**4. Effect of pesticides on wine quality**

### **4.1 Pesticides effects on the polyphenolic content and antioxidant activity**

A limited number of scientific reports could be found in the literature, regarding the influence of pesticides on the polyphenolic compounds in beverages. In the last years, studies on beer [30–32] and wine [33–35] chemical compositions have been published.

Dugo et al. [33] investigated the phenolic compounds of grapes and wines, after the use of pesticide treatments in the vineyard. Their results indicated that the antioxidant activity of wines was correlated to the content of phenolic compounds. In contrast, each individual phenolic compound was not homogeneous, and the contents were not correlated to various pesticide treatments.

Navarro et al. [30, 31] noticed on beers samples important differences in the total polyphenolic amount after fermentation for samples that contains residues of pesticides. Major reductions were recorded for propiconazole, 70.8%, myclobutanil, 43.0%, fenitrothion, 13.6%, and trifluralin, 6.8%, when compared to the control. Moreover, fenarinol, malathion, methidathion, nuarimol and pendimethalin were not influence by pesticide residues.

In 2011, Navarro et al. [32] observed that not significant differences on the total polyphenolic amount of beer after fermentation with fungicides. In contrast, statistical differences were noticed for the values of color intensity (lower) and tint (higher) in beer.

Recently, Briz-Cid et al. [34] reported that treatment with mepanipyrim decreased 1.2 times the level in monomeric anthocyanin, while polymeric forms increased 1.3 times. Also, after treatment with iprovalicarb the content in the monomeric anthocyanin increased by around 30%. Malvidin derivatives have been affected significantly, increasing up to 42%. Mulero et al. [35] noticed small changes of less than 10%. In his study, quinoxyfen and kresoxim-methyl have provoked the biggest increase in total anthocyanin, while the famoxadone, trifoxystrobin and fenhexamid reduced the anthocyanin content. No significant differences in antioxidant activity were observed. Similarly, Mulero et al. [35] reported that presence of pesticide residues did not influence the antioxidant activity in red wines.

In general, the treatment with fungicides did not change very much the concentrations of monomeric anthocyanins or flavan-3-ol monomers in wine [36]. Exceptions have been reported for treatments with boscalid + kresoxim-methyl which increased the amount of flavonoid groups with 58% and 36%, respectively. Mulero et al. [35] presented similar results for Monastrell wines from grapes treated with kresoximmethyl. The treatment with quinoxyfen indicates an increase of phenolic compounds in wines when compared with control sample. In opposite, when trifloxystrobin was used it was observed a lower total content in phenolic compounds.

Castro-Sobrino et al. [37] indicated that the use of pesticides does not have an effect on anthocyanins. However, tetraconazole use led to a decrease of these compounds.

### **4.2 Pesticides effects on the aromatic profile**

Wines represent a very complex matrix that contains hundreds of volatile aroma compounds. Aroma compounds originate from: i) varietal aroma that come from the vine and is released in the wine during the fermentation process. The most powerful varietal aromas are terpenoids, varietal thiols and methoxypyrazines; ii) fermentative aroma as a result of the synthesis of important volatile compounds through *Saccharomyces* and non-*Saccharomyces* yeast metabolism, are mainly constituted of volatile higher alcohols, acetate and ethyl esters, medium- and long- chain volatile acids, aldehydes, sulfur compounds [38]; iii) aging aroma either in bottles, in oak barrels or with oak chips, staves with the accumulation of characteristic new aroma compounds (**Table 1**).

Wine aroma can vary depending on the geographic area and terroir, viticultural practices, winemaking processes, type of aging and bottling. Moreover, other factors that have impact on the aroma compounds can interact with proteins, oxygen, polyphenols, polysaccharides, and thus modifying the sensorial characteristics of wines. A correct and controlled management of various methods or conditions of winemaking can help improve wine quality thorough removing the unwanted aroma compounds, the residues of pesticides or heavy metals, microbial contamination or oxidation, etc.

*C6-alcohols* belong to the group of C6-compounds and are formed during pre-fermentation stages, especially during harvesting, transport, crushing and pressing of grapes. These compounds are principally related to lipoxygenase activity in grapes or in must which produces aldehydes, then these, in turn, can be reduced to alcohols, by yeasts during fermentation stage. Higher alcohols are formed from their amino acid precursors, then are passed on to the wine, which are liable for fermentative aroma.

