**Meet the editor**

Dr Volodymyr Shatokha graduated in 1982 obtaining the title of a Ferrous Metallurgy Engineer from the Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Institute, Ukraine. His further career is tied up with his Alma Mater (since 1999 - National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine). In 1985 he received his PhD degree. His further research was mainly in the field of iron ore sinter and pellets proper-

ties, and the slag forming processes in ironmaking. He has been teaching students since 1992. In 1998 he obtained the title of Professor at the Ironmaking Chair. During 1999-2002 Dr. Shatokha was the Dean of the Metallurgical Faculty. Since 2002 he has been working as the Vice Rector for Research and Pedagogy. His current research mainly deals with recycling methods for the ferrous wastes, in particular through iron ore sintering. He has authored over 130 research papers, 7 books and 6 patents. He holds the title of Honorary Professor at the Inner-Mongolia University of Science and Technology, China and is a member of the Advisory Board for the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan International Journal. He is a Laureate of the State Prize of Ukraine in Science and Technology (2010).

Contents

**Preface IX**

Chapter 1 **Latest Generation Sinter**

**Part 1 Sintering Technologies and Methods 1**

**Process Optimization Systems 3**  Thomas Kronberger, Martin Schaler

Chapter 2 **Modeling Sintering Process of Iron Ore 23**

**Alloys for Aeronautical Applications 47**  Fernando Juárez López and Ricardo Cuenca Alvarez

**in Application to Tyre Tread Pattern Mould 73**

and Christoph Schönegger

Jose Adilson de Castro

Chapter 3 **Development of Sintered MCrAlY**

and Miroslav Trajanovic

Chapter 6 **Sintering Characteristics of Injection**

Chapter 7 **Liquid Phase Sintering of Fe-Cu-Sn-Pb**

Jeff West, Michael Carter, Steve Smith and James Sears

Chapter 8 **Photonic Sintering of Silver Nanoparticles:**

Cristina Teisanu

Chapter 4 **Metal Laser Sintering for Rapid Tooling**

Jelena Milovanovic, Milos Stojkovic

Chapter 5 **Sintering of Supported Metal Catalysts 91**

**Moulded 316L Component Using Palm-Based Biopolymer Binder 127**  Mohd Afian Omar and Istikamah Subuki

José Luis Contreras and Gustavo A. Fuentes

**System for Tribological Applications 147**

**Comparison of Experiment and Theory 173**

### Contents

#### **Preface XI**

X Contents

#### **Part 2 Characterisation and Properties of Sintered Materials 213**

### Preface

Sintering refers to the science and technology of production objects from fines or powders. Being a very complex phenomenon, sintering covers a broad subject field and combines chemistry, physics and mechanics. Sintering deals with various material systems such as metals, non-metals, ceramics, polymers, and their combinations. Processes of sintering may occur in a wide temperature range - in a solid state as well as with participation of a liquid phase.

As a material processing method, sintering embraces extremely wide group of technologies used to obtain such different products as for example iron ore agglomerate and luminescent films. In recent times some novel methods emerge such as for example laser sintering, electric current assisted sintering, photonic sintering, microwave sintering, and spark plasma sintering.

Modern science and technology of sintering aim at the energy-efficient production of materials with intended properties – whether it is mechanical strength, heat resistivity, magnetotransport characteristics, tribological behaviour and so on. These properties are associated with structure and morphology, therefore characterisation methods of sintered product are of special attention.

The book, *Sintering - Methods and Products,* assembles various aspects of sintering in chapters written by the experienced scientists from all over the world. It comprises two sections focusing on *Sintering technologies and methods*, and *Characterisation and properties of sintered materials*. Sharing their results and expertise with the reading audience, the authors have dedicated their time and energy to make this book happen. I am very thankful to all the authors for their contribution.

I thank sincerely *InTech - Open Access Publisher* for the initiative of publishing this book. Reading audience of researchers and students dealing with or interested in sintering has now a really unique opportunity to find comprehensive, cutting edge information covering a wide range of interdisciplinary issues in the domain of science and technology of sintering in a single book.

> **Dr. Volodymyr Shatokha**  National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine, Ukraine

**Part 1**

**Sintering Technologies and Methods**

## **Part 1**

**Sintering Technologies and Methods**

**1**

*Austria*

**Latest Generation Sinter**

**Process Optimization Systems**

*Siemens VAI Metals Technologies GmbH (Siemens VAI) Linz,*

Thomas Kronberger, Martin Schaler and Christoph Schönegger

SIMETAL Sinter VAiron is an advanced process optimization system which covers the sinter production process from ore preparation in the blending yards and sinter plant up to the blast furnace. It was developed in a close cooperation between the Austrian steel producer voestalpine Stahl and the engineering and plant-building company Siemens VAI. The overall target of this system is to achieve stable process conditions at a high productivity level with a uniform sinter quality at low production costs. This is achieved through the application of a number of sophisticated tracking, diagnosis and control models

In the sintering process, chemical and physical parameters such as basicity and product diameters must satisfy pre-set target values within defined standard deviations in order to meet the quality requirements of the blast furnace. Sinter quality begins with the selection and mixing of the raw materials in the blending yard and dosing plant which are integrated in a common control model of the Sinter Process. The chemical properties are homogenized by an automatic adaptation of the raw material mix. An enhanced burn-through-point control system which takes into account physical and chemical properties of the sinter mix is incorporated in the system. The system has to counteract changes caused by fluctuations,

The main targets of the SIMETAL Sinter VAiron1 process control system are summarized as

• Avoidance of heavy control actions – If only minor control actions are necessary, the

• Avoidance of critical process situations – The sooner the system reacts to critical process situations, such as an inhomogeneous mixture, poor surface ignition or incomplete burn-through of mix, the smoother the overall sintering process is, resulting in a more

• Minimizing fuel consumption – The fuel rate is a key factor in production costs.

and systems which are bundled within an overall expert system.

which is achieved by a closed-loop control of the process.

sinter machine performance is stabilized significantly.

1Later on in this document we will briefly call the system '*VAiron Sinter'*.

**1. Introduction**

**2. System objectives**

uniform product quality.

follows:

### **Latest Generation Sinter Process Optimization Systems**

Thomas Kronberger, Martin Schaler and Christoph Schönegger *Siemens VAI Metals Technologies GmbH (Siemens VAI) Linz, Austria*

#### **1. Introduction**

SIMETAL Sinter VAiron is an advanced process optimization system which covers the sinter production process from ore preparation in the blending yards and sinter plant up to the blast furnace. It was developed in a close cooperation between the Austrian steel producer voestalpine Stahl and the engineering and plant-building company Siemens VAI. The overall target of this system is to achieve stable process conditions at a high productivity level with a uniform sinter quality at low production costs. This is achieved through the application of a number of sophisticated tracking, diagnosis and control models and systems which are bundled within an overall expert system.

#### **2. System objectives**

In the sintering process, chemical and physical parameters such as basicity and product diameters must satisfy pre-set target values within defined standard deviations in order to meet the quality requirements of the blast furnace. Sinter quality begins with the selection and mixing of the raw materials in the blending yard and dosing plant which are integrated in a common control model of the Sinter Process. The chemical properties are homogenized by an automatic adaptation of the raw material mix. An enhanced burn-through-point control system which takes into account physical and chemical properties of the sinter mix is incorporated in the system. The system has to counteract changes caused by fluctuations, which is achieved by a closed-loop control of the process.

The main targets of the SIMETAL Sinter VAiron1 process control system are summarized as follows:

 1Later on in this document we will briefly call the system '*VAiron Sinter'*.

Latest Generation Sinter Process Optimization Systems 5

Fig. 2. VAironment Process Information and Data Management System.

eliminated (**Fig. 3**).

Fig. 3. Detailed Tracking of Material Packages.

The process information management system provides a flexible and powerful database for the continuous improvement of process knowledge. VAiron Sinter interprets process data, performs model calculations and visualizes the results in Windows- or web-based graphical user interfaces. Additional data analysis, interpretation and visualization tools can connect to VAiron easily (COM, ODBC). The module-based system is highly configurable in order to allow for adaptations related to modifications in the plant setup or operational philosophy. Data handling encompasses the chemical and physical data of the sinter strand as well as the process history. The raw sinter mix and the production process is monitored in detail from ore preparation to the blast furnace. Unfavorable conditions can be detected and

#### **3. System structure and technological controls**

A reliable and well proven basis automation system is the backbone of modern sinter plant operation. VAiron Sinter is characterized by a modular system structure (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. System Structure.

In addition to basic functions such as data acquisition and set-point execution, the technological controls (main control loops) are implemented in the basis automation system. These include raw-mix-ratio control, raw-mix-feed control, moisture control, surge-hopperlevel control, drum-feeder control, ignition-hood control, exhaust-gas-cooler control and cooler control. The focus of these basic control functions is to assure a smooth and reliable sintering process and to enable a continued process optimization.

#### **3.1 VAironment – Process information and data-management system**

A multithreaded, three-tier, client-server real-time application is the basis for the hardware and software configuration in VAiron Sinter. The data acquisition function pre-processes the data from a broad spectrum of raw data sources (front-end signals, material weights, laboratory data, events, model results and cost data, etc.) before storing these in the plant database (Fig. 2).

• Synoptical operational decisions throughout all shifts – Constant operating conditions throughout all shifts will increase the lifetime of the equipment and reduce production

• Reduction of emissions – With the closed-loop operation mode of the VAiron Sinter Expert System, the production parameters can be optimized within the environmental

A reliable and well proven basis automation system is the backbone of modern sinter plant

In addition to basic functions such as data acquisition and set-point execution, the technological controls (main control loops) are implemented in the basis automation system. These include raw-mix-ratio control, raw-mix-feed control, moisture control, surge-hopperlevel control, drum-feeder control, ignition-hood control, exhaust-gas-cooler control and cooler control. The focus of these basic control functions is to assure a smooth and reliable

A multithreaded, three-tier, client-server real-time application is the basis for the hardware and software configuration in VAiron Sinter. The data acquisition function pre-processes the data from a broad spectrum of raw data sources (front-end signals, material weights, laboratory data, events, model results and cost data, etc.) before storing these in the plant

sintering process and to enable a continued process optimization.

**3.1 VAironment – Process information and data-management system**

operation. VAiron Sinter is characterized by a modular system structure (Fig. 1).

emission limits, in particular, SO2 emissions.

**3. System structure and technological controls**

costs.

Fig. 1. System Structure.

database (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. VAironment Process Information and Data Management System.

The process information management system provides a flexible and powerful database for the continuous improvement of process knowledge. VAiron Sinter interprets process data, performs model calculations and visualizes the results in Windows- or web-based graphical user interfaces. Additional data analysis, interpretation and visualization tools can connect to VAiron easily (COM, ODBC). The module-based system is highly configurable in order to allow for adaptations related to modifications in the plant setup or operational philosophy.

Data handling encompasses the chemical and physical data of the sinter strand as well as the process history. The raw sinter mix and the production process is monitored in detail from ore preparation to the blast furnace. Unfavorable conditions can be detected and eliminated (**Fig. 3**).

Fig. 3. Detailed Tracking of Material Packages.

Latest Generation Sinter Process Optimization Systems 7

The aim of this calculation mode is to calculate the set-points for the raw material system (material ratios) in order to reach the chemical sinter composition with the desired results.

The advantage of the backward calculation (Fig. 5) is to reach and keep the product quality

The target of this calculation is the opposite of the calculation of the raw material ratios, i.e. to calculate the chemical analysis of sinter using the composition of the raw materials as an input. Using this calculation option, the model calculates the theoretic chemical composition of the

This calculation is identical to the previously described calculation of the sinter composition with the difference that the actual charged material ratios from Level 1 are used as input for the calculation. Therefore, the model is started automatically in the background when a new Level 1 recipe is detected and it calculates the actual sinter composition using the actual raw

The model calculates a stacking plan for blending ore beds based on the raw mix composition calculated by the corresponding raw mix calculation. After considering the

sinter product based on fixed material ratios input by process engineers or operators.

**<IP_ADDRESS> Calculation of material ratios (backward calculation)**

Fig. 5. Backward Calculation Procedure.

Several calculation options are available:

Fig. 6. Forward Calculation Procedure.

**3.2.2 Stacking plan for blending ore bed**

mix data.

• Calculation of the set-point for fuel materials

as stable as possible and optimize the material costs.

**<IP_ADDRESS> Calculation of sinter composition (forward calculation)**

**<IP_ADDRESS> Online calculation of sinter composition (forward calculation)**

• To aim at a certain basicity • To aim at a certain Fetot • To aim at a certain SiO2 • To aim at a certain MgO

#### **3.2 VAiron process models**

A number of process models are available in the VAiron Sinter automation package as outlined in the following.

#### **3.2.1 Raw mix calculation model**

Producing target quality requires accurate charging of the raw materials (ores, coke, additives, etc.). To modify the raw mix recipe, the coke addition, sinter basicity, raw material analyses and their influence on sinter parameters must be taken into consideration. This procedure is complex and requires computer assistance.

The purpose of the raw mix calculation model is to establish a raw mix composition, in order to automatically achieve the assigned target values for coke addition, sinter basicity, Fetot, SiO2, etc.

Up to four variable materials may be chosen – one for the basicity equation, one for Fetot balance, and one for SiO2 balance as well as one for the MgO balance.

The results of the raw mix calculation can be activated manually to run on Level 1.

Fig. 4. Raw Mix Calculation for Sinter Plant.

In combination with the Expert System, the raw mix calculation model is a central part of the closed-loop operation, which is a unique highlight of the VAiron Sinter automation solution. A screen of the user interface of the raw mix calculation model is shown in Fig. 4.

