The third phase of the peace process represents the institutionalization of its protracted nature, since the turn of the twenty-frst century immediately followed the confict's 50th anniversary1 (Chap. 7). First, the contemporary phase of the peace process was developed in the aftermath of the failure of the Oslo Agreements. As my analysis shows, the dying peace process among political elites, accompanied by an astonishing lack of results although characterized by the maintenance of the idea that 'peace is in process', has actually been responsible for the normalization of confict, the deepening of the status quo and an accentuated asymmetry of power between the two parties. Indeed, this is one of the characteristics of a protracted peace process, as explained in Chap. 2: the asymmetric fostering of the most powerful party to a confict, since it promotes the continuation, normalization and even deepening of the status quo while 'ongoing negotiations' are taking place. By failing to involve society at large in the peace process, the failures associated with the Oslo Process have raised even more doubts, fears and feelings of insecurity that have amplifed the negative reaction to its failure. The Palestinian historian and Edward Said Professor of Arab Studies at Columbia University, Rashid Khalidi, expressed this idea with great precision: "[...] while the cumbersome wheels of the 'peace process' never ceased to turn, these accords gravely

1As concerns this book, the Israeli-Palestinian confict began in 1947. Accordingly, I also consider the beginning of the peace process to be the approval of the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181 (II) in 1947. One of Chap. 4's key arguments is for this characterization of the confict. For a complete chronology of the Israeli-Palestinian protracted peace process, see Appendix A of this book.

exacerbated the deepest problems between the two sides" (Khalidi 2013: 65).

In this context, one of the fndings of the analysis is that, although dehumanization processes were neither created by nor originated from the peace process, some of its policies, as well as the protracted nature it has assumed, have collaborated to exacerbate several dimensions of dehumanization.2 These dimensions are manifested in (1) conficting narratives about the past; (2) the denial of identity; (3) the normalization of confict, which has led to the reinforcement of cultural violence and, therefore, (4) episodic manifestations of direct violence. Some of these were already existing dynamics that have developed within the historical relationship between the two peoples. But others, such as the denial of identity expressed by the late recognition of the Palestinian identity, were in fact actively promoted by the peace process. Its protracted nature has also contributed, if not directly then at least by omission, to the reinforcement of other dimensions of dehumanization, such as the construction of conficting narratives about the past, due to political elites' instrumental use of the peace process as an arena to promote the recognition and legitimization of their discourses and interests through their own representations of the process. Over time, the protracted peace process and its dynamics have also added new grievances to the already existing ones, also serving as a new arena for confict and functioning as another feature of dispute between the parties.

For this reason, this research places protracted peace processes in the center of the cycle of protractedness. When the idea of a process gains primacy over the objective of peace, protracted peace processes might delay peace insofar as the façade of a predisposition for peace might beneft the stronger side of the confict and contribute to the normalization of said confict and the deepening of the status quo.3 It makes people lose confdence in the peace process or even creates the idea that peace is not possible. As such, it might further consolidate meanings such as enmity and confict.

As this book shows, the balance between the coexistence of peace and violence, reconciliation and dehumanization is expressed in the form of a cycle that represents the central dynamics allowing for the perpetuation of

2 See Table 3.1 of Chap. 3.

3For more on the characteristics and attributes of protracted peace processes, see Table 2.1 of Chap. 2.

the confict.4 Thus, the graphic representation of a cycle is the more adequate one to portray the contradiction between the existence of a peace process and the increase of violence. On the one hand, when peace processes fail to achieve peace, they might contribute to the development of new grievances and meanings such as dehumanization affecting identity in a negative way and leading to the increase of violence. On the other hand, when peace processes contribute to the increase of violence, the cycle points that walking in the direction of peace means dealing with identity issues in a positive way, leading to peace-less reconciliation in ongoing conficts.

By mapping the literature and policies connected to peace processes, this book concludes that they operate mainly at the level of political elites, which reinforces divisions within and between societies, since violence and identity in confict situations are co-constitutive. In doing so, peace processes might contribute to social detachment by failing to address the role of issues such as the constant construction and reshaping of identities that lead to processes of dehumanizing the 'other' in scenarios of protracted conficts. When this happens, the potential for instability and violence increases, causing a disconnection between the peace efforts that are made from the top-down perspective and the willingness for such transformations concerning the mid-range and grassroots levels of society. In other words, if the affected societies are not prepared for such peace, any effort at the top will encounter major obstacles for its implementation, as it might not be consistent with the reality on the ground, creating and perpetuating the cycle of protractedness.

However, it would be misleading to fnish my analysis with these conclusions alone. As shown throughout all chapters of Part II, the protracted nature of the peace process has also been responsible for the development of parallel deeds and initiatives connected to said process, if not assumedly, at least as collateral effects. These have developed due to the need to mitigate the manifestations of the confict, as well as to provide assistance to the affected populations over time. These have contributed, although still in minor scale, to counteracting the already mentioned dimensions of dehumanization. Part II also shows that, although reconciliation in the frst phase of the peace process was restricted to providing space for political elites to meet and negotiate cease-fre agreements, from the 1990s onward, a new dynamic has emerged in the confict. Several NGOs, CSOs

4 See Fig. 3.1 of Chap. 3.

and individual initiatives have fourished in the context of the Oslo Era and, notwithstanding its failure, they have even intensifed in the turn of the twenty-frst century. These initiatives can be connected to the peace process insofar as they are fnanced and encouraged by the main actors and institutions connected to said process (for instance, the EU and some of its isolated countries, the UN, the USAID and others). By acting from within and in the context of the Israeli and Palestinian societies, these initiatives have the potential to transform narratives, create shared memories and promote peace education, thus impacting the dimensions of identity that are affected by cultural violence and, therefore, counteracting dehumanization. Some contemporary projects and initiatives are explored in Chap. 7 as a way to draw lessons for peace-less reconciliation dynamics.

Finally, and taking a more normative stance, the conclusions of this book point to policies and practices regarding the Israeli-Palestinian case and other situations of protracted conficts that emphasize the dimensions that favor reconciliation and others that reinforce dehumanization, what might contribute to the thought and practice about peace processes by way of lessons learned. This book enhances scholarship by contributing to debates dealing with the development and application of the concepts of peace, violence and reconciliation, as well as the development and incorporation of the concept of dehumanization in the framework of protracted conficts. Consequently, it sheds light on the need to re-historicize a dimension of identity obscured and forgotten, and which is a central feature sustaining some conficts. By investigating the deepest effects of confict and protracted conficts within society, it also contributes to existing efforts to understand the social dynamics that enable the perpetuation of confict over time. Nevertheless, it still leaves some avenues for future research open. First, further research is needed to apply this framework to other cases of protracted conficts that count on equally protracted peace processes to check the relationship between said processes and the protracted nature of confict. Also, further research should incorporate additional characteristics and refne the concept of protracted peace process and its consequences by evaluating other cases. The incorporation of the concept of dehumanization into protracted confict analysis should also be tested, not only on cases of international conficts but also on other identity conficts, as well as the coexisting dynamics between dehumanization and peace-less reconciliation. Cross-case comparison can help to clarify further the concepts and its associated dimensions and manifestations. Finally, the development of the idea of peace-less reconciliation can contribute to advancing the debate on the concept and practices of reconciliation in ongoing conficts.

## References

Bruneau, Emile; Kteily, Nour (2017) "The enemy as animal: Symmetric dehumanization during asymmetric warfare" *Plos One.* 12 (7): 1–20.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made.

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# Appendix A: Chronology of the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process from 1947 to 20221

# From the Partition Plan to the First Intifada (1947 to 1987)

1947—Partition Plan (UNGA RES181, November 29)

1948—Proclamation of Independence of the State of Israel (May 14, 1948)

First Arab Israeli War (1948–1949) UN RES212 Assistance to Palestinian refugees UN RES194 repatriation of refugees and internationalization of Jerusalem

1This chronology was elaborated using, among others, the following sources: Ilan Pappé's *History of Modern Palestine* (2010); Walter Laqueur and Barry Rubin's *The Israel-Arab Reader: a documentary history of the Middle East confict* (2008); Rashid Khalidi's *Palestinian Identity: the construction of modern national consciousness* (1997); Charles D. Smith's *Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Confict: a history with documents* (2010); and Avi Shlaim's *Israel and Palestine: reappraisals, revisions, refutations* (2010); as well as sources from the UNISPAL documents Centre; UNISPAL developments related to the Middle East Peace Process; UN website sources; data from OCHAOPt reports, fact sheets, statements and press releases; other websites and media.

© The Author(s) 2023 J. Ricarte, *The Impact of Protracted Peace Processes on Identities in Confict*, Rethinking Peace and Confict Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16567-2

233

1949—Armistice agreement signed between Israel and the Arab states (apart from Iraq)

1950—Tripartite declaration by USA, Britain and France recognizes fnal borders in the Middle East

1956—Suez Crisis (1956–1957)

Eisenhower Campaign (Cold War between Nasser and the West) 1964—PLO founded

1965—The Fatah founded

1967—Six Day War

UN adopts UNSC RES 242

1969—Civil war between Jordanian army and the PLO

Nasser dies

Beginning of direct involvement of the USA in solving the conficts of the Middle East

1972—Husayn plan for federation between Palestine and Jordan 1973—Yom Kippur or October War

## UN adopts UNSC RES 338

1974—UN includes Palestine on its agenda and invites PLO as observer

1975—Arafat addresses UN General Assembly

First disengagement agreement between Israel and Egypt

Partial Israeli withdrawal in Palestine

UN General Assembly adopts a resolution (rescinded in 1991) that describes Zionism as a form of racism.