Reports suggested that the residual content of cyazofamid, famoxadone, mandipropamid and valifenalate was not affected by the synthesis of alcohols [47]. Similar results were published by other authors, regarding the chlorpyrifos, fenarimol, mancozeb, metalaxyl, penconazole, vinclozolin, fluquinconazole, kresoxim-methyl, quinoxyfen and trifloxystrobin in red wines [48] and with fludioxonil and pyrimethanil in white wines [49]. Interesting, opposite impacts were noticed for other pesticide categories. In red wines, a significant decrease of alcohols was observed when famoxadone, fenhexamid and tebuconazole were used [39, 48]. Contrasting, in white wines an increase of cis-3-hexen-1-ol content was observed in the presence of cyprodinil [49]. The same trend was noticed for tetraconazole in wines, in which the levels of cis-3-hexen-1-ol also increased with 55% [40].

A pesticides treatment that included fluxilazole showed that, in white wines, the content of isoamyl alcohols and 2-phenylethanol was increased with a direct correlation to the dose [50]. Moreover, other studies observed in white wines a decrease of 2-methyl-1- propanol and 3-methyl-1-propanol when fosetyl-A, mancozeb and iprovalicarb were used [41]. Results concerning the decrease of alcohols concentrations in the presence of some pesticides can be attributed to lower assimilation of the amino acid precursor by yeast or modifications in the biosynthesis of amino acids. However, a decrease in the quality of wine was noticed due to considerable increases in isoamyl alcohols contents [48, 49]. González-Álvarez et al. [47]

*Management of Pesticides from Vineyard to Wines: Focus on Wine Safety and Pesticides Removal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98991*

#### **Table 1.**

*Pesticides losses, quality and health risks of wine.*

reported no significant differences in the alcohols level between control sample and wines treated with chlorpyrifos, cyazofamid, famoxadone, fenarimol, mancozeb, mandipropamid, metalaxyl, penconazole, valifenalate and vinclozolin.

*Management of Pesticides from Vineyard to Wines: Focus on Wine Safety and Pesticides Removal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98991*

The level of aldehydes increased slowly in the wine aging stage by effect of the oxidation of alcohols. The principal aldehydes that could be found in wines are benzaldehyde and phenylethanal [51]. Until now, results indicate that pesticides utilization do not influence the aldehyde contents [39]. However, in red wine, fenhexamid seems to be responsible for the increased content of benzaldehyde [48].

Sieiro-Sampedro et al. [40] founded that mepanipyrim influence the release of varietal aroma compounds while tetraconazole have a major impact on the aroma biosynthesis pathways of the ethanol producing yeasts. According to the OAV, the mepanipyrim could offer to wines higher spicy and floral nuances and lower fruity note whereas tetraconazole leads to higher floral and lactic notes. Mepanipyrim (Mepp) and Mep-Form generated a positive increase of the geraniol content, between 27 and 41%, benzyl alcohol between 91 and 177%, benzaldehyde between 51 and 111% and *trans*-isoeugenol between 37 and 308%. This trend was associated with the actions of yeast enzymes glycosidase and hydrolase of which activity is known to increase during fermentation.

*Esters* are produced by yeast during the alcoholic fermentation and play an important role in the fruitiness of wines.

The effect of cyprodinil, fludioxonil and pyrimethanil presented lower levels of hexanoate, ethyl octanoate and ethyl decanoate in white wines [49]. Also, grapes treated with quinoxyfen, kresomin-methyl and trifloxystrobin have decreased the content of ethyl dodecanoate and diethyl succinate in wines [41]. García et al. [49] observed an increased content of isoamyl acetate in the presence of cyprodinil, fludioxonil, chlorpyrifos, feranimol and vinclozolin. The level of ethyl acetate increased also when chlorpyrifos were used, whereas decreased its content with famoxadone and fenhexamid [48]. Other studies did not notice differences in ethyl ester and acetate levels in control sample and grapes treated with cyazofamid, famoxadone, mandipropamid and valifenalate [47]. Similarly, Noguerol-Pato [39] reported no significant variations, caused by treatments with tebuconazole, in the level of isopentyl acetate and most ethyl esters found in Mencía wines. On the other hand, residues of other pesticides seemed to increase the content of isopentyl acetate [41, 48].

