*3.2.2. Genotoxicity*

Both soluble and particulate forms of chromium induced chromosome damage in sperm whale and North Atlantic right whale skin cells. We measured genotoxicity by induced chromosome damage in two ways: Percent of metaphases with damage and total damaged chromosomes in 100 metaphases. In sperm whale cells 1, 2.5, 5, 10 and 25 uM sodium chromate damaged 7, 17, 20 and 31 percent of metaphases, respectively, and induced 7, 16, 24 and 40 total aberrations, respectively. At the highest dose cell cycle arrest occurred and no metaphases were seen. In right whale cells 1, 2.5, 5 and 10 uM sodium chromate damaged 7, 15, 23 and 33 percent of metaphases, respectively, and induced 8, 18, 30 and 48 total aberrations, respectively (Figure 3A and 3B). For lead chromate, 0.5, 1, 3 and 5 ug/cm2 lead chromate damaged 6, 12, 15 and 27 percent of metaphases and induced 7, 13, 24 and 28 total aberrations, respectively in sperm whale cells. 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 5 ug/cm2 lead chromate damaged 16, 19, 23, 32 and 26 percent of metaphases and induced 17, 22, 28, 40 and 30 total aberrations, respectively (Figure 3C and 3D).

Skin Biopsy Applications in Free Ranging Marine Mammals: A Case Study of Whale Skin Biopsies

**Figure 2. Cytotoxicity of Chromium in North Atlantic Right Whale and Sperm Whale Skin Cells.**  This figure shows the relative survival of cells treated for 24 h with chromium. There is a concentrationdependent decrease in the number of surviving cells. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean from three independent experiments. A) Cells treated with sodium chromate; B) Cells treated

with lead chromate.

as a Valuable and Essential Tool for Studying Marine Mammal Toxicology and Conservation 115

**Figure 1. Chromium Levels in Whale Skin.** This figure shows levels of Cr found in whale skin biopsies. A) This panel shows individual levels of Cr detected in each of seven North Atlantic right whales; B) This panel shows the mean levels of Cr in sperm whales grouped by region +/- the standard error. Number in parentheses on the x-axis indicate the number of whales sampled in that region; C) This panel shows the average level of Cr found in North Atlantic right whale and sperm whale skin. The North Atlantic right whale average is based on 7 animals biopsied in the Bay of Fundy. The sperm whale average is based on 331 animals biopsied worldwide.

**Figure 1. Chromium Levels in Whale Skin.** This figure shows levels of Cr found in whale skin biopsies. A) This panel shows individual levels of Cr detected in each of seven North Atlantic right whales; B) This panel shows the mean levels of Cr in sperm whales grouped by region +/- the standard error. Number in parentheses on the x-axis indicate the number of whales sampled in that region; C) This panel shows the average level of Cr found in North Atlantic right whale and sperm whale skin. The North Atlantic right whale average is based on 7 animals biopsied in the Bay of Fundy. The sperm

whale average is based on 331 animals biopsied worldwide.

**Figure 2. Cytotoxicity of Chromium in North Atlantic Right Whale and Sperm Whale Skin Cells.**  This figure shows the relative survival of cells treated for 24 h with chromium. There is a concentrationdependent decrease in the number of surviving cells. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean from three independent experiments. A) Cells treated with sodium chromate; B) Cells treated with lead chromate.

Skin Biopsy Applications in Free Ranging Marine Mammals: A Case Study of Whale Skin Biopsies

**Figure 3. Genotoxicity of Chromium in North Atlantic Right Whale and Sperm Whale Skin Cells.**

concentration-dependent increase in the amount of damage. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean from three independent experiments. A) Percent of metaphases with damage in cells treated with sodium chromate; B) Total aberrations in 100 metaphases in cells treated with sodium chromate; C) Percent of metaphases with damage in cells treated with lead chromate; D) Total aberrations in 100

This figure shows the genotoxicity of a 24 h chromium treatment in whale cells. There is a

metaphases in cells treated with lead chromate.

as a Valuable and Essential Tool for Studying Marine Mammal Toxicology and Conservation 117

Skin Biopsy Applications in Free Ranging Marine Mammals: A Case Study of Whale Skin Biopsies as a Valuable and Essential Tool for Studying Marine Mammal Toxicology and Conservation 117

116 New Approaches to the Study of Marine Mammals

**Figure 3. Genotoxicity of Chromium in North Atlantic Right Whale and Sperm Whale Skin Cells.**  This figure shows the genotoxicity of a 24 h chromium treatment in whale cells. There is a concentration-dependent increase in the amount of damage. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean from three independent experiments. A) Percent of metaphases with damage in cells treated with sodium chromate; B) Total aberrations in 100 metaphases in cells treated with sodium chromate; C) Percent of metaphases with damage in cells treated with lead chromate; D) Total aberrations in 100 metaphases in cells treated with lead chromate.