1976—Land Day

1977—Likud (Menachen Begin) comes to power in Israel and the PLO is declared a subversive movement

The expansion of settlements in the Occupied Territories begin 1978—Camp David Accords (peace treaty between Israel and Egypt brokered by the US)

Peace Now movement founded in Israel 1982—Operation 'Peace for the Galilee'—Israeli invasion of Lebanon (PLO)

Massacre of Sabra and Shatila The Reagan Plan

1985—Agreement between PLO and Jordan (the latter represented the Palestinians)

1987—First Intifada 1988—Hamas founded

Palestinian Declaration of Independence 1989—Collapse of USSR

# The Oslo Period (90s)

1991—Madrid conference (Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Palestine)

Gulf War

1992—The Oslo Channel (secret talks between Israel and the PLO)

Tripartite peace talks in Washington between Israel, Palestinians and Jordan 1993—Signature of the Oslo Declaration of Principles

End of First Intifada

1994—Cairo Agreement—Israeli withdrawal from most of Gaza and the West Bank and Jericho

PLO moves to Palestine and Palestinian National Authority is created with Yasser Arafat as its President

Jordan and Israel sign peace treaty

Join Nobel Prize awarded to Yitzhak Rabin, Yasser Arafat and Shimon Peres

1995—Israel and PLO sign Oslo B

Signature of the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip between Israel and the Palestinian Authority

Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin by a Jewish extremist

The Parents Circle—Family Forum founded

The Centre for Humanistic Education of the Beit Lohamei Hagetaot founded

1996—Benjamin Netanyahu elected prime minister 1997—Hebron Accords between Israel and the PA 1998—Wye River Memorandum

Twenty-First Century Peace Process (2001 to 2022)

2000—Bilateral talks between PM Ehud Barak and Yasser Arafat break down

Second Intifada

2001—Ariel Sharon (provoker of Second Intifada) elected prime minister

2002—Operation Defensive Shield launched by Israel on the West Bank 2003—Road Map for Peace—Quartet: US, EU, Russia and UN

Ariel Sharon re-elected

2004—ICJ declares the Separation Wall in the West Bank illegal

Disengagement Plan Breaking the Silence founded

2005—Israel withdraws from Gaza

Combatants for Peace founded

2006—Hamas wins Palestinian parliamentary elections

Second Israel-Lebanon War

2007—Annapolis Conference ("two-state" solution established as the basis for future talks)

2008—Israel invades Gaza in 'Cast Lead' operation

Negotiations interrupted as a consequence

2009—Barack Obama elected President of the United States with a campaign promise to resume talks between Israelis and Palestinians and to solve the confict once and for all

Settlements construction frozen for one year by US pressure

2010—"A Quest for Survival" strategy in four phases begins (Ricarte, 2013)

Direct talks resume between Israel and the Palestinian Authority but do not prevail due to the question of settlements

Gaza fotilla raid Brazil recognizes Palestinian State UNESCO accepts Palestine as a Member State Arab Spring

2011—Bilateral recognitions of the Palestinian State under de 1967 borders in Latin America

PLO formally requests the UNGA that the UNSC vote for the recognition of the Palestinian State (the request is not integrated into the Council's agenda)

2012—66th Session of the General Assembly votes for the modifcation of the PLO's status from observer entity to Non-Member Observer State

Netanyahu addresses the UNGA with a "us" and "them" discourse stating that Israel is the only Western-like liberal democracy of the Middle East Week-long Israeli military campaign 'Pillar of Defense' against Gaza

2013—Talks between Israel and the Palestinian Authority resume under US auspices but reach no conclusions

2014—Military campaign 'Protective Edge' against Gaza

Egypt brokered ceasefre

2015—Wave of violence referred by some as the Knife Intifada

Israel suspends contact with European Union offcials in talks with Palestinians over the EU decision to label Jewish imported goods from the West Bank as coming from settlements

2016—US approves 10-year military aid package to Israel worth 38 billion dollars (the largest deal of this kind in US history)

UNSC RES condemns settlement building (US abstains for the frst time) and Israel suspends relations with 12 countries that helped approve this resolution

2017—Israeli Parliament passes a law retroactively legalizing dozens of Jewish settlements built on Palestinian private land in the West Bank

2018—UN and Egypt attempt to broker a long-term cease-fre between Israel and Hamas

American Embassy moved from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem 2019—Two elections in Israel in one year

2020—US Administration revels the 'peace plan' (without the participation of the Palestinian delegation) "Peace to Prosperity: a Vision to improve the lives of the Palestinian and Israeli people"

COVID-19 pandemic defects attentions away from the Israeli-Palestinian confict and creates another humanitarian crisis in the Occupied Palestinian Territories while Israel is depicted as one of the world's successful cases of mass vaccination

2021—Israeli elections' results ends Netanyahu era through an unlikely coalition

Palestinian displacements in East Jerusalem War between Israel and Gaza

2022—Israeli court rules in favor of the eviction of about 1000 Palestinians from the West Bank for military use in the biggest expulsion decision since 1967 occupation

# Appendix B: List of interviews

Interviewee 1 (2015) Israeli Mizrahi Jew Scholar. Mizra: July 15 Interviewee 2 (2015) Former IDF Col. (res.). Mizra: July 16 Interviewee 3 (2015) Israeli-Palestinian Scholar. Mizra: July 16 Interviewee 4 (2015) Israeli Activist. Ashkelon: July 17 Interviewee 5 (2015) Israeli Druze Activist. Golan Heights: July 18 Interviewee 6 (2015) Arab-Israeli Scholar. Mizra: July 19 Interviewee 7 (2015) Israeli Ashkenazi Jew Scholar. Mizra: July 19 Interviewee 8 (2015) Israeli Lecturer and Activist. Mizra: July 21 Interviewee 9 (2015) Israeli East-European (Russian) Jew Scholar. Mizra: July 21 Interviewee 10 (2015) Israeli Scholar. Kibbutz Lohamei Hagheatot: July 22 Interviewee 11 (2015) Israeli-Palestinian Christian Scholar. Jerusalem: July 23 Interviewee 12 (2015) Israeli-Palestinian Scholar. Jerusalem: July 24 Interviewee 13 (2015) PLO Delegate. East Jerusalem: July 26 Interviewee 14 (2015) Scholar and Negotiator. Mizra: July 27 Interviewee 15 (2015) Diplomat in Ramallah. East Jerusalem: July 29 Interviewee 16 (2015) Palestinian Activist Women Committee. Sussyia: July 29

J. Ricarte, *The Impact of Protracted Peace Processes on Identities in Confict*, Rethinking Peace and Confict Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16567-2

# Appendix C: Pictures1

**Picture A1** Gaza Strip Isolation Fence. (Source: Gaza isolation fence, Ashkelon, Israel) (color online)

1All pictures reproduced in the Appendix C were taken by the author during her feldwork trips to Israel and Palestine in 2015 and 2016.

© The Author(s) 2023 241 J. Ricarte, *The Impact of Protracted Peace Processes on Identities in Confict*, Rethinking Peace and Confict Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16567-2

**Picture A2** Gaza Separation Wall "Path to Peace". (Source: Gaza Separation Wall, Netiv HaAsarah, Israel) (color online)

**Picture A3** Aida Refugee Camp Wall "We Can't Live". (Source: Separation Wall, Aida Refugee Camp, Bethlehem, Palestine) (color online)

**Picture A4** Bethlehem Separation Wall "Concrete Proof of Apartheid". (Source: Separation Wall, Bethlehem, Palestine) (color online)

**Picture A5** Haifa Landscape: Contrasts. (Source: Haifa Port, Haifa, Israel) (color online)

**Picture A6** Ramallah Landscape: Rooftop Water Tanks. (Source: Ramallah City View, Ramallah, Palestine) (color online)

**Picture A7** Movement Control "Dangerous to Your Lives". (Source: Road Sign, West Bank, West Bank, Palestine) (color online)

**Picture A8** Separation Wall Graffti. (Source: Separation Wall, Bethlehem, Palestine) (color online)

**Picture A9** Separation Wall Graffti "Make Hummus Not Walls".


**3. Coherent Absorption and Its Dynamical Control**

We experimentally investigated the behaviour of CPA in ENZ films using AZO films illuminated by two counter-propagating laser beams in a Sagnac-like interferometer configuration. Figure 3a shows a schematic of the set-up. Laser pulses (105 fs FWHM duration, repetition rate 100 Hz) are generated by an Optical Parametric Amplifier (TOPAS) in a tunable range between 1120 nm and 1500 nm. The input power is controlled through a half wave plate and a polarizing beam splitter, which also fixes the input p-polarization (horizontal in the lab frame). The beam is split by a non-polarizing beam splitter into two beams A and B with equal energy and then recombined onto the sample at normal incidence. The AZO film (deposited on a 1 mm thick glass slide) is facing the beam A, whereas the beam B is incident on the substrate side. The two beams are focused down to 50 μm by using a pair of 125 mm lenses. By moving the sample with a piezo-electric stage, interferograms are generated at the output C and D and measured with photodiodes. We used two beam splitters to extract the light from the

interferometer and send it to the photodiodes. A representative example of these interferograms are shown in Figure 3b. In order to calculate the energy visibility in the pulsed case we proceed in the same way as for the CW case, i.e. we evaluate the central portion (where the pulse intensity is maximum) of the interferogram and extrapolate the average values for maximum and minimum of the intensity.