*Terpenes* are found in grape skin, have an important role in varietal aroma and contribute considerably to the grape bouquet.

Oliva et al. [48] reported that treatment with some pesticides (famoxadone, fenhexamid, fluquinconazole, kresoxim-methyl, quinoxyfen and trifloxystrobin) presented an increase of terpenoic class in red wine comparative with control sample. Another study by González-Álvarez et al. [47] showed that cyazofamid and famoxadone treatments have a major impact in the synthesis of trans, trans-farnesol of white wines. Also, three fungicides (benalaxyl, iprovalicarb and pyraclostrobin) have altered the geraniol synthesis [41]. On the contrary, Noguerol-Pato et al. [39] observed that tebuconazole caused no important changes in the terpenoic content of red wines.

The treatment with famoxadone and cymoxanil led to a reduction in the content of isovaleric, caproic and caprylic acids, while valifenalate and cyazofamid increased the content of capric acid, according to González-Álvarez et al. [47]. In another study, the quinoxyfen, kresoxim-methyl, famoxadone, trifloxystrobin, fluquinconazole and fenhexamid content decreased the acid concentration in red wines compared with control sample [48].

*Lactones* are obtained through the intermolecular esterification of 4- hydroxyacids. The use of pesticides on crushed Tempranillo and Graciano grapes did not affect the formation of lactones.


**3. Tomographic inversion and crustal seismic structure**

The inversion of a 1-D or 3-D seismic model of the crustal structure is based on the sourcestation travel times of seismic waves, generally by minimizing the time residual (difference between observed and theoretical travel times) due to disturbances introduced in the hypocentral coordinates and model properties. The dependence or coupling between the hypocentral parameters and the velocity structure being modelled is usually resolved by way of damped least-squares (Menke, 1984); a more detailed discussion on these methodologies can be found at Thurber (1993), Kissling et al. (1994), Thurber et al. (2000) or Thurber (2003). The resolution of this coupling problem requires the use of seismic events with stable hypocentral solutions, a criterion which must be balanced with the best spatial coverage possible (Thurber, 1993; Kissling et al., 1994; Thurber et al., 1999).

The methods used for the inversion of the velocity structure are implemented in programs like VELEST (Kissling et al., 1994; Kissling, 1995) for 1-D structure and SIMUL2000/SIMULPS (Thurber, 1983; Thurber et al., 1999) for 3-D structure. In the first case the model is parameterized by plane horizontal layers where seismic properties like P-wave velocity, Vp, or the Vp/Vs ratio remain constant, while in the former the model parameterization is done using a three-dimensional grid where on each node the value of these properties is set, with the values in other regions obtained by linear interpolation. Given the lower quality usually associated with S-waves readings compared to P-waves, both methods invert directly to the Vp and Vp/Vs structures, the Vs structure being latter derived from them.

Figure 2 displays the best (minimum) 1-D model obtained for the area between the islands of Faial, Pico and São Jorge, labelled FAIAL98 (Matias et al., 2007). Considering the P and S velocities and the Vp/Vs ratio of the model, and comparing with values associated with typical oceanic crusts (Tanimoto, 1995; Karson, 1998) it is possible to make a generic interpretation in petrological terms of the crustal structure of the area under study. The results indicate a basaltic composition for the layer located between 1 and 3 km in depth (Layer 2), with the velocities values suggesting a succession from lava flows to pillow lava and basaltic dikes. Between 3 and 12.5 km, the values of Vp and Vp/Vs indicate the presence of a Layer 3 with increased thickness, whose composition corresponds to Gabbro type mafic rocks. The location of the Moho at 12.5 km is an effect arising from the numerical modelling, the crust-mantle transition being more gradual and located between 12 and 14 km depth. The Moho associated Vp values will be intermediate values between 7.3 and 7.7 km/s, a possible evidence of a gradual increase of ultra-mafic rocks intrusion in the lower crust or the effect of variations in the depth of the Moho.

In order to determine the 3-D crustal structure in the tomographic inversion process (Dias et al. 2007) the above 1-D model was used as initial model, parameterized in the 3-D grid of Figure 3. After relocation of the earthquakes used in the 1-D modelling, the stability criteria for the hypocentral solutions were strengthened, with only 688 events used (cf. Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Vertical profiles of P and S waves velocities and Vp/Vs ratio distribution corresponding to the new 1-D model FAIAL98, together with its petrological interpretation (Dias, 2005; Matias et al., 2007).

