the LE state into the CT state.

Excited state non-radiative relaxation dynamics of DCM in hexane have been investigated using femtosecond fluorescence up-conversion technique at three

) are assigned to the CT state. The results reveal that excited-

, were probed. The IR band at 1440 cm−1

) are exhibiting a

A binodal dynamic Stokes shift was observed with time constants, one is about 100 fs, and another is of few picoseconds, respectively, when DCM is present in highly polar solvent media (methanol, ethylene glycol, ethyl acetate, and acetonitrile) [32]. The initial fast component is attributed to the free streaming motions of the solvent molecules and the second slow time component to the rotational diffusion motions of the solvent molecules. However, from the rapid sub-picosecond rise of the integrated emission intensity, it was suggested that the excited state electron transfer is preferentially taking place within about 100 fs from a higher-lying less emissive state to a lower-lying more emissive CT state. That is, the charge separation process in DCM is completed within about 100 fs. The LE and CT states are pictured as strongly coupled in the inverted region which is already reported earlier by Gustavsson et al. [31], and the gradual charge separation is treated as diffusional motion on the resulting barrierless potential. On the other hand, transient absorption spectra of DCM dye in methanol were measured using pump-supercontinuum probe technique with 40 fs time resolution and also revealed two components [33]. Initially (before 70 fs), a prominent spectral structure is observed which is primarily due to resonance Raman processes. At longer times (>70 fs), the spectrum undergoes a significant redshift, and shape of the band changes with a well-defined isosbestic point, and these observations are quite similar to earlier study done by Martin and co-workers [29]. The early transient component has been assigned to the locally excited state of DCM. Further, it was found that LE → CT transition is much faster than that suggested by Martin et al. and concluded that a substantial fraction of the intramolecular charge

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93149*

### *Photophysical Properties of 4-(Dicyanomethylene)-2-Methyl-6-(4-Dimethylaminostyryl)-4*H*… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93149*

separation trajectory (~30%) is controlled by the solvation process on a picosecond time scale. Therefore, it is inferred that LE and CT states of photoexcited DCM strongly coupled adiabatically in the inverted region where a large extent of the charge separation process occurs on a picosecond time scale controlled by the excited state solvation process. However, subsequent high-resolution (<100 fs) fluorescence up-conversion studies of the DCM dye molecule in methanol and chloroform reveal that there is no change of the integrated spectral intensity during the first 25 ps after vertical excitation for the LE → CT transition [31]. Besides, for all times only one fluorescent excited state was noticeable, and the observed dynamic Stokes shift is attributed to solvent relaxation. Mean position of the time-resolved fluorescence spectrum of DCM in methanol shifts towards the red side with bi-exponential (175 fs and 3.2 ps) behavior, while in chloroform the spectral position remains practically unchanged for all times. The collected time-resolved data concluded that DCM has a single emitting state, which is directly populating upon photoexcitation.

A binodal dynamic Stokes shift was observed with time constants, one is about 100 fs, and another is of few picoseconds, respectively, when DCM is present in highly polar solvent media (methanol, ethylene glycol, ethyl acetate, and acetonitrile) [32]. The initial fast component is attributed to the free streaming motions of the solvent molecules and the second slow time component to the rotational diffusion motions of the solvent molecules. However, from the rapid sub-picosecond rise of the integrated emission intensity, it was suggested that the excited state electron transfer is preferentially taking place within about 100 fs from a higher-lying less emissive state to a lower-lying more emissive CT state. That is, the charge separation process in DCM is completed within about 100 fs. The LE and CT states are pictured as strongly coupled in the inverted region which is already reported earlier by Gustavsson et al. [31], and the gradual charge separation is treated as diffusional motion on the resulting barrierless potential. On the other hand, transient absorption spectra of DCM dye in methanol were measured using pump-supercontinuum probe technique with 40 fs time resolution and also revealed two components [33]. Initially (before 70 fs), a prominent spectral structure is observed which is primarily due to resonance Raman processes. At longer times (>70 fs), the spectrum undergoes a significant redshift, and shape of the band changes with a well-defined isosbestic point, and these observations are quite similar to earlier study done by Martin and co-workers [29]. The early transient component has been assigned to the locally excited state of DCM. Further, it was found that LE → CT transition is much faster than that suggested by Martin et al. and concluded that a substantial fraction of the intramolecular charge separation (≥70%) is completed within 300 fs of the pulsed excitation.

