*2.3. Design of Critical Components of the DCH* 2.3.1. Reel

A reel is installed at the front of the DCH, which picks up and conveys wheat stalks into the cutting device. In this process, the reel also supports the wheat stalks being cut. The reel can help the cutting device fulfill the cutting operation while pushing harvested wheat stalks into the screw conveyor to avoid cut stalks piling up at the front of the header. As a cam-action reel exerts a strong stalk-lifting force and has a small impact on cropped ear-heads, they are primarily used in rice and WCHs. The structure consists of central spoke wheels, a central rotatable shaft, tine bars, tines, an eccentric spoke wheel, and cranks, as shown in Figure 6. The eccentric spoke wheel, cranks, and central spoke wheel constitute a parallel four-bar linkage mechanism that allows the tines to maintain a well-adjusted dip angle. The diameter of the reel *D*1 is 1000 mm, and the eccentricity of an eccentric spoke wheel and central spoke wheel *e*1 is 72 mm.

**Figure 6.** Structural diagram of a cam-action reel. 1. Central spoke wheels; 2. Central rotatable shaft; 3. Tine bar; 4. Tine; 5. Crank; 6. Eccentric spoke wheel.

#### 2.3.2. Screw Conveyor

The structure of the screw conveyor is composed of a cylinder welded with left- and right-handed spiral blades and retractable fingers (Figure 7). The retractable fingers are installed at the screw cylinder, and 16 retractable fingers (with four retractable fingers in each group) are hinged abreast on the retractable finger shaft. The retractable fingers are riveted to a crank and a fixed shaft. The eccentric distance between the center of the retractable fingers and the screw cylinder is *e*2. To avoid the winding of wheat stalks, the perimeter of the screw cylinder must be larger than the length of wheat stalks that have entered the DCH [29]. Generally, the diameter *D*2 of the screw cylinder is 300 mm. To improve the conveying performance of the spiral conveyor on short wheat stalks, the outer diameter of the spiral blades *D*3 is 500 mm, and the screw pitch *S* is 460 mm.

The screw cylinder, when rotating, drives the retractable fingers to also rotate. As the screw cylinder and retractable fingers are not concentric, the retractable fingers undergo telescopic motion relative to the screw cylinder surface. When the retractable fingers turn back, they should retract into the screw cylinder, but their protrusion of 10 mm remaining outside the screw cylinder should be ensured to avoid the wear-out of the ends of the retractable fingers. When the retractable fingers turn forward, they should stretch to 40–50 mm outside the spiral blades within the screw cylinder in a bid to ensure their clamping capability [30]. Thus, we obtain,

$$c\_2 = \frac{D\_3 - D\_2}{4} + (15 \sim 20) \tag{2}$$

$$L = \frac{D\_2}{2} + 10 + \epsilon\_2\tag{3}$$

where *e*2 is set to 70 mm and the length of retractable fingers *L* is 280 mm.

**Figure 7.** Structural diagram of a screw conveyor. (**a**) Overall structure; (**b**) Schematic diagram of retractable fingers. 1. Fixed central axis; 2.  Spiral blade; 4. Crank; 5. Sleeve; 6. Finger seat; 7. Finger; 8. Finger shaft; 9. Conveyor driving shaft.

#### 2.3.3. Parameters of the Header Triangle

The triangle of the header refers to a particular space composed of three main working parts: a reel, a cutterbar, and a screw conveyor, as shown in Figure 8. Compared with the conventional header, the wheat stalks cut and transported by the DCH are short in length. The triangle is too large, so the crops quickly accumulate between the cutter and the screw conveyor. When the crop is stacked to a certain amount, it will be grabbed by the blades of the screw conveyor, resulting in uneven transportation, feeding, and even blocking; if the triangle area is too small, the harvest loss will increase. The vertical distance *H*1 between the central rotatable shaft of the reel and the upper cutterbar, the horizontal distance *L*4 between the screw conveyor center and the upper cutterbar beam, and the forward displacement *b* of the central rotatable shaft (taking the central rotatable shaft directly above the upper cutterbar as the central position) affect the size of the triangle. *L*4 is usually 350–500 mm. We selected *L*4 as 450 mm. To make the reel tine shaft have a backward horizontal speed above the cutter, the maximum forward displacement of the reel main shaft *b*max is [30]:

$$b\_{\text{max}} = \frac{D\_1}{2\lambda\sqrt{\lambda^2 - 1}}\tag{4}$$

In Formula (4), *λ* is the ratio of the circumferential speed of the reel to the operating speed of the combine harvester, which is generally 1.5–1.7 [30]. Taking *λ* as 1.5, the *bmax* is 298 mm. The reel can move back correctly to increase its ability to push the stalk, but the distance from the screw conveyor when the reel is adjusted to the final position *δ*1 should be greater than 25 mm.