Any tomographic modelling process leads to a mathematic solution where it is important to estimate the quality of such solution in physical terms, namely by defining the regions of the model that can be considered well resolved. This evaluation can be accomplished through analysis of mathematical parameters related to the model resolution, reflecting the distribution of information and associated resolution, and also by performing sensitivity tests that use synthetic models or data. Only after such tests were performed, and together with joint analysis of the resolution parameters, is possible to define the resolved areas that will later be interpreted in physical terms. For discussion on the tomographic resolution of tomographic models see for example Menke (1984), Eberhart-Phillips (1993), Kissling et al. (1994), or Kissling et al. (2001); for the quality assessment of the model presented here see Dias (2005) and Dias et al. (2007).

In order to determine the 3-D crustal structure in the tomographic inversion process (Dias et al. 2007) the above 1-D model was used as initial model, parameterized in the 3-D grid of Figure 3. After relocation of the earthquakes used in the 1-D modelling, the stability criteria for the hypocentral solutions were strengthened, with only 688 events used (cf.

Fig. 2. Vertical profiles of P and S waves velocities and Vp/Vs ratio distribution

(Dias, 2005; Matias et al., 2007).

Dias (2005) and Dias et al. (2007).

corresponding to the new 1-D model FAIAL98, together with its petrological interpretation

Any tomographic modelling process leads to a mathematic solution where it is important to estimate the quality of such solution in physical terms, namely by defining the regions of the model that can be considered well resolved. This evaluation can be accomplished through analysis of mathematical parameters related to the model resolution, reflecting the distribution of information and associated resolution, and also by performing sensitivity tests that use synthetic models or data. Only after such tests were performed, and together with joint analysis of the resolution parameters, is possible to define the resolved areas that will later be interpreted in physical terms. For discussion on the tomographic resolution of tomographic models see for example Menke (1984), Eberhart-Phillips (1993), Kissling et al. (1994), or Kissling et al. (2001); for the quality assessment of the model presented here see

Fig. 3).

Figure 4 shows the tomographic model obtained, in horizontal planes of Vp and Vp/Vs structures at depth, with resolved areas outlined. Given the information distribution (source-station paths), the resolved areas are located around the NNW area of the Faial -Pico channel and essentially between depths of 4 to 10 km. At the shallower level (1.0 km) there is good agreement between the anomalies of the tomographic model and the surface geological structure, particularly with the several volcanic units, but the most relevant feature of the tomographic model is the presence of a high-velocity body (Vp>6.3 km/s) located under the NW area of the island of Faial and extending from 6-7 km to a depth of approximately 13 km, which is enclosed in the northeast and east by deeper seismicity.

Fig. 3. Horizontal grid nodes positions (crosses) of the 3-D grid, seismic network (cf. Fig. 1) and epicenters (red dots) of the 688 selected events. A white cross marks the center of the grid, and the X and Y coordinates of Figure 4 are represented laterally to the grid. The horizontal distance between nodes was of 4-8 km, and vertically the nodes were placed in layers located at depths Z = 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 17 km.

In the deepest levels (Z = 7, 10 km, see Figure 4) there is a strong lateral gradient to NNE in the direction of the S. Jorge channel, mainly of the Vp/Vs ratio that drops from 1.82 to less than 1.72; since this transition is partly coincident with the NNE limit of the high-velocity body and simultaneously runs parallel to the Faial-Pico alignment, it probably reflects the presence of an important tectonic feature. Under the central area of Faial, there is the presence of a low velocity zone (Vp <6.0 km/s), with a 5-10% lateral gradient on Vp and extending between 4 and 7 km in depth; under Pico there is the suggestion of the presence of a similar anomaly. The location of these anomalies is consistent with the estimated position for the magmatic chambers of the main volcanic edifices of Faial and Pico (Machado et al., 1994).

Fig. 4. Horizontal depth planes of the 3-D Vp (left) and Vp/Vs (right) models, at selected depths. Triangles: seismic stations, crosses: grid nodes, dots: epicenters within 1 km vertical range of the plane. Lateral XY coordinates according to the 3-D grid of Fig. 3.