#### **<IP_ADDRESS> Calculation of material ratios (backward calculation)**

The aim of this calculation mode is to calculate the set-points for the raw material system (material ratios) in order to reach the chemical sinter composition with the desired results.

Fig. 5. Backward Calculation Procedure.

Several calculation options are available:

6 Sintering – Methods and Products

A number of process models are available in the VAiron Sinter automation package as

Producing target quality requires accurate charging of the raw materials (ores, coke, additives, etc.). To modify the raw mix recipe, the coke addition, sinter basicity, raw material analyses and their influence on sinter parameters must be taken into consideration.

The purpose of the raw mix calculation model is to establish a raw mix composition, in order to automatically achieve the assigned target values for coke addition, sinter basicity,

Up to four variable materials may be chosen – one for the basicity equation, one for Fetot

In combination with the Expert System, the raw mix calculation model is a central part of the closed-loop operation, which is a unique highlight of the VAiron Sinter automation solution. A screen of the user interface of the raw mix calculation model is shown in Fig. 4.

The results of the raw mix calculation can be activated manually to run on Level 1.

**3.2 VAiron process models**

**3.2.1 Raw mix calculation model**

Fig. 4. Raw Mix Calculation for Sinter Plant.

This procedure is complex and requires computer assistance.

balance, and one for SiO2 balance as well as one for the MgO balance.

outlined in the following.

Fetot, SiO2, etc.

The advantage of the backward calculation (Fig. 5) is to reach and keep the product quality as stable as possible and optimize the material costs.

#### **<IP_ADDRESS> Calculation of sinter composition (forward calculation)**

The target of this calculation is the opposite of the calculation of the raw material ratios, i.e. to calculate the chemical analysis of sinter using the composition of the raw materials as an input.

Using this calculation option, the model calculates the theoretic chemical composition of the sinter product based on fixed material ratios input by process engineers or operators.

Fig. 6. Forward Calculation Procedure.

#### **<IP_ADDRESS> Online calculation of sinter composition (forward calculation)**

This calculation is identical to the previously described calculation of the sinter composition with the difference that the actual charged material ratios from Level 1 are used as input for the calculation. Therefore, the model is started automatically in the background when a new Level 1 recipe is detected and it calculates the actual sinter composition using the actual raw mix data.

#### **3.2.2 Stacking plan for blending ore bed**

The model calculates a stacking plan for blending ore beds based on the raw mix composition calculated by the corresponding raw mix calculation. After considering the

Latest Generation Sinter Process Optimization Systems 9

In addition to the complex process models that are subsequently described, many auxiliary calculations are performed. These calculations include filters for suppressing short-term

• Raw mix permeability is derived from ignition hood data, taking into account the

• The harmonic diameter of the sinter product (calculated from the grain-size distribution

• The actual burn-through point position which has a major influence on the control of

2A particle size distribution with mass fractions x1, x2, x3, … xn corresponding to maximum diameters

*Dh* := 1 / ∑ (xi/di). The harmonic diameter is a good indicator of the permeability of the material (i.e., sinter in the blast furnace). A low fraction of material with small diameters leads to high *Dh* and thus to

pressure drop, bed height and waste-gas flow under the ignition hood

of the sinter analysis) as an important indicator of sinter quality2

A total of approximately 700 different model values are calculated.

(measured as screen size) d1, d2, … dn has a harmonic diameter

Fig. 8. Visualization of Ore Blending Bed Distribution Model.

**3.2.4 Sinter process supervision models**

• Moisture calculation of the raw mix • Average particle size of the raw materials

the sinter strand velocity

good permeability.

fluctuations. Examples are:

availability of materials and intermediate bunkers, the stacking process is organized in several stages. The model calculates the material flow rate during stacking so that a homogeneous blending ore bed with constant chemical properties is achieved. The stacking process is monitored and deviations from the plan are compensated automatically. A screen of the stack plan model for the blending ore bed user interface is shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Stacking Plan User Interface.

#### **3.2.3 Blending ore bed distribution model**

This model simulates the 3D geometry of the blending ore bed by calculating the volume of the material mixture per stacking step. For this calculation, the bulk densities and the angles of repose for each material type are required (Fig. 8). Furthermore, the spatial distribution of analysis data such as Fe and S are calculated. In the offline mode, the model calculates the geometry of the bed based on the stacking plan. In the online mode, the model builds up the bed using actual material data, the exact position of the charging device, the brands of the materials and the material quantities.

availability of materials and intermediate bunkers, the stacking process is organized in several stages. The model calculates the material flow rate during stacking so that a homogeneous blending ore bed with constant chemical properties is achieved. The stacking process is monitored and deviations from the plan are compensated automatically. A screen

This model simulates the 3D geometry of the blending ore bed by calculating the volume of the material mixture per stacking step. For this calculation, the bulk densities and the angles of repose for each material type are required (Fig. 8). Furthermore, the spatial distribution of analysis data such as Fe and S are calculated. In the offline mode, the model calculates the geometry of the bed based on the stacking plan. In the online mode, the model builds up the bed using actual material data, the exact position of the charging device, the brands of the

of the stack plan model for the blending ore bed user interface is shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Stacking Plan User Interface.

materials and the material quantities.

**3.2.3 Blending ore bed distribution model**

Fig. 8. Visualization of Ore Blending Bed Distribution Model.

#### **3.2.4 Sinter process supervision models**

In addition to the complex process models that are subsequently described, many auxiliary calculations are performed. These calculations include filters for suppressing short-term fluctuations. Examples are:

A total of approximately 700 different model values are calculated.

 2A particle size distribution with mass fractions x1, x2, x3, … xn corresponding to maximum diameters (measured as screen size) d1, d2, … dn has a harmonic diameter

*Dh* := 1 / ∑ (xi/di). The harmonic diameter is a good indicator of the permeability of the material (i.e., sinter in the blast furnace). A low fraction of material with small diameters leads to high *Dh* and thus to good permeability.

Latest Generation Sinter Process Optimization Systems 11

raw mix, as explained above. As soon as the permeability falls, the BTP curve also drops accordingly (time interval 54). The inexact response correlation between the flat trend of the permeability curve and the irregular trend of the BTP can be explained as being the result of the accumulated nonlinear effects of varying gas flows through different sections of the sinter strand on the BTP. On the right-hand side of the diagram (time intervals 80 to 113),

Fig. 9. Illustration of Simulated Dependency Between Permeability of Raw Mix and Distance of BTP from End of Sinter Strand; Plotted as Function Of Time (measured in arbitrary units).

If the sinter is not completely burned through before reaching the end of the strand, a decrease of the sinter strand speed is the logical control action. Choosing the proper speed reduction for the sinter at the end of the strand will result in an increased duration of the material spent at the beginning of the strand that is longer than ideal. This sinter will be burned through before reaching the end of the sinter strand, again necessitating an increase in the strand speed. This, in turn, means that the BTP of the following material will again be too close to the end of the sinter strand. For conventional automation solutions, e.g., PID (Proportional Integral Differential)-based control, this effect tends to lead to BTP and thus strand-speed oscillations when trying to compensate for the fluctuations. The sintering process model predicts the Burn-Through Time (BTT) as an indicator for the dynamic behavior of sintering, based on the process conditions and raw mix parameters, e.g., the material permeability. The compiled prediction of the BTT for discrete sinter strand segments is one of the important starting points for the calculation of the optimum sinter-

One of the most important factors for the control of the sinter process is to make operation of the sinter plant as smooth and steady as possible. The process can be disturbed, however,

the inverse situation for a reduced permeability is shown.

strand speed by the Expert System.

**3.3 VAiron sinter expert system**

#### **3.2.5 Burn-through time prediction model**

The model predicts the dynamic behaviour of the sintering based on the process conditions and raw mix parameters, including permeability and waste-gas data. The predicted burnthrough time is used as an important input parameter for the advanced control strategy of the Sinter VAiron burn-through point controller.

#### **3.2.6 Productivity analysis tool**

VAironment allows for the long-term archiving of recipes, chemical and physical analyses and all kinds of measured process data. This comprehensive data archive allows for the retrospective analysis of best process conditions for specific raw materials. The productivity analysis tool supports highly sophisticated search strategies in finding optimal process parameters for a given raw material according to different objectives, such as a maximal productivity and minimal fuel consumption.

#### **3.2.7 Sinter process model**

The top layer of the raw mix is ignited in the ignition hood. After the sinter mix leaves the ignition hood, combustion continues by drawing air through the bed which progresses downwards through the entire bed. When the combustion reaches the bottom layer of the sinter mix, the entire bed has been sintered. This point is called the sintering point or burnthrough point (BTP).

Proper control of the sinter strand speed aims at positioning the BTP close to the end of the strand. If the BTP is situated before that ideal position, the area after the BTP is only used for cooling the sinter. This leads to a diminution of the active sintering area and a productivity decrease. If it is not reached within the sinter strand, un-sintered sinter mix is discharged and has to be recycled as return fines – leading to a productivity decrease. Furthermore, this results in poor sinter quality. The position of the BTP is measured by thermocouples installed in the last suction boxes and is characterized by the maximum value of the exhaust gas temperature detected by the thermocouples within these suction boxes.

A paramount control goal in the sintering process is that the material must be completely sintered by the time it reaches the end of the sinter strand (minimized return fines) and that the BTP is as close as possible to the ideal position for maximum productivity.

The gas flow through the sinter strand is a function of the permeability of the raw mix. As the total sintering time depends on the total gas flow, a higher permeability will obviously lead to shorter burn-through times. However, it is also clear that a higher gas flow through one section of the sinter strand will slightly reduce the gas flow through the material in other zones along the sinter strand. Taking this into consideration, a permeability-based simulation of the sintering process can thus be applied for an improved sinter-process control to achieve higher productivity. This solution approach was implemented in the sinter plant control system.

For example, the pronounced rise in the BTP curve beginning at time interval 43 of Fig. 9 is a consequence of an increased permeability of the raw mix at this position. The temporary BTP drop immediately preceding this rise is a result of the reduced gas flow through the

The model predicts the dynamic behaviour of the sintering based on the process conditions and raw mix parameters, including permeability and waste-gas data. The predicted burnthrough time is used as an important input parameter for the advanced control strategy of

VAironment allows for the long-term archiving of recipes, chemical and physical analyses and all kinds of measured process data. This comprehensive data archive allows for the retrospective analysis of best process conditions for specific raw materials. The productivity analysis tool supports highly sophisticated search strategies in finding optimal process parameters for a given raw material according to different objectives, such as a maximal

The top layer of the raw mix is ignited in the ignition hood. After the sinter mix leaves the ignition hood, combustion continues by drawing air through the bed which progresses downwards through the entire bed. When the combustion reaches the bottom layer of the sinter mix, the entire bed has been sintered. This point is called the sintering point or burn-

Proper control of the sinter strand speed aims at positioning the BTP close to the end of the strand. If the BTP is situated before that ideal position, the area after the BTP is only used for cooling the sinter. This leads to a diminution of the active sintering area and a productivity decrease. If it is not reached within the sinter strand, un-sintered sinter mix is discharged and has to be recycled as return fines – leading to a productivity decrease. Furthermore, this results in poor sinter quality. The position of the BTP is measured by thermocouples installed in the last suction boxes and is characterized by the maximum value of the exhaust

A paramount control goal in the sintering process is that the material must be completely sintered by the time it reaches the end of the sinter strand (minimized return fines) and that

The gas flow through the sinter strand is a function of the permeability of the raw mix. As the total sintering time depends on the total gas flow, a higher permeability will obviously lead to shorter burn-through times. However, it is also clear that a higher gas flow through one section of the sinter strand will slightly reduce the gas flow through the material in other zones along the sinter strand. Taking this into consideration, a permeability-based simulation of the sintering process can thus be applied for an improved sinter-process control to achieve higher productivity. This solution approach was implemented in the

For example, the pronounced rise in the BTP curve beginning at time interval 43 of Fig. 9 is a consequence of an increased permeability of the raw mix at this position. The temporary BTP drop immediately preceding this rise is a result of the reduced gas flow through the

gas temperature detected by the thermocouples within these suction boxes.

the BTP is as close as possible to the ideal position for maximum productivity.

**3.2.5 Burn-through time prediction model**

the Sinter VAiron burn-through point controller.

productivity and minimal fuel consumption.

**3.2.6 Productivity analysis tool**

**3.2.7 Sinter process model**

through point (BTP).

sinter plant control system.

raw mix, as explained above. As soon as the permeability falls, the BTP curve also drops accordingly (time interval 54). The inexact response correlation between the flat trend of the permeability curve and the irregular trend of the BTP can be explained as being the result of the accumulated nonlinear effects of varying gas flows through different sections of the sinter strand on the BTP. On the right-hand side of the diagram (time intervals 80 to 113), the inverse situation for a reduced permeability is shown.

Fig. 9. Illustration of Simulated Dependency Between Permeability of Raw Mix and Distance of BTP from End of Sinter Strand; Plotted as Function Of Time (measured in arbitrary units).

If the sinter is not completely burned through before reaching the end of the strand, a decrease of the sinter strand speed is the logical control action. Choosing the proper speed reduction for the sinter at the end of the strand will result in an increased duration of the material spent at the beginning of the strand that is longer than ideal. This sinter will be burned through before reaching the end of the sinter strand, again necessitating an increase in the strand speed. This, in turn, means that the BTP of the following material will again be too close to the end of the sinter strand. For conventional automation solutions, e.g., PID (Proportional Integral Differential)-based control, this effect tends to lead to BTP and thus strand-speed oscillations when trying to compensate for the fluctuations. The sintering process model predicts the Burn-Through Time (BTT) as an indicator for the dynamic behavior of sintering, based on the process conditions and raw mix parameters, e.g., the material permeability. The compiled prediction of the BTT for discrete sinter strand segments is one of the important starting points for the calculation of the optimum sinterstrand speed by the Expert System.