**Figure 3.** (**a**) Schematics of the Sagnac interferometer. (**b**) An example of measurement for *λ*0 = 1280 nm, assuming energy equal to 1 at the interferometer input. The total modulation of the energy (or absorption) is given by the sum of C and D (green curve). The inset shows a zoom of the interferogram. (**c**) ellipsometer measurement of the index of refraction of AZO 900 nm thick film, (**d**) experimental (dots) and TMM simulation (solid line) of R, T and abs for the same sample.

We investigated two AZO samples of similar optical properties, i.e., *n* and *k*, in the ENZ region, but with thicknesses of 500 and 900 nm (Figure 3c). The real part of the dielectric permittivity crosses zero around 1340 nm for the 900-nm-thick film, which corresponds to where the real and imaginary part of the refractive index are equal (*n*900 = *k*900 = 0.34). For the 500-nm-thick sample the *λENZ* is redshifted by 30 nm (*n*500 = *k*500 = 0.52 at the *λENZ*) due to small differences in the material deposition. In the spectral range under analysis, *n* of the AZO 900-nm-thick film passes from close to 1 around 1100 nm to less than 0.2 for longer wavelengths. Since *λeff* = *λ*0/*n* inside the medium, the effective length (*Leff* = *L*/*λeff*) of our sample is 0.8 *λ*0 at 1050 nm, 0.21 *λ*0 at the (*λENZ* = 1350 nm, and becomes optically deeply subwavelength around 1500 nm (0.1 *λ*0 ).

We also deposited three 900-nm-thick AZO films on a glass substrate three samples with similar *n* (about 20% difference), but different value of *k* at the crossing point (*k*1 = 0.34, *k*2 = 0.30 and *k*3 = 0.27 for the 900 nm thick film). All the samples exhibit similar optical properties with an absorption close to 60% across the ENZ region (Figure 3d).

We first perform a CPA experiment for the bare glass substrate. In this case the energy modulation is almost zero for all the spectral range of interest. In Figure 4 we report the measured normalized total energy modulation visibility (red circles), together with the values predicted by the TMM (solid lines) for the AZO film. All the samples show the same trend independently from the thickness. In the case of high optical losses, for the different thicknesses the visibility is almost zero in the region where the index of refraction is close to one, whereas it increases and reaches a maximum value up to the 60% just before *λENZ*. As we decrease the value of *k*, the trend of the visibility remains the same for all

the samples, but its maximum value across the transition region decreases. Overall, the experimental results confirm the predictions that CPA can be observed in ENZ films over a broad bandwidth with thicknesses larger than the conventional subwavelength designs. The bandwidth of ∼100 nm is comparable with CPA in deeply subwavelength ENZ single layer (∼150 nm [20]) or white-light cavity (∼100 nm [3]), whereas it is larger than metasurfaces (∼40 nm [4]).

**Figure 4.** Experimental (circles) and transfer matrix method (TMM) simulation (solid line) of normalized visibility of the total energy for aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO) 500 nm and 900 nm with different values of *k*. (**a**,**b**) High losses *k*1, (**c**,**d**) middle losses *k*2 and (**e**,**f**) low losses *k*3. For the TMM simulation we suppose Δ*λ* ∼60 nm.

We finally investigate nonlinear coherent absorption in ENZ films based on modification of the film refractive index through the nonlinear Kerr coefficient. Previously it has been demonstrated that the ENZ condition leads to the enhancement of third order nonlinearities in terms of nonlinear refractive index change for thin film of AZO [32]. This is based on the observation that when the permittivity is close to zero, any nonlinear change Δ*n*, proportional to *χ*(3)/*n*, is enhanced due to the *n* tending to low values. In Ref. [32] a refractive index change of 400% was reported for an AZO film optically pumped with 1.3 TW/cm2 without showing damage of the sample or saturation of the optical Kerr effect. In the same work, at *λ* = 1310 nm a nonlinear susceptibility of *Re*[*χ*(3)] ∼ 4.73 × 10−20 V2/m2 and *Im*[*χ*(3)] ∼ 0.57 × 10−20 V2/m2 was extrapolated. We therefore illuminated the AZO film in the Sagnac interferometer with two high intensity pulses at normal incidence and same wavelength. The intensities on each side are 0.8 and 0.6 TW/cm2, respectively. By increasing the intensities from the linear regime to these maximum values, we observe that the CPA visibility passes from 68% of the linear case to 35% (Figure 5a,b). The peak of the normalized visibility also redshifts and becomes broader for both the samples, with a nearly 50 nm-shift for

the 500 nm sample. Following the recent works in TCOs, this can be explained by the fact that the dielectric permittivity, and so the optical constants including *λENZ*, exhibit a redshift when it is optically pumped across the ENZ wavelength [31,44]. The redshift of the *λENZ* is also associated to a positive Δ*n* and to a negative Δ*k* [30,32]. Due to the decreasing of *k*, the visibility drops, as we observed for the linear case. While, the shift of the visibility peak is related to the shift of *λENZ* in the same direction, and therefore to the shift of the strong dispersion which the material exhibits at wavelength shorter than the zero-crossing frequency. In Figure 5c,d we plot the experimental results together with TMM simulations. The TMM simulations are obtained considering a ∼60 nm shift of *ωp* and a decreasing of *γ* (0.15 × 1015 → 0.09 × 1015). This correspond to a Δ*λENZ* ∼ 60 nm and to a *k*500 = 0.38 and *k*900 = 0.24. These results show that enhanced nonlinearities in ENZ materials can be used to add a degree of freedom to tune the efficiency and the bandwidth of coherent absorption.

**Figure 5.** (**a**,**b**) Normalized visibility of the total energy for both samples, 500 nm (**a**) and 900 nm (**b**). The dashed blue curve represents the linear characterization, while the circles is the nonlinear CPA with high beam intensity. (**c**,**d**) Experimental (circles) and TMM simulation (solid line) of normalized visibility of the total energy for AZO 500 nm and 900 nm for the nonlinear CPA.

#### **4. Conclusions**

We theoretically and experimentally demonstrate coherent control of absorption in films of ENZ material. We show that it is possible to achieve a coherent absorption-mediated interferometric effect with a maximum of its effect locked just below the *λENZ* wavelength. Due the strong dispersion at wavelengths below the crossing point, it can be tuned to any wavelength shorter than *λENZ* by varying film thickness and the optical losses. The 60% total visibility achieved in the AZO film could be improved using a CW and collimated beam in order to achieve CPA. By using AZO's strong intensity-dependent nonlinearities, we also showed that it is possible to dynamically tune the visibility of the total energy by simply increasing the intensity of the incoming beam. The possibility to add a degree of freedom for the coherent control of the absorption in ENZ media by using intensity-dependent refractive index proposes a route towards technologies [45] such as optical data processing or devices that require efficient light absorption and dynamical tunability. All the data supporting this manuscript are available at http://researchdata.gla.ac.uk/939/.

**Author Contributions:** Investigation and data curation V.B. and S.V.; Sample fabrication C.D.; code for analysis S.V. and V.B., and code for measurement acquisition T.R.; Formal analysis and writing-original draft V.B., S.V. and D.F.; supervision D.F., V.M.S., A.B. and M.F.; all the author have contributed equally to the writing—review. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** D. F. acknowledges financial support from EPSRC (UK, Grant No. EP/M009122/1). The Purdue team acknowledges support by the U.S. Office of Naval Research (optical characterization), U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Division of Materials Sciences and Engineering under Award DE-SC0017717 (sample preparation), and Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) award FA9550-18-1-0002.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**4. Conclusions**

TiNb and TiNbN films with low Ti content were coated on 316L SS by magnetron sputtering with a view to application for bipolar plates in PEMFC. The electrochemical testing indicates that TiNb coating has the best corrosion resistance in cathode simulation electrolyte solutions. At 0.19 V vs MSE, the stable corrosion current density of TiNb/316L SS is lower than 1 μA·cm−2. The ICR measurements show that the contact conductivity of TiNb/316L SS is higher than that of substrate. Compared with 316L SS and the TiNb coating, TiNbN film shows moderate corrosion resistance but the lowest ICR. According to XRD analysis, the main component of TiNbN is a solid solution of cubic NbN and TiN. The morphologies of TiNb and TiNbN characterized by SEM reveal that both coatings provide smooth surfaces. It can be concluded that the TiNb/316L SS is a kind of promising bipolar plate material with high corrosion resistance. Nevertheless, the conductivity of TiNb/316L SS still needs to be improved. In the future, multilayer coatings consisting of TiNb and TiNbN with optimized atomic ratios will be studied with aim to improve material's corrosion resistance and conductivity further.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, K.S.; methodology, K.S. and X.-F.X.; resources, X.L., Y.Z. and W.-W.L.; writing—original draft preparation, K.S.; writing—review and editing, X.-F.X., J.O.J., S.-B.W. and L.Y.; project administration, X.-F.X., J.O.J. and Q.-F.L.

**Funding:** This research was funded by National Key R&D Program of China (2016YFE0102700), Major Science and Technology Projects of Shanxi Province<PHONE_NUMBER>6) and Innovation Fund Denmark by the project Wind2H (5185-00025B).