*Edited by Carmelo Maria Musarella, Ana Cano Ortiz and Ricardo Quinto Canas*

Today it is not easy to talk about habitats and to think about the various threats facing them. We are living in an age in which we are poised between having everything immediately, and maintaining good living conditions on Earth. Unfortunately, this is almost impossible! For this reason it is important that everyone understands the importance of the habitats of the world and the inhabitants: including humans!This book aims to describe some of the world's habitats, their characteristics, and their daily threats. This is done in the hope that our children will see all of this tomorrow. Enjoy reading!

ISBN 978-1-78984-486-3

Habitats of the World - Biodiversity and Threats

Published in London, UK © 2020 IntechOpen © zozzzzo / iStock


**Abstract**

Machine learning (ML) applications in medicine represent an emerging field of research with the potential to revolutionize the field of radiation oncology, in particular. With the era of big data, the utilization of machine learning algorithms in radiation oncology research is growing fast with applications including patient diagnosis and staging of cancer, treatment simulation, treatment planning, treatment delivery, quality assurance, and treatment response and outcome predictions. In this chapter, we provide the interested reader with an overview of the ongoing advances and cutting-edge applications of state-of-the-art ML techniques in radiation oncology process from the radiotherapy workflow perspective, starting from patient's diagnosis to follow-up. We present with discussion the areas where ML has presently been used and also areas where ML could be applied to improve the efficiency (i.e., optimizing and automating the clinical processes) and quality (i.e., potentials for decision-making support toward a practical application of precision medicine in radiation therapy) of patient care.

**Keywords:** big data, machine learning, radiation oncology, decision-making, precision medicine


**Author details**

Anjali Jha Department of Chemistry, GIS, GITAM (deemed to be University) Rushikonda, Visakhapatnam, India

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**189**

*Microwave Assisted Synthesis of Organic Compounds and Nanomaterials*

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OF SOME NANOPARTICLES, European Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences,2020,7(7),

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[16] Safari J, Banitaba S H, Khalili S D. Microwave-assisted expeditious hydrolysis of isobenzofuranone derivatives using silica supported acid under organic solvent-free conditions Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 2011,

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**1. Introduction**

142 Computational Simulations and Applications

Tokuhiro, A. T. & Lykoudis, P. S. (1994). Natural Convection Heat Transfer from A Vertical

Tryggvason, G.; Scardovelli, R. & Zaleski, S. (2011). *Direct Numerical Simulations of Gas-Liquid*

*Transfer*, Vol.37, No.6, pp.997-1003

UK

Plate-I. Enhancement with Gas Injection. *International Journal of Heat and Mass*

*Multiphase Flows*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-78240-1, Cambridge,

Fluidized beds are the units designed to provide fluid-solid contacting by the fluid flow through a bed of particles (Andrews and Arthur 2007). A number of thermal processes in technology take advantage of the importance of gas-solid interaction in fluidized beds to carry out gas-solid reactions, heterogeneous catalysis and particle drying. The gas-solid fluidization process in circulating fluidized beds is widely applied in many industrial branches. Characterization of the gas-solid particle flow in a circulating fluidized bed (CFB) riser is important for the process optimization. The particle size distribution has significant influence on the dynamics of gas-solid flow (He et al., 2008) along with another important property of the giving system, such as difference in the physical densities of the used materials. The gas-fluidized beds consist of fine granular materials that are subject to the gas flow from below giving the transport velocity that is large enough to overcome the gravity by the viscous drag force and thus the particles can suspend and be fluidized. When in the fluidized state, the moving particles work effectively as a mixer resulting in a uniform temperature distribution and high mass transfer rate, which are beneficial for the efficiency of many physical and chemical processes (Wang et al., 2005). For this reason the gasfluidized beds are widely applied in different industries: thermal, energy, chemical, petrochemical, metallurgical, and environmental industries in large-scale operations involving adhesion optimized coating, granulation, drying, and synthesis of fuels and base chemicals (Kunii & Levenspiel, 1991). In general, the lack of understanding of fundamentals of the dense gas–particle flows has led to severe difficulties in design and scale-up of these industrially important gas-solid contactors (van Swaaij, 1985). In most cases, the design and scale-up of fluidized bed reactors is a fully empirical process based on preliminary tests on pilot-scale model reactors, which is a very time consuming and thus expensive activity. Clearly, computer simulations can be a very useful tool to aid this design and scale-up process.