**Figure 8.** Diagrammatic sketch of a header triangle. 1. Reel; 2.  Header triangle; 4. Cutterbar.

Combined with the best straw feed length determined by the bench test, the minimum height of *H*1 is 753 mm, calculated according to Formula (5) [30].

$$H\_1 \ge \frac{D\_1}{2} + \frac{2(L\_1 - L\_3 - h)}{3} = \frac{D\_1}{2} + \frac{2L\_2}{3} \tag{5}$$

#### 2.3.4. Profiling Mechanism of the Lower Cutterbar

As shown in Figure 1, the support arm, height-limiting connecting rod, swing block, and ground wheels of the profiling mechanism for the lower cutterbar constitute the swing block of the crank. When harvesting, the greater the distance between the upper cutterbar and the ground of the wheat field, the larger the length of the height-limiting connecting rod. However, due to the influences of the DCH's structure and transmission system, the height-limiting connecting rod should be a suitable length.

Statistics indicate that the average plant height of the main wheat varieties in Henan Province, China, is 775 mm. The maximum distance between the ground and upper cutterbar is preliminarily determined to be 400 mm to meet the optimum feed length of stalks. Meanwhile, the lower cutterbar can fluctuate by up to 50 mm with the ground height. The *L*BA was determined using ADAMS software to simulate and study two processes: (1) the motions of the components with the DCH descending and (2) their motions with a change in ground height during harvest. Create a ground with 50 mm bumps and depressions using 3D software, assemble it with a simplified model of the DCH according to actual working conditions, import the model into ADAMS software, merge the upper cutterbars, header frame, and inclined conveyor frame, merge the lower cutterbars and fixed beam, and add motion constraints to the moving parts. During the simulation of header descent, the motion constraints are shown in Table 2. Establish a height sensor between the upper cutterbars and the ground to stop the header from descending after the upper cutterbars reach the set height. The simulation model is shown in Figure 9. During the harvesting simulation, adjust the model to make the ground wheel contact the ground; change constraint 1 in Table 2 to a translational joint; and add a driver to achieve the DCH movement.

**Figure 9.** Simulation model.

#### 2.3.5. Transmission System

The transmission system of DCH is shown in Figure 10. The power of the engine is transmitted to the DCH through the belt and chain drive. Then the driving shaft of the DCH can transfer power through the belt drive transmission to the wobble box of the upper cutterbars. The wobble boxes of the upper and lower cutterbars can transfer power through the belt drive transmission to power both the upper and lower movable cutters. Meanwhile, the driving shaft of the DCH drives the rotation of the screw conveyor by way of a chain drive transmission. The transmission occurs between the driving shaft and the reel to drive the rotation of the reel through the chain and belt drive transmission. The transmission ratio is shown in Table 3.

**Figure 10.** Schematic diagram of the DCH transmission system. 1. Wobble box of the lower cutterbars; 2. Reel; 3. Intermediate shaft of the reel; 4.  Driving shaft; 6. Wobble box of the upper cutterbars.

**Table 3.** Transmission ratio of the DCH.

*2.4. Field Experiment*

2.4.1. Experimental Arrangement

On 30 May 2022, Xinjiang-9B type WCHs equipped with the newly designed DCH and conventional header were subjected to in-situ operating tests in Xingyang, Henan Province, China. Field surveys were made according to the requirements of relevant standards. The wheat cultivar was Zhoumai 32, with an average plant height of 743 mm and a grain moisture content of 14.5%. The ratio of stalk to grain was 1.18, and testing conditions met the requirements [31]. The suitable field plot should satisfy the criteria, including that the measured zone should be 50 m long, there must be a stable zone 20 m in front of the measured zone, and a harvester parking site no less than 15 m behind the measured zone; the stubble height is 100 to 120 mm [32]. In the experiment, the combine harvesters worked along the lengthwise direction of field plots at a speed of 5 km/h.