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**2. Graft preparation**

Preservation of the viability of the graft during the time between explantation and implantation is vital for early and late graft function after transplantation. Most kidney transplant teams consist of at least two separate groups. One group prepares the donor and the other team is doing the recipient operation at the same time or with some delay depending on the duration needs for transferring the graft from the donor operating room to the recipient operation theatre. In many countries such as the United States or in the Euro Zone the kidney grafts from the deceased donors are transferred between hospitals, cities or even countries according to the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) matching or other important criteria for attributing the graft to a preferred recipient. In such conditions it's better to use every effort to improve the graft longevity. Using better preservation solutions or automatic machine perfusion systems are among the routine measurements in such conditions which are discussed in other chapters of this book. The surgeons and coordinators should shorten the ischemic time of the graft as long as possible and during all of this period the temperature of the graft should be maintained between 1-4° centigrade to decrease the injury to the graft.

Simple hypothermia is not enough for preserving the viability of the graft and evacuation of the graft blood and replacing it with a preservation solution is a mandatory step in the graft prepa‐ ration. Graft cold irrigation in the deceased donors is done during the harvesting operation by irrigation of the clamped aorta and the solution used for this irrigation may be any of the preprepared solutions such as Belzer University of Wisconsin's (UW), Histidine-Tryptophan-Ke‐ toglutarate (HTK, Bretschneider or Custodiol), Euro-Collins, Celsior or other newer solutions such as Biolasol® (Dolińska B, et al, 2012)[1]. Table 1 shows the compositions of some of these solutions. All of the blood should be evacuated from the graft during this phase. In the living do‐ nor, all of the irrigation is done after removing the graft the donor body in an iced cold basin. In the countries that the living donor still forms over 75% of the donor pool such as China or India, irrigation of the living donor graft is done by more simple solutions such as lactated Ringer's solution and many studies shows that when the total ischemic time is less than 60 minutes (as in most living donor programs) the long-term graft survival is not impacted significantly by using these simple solutions comparing with more complex solutions (Prasad GS, et al, 2007)[2]. In our center we add lidocaine (100 mg/liter), sodium bicarbonate (10 meq/liter) and heparin (5000 IU/liter) to this simple solution. Also, we use intravenous Mannitol and Furosemide in the do‐ nor just before the arterial clamping for better diuresis before nephrectomy.

**Table 1.** Composition of the more common organ preservation solutions.

In this chapter we will review basic steps of the standard approach to recipient's procedure from preparing the graft, then the skin incision till the skin closure with special attention to basic vascular and urinary tract re-establishment techniques and also intraoperative care of the patient. Then we proceed to the special and unusual situations including: complex vascular and ureteral reconstruction techniques, using kidneys with congenital and other anatomical anomalies, en bloc double kidney transplantation, using other vasculature for transplanting the kidney in different intraperitoneal spaces, and kidney transplantation conjoint with other

Preservation of the viability of the graft during the time between explantation and implantation is vital for early and late graft function after transplantation. Most kidney transplant teams consist of at least two separate groups. One group prepares the donor and the other team is doing the recipient operation at the same time or with some delay depending on the duration needs for transferring the graft from the donor operating room to the recipient operation theatre. In many countries such as the United States or in the Euro Zone the kidney grafts from the deceased donors are transferred between hospitals, cities or even countries according to the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) matching or other important criteria for attributing the graft to a preferred recipient. In such conditions it's better to use every effort to improve the graft longevity. Using better preservation solutions or automatic machine perfusion systems are among the routine measurements in such conditions which are discussed in other chapters of this book. The surgeons and coordinators should shorten the ischemic time of the graft as long as possible and during all of this period the temperature of the graft should be maintained

Simple hypothermia is not enough for preserving the viability of the graft and evacuation of the graft blood and replacing it with a preservation solution is a mandatory step in the graft prepa‐ ration. Graft cold irrigation in the deceased donors is done during the harvesting operation by irrigation of the clamped aorta and the solution used for this irrigation may be any of the preprepared solutions such as Belzer University of Wisconsin's (UW), Histidine-Tryptophan-Ke‐ toglutarate (HTK, Bretschneider or Custodiol), Euro-Collins, Celsior or other newer solutions such as Biolasol® (Dolińska B, et al, 2012)[1]. Table 1 shows the compositions of some of these solutions. All of the blood should be evacuated from the graft during this phase. In the living do‐ nor, all of the irrigation is done after removing the graft the donor body in an iced cold basin. In the countries that the living donor still forms over 75% of the donor pool such as China or India, irrigation of the living donor graft is done by more simple solutions such as lactated Ringer's solution and many studies shows that when the total ischemic time is less than 60 minutes (as in most living donor programs) the long-term graft survival is not impacted significantly by using these simple solutions comparing with more complex solutions (Prasad GS, et al, 2007)[2]. In our center we add lidocaine (100 mg/liter), sodium bicarbonate (10 meq/liter) and heparin (5000 IU/liter) to this simple solution. Also, we use intravenous Mannitol and Furosemide in the do‐

between 1-4° centigrade to decrease the injury to the graft.

nor just before the arterial clamping for better diuresis before nephrectomy.

abdominal organs.

**2. Graft preparation**

168 Current Issues and Future Direction in Kidney Transplantation

When possible, the donor team should report the detailed graft anatomy (including number of arteries, veins and ureters and any anatomical anomaly or inadvertent injury to the graft during the donor operation) to the recipient team, especially when the graft is transferred from another hospital locally or regionally. It is very important to prevent any more injury to the graft and its capsule, vessels or ureter during the back table procedure, especially in case of deceased donor grafts which usually accompanied with other abdominal organs or at least covered by the peritoneum or peri-renal fats or other non-important tissues. Direct contact of the ice with the graft should be prevented by inserting the graft in a separate basin or organ bag filled with a cold solution and then inserting this bag in another iced filled basin.

First of all, for irrigation of the living donor graft, the surgeon should find the artery and canulate it with an atraumatic olive-headed heparin irrigation needle as shown in figure 1. Using other devices such as Angiocath©, Baranule© or any types of intravenous needles for irrigation should be discouraged because of risk of intimal injury induced by such cannulas. In many cases, it may be difficult to find the artery first because it is hidden by other hilar tissues or retracted to the deeper hilar areas of the graft. In such conditions the irrigation may be started by canulation the more accessible renal vein, till the surgeon finds the artery. All the dissections should better be done after complete irrigation. At this point all of the renal parenchyma will appear in yellow-pink color. All of the dissections should be done delicately by using atraumatic or microvascular instruments, without any more injury to the vessels intima or their major branches and any more unusual traction of the vessel wall.

suggest that all of the major lymphatic vessels should be ligated to prevent future lymphocele, however, the most important measurement for preventing the lymphocele is avoiding exces‐

Kidney Transplantation Techniques http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54829 171

The best approach for prevention of arterial branch injury is to start with dissection of the renal vein and follow its wall through the hilum until sufficient length is achieved by ligating the minor veins. We suture-ligate the accessory minor vein branches and also the major lumbar veins by 6-0 Prolene suture for prevention of postoperative bleeding from hilar vessels.

If the graft has more than one artery, vein or ureter, the surgeon should decide which type of re‐ construction is suitable according to the condition of the graft and the recipient. In the deceased donor it's better to use a Carrel patch of aorta and inferior vena cava in line with the graft ves‐ sels. But this has two major impacts on future graft implantation. First, this results in a longer than usual artery (especially in the right side) or vein (especially in the left side) which may be results in kinking (and future thrombosis or hypertension) after the anastomosis. And second, it will results in a large Carrel patch in some cases. The surgeon has to remove a large patch from the recipient's vessels for a good anastomosis. If complicated by graft non-function, then future removal of the graft will result in a large defect of the recipient vessels which will be dangerous or even limb life threatening. Also, the Carrel patch of the aorta may be severely atherosclerotic and could not be used for a safe anastomosis. Any reconstruction will elongate the total ische‐ mic time of the graft, and we should do every effort to prevent this by postponing unnecessary

dissections and reconstructions to the time after at least partial reperfusion of the graft.

mosis if possible to prevent ischemia of the ureter.

According to these important issues, when possible, we prefer to use no reconstruction prior to implantation to decrease the ischemic time. Every transplant surgeon should be fully trained and familiar with microvascular techniques in such conditions. Every arterial branch should be anastomosed separately. The major artery is anastomosed first usually to the internal iliac artery, which provides a longer arterial conduit and allow more free movements of the graft for venous anastomosis. Smaller arteries are anastomosed after reperfusion of the graft to the external iliac artery or even to the smaller arteries such as inferior epigastric artery (El-Sherbiny M, et al, 2008)[3]. When all arterial branches have the same size, then reperfusion is postponed till the end of anastomosis of all of the arterial branches usually to the external iliac artery but if the kidney has a large artery and some other smaller arteries then reperfusion is started after completion of the large artery anastomosis. Arteries less than 1 mm could be ligated specially in the upper pole. Also ligation of the arteries with resultant ischemic area of less than 15% of the upper or middle pole is acceptable and by reducing the total operation duration will reduce the complications in the recipient comparing with adding a long microvascular anastomosis to the operation. Arteries larger than 1 mm in the lower pole should be reperfused by anasto‐

If the surgeon decides to reconstruct the arteries before implantation then multiple varieties of techniques could be used: side to side anastomosis of the same size arteries or end to side anastomosis of a small artery to a larger artery. Using microvascular techniques with a good illumination and at least 4.5X magnification and 7-0 or 8-0 Prolene sutures, all of the ties should be placed out of the intimal surface and the lumen should be protected by a smooth metal probe to prevent inadvertent back-wall suturing. In the deceased donor, the surgeon can use

sive dissections around the iliac artery during the preparing the implantation site.