#### **3.3 VAiron sinter expert system**

One of the most important factors for the control of the sinter process is to make operation of the sinter plant as smooth and steady as possible. The process can be disturbed, however,

Latest Generation Sinter Process Optimization Systems 13

SVAI Implementation of diagnosis structure,

interfaces

actions

Modifications of the expert system can be done by the customer's personnel according to the

• Fine-tuning of delivered diagnoses and rules - As described above the expert system has to be maintained throughout its lifetime. The simplest form of maintenance is fine tuning of the delivered application, i.e. modifications of existing but no addition of new parts. Customer's personnel may change tuning parameters stored outside the expert

• Addition of other diagnoses - If the expert system shall increase its diagnosing

• Addition of other therapies - If new suggestions of corrective actions shall be provided

The VAiron Sinter expert system includes a Metallurgical Model Toolbox and its own scripting language. This toolbox enables the modification of the logics of existing diagnosis and rules and the creation of new diagnosis and rules based on the specific requirements of

Various process model results, control trends as well as the diagnoses are visualized in this

• Checking of the performance of the various models using dedicated screens, i.e. tab

• Switching between closed-loop and semi-automatic mode for the individual controls.

Customer Further adaptations, reaction on

implementation of described diagnoses

explanation capability, implementation of

Fine-tuning of described diagnoses and

equipment changes, implementation of

new diagnoses and/or actions

and actions, implementation of

**Phase Responsible Description**

SVAI / Customer

Development of base system (based on Siemens VAI's experience and customer's

know-how)

Fine-tuning during commissioning (based on

operational data)

following topics:

system.

operation.

Maintenance and further enhancements (based on operational data)

Table 1. Life-phases of the expert system.

capability, one has to add new diagnoses.

**3.3.2 Sinter plant control HMI – Expert system**

folders in the Sinter Plant Control HMI.

• Modification of parameters for the individual models.

HMI. It offers the following functionality:

The expert system HMI looks as follows:

by the expert system, one has to add new rules.

by changes in the properties of charged materials, failures in the process, human factors, process conditions, etc. Delays in corrective measures compensating for the interference factors may vary from minutes to hours, days and weeks. Correct timing of control actions and anticipation of disturbances is of utmost importance for maintaining high production rates and low production costs.

The knowledge of experienced sinter process engineers and operators on the process, the cause and effect relationships of process disturbances, metallurgical know-how, and the adopted control philosophy is modeled into the expert system. It monitors and forecasts the process status, gives alarms in case of process disturbances, suggests control measures, and describes the changes in the process in the form of verbal messages and graphical displays. With the help of the experts system, the expertise of the process control personnel is improved, the process control practice among the different shifts becomes more uniform, and, on the basis of forecasting, the operation of the process becomes smoother as compared to conventional process control. Monitoring of measurement data and indices based on those measurements becomes more efficient with the help of the expert system.

Therefore the sinter expert system has two main objectives. The first is the situation analysis of the phenomena called *diagnosis* and the second is the *therapy* in which proposals are presented to the process control personnel in order to achieve and keep stable conditions.

Fig. 10. Structure of VAiron Expert System.

The sinter expert system studies the occurrences of the phenomena around the sinter process by means of various technical calculations and makes conclusions based on those calculations. The calculations are based on results from process measurements.

The basic structure is shown in Fig. 10. The system diagnoses the overall sinter plant status and previous sintering conditions. The tasks and functions of the expert system are outlined in the following sections.

#### **3.3.1 Life-phases of the expert system**

At delivery time the system is prepared according to the rules defined by process experts of Siemens VAI and the customer. Experience gathered during the commissioning phase (with real time process data) will help to fine-tune the system. The expert system has to be maintained and enhanced during operation by the customer's personnel after take over. Thus the life-time of the expert system may be separated into three distinct phases:

by changes in the properties of charged materials, failures in the process, human factors, process conditions, etc. Delays in corrective measures compensating for the interference factors may vary from minutes to hours, days and weeks. Correct timing of control actions and anticipation of disturbances is of utmost importance for maintaining high production

The knowledge of experienced sinter process engineers and operators on the process, the cause and effect relationships of process disturbances, metallurgical know-how, and the adopted control philosophy is modeled into the expert system. It monitors and forecasts the process status, gives alarms in case of process disturbances, suggests control measures, and describes the changes in the process in the form of verbal messages and graphical displays. With the help of the experts system, the expertise of the process control personnel is improved, the process control practice among the different shifts becomes more uniform, and, on the basis of forecasting, the operation of the process becomes smoother as compared to conventional process control. Monitoring of measurement data and indices based on

Therefore the sinter expert system has two main objectives. The first is the situation analysis of the phenomena called *diagnosis* and the second is the *therapy* in which proposals are presented to the process control personnel in order to achieve and keep stable conditions.

The sinter expert system studies the occurrences of the phenomena around the sinter process by means of various technical calculations and makes conclusions based on those

The basic structure is shown in Fig. 10. The system diagnoses the overall sinter plant status and previous sintering conditions. The tasks and functions of the expert system are outlined

At delivery time the system is prepared according to the rules defined by process experts of Siemens VAI and the customer. Experience gathered during the commissioning phase (with real time process data) will help to fine-tune the system. The expert system has to be maintained and enhanced during operation by the customer's personnel after take over.

Thus the life-time of the expert system may be separated into three distinct phases:

calculations. The calculations are based on results from process measurements.

those measurements becomes more efficient with the help of the expert system.

rates and low production costs.

Fig. 10. Structure of VAiron Expert System.

**3.3.1 Life-phases of the expert system**

in the following sections.

Table 1. Life-phases of the expert system.

Modifications of the expert system can be done by the customer's personnel according to the following topics:

The VAiron Sinter expert system includes a Metallurgical Model Toolbox and its own scripting language. This toolbox enables the modification of the logics of existing diagnosis and rules and the creation of new diagnosis and rules based on the specific requirements of operation.

#### **3.3.2 Sinter plant control HMI – Expert system**

Various process model results, control trends as well as the diagnoses are visualized in this HMI. It offers the following functionality:

The expert system HMI looks as follows:

Latest Generation Sinter Process Optimization Systems 15

The expert system provides the following two types of user notifications regarding the

A check action is created and presented to the user for all process variables that were found

No further checks on the equipment are provided. This means that there are no further

• The temperature of thermocouple in wind box #13 is unusual and therefore suspicious • The analysis deviation (100%-∑elements) of the Sinter analysis exceeds 10%. Please

Corrective actions are proposals for the operating personnel to change some process parameters (set-points). The expert system suggests at the same time one or more corrective actions out of a set of possible ones. Some of the corrective actions are provided qualitatively, that means the expert system suggests increasing or decreasing something instead of giving exact values to the user. Others are provided quantitatively, that means the

Internally, the process of suggesting a corrective action is functionally divided into three

• Phenomenon Recognition (to judge the kind of phenomenon expressed by that

Selected corrective actions have to be acknowledged by the operators. This is especially necessary if the expert system is in semi-automatic mode. The operators can enter a reason if they do not follow the expert system's suggestions and this action is suppressed until its

The action execution can be separated into two operation modes which can be set for each

The current operation mode for each rule/control is displayed in the expert system HMI (section) and indicated by green and red lights (see Fig. 11). The distinction between semi-

• Situation Analysis (to judge the kind of process variations that have occurred)

status changes. This gives important information for tuning of the expert system.

automatic and closed-loop mode is described in detail in the section below.

• Action Determination (to judge the action against the phenomenon)

therapy to achieve and keep a stable and smooth sinter process:

examinations, whether the measuring device is really faulty or not.

• Plausibility checks on measurements

**<IP_ADDRESS> Plausibility checks on measurements**

The check actions are given in textual form like

new set-point is provided by the expert system.

rule and control individually as follows:

• Semi-Automatic Mode • Closed-Loop Mode

groups based on the respective objectives as shown below:

**3.3.4 Therapy**

• Corrective actions

to be initially missing or invalid.

check the analysis. **<IP_ADDRESS> Corrective actions**

variation)

Fig. 11. Sinter Expert System HMI.

#### **3.3.3 Diagnoses**

The expert system studies the occurrence of phenomena in the sinter process using a variety of technical calculations and it draws conclusions derived from them. The calculations are based on a large amount of process measurement and analyses data that is collected continuously.

The following standard diagnoses are provided by the expert system:

Table 2. Provided Expert System diagnoses.

#### **3.3.4 Therapy**

14 Sintering – Methods and Products

The expert system studies the occurrence of phenomena in the sinter process using a variety of technical calculations and it draws conclusions derived from them. The calculations are based on a large amount of process measurement and analyses data that is collected

Production A moving average of the sinter production over a certain

Fuel Consumption Moving average of the fuel consumption over a dedicated

Chemical Quality The basicity of the last received chemical sinter analysis is

compared to their target values. Waste Gas Temperature Moving average of temperature measurements in the main

is compared to the target value.

compared to the target basicity value. Physical Quality The harmonic diameter of the last received physical analysis is compared to the target value. Environment A moving average of the components of the waste gas

period of time (e.g. 1 hour) compared to the target sinter

period of time (e.g. 1 hour) compared to target fuel

analysis over a certain period of time (e.g. 1 hour) is

duct before the E.P. over a certain time period (e.g. 1/2 hours)

The following standard diagnoses are provided by the expert system:

production.

consumption.

Fig. 11. Sinter Expert System HMI.

**Diagnosis Description**

Table 2. Provided Expert System diagnoses.

**3.3.3 Diagnoses**

continuously.

The expert system provides the following two types of user notifications regarding the therapy to achieve and keep a stable and smooth sinter process:

#### **<IP_ADDRESS> Plausibility checks on measurements**

A check action is created and presented to the user for all process variables that were found to be initially missing or invalid.

No further checks on the equipment are provided. This means that there are no further examinations, whether the measuring device is really faulty or not.

The check actions are given in textual form like

#### **<IP_ADDRESS> Corrective actions**

Corrective actions are proposals for the operating personnel to change some process parameters (set-points). The expert system suggests at the same time one or more corrective actions out of a set of possible ones. Some of the corrective actions are provided qualitatively, that means the expert system suggests increasing or decreasing something instead of giving exact values to the user. Others are provided quantitatively, that means the new set-point is provided by the expert system.

Internally, the process of suggesting a corrective action is functionally divided into three groups based on the respective objectives as shown below:

Selected corrective actions have to be acknowledged by the operators. This is especially necessary if the expert system is in semi-automatic mode. The operators can enter a reason if they do not follow the expert system's suggestions and this action is suppressed until its status changes. This gives important information for tuning of the expert system.

The action execution can be separated into two operation modes which can be set for each rule and control individually as follows:

The current operation mode for each rule/control is displayed in the expert system HMI (section) and indicated by green and red lights (see Fig. 11). The distinction between semiautomatic and closed-loop mode is described in detail in the section below.

Latest Generation Sinter Process Optimization Systems 17

Rules are actions that are suggested at specific events (e.g. new sinter analysis) or they are triggered periodically. Since rules are slower controls or major changes in plant operation, a rule is always explained textually. So an operator can decide if he wants to follow the rule or not. In case of switching a rule to closed loop mode, it will be processed automatically after a certain period of time if the operator does not reject the suggestion with the expert system

Change Basicity Sinter properties represented by chemical parameters such as the

composition in order to maintain the target values.

A very important part of the expert system represent the two controls described in section <IP_ADDRESS>, namely the *Burn-Through-Point* and the *Transversal Burn-Through-Point Controller*.

There are many indicators for the strand-speed control with different precision. Some of these are available at an early stage in the process (e.g. the permeability), others only with long time delays after the process on the strand has been finished (e.g. the harmonic diameter). Generally, the information attained at a later stage is more precise than that

The fundamental idea was therefore to use the early information to control the processes and to use the information that is attained at a later stage to self-tune the control system. With these two independent sources of information it is possible to achieve high control accuracy despite fast corrective actions. A general overview of the main parameters that affect productivity control is shown in Fig. 12. Since the availability and reliability of the listed data differs from plant to plant, the expert system can be based on individually

basicity (CaO/SiO2) have to be kept within an acceptable deviation from the preset target values. This control loop adjusts the raw mix

In case of a new chemical analysis received from the laboratory for a material which is currently used in the active recipe, a new sinter

A harmonized sinter plant return fine bin level over a long term is the objective of the return fine control. The return fine consumption in the raw mix composition is adjusted to keep the return fine bin level

In order to keep the FeO content of the sinter within an acceptable range, the coke control stabilizes the sinter return fine balance. Therefore, the control modifies the coke consumption in the raw mix composition in accordance with the sinter return fine balance.

The rules shown in the following table are evaluated by the expert system.

calculation is performed.

within a range.

These controls improve the overall plant productivity.

**Description**

**<IP_ADDRESS> Rules**

user interface.

**Corrective Action**

Re-Calculate current Recipe

Change sinter return fines

Change Coke for raw mix

attained early on.

Table 4. Expert System Rules.

**3.3.5 Sinter plant productivity control**

selected entry data of the respective plant.

#### **Semi-automatic mode**

If a rule or control is in semi-automatic mode, a detailed description of all recommended changes is provided to the operator by the expert system. During a configurable period of time (usually 10 – 15 minutes) the operator has the possibility to accept or decline the suggestion.

In case of rejecting the suggestion no further action will be executed. Additionally an input field is provided to key in a reason for refusing this suggestion.