#### 2.4.2. Data Collection and Processing

A1m2 sampling zone was selected in the representative zone along the advancing direction of the combine harvesters at each sampling site. In the sampling zones, all grains and ear-heads were collected; thereafter, once threshed and cleaned, they were weighed. Based on Equations (6) and (7), the harvesting loss rates were calculated, respectively, and then the average value of the harvest loss rates in the five sampling zones was determined [33].

$$F\_{\circ} = \frac{W\_{sh} - W\_z}{W\_{ch}} \times 100\tag{6}$$

$$F = \frac{\sum F\_{\text{j}}}{5} \tag{7}$$

where *Fj* is the loss rate of the sampling point, %; *Wsh* is the mass of grain loss per square meter, g/m2; *Wz* is the mass of grains naturally falling per square meter, g/m2; *Wch* is the mass of grain per square meter, g/m2; and *F* is the average harvest loss rate, %.

The stubble height was measured using the five-point sampling method applied in the experimental field. The stubble heights of three subpoints were determined by measuring at the left, middle, and right sides of the horizontal direction of the harvesting range in each point. The average value of the three subpoints was taken as the stubble height at that point, taking the mean average value of the five points.

Before each experiment, the same amount of diesel oil was added to the fuel tank. After completing the test, the diesel oil remaining in the fuel tank was discharged and weighed. According to Equation (8), the fuel consumption per unit area *Q* could be calculated. Two groups of tests were repeated three times before taking the mean average value.

$$Q = 10,000 \times \frac{q\_1 - q\_2}{B \times L\_4} \tag{8}$$

In the formula, *q*1 is the weight of fuel in the fuel tank before a test, kg; *q*2 is the weight of fuel in the fuel tank at the end of a test, kg; *B* is the cutting width of the WCH, m; and *L*4 is the length of the measured zone, m.


**SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT – ENERGY, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGIES – MANUFACTURING AND ENVIRONMENT**

Edited by **Chaouki Ghenai**

**INTECHOPEN.COM**

#### **Sustainable Development - Energy, Engineering and Technologies - Manufacturing and Environment**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/1404 Edited by Chaouki Ghenai

#### **Contributors**

Maria Isabel Brasileiro, André Rodrigues, Romualdo Menezes, Gelmires Neves, Lisiane Santana, Marcio Ricardo Costa Dos Santos, Armin Grunwald, Giani Gradinaru, Chaouki Ghenai, Kristin Vala Ragnarsdóttir, Mahesha Amai, H. Ramesh, Aniceto Zaragoza, Edmundo García-Moya, Angélica Romero-Manzanares, Columba Monroy-Ortiz, Rafael Monroy, Victor Chipofya

#### **© The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2012**

The moral rights of the and the author(s) have been asserted.

All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECH. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECH's written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECH rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com).

Violations are liable to prosecution under the governing Copyright Law.

Individual chapters of this publication are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License which permits commercial use, distribution and reproduction of the individual chapters, provided the original author(s) and source publication are appropriately acknowledged. If so indicated, certain images may not be included under the Creative Commons license. In such cases users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. More details and guidelines concerning content reuse and adaptation can be foundat http://www.intechopen.com/copyright-policy.html.

#### **Notice**

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in Croatia, 2012 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia

Legal deposit, Croatia: National and University Library in Zagreb

Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Sustainable Development - Energy, Engineering and Technologies - Manufacturing and Environment Edited by Chaouki Ghenai

p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0165-9 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-953-51-6126-4


**6. Acknowledgment**

Funding for this study was provided by a collaboration grant of NSERC (Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada), Ministry of Forests, British Columbia and Timber Supply Association (Williams Lake, British Columbia).


SEM Interface Observation

Figure 11a,b present the SEM observation on joint type B. Two white lines were graphically added inside the photos to create better perception regarding the interfacial region. The total thickness of Cu deposited layer before USW was only about 2.5 μm, but the affected interfacial region is much wider than the initial thickness of the Cu coating interlayer and it has an average width of around 9 μm, i.e., near four times larger than the initial thickness of the Cu coating. This is evidence of diffusion during the eutectic reaction.