**Figure 1.** Special olive-headed needles for irrigation (Courtesy of GEISTER Medizintechnik GmbH, Tuttlingen/ Germany)

When using the left kidney of the living donor the adrenal and gonadal vein should be on the graft in order to have a longer vein for future anastomosis. In both right or left kidneys or living donor or deceased donor grafts, the surgeon should make every effort to preserve the con‐ nective tissues between the ureter and the gonadal vein to prevent ischemic injury to the delicate collateral vessels of the ureter. Always the ureter should be accompanied by at least one centimeter of the peri-ureteral tissues and also the hilar inferior triangle (e.g. the window between the inferior pole of the graft and the ureteral origin from the renal pelvis) should be maintained intact.  These tissues are protective for handling of the graft and might be used for graft covering or anchoring during or after revascularization.

The window between the renal artery and vein in the renal hilum is full of accessory branches and lymphatic vessel. All of the major arterial branches especially of the inferior pole should be maintained intact. Any injury to this branches leads to regional ischemia or necrosis of the kid‐ ney or ureter which may lead to future graft dysfunction or ischemia – induced hypertension in the donor or ureteral necrosis, ureteral anastomosis disruption or urine leakage. Some surgeons suggest that all of the major lymphatic vessels should be ligated to prevent future lymphocele, however, the most important measurement for preventing the lymphocele is avoiding exces‐ sive dissections around the iliac artery during the preparing the implantation site.

irrigation should be discouraged because of risk of intimal injury induced by such cannulas. In many cases, it may be difficult to find the artery first because it is hidden by other hilar tissues or retracted to the deeper hilar areas of the graft. In such conditions the irrigation may be started by canulation the more accessible renal vein, till the surgeon finds the artery. All the dissections should better be done after complete irrigation. At this point all of the renal parenchyma will appear in yellow-pink color. All of the dissections should be done delicately by using atraumatic or microvascular instruments, without any more injury to the vessels

**Figure 1.** Special olive-headed needles for irrigation (Courtesy of GEISTER Medizintechnik GmbH, Tuttlingen/ Germany)

When using the left kidney of the living donor the adrenal and gonadal vein should be on the graft in order to have a longer vein for future anastomosis. In both right or left kidneys or living donor or deceased donor grafts, the surgeon should make every effort to preserve the con‐ nective tissues between the ureter and the gonadal vein to prevent ischemic injury to the delicate collateral vessels of the ureter. Always the ureter should be accompanied by at least one centimeter of the peri-ureteral tissues and also the hilar inferior triangle (e.g. the window between the inferior pole of the graft and the ureteral origin from the renal pelvis) should be maintained intact.  These tissues are protective for handling of the graft and might be used

The window between the renal artery and vein in the renal hilum is full of accessory branches and lymphatic vessel. All of the major arterial branches especially of the inferior pole should be maintained intact. Any injury to this branches leads to regional ischemia or necrosis of the kid‐ ney or ureter which may lead to future graft dysfunction or ischemia – induced hypertension in the donor or ureteral necrosis, ureteral anastomosis disruption or urine leakage. Some surgeons

for graft covering or anchoring during or after revascularization.

intima or their major branches and any more unusual traction of the vessel wall.

170 Current Issues and Future Direction in Kidney Transplantation

The best approach for prevention of arterial branch injury is to start with dissection of the renal vein and follow its wall through the hilum until sufficient length is achieved by ligating the minor veins. We suture-ligate the accessory minor vein branches and also the major lumbar veins by 6-0 Prolene suture for prevention of postoperative bleeding from hilar vessels.

If the graft has more than one artery, vein or ureter, the surgeon should decide which type of re‐ construction is suitable according to the condition of the graft and the recipient. In the deceased donor it's better to use a Carrel patch of aorta and inferior vena cava in line with the graft ves‐ sels. But this has two major impacts on future graft implantation. First, this results in a longer than usual artery (especially in the right side) or vein (especially in the left side) which may be results in kinking (and future thrombosis or hypertension) after the anastomosis. And second, it will results in a large Carrel patch in some cases. The surgeon has to remove a large patch from the recipient's vessels for a good anastomosis. If complicated by graft non-function, then future removal of the graft will result in a large defect of the recipient vessels which will be dangerous or even limb life threatening. Also, the Carrel patch of the aorta may be severely atherosclerotic and could not be used for a safe anastomosis. Any reconstruction will elongate the total ische‐ mic time of the graft, and we should do every effort to prevent this by postponing unnecessary dissections and reconstructions to the time after at least partial reperfusion of the graft.

According to these important issues, when possible, we prefer to use no reconstruction prior to implantation to decrease the ischemic time. Every transplant surgeon should be fully trained and familiar with microvascular techniques in such conditions. Every arterial branch should be anastomosed separately. The major artery is anastomosed first usually to the internal iliac artery, which provides a longer arterial conduit and allow more free movements of the graft for venous anastomosis. Smaller arteries are anastomosed after reperfusion of the graft to the external iliac artery or even to the smaller arteries such as inferior epigastric artery (El-Sherbiny M, et al, 2008)[3]. When all arterial branches have the same size, then reperfusion is postponed till the end of anastomosis of all of the arterial branches usually to the external iliac artery but if the kidney has a large artery and some other smaller arteries then reperfusion is started after completion of the large artery anastomosis. Arteries less than 1 mm could be ligated specially in the upper pole. Also ligation of the arteries with resultant ischemic area of less than 15% of the upper or middle pole is acceptable and by reducing the total operation duration will reduce the complications in the recipient comparing with adding a long microvascular anastomosis to the operation. Arteries larger than 1 mm in the lower pole should be reperfused by anasto‐ mosis if possible to prevent ischemia of the ureter.

If the surgeon decides to reconstruct the arteries before implantation then multiple varieties of techniques could be used: side to side anastomosis of the same size arteries or end to side anastomosis of a small artery to a larger artery. Using microvascular techniques with a good illumination and at least 4.5X magnification and 7-0 or 8-0 Prolene sutures, all of the ties should be placed out of the intimal surface and the lumen should be protected by a smooth metal probe to prevent inadvertent back-wall suturing. In the deceased donor, the surgeon can use freely every small bifurcated or trifurcated donor artery (such as the celiac artery) for these delicate reconstructions. In such complex situations such as severe atherosclerosis of the renal artery orifice when eversion endarterectomy is not possible (Nghiem DD, Choi SS, 1992) [4] or results in a damaged artery, the best approach for salvage of the graft is transecting the diseased part of the renal artery and using a small branch of the donor artery such as the left gastric or splenic artery as an elongation conduit of the renal artery. In the case of living donors, a short segment of the recipient saphenous vein may be a good choice for this purpose but it has a real risk of future aneurismal transformation in the future (Sharma A, et al, 2010) [5]. Sometimes we could use a combination of these techniques. For example when the graft has 2 large-size and 1 small-size artery, the best option is to perform an anastomosis between the small-size artery and one of the larger size branches and then perform two separate anasto‐ moses in the recipient. This action will reduce the total operative time of the recipient.

tric or old age or marginal donor). Traditionally the right iliac fossa is the standard fossa for a kidney transplantation procedure and the left iliac fossa is the preferred site for simultaneous kidney-pancreas transplantation. In the pediatric recipient when the graft is larger than usual we should use the main abdominal fossa for implantation. The most important limiting factor for each of these procedures is the length of the renal vein and also the length of the donor ureter and mobility of the recipient urinary bladder. In most instances when the recipient internal iliac artery is used as the arterial inflow, it provides a good length for mobilization and would not be a limiting factor. The right iliac fossa is the preferred site because of the more superficial posi‐ tion of the external iliac vein. The deep branches of the iliac vein can be suture ligated and cut if more superficialization is needed. If the recipient ureter is not diseased it can be used for urinary

**Factor Preferred Site Rationale**

Prevention of kidney compartment

Kidney Transplantation Techniques http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54829 173

Prevention of urine leakage or ureteral

prevention of lymphocele, shorter

Prevention of adding the complications of each graft on the other graft

Some authors use the opposite side because of position of the transplanted graft for future percutaneous interventions on the urinary system

If the iliac arteries are not large enough it's better to use the abdominal aorta

Enough space for the graft and enough stations for vascular anastomosis

and inferior vena cava

cavity and postoperative ileus

syndrome

stricture

operative time

Iliac fossa is preferred Prevention of entering to the abdominal

It's better to use right iliac fossa More superficial position of iliac vein

outflow reconstruction if the donor ureter is short.

The size, length and number of graft arteries and veins

Laterality of

the donor kidney (left or right)

Graft size comparing with the recipient Abdominal fossa if the graft is very

The size, length and number of ureters Iliac fossa is preferred if the recipient

Associated abdominal organ transplantation Left iliac fossa and in the

The number of kidney grafts Retroperitoneal space of right iliac

Anomalies of the donor graft Abdominal cavity if the graft is large,

**Table 2.** Factors influencing the choice of implantation site

**4. Skin preparation and incision**

fossa

large

ureter is not diseased. Retrovesical area if the ureters are short but vessels are long enough

retroperitoneal space Abdominal cavity for en bloc or

composite grafts

Previous surgeries Opposite iliac fossa Prevention of vessel or visceral injury,

if the graft is small iliac fossa is better.