Later, time-resolved visible pump and infrared (IR) probe transient absorption measurements of the DCM and its isotopomer DCM-*d*6 were studied by Fleming and co-workers to probe the ultra-fast charge-transfer state formation in polar solvents: dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO) and acetonitrile (MeCN) [34]. Transient infrared absorption bands at both a fingerprint region between 1440 and 1620 cm−1 and the CN stretching region, ~2208 cm−1 , were probed. The IR band at 1440 cm−1 is assigned to the LE state of DCM, while the higher-frequency absorptions (1495, 1520, and 1590 cm−1 ) are assigned to the CT state. The results reveal that excitedstate absorption bands in the fingerprint region (1495 cm−1 ) are exhibiting a frequency upshift and/or changes in band shape on a few ps time scale (∼1–2 ps) which was attributed to the formation of the excited state and charge-transfer state via twisting and pyramidalization of the C–N(Me)2 group and associated changes in C–C bonding character throughout the molecule. That is the fast rise in the CT bands was assigned to the rapid evolution of the LE state into the CT state.

Excited state non-radiative relaxation dynamics of DCM in hexane have been investigated using femtosecond fluorescence up-conversion technique at three

*Photophysics, Photochemical and Substitution Reactions - Recent Advances*

a case, the solvatochromism of absorption and emission should be consistent with ground- and excited-state dipole moments and their difference. On the other hand, if fluorescence anisotropy of DCM is substantially smaller than 0.4, then it is possible that the fluorescence emission could be from a different state than that of populated by photoexcitation, perhaps it is direct indicative of a three-state system (ground, LE, and CT states). Therefore, explicit evidence of such a three-state system can only be obtained by time-resolved spectroscopy through the direct observation of the LE → CT transition. However, because of the interference of both population transfer and relaxation (solvent, vibration) in spectral dynamics, the interpretation of the transient spectra can sometimes be sensitive and may to lead confusion. Easter et al. have investigated ultra-fast dynamics of DCM for the first time and observed temporal evolution of its stimulated emission in methanol and ethylene glycol at several wavelengths using sub-picosecond pump-probe spectroscopy [28]. The observed temporal changes of the fluorescence intensity measured during the first 100 ps after excitation were assigned to the dynamic Stokes shift of the fluorescence emission from the CT state following its direct optical excitation. Time-resolved transient absorption spectroscopic studies of DCM solutions in weakly polar and polar were carried out by Martin and co-workers, and corresponding data exhibits an isosbestic point in the net gain spectra within a few picoseconds after excitation which suggest rapid evolution of an emissive intermediate state from the initial excited S1 state [29]. Solvatochromic behavior of the gain spectral position and its time-resolved redshift in slowly relaxing solvents support the CT character of the emissive intermediate state. Further, the overall intramolecular CT process is observed to take place within 30 ps in all solvents, and solvent relaxation time appears as an important parameter in the observed kinetics. Moreover, it was also found that the time constants associated with these changes depend upon the solvent polarity and vary from 2 ps (in acetonitrile) to 8 ps (in methanol). All these dynamics of DCM were interpreted to a transition that occurs from optically populated LE state to the CT state. However, there was no evidence of the twisted nature of this CT state which was suggested earlier [26]. Population relaxation within the fluorescent state was selectively monitored by Glasbeek and co-workers using femtosecond fluorescent up-conversion technique with a time-resolution of ~150 fs which does not permit to probe any influence of the dynamics within the electronic ground state [30]. It has been shown that intramolecular charge separation is taking more than 300 fs after the pulsed excitation. Following the pulsed excitation of the molecule, the integrated intensity of the spontaneous fluorescence decreased to approximately 50% of its initial value within few picoseconds. Moreover, it was observed that a significant portion of the charge

*Potential energy curves against generalized coordinates which include intramolecular and solvent modes for (A) direct vertical excitation to CT-state (B) population of LE state followed by LE → CT transition from*

**10**

**Figure 3.**

*ground state.*

excitation wavelengths [35]. The S1 lifetime was observed to be 9.8 ps which is found to be independent of the excitation wavelengths. The observed S1 lifetime of DCM is less by one order of magnitude as compared to julolidyl DCM dyes DCJT and DCJTB, indicating the significance of the twisting motion of the N,Ndimethylamino group affecting the S1 non-radiative dynamics. Further, TDDFT calculations suggest that an intersystem crossing is responsible for the observed S1 dynamics of DCM in non-polar solvent.