In the CFB furnaces the ash solids and inert materials like sand particles are mainly used as a solid heat carrier – separated in a hot cyclone and cooled after that in a heat exchanger

Mathematical Modelling of the Motion of

**Pipe data**

Table 1. The initial data for calculations.

which the traced particles might collide.

Dust-Laden Gases in the Freeboard of CFB Using the Two-Fluid Approach 145

be increased by the factor ten and decrease by factor three, respectively, versus their

*Generic name Dimension Minimal Average Maximal*

**Ash concentration** kg/nm3 10 20 20 **Ash density** kg/m3 2000 2000 2000 **Ash particle size** m 0.005 0.0075 0.01 **Sand density** kg/m3 2600 2600 2600 **Sand particle size** m 0.005 0.0075 0.01

For these media we have chosen the initial data very close to the medium in the Estonian oil-shale CFB furnace. The problems of two-phase flows in the CFB risers have been analyzed in certain publications (Hussain et al., 2005, Moscow Energija, 1973), but these studies do not consider dependence of the amount of sensible heat carried by solid particles on the mass flow loading magnitude. The numerical parametric study deals with the influence of the parameters of various riser exits on the hydrodynamics of gas-solid two-

The freeboard CFB used in the given research represents a cylindrical symmetric pipe flow domain occupied by the giving mixture of gas and two types of solid particles. Since the two-fluid model or Euler/Euler approach is applied for the description of the behaviour of solid particles as continuous co-existing phases, the numerical performance is carried out with the finite (control) volume method (Perić & Scheuerer, 1989 and Fertziger & Perić, 1996) written in numerical codes. Another mathematical modelling method, which also operates with the Euler/Euler (or coexisting) approximation deals with the high density or packed particulate flows and solution is obtained with applying the theory of granular flows, for example, that by book of Multiphase Flow and Fluidization: *Continuum and Kinetic Theory Descriptions* (Gidaspov, 1994). In such particulate flows, the particle-turbulence interaction phenomenon is less significant in comparison with the particle-particle collision phenomenon. On the contrary to the Euler/Euler approach, another well-known approximation, which is frequently applied for modelling, the dispersed phase is the Lagrangian Particle Tracking method. The Lagrangian method deals usually with huge numbers of tracking particles (up to several millions of tracking particles depending on the mass flow loading) to obtain a converged solution and also to take into account the particles feedback in the primary fluid (gas-phase). One mathematical technique that can be used for the calculation of flow parameters, including the coupling effect, is given by the particle-cell source method (Crowe et al., 1977). Helland et al., (2000) using the Lagrangian Particle-Tracking approach to calculate the two-dimensional gas-solid particles flow in a CFB riser with the 3% total volume concentration of solids. To take into account the effect of the interparticle collisions within the Lagrangian approach, (Sommerfeld, 2001) developed a stochastic inter-particle collision model with the introduction of a fictitious particle with

phase flow in the CFB riser (Hussain et al., 2005, Moscow Energija, 1973).

**Diameter** m 0.0305 0.0305 0.0305 **Height** m 1.525 1.525 1.525

magnitudes obtained for the normal flow conditions at the temperature 293K.

The following practical initial data were used in calculations:

while the ash particles come back into the furnace. The temperature level in the furnace can be held in the given range by circulating the ash/sand masses. While the heat capacity of ash is quite low, the circulating ash mass must be huge. One way of optimization is to keep up higher heat capacity by adding inertial sand particles. The high ash concentration in furnace gases can be attained with i) high velocity of gas in bed when the fuel particles carried out of bed are burned and their ash fills the whole volume of furnace and ii) ash circulation. The CFB combustion technology enables to bind the sulphur components with the carbonate components added to the fuel or existing within the mineral part of the fuel. A disadvantage of CFB is that some fuel ash particles become too fine during the circulation and therefore the size of ash particles contained in the fuel gas exiting the hot cyclone is too small. As a result of disintegration, the mass of fine ash particles, which are not separated from flue gases or captured in the connective flue ducts and multicyclone increases. The high concentration of particles in the fire gases of CFB furnace chamber contributes to the formation of particle clusters with the solid phase concentration within 0.1 – 0.2 m3/m3. At the exit of CFB boiler furnace the density of solid phase is within 5 – 20 kg/m3.