Skin preparation and drape is not so different from other clean abdominal operations. The patient should bathe before entering the operation theatre. Hair removal is better done with

Approach to the vein branches is a little different because of intra-parenchymal communica‐ tions between the vein branches. We could ligate non-major venous branches, but when the vein branches are in the same size we should reconstruct them before venous anastomosis. Some surgeons prefer to mobilize the external iliac vein by ligating the internal iliac vein or superior gluteal vein or other side branches of this vein, but usually these maneuvers are futile in providing better window for venous anastomosis especially when we use the right kidney from a living donor. In such conditions we prefer to perform the venous anastomosis first or placing the graft in an upside down direction (ureter in the upper part) (Webb J et al, 2003) [6]. In the deceased donor, using a part of the donor external iliac, internal jugular or inferior vena cava as an extension graft is more preferable for adding the length of the vein graft. Such reconstructions should be done in the back table prior to implantation.

In our opinion, ureteral reconstruction also should be discouraged in case of multiple graft ureters. When the ureters have insufficient length, or denuded in their entire length, mobili‐ zation of the recipient bladder or using of the recipient ureter is preferred.

At the end of graft preparation some authors suggest that the graft should be wrapped in iced or cold saline soaked surgical gauzes or cloth stockinet or surgical glove to remain cold throughout the implantation procedure. In our opinion this is a time consuming and fruitless maneuver when the surgeons could do the anastomoses rapidly. Also using the ice packets in the site of implantation is not necessary.


**1.16. Phenols**

Phenols contribute to the prevention of various degenerative diseases that act as an antioxidant [41]. Phenols, phenolics, or polyphenolics are chemical constituents that are commonly present as natural color pigments giving fruits of plants their colors. The action of phenylalanine ammonia lyses (PAL) on phenylalanine leads to the synthesis of phenolics in plants. Among the various functions of phenols is in plant defense against pathogens and predators of herbivores and therefore used in the control of human infections caused by pathogens [43]. The most common of phenolic compounds widespread in plants is caffeic acid which is followed by chlorogenic acid, the causal agent of excessively sensitive inflammation of the skin (dermatitis) among humans [27]. Phenolics are natural antioxidants functioning as nutraceuticals and available in red wine, apples, and green tea. They serve as anticancer and anti-inflammatory agents as well as prevent heart diseases.


**1. Introduction**

618 Advances in Crystallization Processes

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Synthesis, Structure and Properties of Undecatungstozincate Containing 3A

Dislocation-free silicon single crystals are the basic material of microelectronics and nanoelectronics. Physical properties of semiconductor silicon are determined by the structural perfection of the crystals grown by the Czochralski and float-zone processes (Huff, 2002). In such crystals during their growth are formed grown-in microdefects.

Grown-in microdefects degrade the electronic properties of microdevices fabricated on silicon wafers. Optimizing the number and size of grown-in microdefects is crucial to improving processing yield of microelectronic devices. Many of the advances in integratedcircuit manufacturing achieved in recent years would not have been possible without parallel advances in silicon-crystal quality and defect engineering (Yang et al., 2009). The problem of defect formation in dislocation-free silicon single crystals during their growth is a fundamental problem of physics and chemistry of silicon. In particular it is the key to solving the problem engineering applications of silicon crystals. This is connected with the transformation grown-in microdefects during the technological treatment of silicon monocrystals.

Formation of grown-in microdefects occurs as a result of the interaction of point defects during crystal cooling. The distribution of grown-in microdefects in a growing crystal is influenced by its temperature field and the boundary conditions defined by its surfaces. Until recently it was assumed that the formation of grown-in microdefects is due to condensation of intrinsic point defects (Voronkov et. al., 2011). Recombination-diffusion model assumes fast recombination of intrinsic point defects at the initial moment of cooling the grown crystal. Fast recombination determines the type of dominant intrinsic point defects in the crystal. In this model was first used mathematical tool which allows you to associate the defect structure of crystal with distribution in the crystal thermal fields during the growth (Prostomolotov et al., 2011). It has been suggested that the fast recombination of intrinsic point defects near the crystallization front as a function of the growth parameter Vg/G (where Vg is the rate of crystal growth; G is the axial temperature gradient) leads to the formation of microvoids or interstitial dislocation loops (Voronkov, 2008). It is assumed that in the case Vg/G < ξcrit formed only interstitial A-microdefects as a result of aggregation of intrinsic interstitial silicon atoms. It is assumed that in the case Vg/G > ξcrit formed only

The Diffusion Model of Grown-In Microdefects Formation

**2. Classification of grown-in microdefects**

grown-in microdefects.

range from 1682 to 1423 K (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2010a).

During Crystallization of Dislocation-Free Silicon Single Crystals 621

is based (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2006a; V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2007a).With the help of the diffusion model of formation grown-in microdefects was calculated process of hightemperature precipitation (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2010a). The processes of formation and growth of precipitates during cooling of the crystal is a controlling stage in the formation of the grown-in defect structure of dislocation-free silicon single crystals. At this stage, the formation and growth of oxygen and carbon precipitates occur in the temperature

The mathematical model of point defect dynamics can be adequately used on the basis of the physical model in which the impurity precipitation process occurs before the formation of microvoids or dislocation loops (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2010b). The model of point defect dynamics can be considered as component of the diffusion model for formation

The aim of this paper is to present a diffusion model of formation grown-in microdefects in general and to discuss the possibility of its use as a tool for building the defect structure of

Currently, there are three classifications of grown-in microdefects: experimental

Experimental classification of grown-in microdefects is based on the use of methods of selective etching, X-ray topography and transmission electron microscopy (Kock, 1970; Petroff & Kock, 1975; Foll & Kolbesen, 1975; Veselovskaya et al., 1977; Sitnikova et al., 1984; Sitnikova at al., 1985). A.J.R. de Kock entered the name of A-microdefects and Bmicrodefects, whereas Е.G. Sheikhet entered the name C-microdefects, D-microdefects. We are entered the name (I+V)-microdefects (V.I.Talanin et al., 2002a, 2002b). These research allowed to establish the physical nature of A-microdefects, B-microdefects, C-microdefects, D-microdefects and (I+V)-microdefects. Experimental results indicated the identity of the processes of defect formation in crystals of FZ-Si and CZ-Si (Kock et al., 1979; V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2003). This means that the classifications of grown-in microdefects in both types

Technological classification is used for large-scale crystals. The larger the diameter of the growing crystal, the lower growth rate, at which the same type of grown-in microdefects is formed. This occurs by reducing the axial temperature gradient in the crystal (Ammon et al., 1999). This leads to the appearance of a new type of grown-in microdefects (microvoids) and dislocation-free crystal growth in a narrow range of growth rates (Voronkov & Falster, 1998). In large crystals of interstitial dislocation loops and microvoids are considered as major grown-in microdefects in dislocation-free silicon crystals (Kulkarni et al., 2004).

Analysis of the experimental results of investigations of grown-in microdefects indicates that there are only three types of grown-in microdefects: precipitates of impurities ((I+V) microdefects, D(C)-microdefects, B-microdefects), dislocation loops (A-microdefects) and microvoids (V.I. Talanin et. al., 2011b). We established that the basic elements of defect formation are primary oxygen-vacancy and carbon-interstitial agglomerates, which are formed at impurity centers near the crystallization front (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2006a).

dislocation-free silicon single crystal and device structures based on them.

classification, technological classification and physical classification.

of crystals should also be identical (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2004).

microvoids as a result of aggregation of vacancies (Goethem et al., 2008; Kulkarni, 2008a). In this physical model, the interaction between the impurities and intrinsic point defects is not considered (Kulkarni et. al., 2004).

Recent versions of this model have suggested that part of the vacancies (v) in the temperature range 1683 ... 1373 K, due to the interaction with oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N) impurities, are bound into complexes of the vO, vO2, and vN types (Kulkarni 2007; 2008b). After the formation of microvoids, the aforementioned complexes grow and take up vacancies. This model has ignored the growth of the complexes by means of the injection of intrinsic interstitial silicon atoms and the interaction of an impurity with intrinsic interstitial silicon atoms (Kulkarni 2007; 2008b).

In the general case recombination-diffusion model assumes that the process of defect formation in dislocation-free silicon single crystals occurs in four stages: (i) fast recombination of intrinsic point defects near the crystallization front; (ii) the formation in the narrow temperature range 1423...1223 K depending on the value of Vg/G microvoids or interstitial dislocation loops; (iii) the formation of oxygen clusters in the temperature range 1223...1023 K; (iv) growth of precipitates as a result of subsequent heat treatments.

Recombination-diffusion model is the physical basis for models of the dynamics of point defects. The mathematical model of point defect dynamics in silicon quantitatively explains the homogeneous mechanism of formation of microvoids and dislocation loops. It should be noted that, in the general case, the model of point defect dynamics includes three approximations: rigorous, simplified, and discrete–continuum approaches (Sinno, 1999; Dornberger et. al., 2001; Wang & Brown, 2001; Kulkarni et. al., 2004; Kulkarni, 2005; Prostomolotov & Verezub, 2009). The rigorous model requires the solution to integrodifferential equations for point defect concentration fields, and the distribution of grown-in microdefects in this model is a function of the coordinates, the time, and the time of evolution of the size distribution of microdefects. A high consumption of time and cost for the performance of calculations required the development of a simplified model in which the average defect radius is approximated by the square root of the average defect area. This approximation is taken into account in the additional variable, which is proportional to the total area of the defect surface. The simplified model is effective for calculating the twodimensional distribution of grown-in microdefects. Both models use the classical nucleation theory and suggest the calculation of the formation of stable nuclei and the kinetics of diffusion-limited growth of defects. The discrete–continuum approximation suggests a complex approach: the solution to discrete equations for the smallest defects and the solution to the Fokker–Planck equation for large-sized defects.