If the operator has the opinion that the suggested set-point/recipe change is necessary to keep smooth process conditions, he has the possibility to accept the change. Afterwards the expert system is executing the changes and sends the new set-points/raw mix recipe to the Level 1 system automatically.

In case of neither rejecting nor accepting the recommended set-point/recipe change during the configurable period of time, the expert system will automatically reject the recommendation and no further actions will be executed as well.

#### **Closed loop mode**

For the recommendations of rules and controls switched to Level 2 closed loop mode a detailed description of necessary changes is provided as well. The pending time, in which the operator can accept or decline this suggestion, is also configurable (usually 5 – 10 minutes).

The only significant difference to the semi-automatic mode is the behavior after expiration of the configurable period of time without an operator action. In the closed loop case, contrary to the semi-automatic mode, the expert system will automatically accept the recommended changes and sends the new set-points/recipe to the Level 1 system.

#### **<IP_ADDRESS> Controls**

Controls are actions that are executed continuously (e.g. every minute) for fast reactions to keep the process stable and usually run silently in the background. They are typically switched on or off on Level 1. Controls may also use a validity flag indicating its state to Level 1.

The controls shown in the following table are typically included in the expert system.

Table 3. Expert System Controls.

#### **<IP_ADDRESS> Rules**

16 Sintering – Methods and Products

If a rule or control is in semi-automatic mode, a detailed description of all recommended changes is provided to the operator by the expert system. During a configurable period of time (usually 10 – 15 minutes) the operator has the possibility to accept or decline the

In case of rejecting the suggestion no further action will be executed. Additionally an input

If the operator has the opinion that the suggested set-point/recipe change is necessary to keep smooth process conditions, he has the possibility to accept the change. Afterwards the expert system is executing the changes and sends the new set-points/raw mix recipe to the

In case of neither rejecting nor accepting the recommended set-point/recipe change during the configurable period of time, the expert system will automatically reject the

For the recommendations of rules and controls switched to Level 2 closed loop mode a detailed description of necessary changes is provided as well. The pending time, in which the operator can accept or decline this suggestion, is also configurable (usually 5 – 10

The only significant difference to the semi-automatic mode is the behavior after expiration of the configurable period of time without an operator action. In the closed loop case, contrary to the semi-automatic mode, the expert system will automatically accept the

Controls are actions that are executed continuously (e.g. every minute) for fast reactions to keep the process stable and usually run silently in the background. They are typically switched

> To ensure a homogeneous flame front in the transverse direction of the sinter strand, the transversal burn-through deviation control adjusts the packing degree. This leads to a constant burn-through of the sinter in transverse direction. The advantages for the sinter

The burn-through-point control maintains a target of the burnthrough-position. This is achieved by modifying the speed of the sinter strand in accordance with the preset burn-through point position. The effect of this control leads to a maximized possible

process are fewer and more stable sinter return fines.

production of the used raw mix composition.

recommended changes and sends the new set-points/recipe to the Level 1 system.

on or off on Level 1. Controls may also use a validity flag indicating its state to Level 1. The controls shown in the following table are typically included in the expert system.

field is provided to key in a reason for refusing this suggestion.

recommendation and no further actions will be executed as well.

**Semi-automatic mode**

Level 1 system automatically.

**Closed loop mode**

minutes).

**<IP_ADDRESS> Controls**

Change position of feeder gates

Change sinter machine strand

speed

**Corrective Action Description**

Table 3. Expert System Controls.

suggestion.

Rules are actions that are suggested at specific events (e.g. new sinter analysis) or they are triggered periodically. Since rules are slower controls or major changes in plant operation, a rule is always explained textually. So an operator can decide if he wants to follow the rule or not. In case of switching a rule to closed loop mode, it will be processed automatically after a certain period of time if the operator does not reject the suggestion with the expert system user interface.

The rules shown in the following table are evaluated by the expert system.

Table 4. Expert System Rules.

#### **3.3.5 Sinter plant productivity control**

A very important part of the expert system represent the two controls described in section <IP_ADDRESS>, namely the *Burn-Through-Point* and the *Transversal Burn-Through-Point Controller*. These controls improve the overall plant productivity.

There are many indicators for the strand-speed control with different precision. Some of these are available at an early stage in the process (e.g. the permeability), others only with long time delays after the process on the strand has been finished (e.g. the harmonic diameter). Generally, the information attained at a later stage is more precise than that attained early on.

The fundamental idea was therefore to use the early information to control the processes and to use the information that is attained at a later stage to self-tune the control system. With these two independent sources of information it is possible to achieve high control accuracy despite fast corrective actions. A general overview of the main parameters that affect productivity control is shown in Fig. 12. Since the availability and reliability of the listed data differs from plant to plant, the expert system can be based on individually selected entry data of the respective plant.

Latest Generation Sinter Process Optimization Systems 19

From a broad spectrum of raw data sources, the data acquisition function pre-processes the plant data before storing it in the plant database. This database is of key importance to the advanced process optimization. The following data are collected from the process and

• Continuously measured process data from the Level 1 system

• Plant status data (runtime, shut-down, special process situations, etc.)

• Chemical and/or physical laboratory analyses data of all raw-materials and sinter

Additionally, applications to visualize the above mentioned collected data are provided:

• Reporting system allowing for cyclical (e.g. daily) or on-demand report generation

• Lab-Browser application for material analyses visualization and evaluation

• Tag-Visualization program for graphical representation of any kind of time-based data

The system can serve as a link between different automation levels in the customer's company: it is connected to the aggregate's Level 1 automation and it can be connected to the plant wide network. Therefore it can send production and consumption data as well as

The expert system generates textual explanations for its diagnoses and suggestions. In combination with the graphical information provided by the system (see Section 3.3.2), the operator can understand the actual situation of the plant in detail. Using these facilities, the operator can permanently learn about the process and background of the knowledge system. In consequence, the system will improve the skills of the operational

The expert system checks a number of process state indicators in a typical time cycle of five

• Related model calculations for internal process states which cannot be measured

Deviations from optimal process conditions can therefore be detected early. Small counter actions are sufficient to correct the process conditions at this early stage. Even experienced human operators are unable to cope with this flood of information and will detect such

• Several hundred measurement points from the Level-1 automation, and

**4. Savings and benefits**

connected systems:

**4.1 Advanced data management**

• Amount of material charged

important process data to a Level 3 system.

**4.2 Increase of operator know how**

**4.3 Smooth plant operation**

deviations later than the expert system.

• Active raw mix recipes

in the database

personnel.

minutes:

directly

Fig. 12. Overview of Sinter Plant Productivity Control.

In the longitudinal BTP optimization described above, the objective is to obtain an average BTP position that is optimally distanced from the strand end. Full utilization of the surface of the sinter strand, however, can only be achieved when, at the same time, the flame front also reaches the lowest layer across the entire width of the strand (in a transversal direction). This is obtained through the transverse burn-through point control (Fig. 13). Here, feedback on the burn-through point is derived from the temperature conditions in a transverse direction from the last suction boxes and corrective measures are then executed online directly through proper adjustment of the angle of flaps near the drum feeder. In this manner, a uniform flame front can be achieved.

Fig. 13. Transverse Burn-Through Point Control

#### **4. Savings and benefits**

18 Sintering – Methods and Products

In the longitudinal BTP optimization described above, the objective is to obtain an average BTP position that is optimally distanced from the strand end. Full utilization of the surface of the sinter strand, however, can only be achieved when, at the same time, the flame front also reaches the lowest layer across the entire width of the strand (in a transversal direction). This is obtained through the transverse burn-through point control (Fig. 13). Here, feedback on the burn-through point is derived from the temperature conditions in a transverse direction from the last suction boxes and corrective measures are then executed online directly through proper adjustment of the angle of flaps near the drum feeder. In this

Fig. 12. Overview of Sinter Plant Productivity Control.

manner, a uniform flame front can be achieved.

Fig. 13. Transverse Burn-Through Point Control

#### **4.1 Advanced data management**

From a broad spectrum of raw data sources, the data acquisition function pre-processes the plant data before storing it in the plant database. This database is of key importance to the advanced process optimization. The following data are collected from the process and connected systems:

Additionally, applications to visualize the above mentioned collected data are provided:

The system can serve as a link between different automation levels in the customer's company: it is connected to the aggregate's Level 1 automation and it can be connected to the plant wide network. Therefore it can send production and consumption data as well as important process data to a Level 3 system.

#### **4.2 Increase of operator know how**

The expert system generates textual explanations for its diagnoses and suggestions. In combination with the graphical information provided by the system (see Section 3.3.2), the operator can understand the actual situation of the plant in detail. Using these facilities, the operator can permanently learn about the process and background of the knowledge system. In consequence, the system will improve the skills of the operational personnel.

#### **4.3 Smooth plant operation**

The expert system checks a number of process state indicators in a typical time cycle of five minutes:

Deviations from optimal process conditions can therefore be detected early. Small counter actions are sufficient to correct the process conditions at this early stage. Even experienced human operators are unable to cope with this flood of information and will detect such deviations later than the expert system.

Latest Generation Sinter Process Optimization Systems 21

Additionally, fluctuations in raw material analyses are detected and the new optimum raw mix composition is calculated immediately, downloaded to the Level 1 automation system, and executed there. Obviously this proactive compensation of raw material fluctuations is

The sinter automation and optimization described in this chapter offers an integrated approach for ore preparation and sintering operations in one system, assuring optimal coordination of both plants. The application of the proven closed-loop expert system leads to transparent and reliable process control and shift-independent sinter quality at a high productivity level. The development of this system was an important step in the fulfillment

Before the described VAiron Sinter automation system has been developed, an analogous automation package for blast furnaces was introduced by Siemens VAI in cooperation with voestalpine Stahl. These systems have in common that they optimize a single aggregate. If an iron making plant contains several blast furnaces and sinter plants, each system would

Optimal conditions for a group of aggregates differ in general from optimum conditions at each of the single aggregates. In consequence, the next step of development is the VAiron Productivity Control System, which consists of a superordinated expert system considering

of the iron making plant and coordinates all these aggregates. The system executes its suggestions by sending set-points to the individual Level 2 systems of the single aggregates. Up to now, a prototype of the VAiron Productivity Control System is installed at

Klinger, A.; Kronberger, T., Schaler, M., Schürz, B. & Stohl, K. (2010). Expert Systems:

Bettinger, D., Schürz, B., Stohl, K., Widi, M., Ehler, W. & Zwittag, E. (2008). Get More From

InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-032-2, Vukovar, Croatia

Your Ore, metals & mining, 1/2008

Chapt. 7 *Expert Systems Controlling the Iron Making Process in Closed Loop Operation,*

the whole iron making plant rather then single aggregates. The system considers the

much faster than waiting to see effects in the produced sinter.

of the vision of "fully automatic sinter plant operation".

• Harmonic diameter of sinter

**5. Summary and outlook**

optimize a single aggregate.

• Coke oven plants • Sinter plants • Sinter stock yard • Blast furnaces

**6. References**

voestalpine Stahl with promising results.

• Sinter basicity • Sinter SiO2 content • Sinter MgO content • Sinter total Fe content

In consequence, the main difference between manual operation and operation supported by the expert system is that the latter is characterized by more frequent, but smaller control actions. The resulting smooth operation of the sinter plant leads to:

#### **4.4 Uniform operational philosophy**

The VAiron expert system is customized for each individual plant where it is installed. In a first phase, the customer specific situation regarding raw materials, plant topology, equipment, etc. is analyzed. The specific rules are developed in cooperation between Siemens VAI specialists and experienced process engineers and operators of the customer. Specific customer operational philosophy is implemented instead of standard rules as a result of this cooperation during the engineering phase. During system commissioning the rules are fine-tuned together with the customer.

This approach has the following advantages:

#### **4.5 Increased sinter plant productivity**

The use of the Burn-Through-Point controller typically leads to an increase in the sinter plant productivity between 2% and 5%. An additional increase can be achieved if the flame front is uniformed along the full width of the sinter strand by means of the Transversal Burn-Through-Point Controller.

The usage of a higher percentage of sinter with stable quality in the blast furnace burden results in a further reduction of the blast furnace fuel consumption. Therefore, the increase of productivity of the sinter plant is a very important benefit of the expert system.

#### **4.6 Reduced fuel consumption and stabilized sinter quality**

The expert system ensures an economic fuel usage by keeping the return fines ratio at the optimal level. Whenever the average production of internal return fines deviates from the optimal value, the expert system corrects the process conditions (mainly the fuel addition) in order to compensate the deviation. Reduced fuel consumption and increased productivity are achieved by this control loop.

Stabilization of sinter quality is achieved by dedicated quality controllers considering incoming sinter analyses from laboratory and performing corrections of the raw mix recipe, if deviations in one of the following quality parameters from the target value are detected:

In consequence, the main difference between manual operation and operation supported by the expert system is that the latter is characterized by more frequent, but smaller control

The VAiron expert system is customized for each individual plant where it is installed. In a first phase, the customer specific situation regarding raw materials, plant topology, equipment, etc. is analyzed. The specific rules are developed in cooperation between Siemens VAI specialists and experienced process engineers and operators of the customer. Specific customer operational philosophy is implemented instead of standard rules as a result of this cooperation during the engineering phase. During system commissioning the

• High acceptance of the system, because it reflects the internal operational philosophy • The customer's operational philosophy of the most experienced personnel is followed

• Consistent sinter plant operation over all shifts, resulting again in smoother plant

The use of the Burn-Through-Point controller typically leads to an increase in the sinter plant productivity between 2% and 5%. An additional increase can be achieved if the flame front is uniformed along the full width of the sinter strand by means of the Transversal

The usage of a higher percentage of sinter with stable quality in the blast furnace burden results in a further reduction of the blast furnace fuel consumption. Therefore, the increase

The expert system ensures an economic fuel usage by keeping the return fines ratio at the optimal level. Whenever the average production of internal return fines deviates from the optimal value, the expert system corrects the process conditions (mainly the fuel addition) in order to compensate the deviation. Reduced fuel consumption and increased productivity

Stabilization of sinter quality is achieved by dedicated quality controllers considering incoming sinter analyses from laboratory and performing corrections of the raw mix recipe, if deviations in one of the following quality parameters from the target value are

of productivity of the sinter plant is a very important benefit of the expert system.