The given paper is an advanced research of two previous references: "Numerical simulation of uprising gas-solid particle flow in circulating fluidized bed" (Kartushinsky et al., 2009) and "Numerical simulation of uprising turbulent flow by 2D RANS for fluidized bed conditions" (Krupenski et al., 2010) where the mathematical modelling of CFB has been performed. The first one is related to the numerical simulations of CFB where the two-phase turbulent boundary layer approach (TBL) was included. The latter concerns modelling of CFB processes by the RANS approach, which has been developed for both, the gaseous and solid phases, implementing the Euler/Euler approximations or a two-fluid model. Both papers have their advantages and disadvantages. For instance, in the TBL approach the diffusive source terms were retained only in one direction, namely, in the transverse direction, and the magnitude of average transverse velocity components in the gas- and dispersed phases were much less than that of longitudinal components of the corresponding velocities in the gas- and dispersed phases. Such an approach is fully valid and used in the pipe channel flows as well as in the turbulent round jets and flows past the rigid shapes (Hussainov et al., 1995, 1996, Frishman et al., 1997). Nevertheless, a more rigorous and accurate solution was obtained with the help of RANS approach where there are no artificial predictions attached to the TBL approach. However, in both papers only one component of solid admixture, namely, the ash particles are used to simulate the motion of particulate solid phase as a whole.

The current mathematical performance assesses the effect of the presence of two coexisting solid substances, such as ash (light) and sand (heavy) particles with the particle size distribution for each component of solids. This system represents one step further for the mathematical approach to capture real physical processes in CFB. Besides, by making calculations in the real CFB conditions (high temperature of the process) we take into account the amount of heat that must be separated from the combustor by the sensible heat of ash and solid sand particles. The approach enables to optimize particle mass concentration of ash and sand solid particles in fire gases.

The problem is solved by using elaborated mathematical modelling with the help of 2D RANS approach that applies to two coexisting phases. The numerical simulations are performed in the vertical freeboard CFB flow conditions when the temperature of carrier gas-phase fluid is 1123K. Therefore the corresponding magnitudes of parameters of the gaseous phase such as kinematic viscosity coefficient and density of the gaseous phase must

be increased by the factor ten and decrease by factor three, respectively, versus their magnitudes obtained for the normal flow conditions at the temperature 293K. The following practical initial data were used in calculations:

Table 1. The initial data for calculations.

144 Computational Simulations and Applications

while the ash particles come back into the furnace. The temperature level in the furnace can be held in the given range by circulating the ash/sand masses. While the heat capacity of ash is quite low, the circulating ash mass must be huge. One way of optimization is to keep up higher heat capacity by adding inertial sand particles. The high ash concentration in furnace gases can be attained with i) high velocity of gas in bed when the fuel particles carried out of bed are burned and their ash fills the whole volume of furnace and ii) ash circulation. The CFB combustion technology enables to bind the sulphur components with the carbonate components added to the fuel or existing within the mineral part of the fuel. A disadvantage of CFB is that some fuel ash particles become too fine during the circulation and therefore the size of ash particles contained in the fuel gas exiting the hot cyclone is too small. As a result of disintegration, the mass of fine ash particles, which are not separated from flue gases or captured in the connective flue ducts and multicyclone increases. The high concentration of particles in the fire gases of CFB furnace chamber contributes to the formation of particle clusters with the solid phase concentration within 0.1 – 0.2 m3/m3. At

the exit of CFB boiler furnace the density of solid phase is within 5 – 20 kg/m3.

solid phase as a whole.

The given paper is an advanced research of two previous references: "Numerical simulation of uprising gas-solid particle flow in circulating fluidized bed" (Kartushinsky et al., 2009) and "Numerical simulation of uprising turbulent flow by 2D RANS for fluidized bed conditions" (Krupenski et al., 2010) where the mathematical modelling of CFB has been performed. The first one is related to the numerical simulations of CFB where the two-phase turbulent boundary layer approach (TBL) was included. The latter concerns modelling of CFB processes by the RANS approach, which has been developed for both, the gaseous and solid phases, implementing the Euler/Euler approximations or a two-fluid model. Both papers have their advantages and disadvantages. For instance, in the TBL approach the diffusive source terms were retained only in one direction, namely, in the transverse direction, and the magnitude of average transverse velocity components in the gas- and dispersed phases were much less than that of longitudinal components of the corresponding velocities in the gas- and dispersed phases. Such an approach is fully valid and used in the pipe channel flows as well as in the turbulent round jets and flows past the rigid shapes (Hussainov et al., 1995, 1996, Frishman et al., 1997). Nevertheless, a more rigorous and accurate solution was obtained with the help of RANS approach where there are no artificial predictions attached to the TBL approach. However, in both papers only one component of solid admixture, namely, the ash particles are used to simulate the motion of particulate