**Abstract**

The recent techniques for improving polymer-based composite properties using nanoclay infusion have been reviewed in this chapter. The recent progress in the printing of thermoplastic composite infused with different sizes of particles was reviewed. The processing of infusing clay into natural fiber and recent advancements in the printing of thermoplastic composite infused with nanoclays at different loading ratios also was discussed. Valid information on different apparatuses for determining mechanical properties, temperature dependence storage modulus, and tan α of the developed materials were provided. The loading effect of clay on the mechanical properties, temperature dependence storage modulus, and tan α of composite and nanocomposites was reviewed. Specific emphasis on printed nanocomposite application in gears and related engineering fields is considered. The innovative scope of infusing nanoclay for developing composite with improved mechanical properties, temperature dependence storage modulus, and tan α was discussed. Similarly, the application of clay-reinforced composite with the revolutionary scope of infusing nanoclay for different applications was suggested.

**Keywords:** clay, nanocomposite, composite, 3D printing, infusion techniques


**Meet the editor**

Dr Sisir Kumar Garai was born in 1971 in West Bengal, India. He received the M. Sc. degree in Physics in 1994 and the M. Tech degree in Microwaves in 1998, and awarded the Ph. D degree in Science (Physics) on 6th February, 2012 from 'The University of Burdwan', West Bengal, India. His field of research interest includes Optoelectronics, Optical Computation and Communica-

tion, etc., and he has contributed more than twenty five papers in different International Journals in his area of research. He has received the best paper presentation award in '16th West Bengal State Science and Technology Congress-2009' and his name is also included in Marquis Who's Who-2010 & 2011, and in International Biography Centre (IBC)-Cambridge-2011. He has been an Assistant Professor and the -Head of the Department of Physics of M.U.C. Women's College, Burdwan, West Bengal, India, since 2002.

Contents

**Preface VII**

Chapter 1 **Next Generation of Optical**

Sisir Kumar Garai

Guilhem de Valicourt

Chapter 2 **High-Speed All-Optical Switches**

**Based on Cascaded SOAs 25**

Chapter 3 **A Novel Method of Developing Frequency**

Eszter Udvary and Tibor Berceli

Chapter 7 **Doped Fiber Amplifier Characteristic**

Seyed Edris Mirnia, Arman Zarei,

Chapter 8 **The Composition Effect on the Dynamics**

**Access Network Based on Reflective-SOA 1**

Xuelin Yang, Qiwei Weng and Weisheng Hu

**Encoded Different Optical Logic Processors Using Semiconductor Optical Amplifier 47**

Chapter 4 **SOA-Based Optical Packet Switching Architectures 67**

Chapter 5 **Multi-Functional SOAs in Microwave Photonic Systems 85**

Chapter 6 **Red Tunable High-Power Narrow-Spectrum External-Cavity Diode Laser Based on Tapered Amplifier 107**  Mingjun Chi, Ole Bjarlin Jensen, Götz Erbert, Bernd Sumpf and Paul Michael Petersen

**Under Internal and External Perturbation 125**

Siamak Emami, Hairul Azhar Abdul Rashid,

Sulaiman Wadi Harun and Harith Ahmad

**of Electrons in Sb-Based QD-SOAs 153**  B. Al-Nashy and Amin H. Al-Khursan

V. Eramo, E. Miucci, A. Cianfrani, A.Germoni and M. Listanti


Virtual Modeling

Just as the outdoor enthalpy was obtained, the enthalpy value for the interior of each model was determined by calculating the indoor temperature and the indoor humidity level for each one of the corresponding ten locations.

Virtual reconstruction of each model by means of DesignBuilder v<IP_ADDRESS> (DesignBuilder Software Ltd, Stroud, UK) (Figure 2) was carried out with the aim of obtaining its indoor conditions (temperature and humidity level) in each location. Occupancy has not been taken into account, so 0 persons per square meter is the value determined for the eight dwellings.

**Figure 2.** Virtual models developed by means of DesignBuilder v.6.0. Left group, first row, from left to right: tipi, wigwam, hogan and grass house. Left group, second row, from left to right: earthlodge, plank house and longhouse. Right group, upper part: pueblo.

Morphology and Dimensions

The modeling work of the dwellings takes as basis a previous researching work, based on the documents referenced in the Introduction.

In Table 1 the main morphological information is presented.