**4.6 Reduced fuel consumption and stabilized sinter quality**

actions. The resulting smooth operation of the sinter plant leads to:

• Higher availability of the sinter plant • Longer overall lifetime of the sinter plant • Reduced maintenance efforts and costs

**4.4 Uniform operational philosophy**

rules are fine-tuned together with the customer. This approach has the following advantages:

24 hours a day, 7 days a week

**4.5 Increased sinter plant productivity**

Burn-Through-Point Controller.

are achieved by this control loop.

detected:

operation

Additionally, fluctuations in raw material analyses are detected and the new optimum raw mix composition is calculated immediately, downloaded to the Level 1 automation system, and executed there. Obviously this proactive compensation of raw material fluctuations is much faster than waiting to see effects in the produced sinter.

#### **5. Summary and outlook**

The sinter automation and optimization described in this chapter offers an integrated approach for ore preparation and sintering operations in one system, assuring optimal coordination of both plants. The application of the proven closed-loop expert system leads to transparent and reliable process control and shift-independent sinter quality at a high productivity level. The development of this system was an important step in the fulfillment of the vision of "fully automatic sinter plant operation".

Before the described VAiron Sinter automation system has been developed, an analogous automation package for blast furnaces was introduced by Siemens VAI in cooperation with voestalpine Stahl. These systems have in common that they optimize a single aggregate. If an iron making plant contains several blast furnaces and sinter plants, each system would optimize a single aggregate.

Optimal conditions for a group of aggregates differ in general from optimum conditions at each of the single aggregates. In consequence, the next step of development is the VAiron Productivity Control System, which consists of a superordinated expert system considering the whole iron making plant rather then single aggregates. The system considers the

of the iron making plant and coordinates all these aggregates. The system executes its suggestions by sending set-points to the individual Level 2 systems of the single aggregates. Up to now, a prototype of the VAiron Productivity Control System is installed at voestalpine Stahl with promising results.

#### **6. References**

Klinger, A.; Kronberger, T., Schaler, M., Schürz, B. & Stohl, K. (2010). Expert Systems: Chapt. 7 *Expert Systems Controlling the Iron Making Process in Closed Loop Operation,*  InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-032-2, Vukovar, Croatia

Bettinger, D., Schürz, B., Stohl, K., Widi, M., Ehler, W. & Zwittag, E. (2008). Get More From Your Ore, metals & mining, 1/2008

**2**

*Brazil*

Jose Adilson de Castro

*Graduate Program on Metallurgical*

*Engineering -Federal Fluminense University*

**Modeling Sintering Process of Iron Ore**

In this chapter, a methodology for simulating the sintering process of iron ore is presented. In order to study the process parameters and inner phenomena, a mathematical model based on transport equations of momentum energy and chemical species is proposed and the numerical implementations is discussed. The model is applied to simulate the impact of new technologies based on alternative sources of fuels, new operational design and the environmental concerns related to the new raw materials is estimated. The model is validated with pot test experiments and applied to industrial scale of sinter strand machine. In the integrated steel industries the sintering process plays an important role furnishing raw material to the blast furnace. From the point of view of natural resources, the sintering process is key technology that allows recycling by products or dust produced within the steel plant and other facilities. However, the amount and quality of energy requirements have continuously changed and up to date is mainly based on nonrenewable energies resources such as coal, anthracite and oil. Several attempts to use new energy resources have been carried out and new technologies are continuously developed. The process is complex involving various physical and chemical phenomena. The raw materials used can vary to a wide extent, from iron ore to dust recycling and fluxing agents. The natural resources of iron ores varies widely depending on the mineral composition and mining technology applied to produce the sinter feed. Therefore, it is of special importance to developed comprehensive tools to draw good decision on what kind of available raw materials and their blending will meet the sinter quality requirements to use in the blast furnace or other reducing process(Castro et. al., 2000, 2011). The process is carried out on a moving strand, where a previously prepared mixture of iron ore (sinter feed), fine coke or anthracite(fuel), limestone, other additives and water is continuously charged together with returned sinter from the undersize of a sieving process to form a thick bed of approximately 800 millimeters. The strand width and length depends on the capacity of the machine and varies for each steel works. Along the first meters of the strand the charge is ignited by burners of natural gas or coke oven gas. The hot gas, generated by the combustion with air, is then sucked in through the packed bed from the wind boxes equipped with blowers placed below the grate. The strand can vary from small to large machines with the area and bed height compatible with the auxiliary equipments used for suction of the outlet gas. The area of the strand and the suction power together with the bed permeability determines the maximum speed and hence, the productivity of the process. However, depending on the

**1. Introduction**

### **Modeling Sintering Process of Iron Ore**

#### Jose Adilson de Castro

*Graduate Program on Metallurgical Engineering -Federal Fluminense University Brazil*

#### **1. Introduction**

22 Sintering – Methods and Products

Bettinger, D., Stohl, K., Schaler, M. & Matschullat, T. (2006). Automation Systems for

Fan, X.H., Long, H.M., Wang, Y., Chen, X.L. & Jiang, T. (2006). Application of expert system for controlling sinter chemical composition, Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 3/2006 Sun Wendong, Bettinger, D., Straka, G. & Stohl, K. (2002). Sinter Plant Automation on a New Level!, *Proceedings of AISE Annual Convention*, Nashville, USA, Sep 30 – Oct 2, 2002

Conference, Oct 9-10, 2006, Design Center Linz, Austria

Sustainable Energy Management, Proceedings of the Iron & Steelmaking

In this chapter, a methodology for simulating the sintering process of iron ore is presented. In order to study the process parameters and inner phenomena, a mathematical model based on transport equations of momentum energy and chemical species is proposed and the numerical implementations is discussed. The model is applied to simulate the impact of new technologies based on alternative sources of fuels, new operational design and the environmental concerns related to the new raw materials is estimated. The model is validated with pot test experiments and applied to industrial scale of sinter strand machine.

In the integrated steel industries the sintering process plays an important role furnishing raw material to the blast furnace. From the point of view of natural resources, the sintering process is key technology that allows recycling by products or dust produced within the steel plant and other facilities. However, the amount and quality of energy requirements have continuously changed and up to date is mainly based on nonrenewable energies resources such as coal, anthracite and oil. Several attempts to use new energy resources have been carried out and new technologies are continuously developed. The process is complex involving various physical and chemical phenomena. The raw materials used can vary to a wide extent, from iron ore to dust recycling and fluxing agents. The natural resources of iron ores varies widely depending on the mineral composition and mining technology applied to produce the sinter feed. Therefore, it is of special importance to developed comprehensive tools to draw good decision on what kind of available raw materials and their blending will meet the sinter quality requirements to use in the blast furnace or other reducing process(Castro et. al., 2000, 2011). The process is carried out on a moving strand, where a previously prepared mixture of iron ore (sinter feed), fine coke or anthracite(fuel), limestone, other additives and water is continuously charged together with returned sinter from the undersize of a sieving process to form a thick bed of approximately 800 millimeters. The strand width and length depends on the capacity of the machine and varies for each steel works. Along the first meters of the strand the charge is ignited by burners of natural gas or coke oven gas. The hot gas, generated by the combustion with air, is then sucked in through the packed bed from the wind boxes equipped with blowers placed below the grate. The strand can vary from small to large machines with the area and bed height compatible with the auxiliary equipments used for suction of the outlet gas. The area of the strand and the suction power together with the bed permeability determines the maximum speed and hence, the productivity of the process. However, depending on the

Modeling Sintering Process of Iron Ore 25

Several attempts have been done to predict the final properties of the sinter product (Water et al. 1989, Kasai et al. 1989, 1991). The most important parameters are reducibility, degradability and the size distribution which influences strongly the sinter performance within the blast furnace. Waters and co-workers(Waters et al. 1989), developed a mathematical model to predict the final size distribution of the sinter product, however, as the authors pointed out, the model did not considered the kinetics of the sintering phenomena, which strongly affect the final size distribution, reducibility and degradation within the blast furnace. Kasai et al ( Kasai et al. 1989, 1991) investigated the influence of the sinter structure into the macroscopic sinter properties. In their work a detailed explanation of the sintering mechanism and particles interaction is presented to clarify the bonding forces. The authors concluded that the void fraction and specific surface area are the main parameters influencing the sinter strength. They also concluded that the significant driving forces for structural changes in the sinter are compressive and capillary ones. Akiyama et al (Akiyama et al. 1992) investigated the heat transfer properties under the sinter bed conditions and established empirical correlations for the material conductivity. The mechanism of the oxidation and bonding phase formation in the sintering process conditions were studied by Yang et al (Yang et al. 1997). Yamaoka and Kawaguchi(Yamaoka & Kawaguchi, 2005) discussed 3D variations on sinter properties produced on a pot apparatus experimental facility and presented a mathematical model based on transport

Fig. 2. Thermal cycle of the materials in the sinter strand.

selected operational parameters and raw materials the quality of the sinter produced can vary widely and can strongly effects the subsequent blast furnace process operation. The combustion of fines coke or other carbonaceous materials begins at the top of the layers, and as it moves, a relative narrow band of combustion front moves down through the bed. Several chemical reactions and phase transformations take place within the bed, part of the materials melt when the local temperature reaches the melting temperature and as it moves, the re-solidification phenomenon and phase transformations occur with considerable changes on phases composition and thermo physical properties (Jeon et al. 2010, Li et al. 2010, Nakano, 2005, 2010, Kasai, 2005, 2010, akiyama et al. 1993).

Fig. 1. Schematic overview of the sinter facilities of an integrated steel works with new facilities proposed for recycling waste gas.

The partial melting and diffusion within the materials causes the particle to agglomerate forming a continuous porous sinter cake. In general, the hot gas produced during sintering can also be re-circulated for better thermal efficiency. A schematic overview of the sinter machine with recycling gas concept is shown in **Fig. 1**. In addition, in this machine concept , part of the process gas is reutilized in a pre-combustion chamber with natural gas with ignition burners to keep heat supplying on the surface of the sinter strand and enlarge the heat affected zone. The physicochemical and thermal phenomena involved in this process are complex and numerous( Nakano et al, 2010, Kamijo et al. 2009, Kasai et al. 2008, 2005). Special mention is made to the phenomena of gas flow through the porous bed, gas-solid heat transfer, drying, vaporization and several chemical reactions and phase transformations (Umekage et al. 2009, Cieplik, 2003, Cores et al. 2010).

selected operational parameters and raw materials the quality of the sinter produced can vary widely and can strongly effects the subsequent blast furnace process operation. The combustion of fines coke or other carbonaceous materials begins at the top of the layers, and as it moves, a relative narrow band of combustion front moves down through the bed. Several chemical reactions and phase transformations take place within the bed, part of the materials melt when the local temperature reaches the melting temperature and as it moves, the re-solidification phenomenon and phase transformations occur with considerable changes on phases composition and thermo physical properties (Jeon et al. 2010, Li et al.

Fig. 1. Schematic overview of the sinter facilities of an integrated steel works with new

transformations (Umekage et al. 2009, Cieplik, 2003, Cores et al. 2010).

The partial melting and diffusion within the materials causes the particle to agglomerate forming a continuous porous sinter cake. In general, the hot gas produced during sintering can also be re-circulated for better thermal efficiency. A schematic overview of the sinter machine with recycling gas concept is shown in **Fig. 1**. In addition, in this machine concept , part of the process gas is reutilized in a pre-combustion chamber with natural gas with ignition burners to keep heat supplying on the surface of the sinter strand and enlarge the heat affected zone. The physicochemical and thermal phenomena involved in this process are complex and numerous( Nakano et al, 2010, Kamijo et al. 2009, Kasai et al. 2008, 2005). Special mention is made to the phenomena of gas flow through the porous bed, gas-solid heat transfer, drying, vaporization and several chemical reactions and phase

facilities proposed for recycling waste gas.

2010, Nakano, 2005, 2010, Kasai, 2005, 2010, akiyama et al. 1993).

Fig. 2. Thermal cycle of the materials in the sinter strand.