This region can be seen in more detail at higher magnification, as in Figure 11b. The main reaction products are visible as discrete white particles, instead of a continuous layer. Apart from the composition of these particles, the dispersion of such hard IMC products inside a soft matrix of AZ31B base metal performs a composite like structure at the interface that can participate in the strengthening of the welded joint. Previously, in Section 3.1 it was reported that failure occurred in the pull out mode from the nugget edge walls. It means that crack initiation was not introduced from the flat region interface and it is a sign of strong sound joint.

The occurrence observed in Figure 11b specifies that reaction products were found in farther distances, like diffusion in base metal. This can be stimulated under the effect of enhanced temperature and ultrasonic vibrations. As it was noticed before, the interface temperature rises to over *Teu* of Mg2Cu, which predicts the presence of a liquid phase that is able to diffuse through material imperfections, like grain boundaries. The EBSD results in next section will show this matter in more detail.

**Figure 11.** Interface SEM observation of joint type B (1100 J), (**a**) low magnification; (**b**) high magnification.

Interdiffusion of Mg and Cu in steady state conditions were studied before and discussed briefly in the introduction, but the lack of consensus in diffusion data makes diffusion behavior difficult to interpret. For example, activation energy data for the diffusion of Cu in Mg or vice versa are not compatible in different studies. Nonaka et al. [13] studied the reaction diffusion in Mg-Cu diffusion couple between 410–475 ◦C and observed that Kirkendall markers shifted towards the Cu-rich side, so they suggested that the diffusion of Cu is faster than Mg and they measured the activation energy of Mg2Cu as 156 kJ/mole. Additionally, the growth rate of Mg2Cu was much larger than MgCu2. Other research by Dai et al. [14] in nearly the same conditions (400–460 ◦C) similarly found that, at all examined temperatures, two intermetallic layers formed between Mg and Cu, including the Mg2Cu layer close to Mg side and MgCu2 in contact with Cu side. The Mg2Cu layer (with almost no solubility) was much thicker than MgCu2. They also measured the activation energies for both IMCs that resulted in a lower value for Mg2Cu (139 kJ/mole) when compared to MgCu2 (147 kJ/mole). As it is clear, their data were a little different from reference [13]. The other important information that was obtained in reference [14] was related to activation energies for diffusion of Mg in Cu (139 kJ/mole) and Cu in Mg (164 kJ/mole), which imply different interdiffusion behavior when compared to reference [13].

However it is not the objective of current study to derive the diffusion data and, as was mentioned before, the USW process is more complicated than the original diffusion couples in steady state static conditions, due to high strain rates and vibrations in short time (less than 1 s for USW when compared to 24–72 h in reaction diffusion), but some findings, such as formation priority and layer thickness of Mg2Cu, are in relative concurrency.

The formation of these two reaction products is based on a simple Mg-Cu system, while, in the presence of major alloying elements of AZ31B, the synthesis of other by-products also is expectable. For example, the Al content in AZ31B Mg alloy can contribute to form non-stoichiometric binary or ternary IMC products, together with Cu.


**MICROBES, VIRUSES AND PARASITES IN AIDS PROCESS**

Edited by **Vladimír Zajac**

**INTECHOPEN.COM**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/1143 Edited by Vladimir Zajac

#### **Contributors**

Natasha Potgieter, Tobias George Barnard, Veeranoot Nissapatorn, Patricia Chang, Arenas Roberto, Gabriela Moreno-Coutiño, Vladimír Zajac, Zuzana Adamčíková, Vladimir Holec, Viola Stevurkova, Lenka Wachsmannova, Katarina Hainova, Enrique J. Calderon, Jose Manuel Varela, Francisco Javier Medrano, Eduardo Dei-Cas, Cecilio Lopez-Galindez, Maria Pernas, Jose T Ramos, Sara Guillen, Luis Prieto, Marta Ruiz Jimenez, Sonia Anane, Ezinne Ezinna Enwereji, Chukwunenye Iheanacho Okereke, Kelechi Okechukwu Enwereji, Kingsley Chidozie Anukam, Bassey Enya, Demet Karnak, Aydın Çiledağ, Andy Hoepelman, Roos Barth, Mary Justin-Temu, Kennedy Daniel Mwambete, Amidou Samie, Pascal Bessong, Larry Obi, Rebecca Dillingham, Richardt Littleton Guerrant, Hong-Zhou Lu, Yun-Zhi Zhang, Yi-Wei Tang, Jiasheng Shao, Julie Osaretin Osayande, Uju Marie Esther Dibua

#### **© The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2011**

The moral rights of the and the author(s) have been asserted.