**6. Discussion**

Most of the level of development of prognostic competence depends on the formation of its activity component. This is consistent with Selivanov's statement [12]

the main means of education is the activity of the one being educated. The nature of dependence on each component is non-linear. We conditionally accepted that the formal level of development of predictive competence is less than 60%, but also more than 20%. This is due to the fact that for all students, the ability to predict is formed to one degree or another, but it cannot be stated that a student has a sufficient level of competence for engineering activity with a forecast accuracy of less than 60%. But each of the components formed at a sufficiently high level with the underdevelopment of other components of the competence is not a reason to assume that the prognostic competence is developed at least at the reproductive level. The same can be said about the situation when one of the components is not developed absolutely. In this case, the general level of development of predictive competence is not zero.

At a number of intervals in **Figures 7**–**10** various factors have virtually no effect on the formation of prognostic competence. We can influence only pedagogical factors, and the teacher cannot influence other factors directly, only indirectly. The greatest tangent of the angle of inclination of the dependence of the formation of prognostic competence on pedagogical factors is observed in the interval of the effectiveness of their use, which corresponds to the "above average" estimate.

The level of development of prognostic competence depends both on the frequency of application of prognostic activity and on the applied teaching methods, but nonlinearly. If you do not engage in prediction skills with students, prognostic competence will not be formed. With a very frequent prediction exercise, but without system lessons using pedagogical technologies, only a reproductive level of competence can be achieved. At a number of intervals, both the frequency of application of prognostic activities and the change in the effectiveness of the methodology have practically no effect on the formation of competence.


**Abstract**

Integrated optics (IO) microsystems, based on guided wave and photonics structures, can find interesting developments for optical interferometric analysis in sensing applications. In fact, IO interferometric microsystems can act as transducers of the information carried on by an optical signal and originated along the signal optical path. In addition, the application of Integrated Optics and Photonics techniques, allow producing very small size and reduced power consumption instrumentation. These features explain the reason why the IO microsystems for interferometric analytics know an increasing interest in many areas such as Astrophysics, Environment, Biosciences, Space and Earth Exploration, Safety and Security. This chapter starts by synthetically describing the basics of the main analytical techniques covered by IO micro-devices. A discussion of the integrated micro-device fabrication procedures, with an analysis of the implied performance limitations, follows. Finally, a description of new generation optical interferometric microsystems, applied to different scientific and technical areas, completes the chapter.

**Keywords:** optical interferometry, Fourier transform interferometry, integrated optics, photonics, integrated optical sensors, Mach–Zehnder micro-interferometers, MEOS sensing devices


4. Results

ii. If the closed loop system is asymptotically stable (AS) near the region of the equilibrium x ¼ 0, then the nonlinear process P is said to be locally multi-loop integral controllable

In Figure 2, we assume the state equation of the general process P~ (which includes original process P and the two scalar non-integral controllers c1 andc2) is modeled as follows (with the

> P~ : x\_ ¼ f xð Þ ; u~ y ¼ g xð ; u~Þ

> > ¼ η

Consider the closed loop system in Figure 1, and assume that the general process P~ and the linear part of the controller Cl are described by Eqs. (2) and (3), respectively. If the following

i. The equation 0 ¼ f xð ; u~Þ obtained by setting x\_ ¼ 0 in Eq. (2) implicitly defines a unique

iii. If two C2 functions can be found f1ð Þ� and f2ð Þ� such that that the steady-state input output function g hð ð Þ u~Þ; u~ of the general process P~ satisfies the following requirements:

.

asymptotically stable (GAS) and locally exponentially stable (LES).

k1 k2

e ¼ �η

k1 k2

, the equilibrium x ¼ hðu~Þ of the system x\_ ¼ f xð ; u~Þ is globally

" # y

" #

(2)

(3)

�

1 ξ\_ 2

" #

The state equation for the linear integral controller is expressed as:

Cl : ξ\_ ¼ ξ\_

The following theorem presented a sufficient condition for MIC:

8 ><

>:

(Steady-state MIC conditions for nonlinear 2ISO processes).

C2 function x ¼ hðu~Þ for u~ ∈ U~ ⊂R2

u~ ¼ ξ

around the equilibrium x ¼ 0 [19, 20].

Figure 2. Multi-loop integral controllability for 2ISO system.

280 Adaptive Robust Control Systems

same assumptions for Eq. (1) of process P):

3.1.2. Theorem 1

assumptions are satisfied:

ii. For any fixed u~ ∈ U~ ⊂ R2