Several attempts have been done to predict the final properties of the sinter product (Water et al. 1989, Kasai et al. 1989, 1991). The most important parameters are reducibility, degradability and the size distribution which influences strongly the sinter performance within the blast furnace. Waters and co-workers(Waters et al. 1989), developed a mathematical model to predict the final size distribution of the sinter product, however, as the authors pointed out, the model did not considered the kinetics of the sintering phenomena, which strongly affect the final size distribution, reducibility and degradation within the blast furnace. Kasai et al ( Kasai et al. 1989, 1991) investigated the influence of the sinter structure into the macroscopic sinter properties. In their work a detailed explanation of the sintering mechanism and particles interaction is presented to clarify the bonding forces. The authors concluded that the void fraction and specific surface area are the main parameters influencing the sinter strength. They also concluded that the significant driving forces for structural changes in the sinter are compressive and capillary ones. Akiyama et al (Akiyama et al. 1992) investigated the heat transfer properties under the sinter bed conditions and established empirical correlations for the material conductivity. The mechanism of the oxidation and bonding phase formation in the sintering process conditions were studied by Yang et al (Yang et al. 1997). Yamaoka and Kawaguchi(Yamaoka & Kawaguchi, 2005) discussed 3D variations on sinter properties produced on a pot apparatus experimental facility and presented a mathematical model based on transport

Modeling Sintering Process of Iron Ore 27

In this model it is assumed that the liquid phase formed will move together with the remaining solid phase due to the viscosity, thus, equations for momentum transfer and enthalpy of the solids will account for this mixture of viscous liquid and solid materials. The equations for momentum, energy and chemical species are as follows:(Austin et al., 1997,

( ) *i i ij i i ik ij* , ( ) , , *i j*, *<sup>i</sup> i l*

 <sup>−</sup> ∂ ∂ <sup>∂</sup> <sup>∂</sup> <sup>∂</sup> + = −− ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂∂

*u*

+ =

*u uu <sup>u</sup> <sup>P</sup> <sup>F</sup> t x x xx*

*k m*

*ii i i i ik i <sup>i</sup> <sup>i</sup> i l m m k k pi k m <sup>H</sup> u H <sup>k</sup> <sup>H</sup> E Hr*

−

<sup>∂</sup> <sup>∂</sup> <sup>∂</sup> <sup>∂</sup> + = ++ Δ ∂ ∂ ∂∂

*k k kj*

μ

1

=

*Nreacts*

*i j*

*n m*

∂ ∂ (2)

1

=

*Nreacts*

*M r*

(1)

(3)

Fig. 3. Multiple phases considered in the present model.

Castro et al., 2000, 2001,2002, 2005).

ρ ε ρε

 ρε

ρ ξ

( ) ( ) ,

ρ ε

∂ ∂

( ) ( ) ,

*t x*

*t x xC x*

*i i i i ik*

ρ ξ

Momentum:

Continuity:

Enthalpy balance:

phenomena to simulate the experimental conditions and draw some correlations to predict sinter properties based on model variables and measurements. However, there are few comprehensive mathematical models describing the sintering process in an industrial machine such as the usual Dwight-Lloyd process. Mitterlehner et al (Mitterlehner et al.,2004), presented a 1-D mathematical model of the sinter strand focusing on the speed of the sintering front. Cumming and Thurnlby and Nath et al(Cumming & Thurnlby 1990 and Nath et al., 1996), developed a 2-D mathematical model based on transport equations, however, their analysis considered a few chemical reactions and the rate of phase transformations were simplified. Therefore, a comprehensive mathematical model able to describe the chemical reactions coupled with momentum, energy and species transport has yet to be considered. In the present work, a three dimensional mathematical model of the sinter strand is developed based on the multiphase multi-component concept and detailed interactions between the gas and solid phases are formulated: The main features of the model are as follows: a) dynamic interaction of the gas mixture with the solids; b) overall heat transfer of all phases which accounts for convection and radiation phenomena; c) kinetics of vaporization and condensation of water; d) decomposition of carbonates; e) reduction and oxidation of the iron bearing materials; f) coke combustion and gasification; g) volatile matter evolution; h) shrinkage of the packed bed; h) partial melt and resolidification of the solids and i) phase changes to form alumina-calcium- silicates. **Figure 2** shows schematically a typical thermal cycle of the materials within the sinter strand and indicates main phenomena that occur along the sinter strand. In the present work, a comprehensive mathematical model to describe the phenomena within the sinter strand is presented. The present model differs significantly from the former ones due to the concept of multiple and coupled phenomena treatment, three -dimensional treatment of the sinter strand and detailed mechanism of chemical reactions involved in the process(Castro et al. 2005, Yamaoka et al 2005). The interphase interactions are considered via semi empirical sub-models for the momentum transfer, energy exchange due to chemical reactions, heat conduction, convection and radiation.

#### **2. Model features**

#### **2.1 Conservation equations**

In order to analyze the sintering process of an industrial strand machine, a multiphase, multi-component, three-dimensional mathematical model is proposed. The model considers the phases interacting simultaneously and the chemical species of each phase is calculated based on the chemical species conservation equations. The model concept and phase interactions are shown in **Fig. 3**. The model is based on conservation equations for mass, momentum energy(Austin et al. 1997, Castro et al. 2000, 2001, 2002, 2011) and mass fraction of chemical species of gas, solid phases: sinter feed, fine sinter(returned fine sinter), coke breeze(or other solid fuel), scales(fines of steel plant), fluxes and limestone. The liquid phase is composed of melted and formed components in the liquid phase. The re-solidified phase comprises the liquids re-solidified and phases formed during the re-solidification process. The final sinter cake will be formed by a mixture of these materials and its quality will depend upon the final compositions and volume fractions of each of these materials(Cores et al. 2010, Lv et al. 2009, Hayashi et al.2009).

phenomena to simulate the experimental conditions and draw some correlations to predict sinter properties based on model variables and measurements. However, there are few comprehensive mathematical models describing the sintering process in an industrial machine such as the usual Dwight-Lloyd process. Mitterlehner et al (Mitterlehner et al.,2004), presented a 1-D mathematical model of the sinter strand focusing on the speed of the sintering front. Cumming and Thurnlby and Nath et al(Cumming & Thurnlby 1990 and Nath et al., 1996), developed a 2-D mathematical model based on transport equations, however, their analysis considered a few chemical reactions and the rate of phase transformations were simplified. Therefore, a comprehensive mathematical model able to describe the chemical reactions coupled with momentum, energy and species transport has yet to be considered. In the present work, a three dimensional mathematical model of the sinter strand is developed based on the multiphase multi-component concept and detailed interactions between the gas and solid phases are formulated: The main features of the model are as follows: a) dynamic interaction of the gas mixture with the solids; b) overall heat transfer of all phases which accounts for convection and radiation phenomena; c) kinetics of vaporization and condensation of water; d) decomposition of carbonates; e) reduction and oxidation of the iron bearing materials; f) coke combustion and gasification; g) volatile matter evolution; h) shrinkage of the packed bed; h) partial melt and resolidification of the solids and i) phase changes to form alumina-calcium- silicates. **Figure 2** shows schematically a typical thermal cycle of the materials within the sinter strand and indicates main phenomena that occur along the sinter strand. In the present work, a comprehensive mathematical model to describe the phenomena within the sinter strand is presented. The present model differs significantly from the former ones due to the concept of multiple and coupled phenomena treatment, three -dimensional treatment of the sinter strand and detailed mechanism of chemical reactions involved in the process(Castro et al. 2005, Yamaoka et al 2005). The interphase interactions are considered via semi empirical sub-models for the momentum transfer, energy exchange due to chemical reactions, heat

In order to analyze the sintering process of an industrial strand machine, a multiphase, multi-component, three-dimensional mathematical model is proposed. The model considers the phases interacting simultaneously and the chemical species of each phase is calculated based on the chemical species conservation equations. The model concept and phase interactions are shown in **Fig. 3**. The model is based on conservation equations for mass, momentum energy(Austin et al. 1997, Castro et al. 2000, 2001, 2002, 2011) and mass fraction of chemical species of gas, solid phases: sinter feed, fine sinter(returned fine sinter), coke breeze(or other solid fuel), scales(fines of steel plant), fluxes and limestone. The liquid phase is composed of melted and formed components in the liquid phase. The re-solidified phase comprises the liquids re-solidified and phases formed during the re-solidification process. The final sinter cake will be formed by a mixture of these materials and its quality will depend upon the final compositions and volume fractions of each of these materials(Cores

conduction, convection and radiation.

et al. 2010, Lv et al. 2009, Hayashi et al.2009).

**2. Model features**

**2.1 Conservation equations**

Fig. 3. Multiple phases considered in the present model.

In this model it is assumed that the liquid phase formed will move together with the remaining solid phase due to the viscosity, thus, equations for momentum transfer and enthalpy of the solids will account for this mixture of viscous liquid and solid materials. The equations for momentum, energy and chemical species are as follows:(Austin et al., 1997, Castro et al., 2000, 2001,2002, 2005).

Momentum:

$$\frac{\partial \left(\rho\_i \varepsilon\_i u\_{i,j}\right)}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial \left(\rho\_i \varepsilon\_i u\_{i,k} u\_{i,j}\right)}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_k} = \frac{\partial}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_k} \left(\mu\_i \frac{\partial u\_{i,j}}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_k}\right) - \frac{\partial P\_i}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_j} - F\_j^{i-l} \tag{1}$$

Continuity:

$$\frac{\partial \left(\rho\_i \tilde{\xi}\_i\right)}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial \left(\rho\_i \tilde{\xi}\_i \mu\_{i,k}\right)}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_k} = \sum\_{m=1}^{N\_{\text{reactts}}} M\_m r\_m \tag{2}$$

Enthalpy balance:

$$\frac{\partial (\rho\_i \varepsilon\_i H\_i)}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial \left(\rho\_i \varepsilon\_i u\_{i,k} H\_i\right)}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_k} = \frac{\partial}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_k} \left(\frac{k\_i}{C\_{pi}} \frac{\partial H\_i}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_k}\right) + E^{i-I} + \sum\_{m=1}^{N\text{react}} \Delta H\_m \mathbf{r}\_m \tag{3}$$

Modeling Sintering Process of Iron Ore 29

reactions, respectively. The quantity *Ei-l* is the heat transfer among the phases and accounts for convective and radiation heat transfer. The gas -solids momentum interactions are represented by *Fi-l* and detailed in the following section. The complete description and unit of these variable is presented in the list of variables and symbols. The chemical species for the solid and gas phases are presented in Table 1. Detailed chemical reactions and rate equations describing the in bed conditions of iron ore are found elsewhere(Austin et al., 1997, Castro et al., 2000, 2001,2002, 2005).  Each of these components has its own particle diameter, porosity, shape factor and density. The overall heat transfer coefficient between the gas and solid phases is given by the Ranz-Marshall equation modified by Akiyama et al for moving beds and incorporated together with the interfacial area to give the overall heat transfer of solid to gas phase and vice-versa(Akiyama et al. 1993, Castro et al. 2000, Austin et

( )

ϕ

*E f T T*

<sup>−</sup> = +−

As shown in eq. 6, the gas-solid system inter-phase heat transfer is given by the product of the overall effective heat transfer coefficient, the interfacial area and the average temperature differences of the solid particles and gas phase. The average solids and gas temperatures used in Eq. 6 are calculated by solving **eq. (7)** for each phase, with the temperatures of each phase as incognita(Yamaoka et al. 2005, Castro et al. 2005, Nakano et

> ( ) ( ) *i i <sup>p</sup> i i <sup>n</sup> <sup>n</sup> h C T dT* = ε

Where the quantities on the integral relation are averaged for each solid component and the component enthalpy is obtained by solving **eq. 3**, assuming that all solid and liquids

 φ

(7)

2 0.39 Re Pr *g s <sup>m</sup> <sup>g</sup>*

*k*

<sup>−</sup> <sup>−</sup>

 = + <sup>−</sup> <sup>−</sup> − −

( ) ( ) ( ) <sup>150</sup>

 ν

(6)

 νϕ

1 1

(5)

is the phase velocity vector, µg is gas dynamic viscosity and ρg the gas density

( )( ) ( ) 6(1 ) 1/2 1/3

*m gs g g s*

νϕ

**2.2 Momentum and energy transfer**

particles). *U*

al., 2010, Kamijo et al. 2009)

1.75

ρ

al. 1997, Castro et al. 2002, 2005, Yamaoka et al. 2005)

ν

ϕ

*<sup>m</sup> m m m mm*

*<sup>d</sup> f d*

The chemical species are individually considered within the phase, for gas, or components of the solid or liquid phases as presented in Eq. 4.:

$$\frac{\partial \left(\rho\_i \varepsilon\_i \phi\_n\right)}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial \left(\rho\_i \varepsilon\_i u\_{i,k} \phi\_n\right)}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_k} = \frac{\partial}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_k} \left(D\_n^{eff} \frac{\partial \phi\_n}{\partial \mathbf{x}\_k}\right) + \sum\_{m=1}^{N \text{reactts}} M\_m \mathbf{r}\_m \tag{4}$$

Table 1. Phases and chemical species considered in the model.

Where indexes *i* and *l* represent the phases*, j* and *k* are the indexes for coordinates component direction *n* is chemical species and *m* the indicator of the reactions*, M* is the molecular weight of the species*, P* is phase pressure, *F* is component of momentum interactions among the phases and *r* is the rate of chemical reactions*. ρ,ε,Cp, k and ∆H* are phase density, volume fractions, heat capacity, heat conductivity and heat due to chemical

The chemical species are individually considered within the phase, for gas, or components

*iin i i ik n eff <sup>n</sup> <sup>n</sup> n m k kk m*

1

=

*Nreacts*

*D M r*

φ

N2, O2, CO,CO2, H2O, H2, SiO, SO2, CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10

Fuels C,Volatiles, H2O, Al2O3, SiO2, MnO, MgO, CaO,

Iron ore Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, Fe, H2O, Al2O3, SiO2, MnO, MgO, CaO, FeS, P2O5, K2O, Na2O

Scales C, Volatiles, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, Fe, H2O, Al2O3,

CaO, H2O, Al2O3, SiO2, MnO, MgO, TiO2

Sinter cake Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, Fe, H2O, Al2O3, SiO2, MnO,

Fe2Cl6H12O6, Ca2Fe3O5, Al2MgO4

Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, Fe, H2O, Al2O3, SiO2, MnO, MgO, CaO, FeS, P2O5, K2O, Na2O, Ca2Fe3O5,

SiO2, MnO, MgO, CaO, FeS, P2O5, K2O, Na2O,

Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, Fe, H2O, Al2O3, SiO2, MnO, MgO, CaO, FeS, P2O5, K2O, Na2O, Ca2Fe3O5,

MgO, CaO, FeS, P2O5, K2O, Na2O, Ca2Fe3O5,

FeS, P2O5, K2O, Na2O, S2

Al2MgO4

Al2MgO4

Al2MgO4

Where indexes *i* and *l* represent the phases*, j* and *k* are the indexes for coordinates component direction *n* is chemical species and *m* the indicator of the reactions*, M* is the molecular weight of the species*, P* is phase pressure, *F* is component of momentum interactions among the phases and *r* is the rate of chemical reactions*. ρ,ε,Cp, k and ∆H* are phase density, volume fractions, heat capacity, heat conductivity and heat due to chemical

+= + ∂ ∂ ∂∂ (4)

of the solid or liquid phases as presented in Eq. 4.:

ρεφ

Momentum u , u ,u ,P , 1,g 2,g 3,gggε

Momentum u , u ,u ,P , 1,s 2,s 3,s s s ε

Return Sinter (bed)

Fused Materials

Fluxing agent

Table 1. Phases and chemical species considered in the model.