All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECH. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECH's written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECH rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com).

Violations are liable to prosecution under the governing Copyright Law.

Individual chapters of this publication are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License which permits commercial use, distribution and reproduction of the individual chapters, provided the original author(s) and source publication are appropriately acknowledged. If so indicated, certain images may not be included under the Creative Commons license. In such cases users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. More details and guidelines concerning content reuse and adaptation can be foundat http://www.intechopen.com/copyright-policy.html.

#### **Notice**

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in Croatia, 2011 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia

Legal deposit, Croatia: National and University Library in Zagreb

Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Microbes, Viruses and Parasites in AIDS Process Edited by Vladimir Zajac p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-601-0 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-953-51-6528-6


**3.1 General concept of HCW management**

The purposes of solid waste management (SWM) are similar, whether addressing hazardous, infectious, or even general municipal waste; three themes are prominent; management, treatment, and waste minimization [20]. The management of HCW requires analysis and active control from generation to final disposal. Hazardous or infectious HCW should be appropriately treated before disposal to eliminate its hazard risks. Waste minimization or reduction is undoubtedly the most desirable goal of solid waste management, which is the same in HCW management, where 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) are key approaches after segregation at source and appropriate treatment of hazardous infectious components (**Figure 5**).


**About the Editors**

#### **Alex Hay-Man Ng**

Alex Hay-Man Ng, Ph.D., is a Professor for the School of Civil and Transportation Engineering at the Guangdong University of Technology in China. He completed his bachelor's and master's degree in Electrical Engineering in the University of New South Wales (UNSW), Australia, and continued his doctoral study in the Department of Surveying and Spatial Information System. In June 2011, he obtained his doctoral degree. His previous academic positions were at UNSW (Sydney, 2010–2016) and Macquarie University (Sydney, 2016). His research focusses on the satellite remote sensing image-analysis method and its application, InSAR algorithm and software development, ground subsidence monitoring and modeling, and image classification. He shares authorship of 100 papers in international journals and conferences.

#### **Linlin Ge**

Linlin Ge, Ph.D., is a professor and the head of discipline in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW (since 2017). From 2017 to now, he has successfully secured three grants including: one UNSW Torch program—Smart Spatial Technology, AUD 400,000 (2018–2020), one short-term Cooperative Research Centres Projects (CRC-P)—All-weather, near real time monitoring of bushfire with satellite InSAR, AUD 97,000 (2021–2022), and one long-term CRC-P—Quantifying the Past and Current Major Australian Floods with SAR and other Satellites, AUD 297,000 (2023–2025).

#### **Hsing-Chung Chang**

Hsing-Chung (Michael) Chang, Ph.D., is a senior lecturer in spatial information science in the School of Natural Science at the Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. Chang's research interests include vegetation and land cover, land use monitoring, change detection, and 3D modeling using earth observation data with the aid of geographic information systems (GIS). He has also contributed to many multi-disciplinary projects on biodiversity conservation, wetland monitoring, natural disaster mitigations (including bushfires, floods, and seismic deformation), public transport planning, geographical mapping of multilingualism, etc., using spatial analyses and modeling.

#### **Zheyuan Du**

Zheyuan Du, Ph.D., is currently an InSAR scientist in Geoscience Australia. Dr Du received the B.E. degree in remote sensing and information technology from the China University of Geoscience, China in 2012, Master of Science degree in Geographic Information Science from the University of Edinburgh, UK in 2013, and a Ph.D. degree in Civil and Environmental Engineering from the UNSW in 2018. His research focuses on enhancing the performance of InSAR techniques by exploiting external datasets, such as meteorological/hydrological products, as well as ground in-situ data. He has experience as a Lecturer at the University of Sydney and a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at UNSW from 2018 to 2021. He has published over 25 journal articles, building a promising career in earth observation, in particular using InSAR data.