Recently, we proposed a new model for the formation grown-in microdefects. The physical model of the formation of grown-in microdefects assumes that the defect formation in dislocation-free Si single crystals upon cooling occurs in three stages: (i) the formation of impurity aggregates near the crystallization front, (ii) the formation and growth of impurity precipitates upon cooling from the crystallization temperature, and (iii) the formation of microvoids or dislocation loops (depending on the growth parameter *Vg*/*G*) *–* in a narrow temperature range of 1423…1223 K (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2006a; V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2010b). This model on the experimentally and theoretically established fact the absence of recombination of intrinsic point defects near the crystallization front of the crystal

microvoids as a result of aggregation of vacancies (Goethem et al., 2008; Kulkarni, 2008a). In this physical model, the interaction between the impurities and intrinsic point defects is not

Recent versions of this model have suggested that part of the vacancies (v) in the temperature range 1683 ... 1373 K, due to the interaction with oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N) impurities, are bound into complexes of the vO, vO2, and vN types (Kulkarni 2007; 2008b). After the formation of microvoids, the aforementioned complexes grow and take up vacancies. This model has ignored the growth of the complexes by means of the injection of intrinsic interstitial silicon atoms and the interaction of an impurity with intrinsic interstitial

In the general case recombination-diffusion model assumes that the process of defect formation in dislocation-free silicon single crystals occurs in four stages: (i) fast recombination of intrinsic point defects near the crystallization front; (ii) the formation in the narrow temperature range 1423...1223 K depending on the value of Vg/G microvoids or interstitial dislocation loops; (iii) the formation of oxygen clusters in the temperature range

Recombination-diffusion model is the physical basis for models of the dynamics of point defects. The mathematical model of point defect dynamics in silicon quantitatively explains the homogeneous mechanism of formation of microvoids and dislocation loops. It should be noted that, in the general case, the model of point defect dynamics includes three approximations: rigorous, simplified, and discrete–continuum approaches (Sinno, 1999; Dornberger et. al., 2001; Wang & Brown, 2001; Kulkarni et. al., 2004; Kulkarni, 2005; Prostomolotov & Verezub, 2009). The rigorous model requires the solution to integrodifferential equations for point defect concentration fields, and the distribution of grown-in microdefects in this model is a function of the coordinates, the time, and the time of evolution of the size distribution of microdefects. A high consumption of time and cost for the performance of calculations required the development of a simplified model in which the average defect radius is approximated by the square root of the average defect area. This approximation is taken into account in the additional variable, which is proportional to the total area of the defect surface. The simplified model is effective for calculating the twodimensional distribution of grown-in microdefects. Both models use the classical nucleation theory and suggest the calculation of the formation of stable nuclei and the kinetics of diffusion-limited growth of defects. The discrete–continuum approximation suggests a complex approach: the solution to discrete equations for the smallest defects and the

Recently, we proposed a new model for the formation grown-in microdefects. The physical model of the formation of grown-in microdefects assumes that the defect formation in dislocation-free Si single crystals upon cooling occurs in three stages: (i) the formation of impurity aggregates near the crystallization front, (ii) the formation and growth of impurity precipitates upon cooling from the crystallization temperature, and (iii) the formation of microvoids or dislocation loops (depending on the growth parameter *Vg*/*G*) *–* in a narrow temperature range of 1423…1223 K (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2006a; V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2010b). This model on the experimentally and theoretically established fact the absence of recombination of intrinsic point defects near the crystallization front of the crystal

1223...1023 K; (iv) growth of precipitates as a result of subsequent heat treatments.

solution to the Fokker–Planck equation for large-sized defects.

considered (Kulkarni et. al., 2004).

silicon atoms (Kulkarni 2007; 2008b).

is based (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2006a; V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2007a).With the help of the diffusion model of formation grown-in microdefects was calculated process of hightemperature precipitation (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2010a). The processes of formation and growth of precipitates during cooling of the crystal is a controlling stage in the formation of the grown-in defect structure of dislocation-free silicon single crystals. At this stage, the formation and growth of oxygen and carbon precipitates occur in the temperature range from 1682 to 1423 K (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2010a).

The mathematical model of point defect dynamics can be adequately used on the basis of the physical model in which the impurity precipitation process occurs before the formation of microvoids or dislocation loops (V.I. Talanin & I.E. Talanin, 2010b). The model of point defect dynamics can be considered as component of the diffusion model for formation grown-in microdefects.

The aim of this paper is to present a diffusion model of formation grown-in microdefects in general and to discuss the possibility of its use as a tool for building the defect structure of dislocation-free silicon single crystal and device structures based on them.


**5. Structure of a wireless sensor node**

A sensor node is made up of four basic components such as sensing unit, processing unit, transceiver unit and a power unit which is shown in Fig. 5. It also has application dependent additional components such as a location finding system, a power generator and a mobilizer. Sensing units are usually composed of two subunits: sensors and analogue to digital converters (ADCs) (Akyildiz et al., 2002). The analogue signals produced by the sensors are converted to digital signals by the ADC, and then fed into the processing unit. The processing unit is generally associated with a small storage unit and it can manage the procedures that make the sensor node collaborate with the other nodes to carry out the assigned sensing tasks. A transceiver unit connects the node to the network. One of the most important components of a sensor node is the power unit. Power units can be supported by a power scavenging unit such as solar cells. The other subunits, of the node are application dependent.

A functional block diagram of a versatile wireless sensing node is provided in Fig. 6. Modular design approach provides a flexible and versatile platform to address the needs of a wide variety of applications. For example, depending on the sensors to be deployed, the signal conditioning block can be re-programmed or replaced. This allows for a wide variety

of different sensors to be used with the wireless sensing node. Similarly, the radio link may be swapped out as required for a given applications' wireless range requirement and the need for bidirectional communications.

**Figure 5.** The components of a sensor node

**Figure 6.** Functional block diagram of a sensor node

Using flash memory, the remote nodes acquire data on command from a base station, or by an event sensed by one or more inputs to the node. Moreover, the embedded firmware can be upgraded through the wireless network in the field.

The microprocessor has a number of functions including:

need for bidirectional communications.

**Figure 5.** The components of a sensor node

**Figure 6.** Functional block diagram of a sensor node

be upgraded through the wireless network in the field.

The microprocessor has a number of functions including:

Using flash memory, the remote nodes acquire data on command from a base station, or by an event sensed by one or more inputs to the node. Moreover, the embedded firmware can

of different sensors to be used with the wireless sensing node. Similarly, the radio link may be swapped out as required for a given applications' wireless range requirement and the

> A key aspect of any wireless sensing node is to minimize the power consumed by the system. Usually, the radio subsystem requires the largest amount of power. Therefore, data is sent over the radio network only when it is required. An algorithm is to be loaded into the node to determine when to send data based on the sensed event. Furthermore, it is important to minimize the power consumed by the sensor itself. Therefore, the hardware should be designed to allow the microprocessor to judiciously control power to the radio, sensor, and sensor signal conditioner (Akyildiz et al., 2002).


**6. Conclusions**

The gene human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is overexpressed in many breast cancers and is correlated with disease progression [172, 173]. It is therefore considered one of the suitable targets of CAR. Kruschinski et al. transduced anti‐HER2–CD28‐CD3ζ into human primary NK cells using a retroviral vector, and the results demonstrated cytotoxicity to an

**NK cell type Target antigen Cancer Co‐stimulatory**

PBMC‐NK CD19/GD2 CD3ζ or 2B4

PBMC‐NK NKG2D ligands wide range CD3ζ (with

PBMC‐NK ErbB2 (HER‐2) Breast, ovarian and

YT cell line CEA Colon carcinoma CD3ζ Electroporation

renal cell carcinoma

PBMC‐NK CD19 B‐ALL, CLL CD3ζ Retrovirus [171]

PBMC‐NK CD19 B‐ALL, CLL CD137/CD3ζ Electroporation(mRNA) [152] PBMC‐NK CD20 B‐ALL, CLL CD137/CD3ζ Electroporation(mRNA) [186]

As shown in **Table 3**, CAR against various tumor‐associated antigens (TAA) has also been evaluated in NK cells. Chang et al. reported a modification by CAR using NKG2D, one of the human NK cell activating receptors, instead of the antigen‐binding site of the antibody. Since NKG2D can bind to eight types of ligands expressed in solid tumors and blood tumors, it can be applied to a broader range of tumor cells. Primary human NK cells were transduced with a retroviral vector, using constructs designed to combine the extracellular domain of NKG2D with CD3ζ and further to express DAP10 simultaneously. This approach showed strong cyto‐ toxic activity against various tumor cell lines and showed no damage to normal cells. It also

showed strong tumor growth suppression in a mouse model of osteosarcoma [177].

 cell line. This cytotoxicity was correlated with the HER2 expression level on target cells [174]. Uherek et al. reported that anti‐HER2–CD3ζ‐CAR retrovirally transduced NK‐92 cells efficiently killed cell lines derived from ErbB2‐positive breast carcinoma, ovarian carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma *in vitro* and *in vivo* [175]. In a study by Liu et al., the plasmid coding anti‐HER2–CD28‐CD3ζCAR was transfected into NK‐92 cells by electroporation, and the cells specifically killed the ErbB2‐expressing human breast cancer cell lines MDA‐MB‐453 and SKBr3. The adoptive transfer of NK‐92 cells specifically reduced the tumor size and lung metastasis of nude mice transplanted with MDA‐MB‐453 cells and significantly prolonged

**domain**

DAP10 CD137/CD3ζ

alone

2B4/CD3ζ CD137/CD3ζ

DAP10)

**Gene transfer method Ref**

Retrovirus [185]

Retrovirus [177] Electroporation(mRNA)

[148]

(plasmid DNA)

CD28/CD3ζ Retrovirus [174]

HER2+

**Table 3.** CAR‐NK cells.

108 Natural Killer Cells

the survival of these mice [176].