Equations of the gas phase

Chemical Species

Chemical Species

Equations of the solid phase

Energy hg

Energy hs

Gas

Solid

( ) ( ) ,

*u*

ρε

*t x xx*

 φ

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂

reactions, respectively. The quantity *Ei-l* is the heat transfer among the phases and accounts for convective and radiation heat transfer. The gas -solids momentum interactions are represented by *Fi-l* and detailed in the following section. The complete description and unit of these variable is presented in the list of variables and symbols. The chemical species for the solid and gas phases are presented in Table 1. Detailed chemical reactions and rate equations describing the in bed conditions of iron ore are found elsewhere(Austin et al., 1997, Castro et al., 2000, 2001,2002, 2005). Several authors have assessed particular phenomena and rate equations for interphase interactions and sintering process(Lv et. al., 2009, Kasai et. al, 2005, Jeon et al., 2010, Li et al.,2010, Nakano et al. 2005, 2009, 2010).

#### **2.2 Momentum and energy transfer**

The momentum transfer between the solid and gas are modeled based on the modified Ergun's equation as follows: (Castro et. al. 2005, Cumming et. al, 1990, Nath et al. 1997)

$$\bar{F}\_{\mathcal{S}}^{s} = \sum\_{m} f\_{m} \left| 1.75 \rho\_{\mathcal{S}} + \frac{150 \mu\_{\mathcal{S}}}{\left| \vec{\mathcal{U}}\_{\mathcal{S}} - \vec{\mathcal{U}}\_{s} \right|} \left( \frac{\nu\_{m}}{(1 - \nu\_{m}) d\_{m} \rho\_{m}} \right) \right| \left( \frac{\nu\_{m}}{(1 - \nu\_{m}) d\_{m} \rho\_{m}} \right) \left( \vec{\mathcal{U}}\_{\mathcal{S}} - \vec{\mathcal{U}}\_{s} \right) \tag{5}$$

Where *f* is the phase component volume fraction and ν is the phase component bulk void fractions, d is the average diameter of the phase component and φ is the shape factor (*m*=sinter feed, coke, limestone, mushy zone of liquid and solids, re-solidified and fines particles). *U* is the phase velocity vector, µg is gas dynamic viscosity and ρg the gas density given by the ideal gas state relationship. Each of these components has its own particle diameter, porosity, shape factor and density. The overall heat transfer coefficient between the gas and solid phases is given by the Ranz-Marshall equation modified by Akiyama et al for moving beds and incorporated together with the interfacial area to give the overall heat transfer of solid to gas phase and vice-versa(Akiyama et al. 1993, Castro et al. 2000, Austin et al. 1997, Castro et al. 2002, 2005, Yamaoka et al. 2005)

$$E^{\mathcal{S}^{-s}} = \sum\_{m} f\_m \frac{6(1 - \nu\_m)}{d\_m \varphi\_m} \frac{k\_{\mathcal{S}}}{\sum f\_m (d\_m \varphi\_m)} \left[ 2 + 0.39 \left( \text{Re}\_{\mathcal{S}^{-s}} \right)^{1/2} \left( \text{Pr}\_{\mathcal{S}} \right)^{1/3} \right] \left( T\_{\mathcal{S}} - T\_s \right) \tag{6}$$

As shown in eq. 6, the gas-solid system inter-phase heat transfer is given by the product of the overall effective heat transfer coefficient, the interfacial area and the average temperature differences of the solid particles and gas phase. The average solids and gas temperatures used in Eq. 6 are calculated by solving **eq. (7)** for each phase, with the temperatures of each phase as incognita(Yamaoka et al. 2005, Castro et al. 2005, Nakano et al., 2010, Kamijo et al. 2009)

$$\mathcal{H}\_i = \int\_n \varepsilon\_i \left( \mathbf{C}\_p(T\_i) \phi \right)\_n dT\_i \tag{7}$$

Where the quantities on the integral relation are averaged for each solid component and the component enthalpy is obtained by solving **eq. 3**, assuming that all solid and liquids

Modeling Sintering Process of Iron Ore 31

 = =

g ,g , g

γ χ

γ λ

*j jj j jj jj*

∈

,g

=

 λλ

*j*

0.0018583 10

σ

γ

g

, χ

The binary diffusivity of the gas species is calculated by:

*j k*

*D*

And the parameters are calculated as follows:

Where kboltzmann is the Boltzmann constant,

With

23 as a function of gas enthalpy and composition.

*H*

φ

∈

∈

λ ( ) ( ) ,g

( ) ( )

/ / *j j*

,g

{ ( )( ) }

1/2

*T*

*P*

 σσ

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ave 0.15610 1.06036 0.19300 1.03587 1.76474 *<sup>T</sup>* exp 0.47635 exp 1.5299 exp 3.89411 *TT T* ∗∗ ∗ <sup>∗</sup> Ω= + + + (20)

*<sup>T</sup>*<sup>∗</sup> <sup>=</sup> <sup>∈</sup>

Boltzmann g ave *k T*

σ

*T*

*H C T dT*

( ) <sup>g</sup>

(23)

( ) <sup>2</sup> *C T a bT cT Pj j j j* , <sup>−</sup> =+ + (24)

colliding gas species(Reid et al. 1988, Bird et al., 1960). The gas temperature is defined by Eq.

298 g ,g ,g , g 298

*K j j p j j K*

= Δ+

*jj j*

( )

/101325

g ave ave

1 1

*M M*

σ

ave = + 0.5( ) *<sup>j</sup> <sup>k</sup>* (19)

∈ = ∈∈ ave *<sup>j</sup> <sup>k</sup>* (22)

*M M*

,g

φ

φ

g

<sup>4</sup> , <sup>2</sup>

− <sup>+</sup> = ×

*j k T*

∈

*jj*

λ μ *k*

<sup>2</sup> 1/4

*j jj* = +1/ / *j jj jj j M M* (17)

(15)

(16)

Ω (18)

(21)

and ∈ are characteristics constants of the

, *j j*

components moves with the same velocity, although solid particles can assumes different temperatures depending on the heat exchanged with gas, chemical reactions and other particles.

#### **2.3 Calculations of phase properties**

The volume fractions occupied by each solid component are calculated based on empirical correlations solely dependent on the individual mean solid diameters as in eqs. 8 and 9.(Austin et al. 1997, Castro et al. 2005)

$$\begin{aligned} \varepsilon\_{\text{coke}} &= \left[ 0.153 \log \left( d\_{\text{coke}} \right) + 0.724 \right] \end{aligned} \tag{8}$$

$$
\varepsilon\_m = 0.403 \left[ 100 d\_m \right]^{0.14} \qquad \text{(\$m = \text{sinter feed, sinter, fines, scales)}} \tag{9}
$$

The properties of the gas and solid phases are calculated considering the mixture rule based on the properties of the pure components. The density of the gas phase is calculated by using the ideal gas law.

$$\rho\_{\text{g}} = \frac{P\_{\text{g}}}{RT\_{\text{g}}} \sum \phi\_{j,\text{g}} M\_j \tag{10}$$

Where j stands for gas species. Pure component viscosities are calculated from statistical mechanical theories as follows:( Reid et al. 1988, Bird et al., 1960)

$$
\mu\_{\rm g} = 2.6693 \times 10^{-6} \frac{1}{\Omega\_{\mu,j}} \sqrt{\frac{M\_j T\_{\rm g}}{\sigma\_j}} \tag{11}
$$

With the parameters given by:

$$\Omega\_{\mu,j} = \frac{1.16145}{\left(T^\*\right)^{0.14874}} + \frac{0.52487}{\exp\left(0.77320T^\*\right)} + \frac{2.16178}{\exp\left(2.43787T^\*\right)}\tag{12}$$

$$T^\* = \frac{k\_{\text{Boltzmanum}} T\_{\text{g}}}{\epsilon\_j} \tag{13}$$

Pure thermal conductivities are calculated using Eucken's polyatomic gas approximation (Wilke, 1950, Neufeld et al, 1972).

$$k\_j = M\_j \left( C\_{P,j} + \frac{5R}{4M\_j} \right) \tag{14}$$

The gas phase viscosity and thermal conductivity are calculated from pure components using Wilke's method (Wilke, 1950).

components moves with the same velocity, although solid particles can assumes different temperatures depending on the heat exchanged with gas, chemical reactions and other

The volume fractions occupied by each solid component are calculated based on empirical correlations solely dependent on the individual mean solid diameters as in eqs. 8 and

*m m* = = 0.403 100 ( sinter feed, sinter, fines, scales) *d m*

The properties of the gas and solid phases are calculated considering the mixture rule based on the properties of the pure components. The density of the gas phase is calculated by

> g g ,g g

*P*

*RT*

<sup>−</sup> = ×

ρ

*j j*

 φ

Where j stands for gas species. Pure component viscosities are calculated from statistical

<sup>1</sup> 2.6693 10 *<sup>j</sup>*

( ) ( ) ( ) , 0.14874 1.16145 0.52487 2.16178 exp 0.77320 exp 2.43787 *<sup>j</sup> T T T*

> Boltzmann g *j k T*

∗ ∗ ∗

Pure thermal conductivities are calculated using Eucken's polyatomic gas approximation

,

The gas phase viscosity and thermal conductivity are calculated from pure components

4 *j j Pj*

*<sup>R</sup> k MC*

5

 = +

*M*

*j*

*<sup>T</sup>*<sup>∗</sup> <sup>=</sup> <sup>∈</sup>

*M*

6 g

*j j*

Ω= + + (12)

*M T*

σ

,

μ

= + 0.153log 0.724 *<sup>d</sup>* (8)

<sup>=</sup> (10)

Ω (11)

(13)

(14)

(9)

( ) coke coke

ε

[ ]0.14

mechanical theories as follows:( Reid et al. 1988, Bird et al., 1960)

g

μ

particles.

**2.3 Calculations of phase properties**

9.(Austin et al. 1997, Castro et al. 2005)

ε

using the ideal gas law.

With the parameters given by:

(Wilke, 1950, Neufeld et al, 1972).

using Wilke's method (Wilke, 1950).

μ

$$\mathcal{A}\_{\mathcal{S}} = \sum\_{j \in \mathcal{g}} \left| \frac{\mathcal{Y}\_{j, \mathcal{G}} \mathcal{A}\_j}{\sum\_{j \in \mathcal{g}} \left( \mathcal{Y}\_{j|, \mathcal{G}} \mathcal{X}\_{j, \mathcal{G}} \right)} \right| \text{ ( $\mathcal{A} = \mu$   $\boldsymbol{k}$ )}\tag{15}$$

$$\mathcal{Y}\_{\mathbf{j},\mathbf{g}} = \frac{\left(\phi\_{\mathbf{j},\mathbf{g}} \;/\; M\_{\mathbf{j}}\right)}{\sum\_{\mathbf{j}\in\mathbf{g}} \left(\phi\_{\mathbf{j}\mathbf{j},\mathbf{g}} \;/\; M\_{\mathbf{j}}\right)}\tag{16}$$

$$\mathcal{Z}\_{j,\bar{j}\bar{j}} = \left[1 + \left(\mathcal{A}\_{\bar{j}} \;/\; \mathcal{A}\_{\bar{j}\bar{j}}\right) \left(M\_{\bar{j}\bar{j}} \;/\; M\_{\bar{j}}\right)^{1/4}\right]^2 \tag{17}$$

The binary diffusivity of the gas species is calculated by:

$$D\_{j,k}^T = 0.0018583 \times 10^{-4} \frac{T^{1/2} \sqrt{\left(\frac{1}{M\_j}\right) + \left(\frac{1}{M\_k}\right)}}{\left(P\_\emptyset / 101325\right) \sigma\_{\text{ave}}^2 \Omega\_{\text{ave}}} \tag{18}$$

And the parameters are calculated as follows:

$$
\sigma\_{\text{ave}} = 0.5 \left( \sigma\_{\text{j}} + \sigma\_{k} \right) \tag{19}
$$

$$\Omega\_{\text{ave}} = \frac{1.06036}{\left(T^\*\right)^{0.15610}} + \frac{0.19300}{\exp\left(0.47635T^\*\right)} + \frac{1.03587}{\exp\left(1.5299T^\*\right)} + \frac{1.76474}{\exp\left(3.89411T^\*\right)}\tag{20}$$

$$T^\* = \frac{k\_{\text{Boltzmanum}} T\_{\text{g}}}{\epsilon\_{\text{ave}}} \tag{21}$$

$$
\epsilon\_{\text{ave}} = \sqrt{\epsilon\_j \epsilon\_k} \tag{22}
$$

Where kboltzmann is the Boltzmann constant, σ and ∈ are characteristics constants of the colliding gas species(Reid et al. 1988, Bird et al., 1960). The gas temperature is defined by Eq. 23 as a function of gas enthalpy and composition.

$$H\_{\rm g} = \sum\_{j \in \mathcal{g}} \phi\_{j, \rm g} \left[ \Delta H\_{j, \rm g}^{298K} + \int\_{298K}^{T\_{\rm g}} C\_{p, j} \left( T \right) dT \right] \tag{23}$$

With

$$\mathcal{C}\_{P,\,\,\,\,\,}\left(T\right) = a\_{\,\,\,\,\,} + b\_{\,\,\,\,\,}T + c\_{\,\,\,\,\,}T^{-2} \tag{24}$$

Modeling Sintering Process of Iron Ore 33

: particle Reynolds number, (-)

variables, (various)

*<sup>m</sup>* : solid diameter shape factor (m=sinter feed, sinter return, limestone, fines, coke, mushy

The system o f differential equations presented above are completed with their initial and boundary conditions. The computational domain is defined by the region of the sinter strand for the case of the industrial scale process simulation with the above equations solved for stationary conditions. When the pot test experiment is considered, the simulations are carried out for transient calculations with a cylindrical pot of 60 cm of diameter and the height is determined in order to account for the operational conditions which reproduce the similarity of permeability and gas flow within the packed bed with the industrial machine. Regarding to the boundary and initial conditions for the solid phases, the composition, initial and inlet particle diameters, charging particle and volume fractions distributions and moisture content are specified at the charging position of the strand. The outlet boundary condition for the solid phase is assumed fully developed flow and no sleep condition is assumed at the sinter strand. The other boundaries such as lateral and bed surface are assumed zero velocities components gradient. For the energy balance equations convective and radiation coefficients are assumed for each of these surfaces. The gas inlet and outlet flow rates are determined by the pressure drop specified for each wind box determined by the blower controls and it is calculated interactively by accounting simultaneously for the mass balance and pressure drop of each wind box. The gas inlet temperature is specified at the surface of the bed and the outlet temperature are calculate by using the integral relation

φ

*i k*, : dependent variables in eq. 1, (calculated by the model), [various]

H : enthalpy of the phase(kJ kg-1)

= : Prandtl number, (-)

*d*

*<sup>m</sup>* : porosity of solid component ( m3 m-3)

: phase effective viscosity (Pa s)

**2.4 Boundary and initial conditions**

*<sup>i</sup>* : phase density (i= gas and solid), (kg m-3)

: phase volume fraction (*i*= gas and solid), (m3 m-3)

P : phase pressure (Pa)

*g*

Re *gg s g s s g U U*

T: temperature, (K)

and bonding), (-)

given by **eq.(7)**.

μ

xi: spatial coordinates,(m)

*R* : gas constant, (J mol-1 K-1)

: source or sink terms for the

ρ

 <sup>−</sup> <sup>−</sup> <sup>=</sup>

, Pr *<sup>p</sup> g g g*

*C k* μ

: phase velocity vector (i=gas and solid ), (m s-1)

*Ui*

*S*φ

φ

ϕ

ν

ρ

μ

*i* ε

t: time, (s)

The solid properties are calculated based on the solid composition and the properties of the pure components. The pure component heat capacities are modeled by a polynomial function of the temperature as follows:

$$C\_{P,k} = a\_k + b\_k T\_s + \frac{c\_k}{T\_s^2} \tag{25}$$

$$\mathbf{C}\_{P,s} = \sum\_{k \in s} \mathbf{C}\_{P,k} \boldsymbol{\phi}\_{k,s} \tag{26}$$

$$H\_s = \sum\_{k \in s} \phi\_k \left[ \Delta H\_k^{298K} + \int\_{298K}^{T\_s} C\_{P,k}(T)dT \right] \tag{27}$$

The solid conductivity is modified to take into account the intra-bed radiation and boundary layer convection( Akiyama et al. 1992, Reid et al. 1988, Bird et al., 1960).

$$k\_{\rm s,eff} = \left(1 - \varepsilon\_{\rm s}\right)\left(k\_{\rm g} + a\right) + \varepsilon\_{\rm s} \left[\frac{2}{3k\_{\rm s}} + \left(\frac{k\_{\rm g}}{0.274} + b\right)^{-1}\right]^{-1} \tag{28}$$

And the constants are given by:

$$a = \alpha \left[ 1 + \left( \frac{1 - \varepsilon\_s}{\varepsilon\_s} \right) \left( \frac{1 - e\_s}{2e\_s} \right) \right]^{-1} \tag{29}$$

Where es is the solid components emissivity, assumed 0.9 for iron bearing materials and 0.8 for coke breeze and anthracite throughout the calculations carried out in this study.

$$b = \alpha \left(\frac{e\_s}{2 - e\_s}\right) \tag{30}$$

$$\alpha = 0.1952 d\_s \left(\frac{T\_s}{100}\right)^3 \left(\frac{4.184}{3600}\right) \tag{31}$$

In the above equations the following nomenclature and Greek symbols are used:

A: surface area, (m2 m-3 )

*Cp* : heat capacity, (J kg-1 K-1)

*dm* : solid component diameter, (m)

*<sup>s</sup> d* : solid phase mean diameter, (m)

*<sup>s</sup> Fg* : interaction force on solid phase due to gas phase, (Nm-3 s-1)

*fm* : solid component volume fraction (m=sinter feed, sinter return, limestone, fines, coke breeze, mushy and bonding phases), (m3 m-3)

H : enthalpy of the phase(kJ kg-1)

*Ui* : phase velocity vector (i=gas and solid ), (m s-1)

P : phase pressure (Pa)

32 Sintering – Methods and Products

The solid properties are calculated based on the solid composition and the properties of the pure components. The pure component heat capacities are modeled by a polynomial

, s 2

,s , ,s s *P Pk k k C C*

∈

*K k k P k k K H H C T dT*

The solid conductivity is modified to take into account the intra-bed radiation and boundary

*s*

=− ++ + +

 ε

1 1 <sup>1</sup>

ε

for coke breeze and anthracite throughout the calculations carried out in this study.

In the above equations the following nomenclature and Greek symbols are used:

*<sup>e</sup> <sup>b</sup>*

α

ε

Where es is the solid components emissivity, assumed 0.9 for iron bearing materials and 0.8

<sup>−</sup> − − = +

> s <sup>s</sup> 2

<sup>=</sup> <sup>−</sup>

<sup>s</sup> <sup>s</sup> 4.184 0.1952

*fm* : solid component volume fraction (m=sinter feed, sinter return, limestone, fines, coke

*T*

*e*

3

100 3600

=Δ+

*Pk k k <sup>c</sup> C a bT*

<sup>298</sup> s , s 298

φ

∈

layer convection( Akiyama et al. 1992, Reid et al. 1988, Bird et al., 1960).

( )( )

α

ε

*a*

α

*<sup>s</sup> Fg* : interaction force on solid phase due to gas phase, (Nm-3 s-1)

<sup>2</sup> <sup>1</sup>

*k ka b*

s,eff s g

s *k*

( )

*g*

1

*<sup>d</sup>* <sup>=</sup> (31)

<sup>−</sup> <sup>−</sup>

*k*

(27)

=+ + (25)

<sup>=</sup> (26)

<sup>1</sup> <sup>1</sup>

(28)

(29)

(30)

*T*

φ

s

s

2 *s s s s*

*e*

*e*

*k*

3 0.274

*T*

function of the temperature as follows:

And the constants are given by:

A: surface area, (m2 m-3 ) *Cp* : heat capacity, (J kg-1 K-1)

*dm* : solid component diameter, (m) *<sup>s</sup> d* : solid phase mean diameter, (m)

breeze, mushy and bonding phases), (m3 m-3)

$$\text{Pr}\_{\mathcal{S}} = \frac{\text{C}\_{p,\mathcal{S}}\mu\_{\mathcal{S}}}{k\_{\mathcal{S}}} : \text{Prandtl number, (-)}$$

$$\text{R}\_{\mathcal{S}} \mid\_{\text{H}} \quad \rightarrow \quad \|\cdot\| $$

$$\text{Re}\_{\mathcal{g}-\mathcal{s}} = \frac{\rho\_{\mathcal{g}} \left| \mathcal{U}\_{\mathcal{g}} - \mathcal{U}\_{\mathcal{s}} \right|}{\mu\_{\mathcal{g}}} d\_{\mathcal{s}} \text{ : particle Reynolds number, (-)}$$

*R* : gas constant, (J mol-1 K-1)

*S*φ : source or sink terms for the φvariables, (various)

xi: spatial coordinates,(m)

t: time, (s)

T: temperature, (K)

φ*i k*, : dependent variables in eq. 1, (calculated by the model), [various]

ϕ*<sup>m</sup>* : solid diameter shape factor (m=sinter feed, sinter return, limestone, fines, coke, mushy and bonding), (-)

ν*<sup>m</sup>* : porosity of solid component ( m3 m-3)

ρ*<sup>i</sup>* : phase density (i= gas and solid), (kg m-3)

μ: phase effective viscosity (Pa s)

*i* ε: phase volume fraction (*i*= gas and solid), (m3 m-3)

#### **2.4 Boundary and initial conditions**

The system o f differential equations presented above are completed with their initial and boundary conditions. The computational domain is defined by the region of the sinter strand for the case of the industrial scale process simulation with the above equations solved for stationary conditions. When the pot test experiment is considered, the simulations are carried out for transient calculations with a cylindrical pot of 60 cm of diameter and the height is determined in order to account for the operational conditions which reproduce the similarity of permeability and gas flow within the packed bed with the industrial machine. Regarding to the boundary and initial conditions for the solid phases, the composition, initial and inlet particle diameters, charging particle and volume fractions distributions and moisture content are specified at the charging position of the strand. The outlet boundary condition for the solid phase is assumed fully developed flow and no sleep condition is assumed at the sinter strand. The other boundaries such as lateral and bed surface are assumed zero velocities components gradient. For the energy balance equations convective and radiation coefficients are assumed for each of these surfaces. The gas inlet and outlet flow rates are determined by the pressure drop specified for each wind box determined by the blower controls and it is calculated interactively by accounting simultaneously for the mass balance and pressure drop of each wind box. The gas inlet temperature is specified at the surface of the bed and the outlet temperature are calculate by using the integral relation given by **eq.(7)**.

Modeling Sintering Process of Iron Ore 35

a) 5 cm b) 35 cm c) 75 cm

d) 5 cm e) 35 cm f) 75 cm

Fig. 4. Comparison of temperature predictions and measurements for the pot test experiment (a-c: actual operation technique and d-f: gas recycling and pre combustion of natural gas).

#### **2.5 Numerical features**

The multiphase model is composed of a set of partial differential equations that can only be solved by numerical method due to their nonlinearities on the boundary, initial and source terms. In this work, the set of differential equations described above is discretised by using the finite volume method and the resulting algebraic equations are solved by the iterative procedure using the line by line method combined with the tri-diagonal matrix solver algorithm(Melaaen,1992, and Karki & Patankar, 1988). In this paper, the numerical grid used to simulate the pot test uses 32x8x16 = 4096 control volumes in cylindrical coordinate system while the industrial strand of the sinter machine was discretised based on the Cartesian coordinate system with 11x140x16 = 24640 control volumes. The numerical convergence was accepted for tolerance of the order of 10-6 for the velocity and temperature fields, meanwhile, for the chemical species the overall mass balance was accepted less than 1% for all chemical species calculated.

#### **3. Results and discussions**

#### **3.1 Model validation**

The model constructed was validated by using the pot test results for reproducing an actual sinter operation of average 37100 kg m-2 per day of productivity. The gas temperatures and compositions were recorded by using thermocouples and chromatography analysis. The temperature measurements carried out were averaged and plotted for intervals of 3 minutes within the sinter bed at 50, 350 and 750 mm, respectively, from the top to the bottom of the pot. The gas composition was measured at the outlet. The composition of the raw materials used for predicting both, pot experiments and industrial operations, is shown in **Table 2**. **Figure 4** shows the comparison of temperature measurements and model predictions of the pot experiment representing an actual operation (a-c) and for gas recycling of 10% on the first 10 wind boxes and pre-combustion with natural gas using pilot burners (d-f). As can be observed, the calculated results presented very good agreement with the measured values. Actually, these cases of calculations were used as base cases for the calculations of the industrial operations conditions. **Figure 5** shows vertical temperature profiles measured and predicted by the model at 5, 15 and 30 minutes, respectively. As can be seen in **Fig 5** a-c the calculated results are also very close to the measured ones at the top, meddle and bottom of the pot reactor.

Table 2. Chemical compositions of the raw materials used.

The multiphase model is composed of a set of partial differential equations that can only be solved by numerical method due to their nonlinearities on the boundary, initial and source terms. In this work, the set of differential equations described above is discretised by using the finite volume method and the resulting algebraic equations are solved by the iterative procedure using the line by line method combined with the tri-diagonal matrix solver algorithm(Melaaen,1992, and Karki & Patankar, 1988). In this paper, the numerical grid used to simulate the pot test uses 32x8x16 = 4096 control volumes in cylindrical coordinate system while the industrial strand of the sinter machine was discretised based on the Cartesian coordinate system with 11x140x16 = 24640 control volumes. The numerical convergence was accepted for tolerance of the order of 10-6 for the velocity and temperature fields, meanwhile, for the chemical species the overall mass balance was accepted less than