Because NK cells are difficult to culture and it is a challenge to transduce foreign genes into NK cells, research concerning NK cells has been delayed compared to research involving T cells. However, culture and gene transfer technologies for NK cells are now developing. As introduced here, genetically modified NK cells acquired enhanced antitumor functions. These NK cells are very intriguing and are expected to be revolutionary cellular medicines for the treatment of malignancies.

NK cells are heterogeneous populations that exhibit various maturation stages and different KIR expression patterns. Since this heterogeneity has not been completely elucidated, it is not easy to choose the appropriate subset of NK cells for cancer treatment. Although alloge‐ neic NK cell therapy using a KIR mismatch shows a strong antitumor effect against several blood cancers, the mechanisms underlying the activation and maintenance of NK cells in cancer patients are not completely understood. Cancer patients usually undergo a variety

**Table 4.** Products of NK cells for clinical use.

of standard treatments before receiving immunotherapy, and it is important to understand the factors that influence NK cell activity in order to select the correct clinical setting for NK cell therapy. In this review, we have explained the combination with antibodies, the genetic modification technique, and the KIR mismatch pattern (which is the basis of patient selection) that has been tested to maximize the use of NK cells as a treatment for cancer. Products of NK cells for clinical use that have been developed worldwide are shown in **Table 4**.

Advances in the understanding of NK cells may also lead to the development of small‐mol‐ ecule inhibitors targeting intracellular signals. Because NK cells are difficult to handle, their development is delayed compared to several other immunotherapies, but it is highly likely that they will be established as innovative cell therapy in the near future.


Meet the editors

Edward T. Zawada Jr., MD, was born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1947. He graduated summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Science from Loyola University, Chicago, in 1969 and an MD (also summa cum laude) from the Loyola Stritch School of Medicine in 1973. He was inducted into Alpha Omega Alpha in 1972. He trained in internal medicine and nephrology at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA where he later served as an

assistant professor of medicine. He had a long career in academic medicine at the University of Utah, Medical College of Virginia, and Sanford School of Medicine of the University of South Dakota where he is a professor and chairman emeritus of the Department of Internal Medicine. He is board certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine in internal medicine, nephrology, geriatrics, and critical care medicine. He also has board certifications in nutrition from the American College of Nutrition, pharmacology by the American Society of Clinical Pharmacology, and hypertension by the American Society of Hypertension. Dr. Zawada has been awarded with fellowship status by the American College of Physicians, the American College of Chest Physicians, the American Heart Association, the American Society of Nephrology, the American Geriatrics Society, the American College of Clinical Pharmacology, the Society for Vascular Medicine, and the Society of Critical Care Medicine. He was also awarded a distinguished service award by the South Dakota Medical Society in 2002 for a career devoted to medical education and master of the American College of Physicians in 2005.

Dr. Sohail Abdul Salim is an American Board Certified Nephrologist practicing in Jackson, Mississippi. He finished his internal medicine residency in 2011 at Brookdale Hospital Medical Center and fellowship in nephrology and hypertension in 2017 from the University of Mississippi. He received a best abstract award from the University of Mississippi and a fellow scholarship from the annual dialysis conference. During the last three years he has

authored around ten poster presentations, twenty-seven peer-reviewed publications (most of them as first author) and two book chapters. He has also lectured for multiple conferences, the most recent being "Nephrology Essentials" for the Society of Hospital Medicine. Dr. Salim serves as a reviewer for at least five journals. His research interests are mostly related to nephrotoxic drugs affecting the kidney and the implications in clinical practice.

Contents

Introductory Chapter: Renal Diseases

Role of Surgery in Nephrotic Syndrome *by Intezar Ahmed and Enono Yhoshu*

Renal Biopsy: Appraisal of the Methods

*by Swati Jain, Kirti Jain and Basavaraj Patthi*

*by Edward T. Zawada*

*by Ogochukwu Okoye*

*and Supraja Jannu*

Hemodialysis and Oral Health

**Preface III**

**Chapter 1 1**

**Chapter 2 5**

**Chapter 3 13**

**Chapter 4 25**

**Chapter 5 37**

**Chapter 6 53**

Post-Biopsy Complications Associated with Percutaneous Kidney Biopsy

*Silvana Maria Carvalho Miranda, Fabiano Franco Monteiro Prado,*

*Fabrício Tinôco Alvim de Souza and Maria Carolina Barbosa Álvares*

Causes and Pathophysiology of Nephrotic Syndrome in Childhood *by Nagaraju Vallepu, Saikiran Velpula, Bharath Kumar Dasari,*

*Manish Kumar Thimmaraju, Sridhar Babu Gummadi, Neeraja Yelugam*

*by Paulo Ramos Botelho Antunes, Stanley Almeida Araújo,*

*Luiz Felipe França Antunes, Elisa Carvalho de Siqueira,*


**5. Conclusions**

The study achieved two important goals. The first of them was a presentation of the method of evaluating the readiness of a selected element of a machine tools in the production system. The analysis according to the Markov chain allowed to determine the probabilities of interstate transitions, which reflect the frequency of the occurrence of individual states. The highest values were achieved for relations *S*6*–S*4, *S*3*–S*4, *S*4*–S*5. They suggest a high incidence of unsuitability states—*S*3 and *S*6—and the need to determine their causes and reduce their occurrence.

The limit values of transition probability were also calculated. The analysis of stationary distribution showed that the greatest indications concern states related to activities resulting from production process technology (*S*1, *S*4, *S*5), which is a good result.

However, a complete evaluation is only ensured by an analysis according to the semi-Markov process, taking into account the average dwell times of an object in the individual operating states. The calculated probability limits, examining the behavior of the object for *t* → ∞, were the highest for state *S*1—operation (over 65%) and state *S*4—service (almost 17%). The remaining limit values were found to be satisfactorily low, which means that the operation of the machine should be considered as proper. The calculated technical readiness rate of 85% should also be viewed as positive.

Such an analysis not only provides information on the assessment of the current and expected functioning of the machine, but also reveals areas where modifications can be made in order to increase the level of availability and, as a result, ensure more efficient execution of production orders.

Another goal was to compare the results according to the assumptions made, concerning the forms of distribution of the examined variables. In the literature this analysis is often omitted and it is assumed that the examined variable has an exponential distribution. This allows to use Markov's processes, whose parameter estimation is simpler and is described in more detail in publications. Such an assumption—as the study has shown—may lead to different results and effectively to form an incorrect assessment of the process/system studied. The intention of the authors was to indicate that omitting an important stage of statistical analysis of the collected data and assuming a priori the form of distributions does not guarantee the correctness of the obtained analyses.

In the presented study, the differences in the values of the calculated limit probabilities are large, reaching even over 530%. The overall evaluation of system readiness indicates a value lower by 46% in the case of the Markov process analysis.

However, the problem is not only the value of the calculated probabilities, but also the main aim of the system. According to the semi-Markov process, the system tends primarily to occupy state *S*1 (operation) which is a satisfactory result, emphasizing the proper implementation of tasks. The results according to the Markov process show that the system tends to occupy mainly state *S*3—downtime, which indicates mismanagement and system inactivity.

The goals set by the authors have been achieved, but it should be stressed out that the results obtained concern only one selected machine. As part of further research, it is worth considering a comprehensive analysis of the entire production system using the method indicated in the article. It will provide complete information on its readiness, determine the level of impact of individual elements (machines), and identify areas for improvement.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, A.B. and L.G.; Formal analysis, A.B. and A.S.; Methodology, A.B.; ´ Resources, M.G.; Writing—original draft, A.B. and A.S.; Writing—review & editing, A.B. and M.G. All authors ´ have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**Author details**

Fumiaki Takakai1 \*, Takemi Kikuchi1 , Tomomi Sato1 , Masato Takeda1 , Saki Kanamaru1 , Yasuhiro Aono1 , Shinpei Nakagawa2 , Kentaro Yasuda3 , Takashi Sato1 and Yoshihiro Kaneta1

1 Faculty of Bioresource Sciences, Akita Prefectural University, Akita, Japan

2 Akita Prefectural Agricultural Experiment Station, Akita, Japan

3 Agri-Innovation Education and Research Center, Akita Prefectural University, Ogata, Japan

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*Nitrogen Budget in a Paddy-Upland Rotation Field with Soybean Cultivation DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.103023*


**Paddy Water Management for Precision Farming of Rice**

M.S.M. Amin, M.K. Rowshon and W. Aimrun *Smart Farming Technology Centre of Excellence Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor DE, Malaysia*


Solid Waste and Landfills Management - Recent Advances

*Edited by Suhaiza Zailani and Suriyanarayanan Sarvajayakesavalu*

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