The current mathematical performance assesses the effect of the presence of two coexisting solid substances, such as ash (light) and sand (heavy) particles with the particle size distribution for each component of solids. This system represents one step further for the mathematical approach to capture real physical processes in CFB. Besides, by making calculations in the real CFB conditions (high temperature of the process) we take into account the amount of heat that must be separated from the combustor by the sensible heat of ash and solid sand particles. The approach enables to optimize particle mass

The problem is solved by using elaborated mathematical modelling with the help of 2D RANS approach that applies to two coexisting phases. The numerical simulations are performed in the vertical freeboard CFB flow conditions when the temperature of carrier gas-phase fluid is 1123K. Therefore the corresponding magnitudes of parameters of the gaseous phase such as kinematic viscosity coefficient and density of the gaseous phase must

concentration of ash and sand solid particles in fire gases.

For these media we have chosen the initial data very close to the medium in the Estonian oil-shale CFB furnace. The problems of two-phase flows in the CFB risers have been analyzed in certain publications (Hussain et al., 2005, Moscow Energija, 1973), but these studies do not consider dependence of the amount of sensible heat carried by solid particles on the mass flow loading magnitude. The numerical parametric study deals with the influence of the parameters of various riser exits on the hydrodynamics of gas-solid twophase flow in the CFB riser (Hussain et al., 2005, Moscow Energija, 1973).

The freeboard CFB used in the given research represents a cylindrical symmetric pipe flow domain occupied by the giving mixture of gas and two types of solid particles. Since the two-fluid model or Euler/Euler approach is applied for the description of the behaviour of solid particles as continuous co-existing phases, the numerical performance is carried out with the finite (control) volume method (Perić & Scheuerer, 1989 and Fertziger & Perić, 1996) written in numerical codes. Another mathematical modelling method, which also operates with the Euler/Euler (or coexisting) approximation deals with the high density or packed particulate flows and solution is obtained with applying the theory of granular flows, for example, that by book of Multiphase Flow and Fluidization: *Continuum and Kinetic Theory Descriptions* (Gidaspov, 1994). In such particulate flows, the particle-turbulence interaction phenomenon is less significant in comparison with the particle-particle collision phenomenon. On the contrary to the Euler/Euler approach, another well-known approximation, which is frequently applied for modelling, the dispersed phase is the Lagrangian Particle Tracking method. The Lagrangian method deals usually with huge numbers of tracking particles (up to several millions of tracking particles depending on the mass flow loading) to obtain a converged solution and also to take into account the particles feedback in the primary fluid (gas-phase). One mathematical technique that can be used for the calculation of flow parameters, including the coupling effect, is given by the particle-cell source method (Crowe et al., 1977). Helland et al., (2000) using the Lagrangian Particle-Tracking approach to calculate the two-dimensional gas-solid particles flow in a CFB riser with the 3% total volume concentration of solids. To take into account the effect of the interparticle collisions within the Lagrangian approach, (Sommerfeld, 2001) developed a stochastic inter-particle collision model with the introduction of a fictitious particle with which the traced particles might collide.

 Linear momentum equation in the radial direction for the gaseous phase:

2

1,3

1,3

*i i*

6. Momentum equation in the longitudinal direction for the solid phase:

*x rr*

7. Momentum equation in the radial/transverse direction for the solid phases:

*x rr*

*x rr*

*i i*

2

4. Turbulence kinetic energy equation for the gaseous phase:

2 *t*

5. Mass conservation equation for the solid phase:

*r*

*i i*

To sum up with introduction one can underline an importance of sought problem, that is the key study of given process is taken place in freeboard of furnace of CFB steam-generator and which is under numerical investigation.


**5. Management**

It is important to evaluate epistaxis patients thoroughly because the method of controlling epistaxis depends largely on the specifics of an individual case, with an entire menu of options available. (Table 2)

Anterior flexion of head can prevent nausea or airway obstruction, as blood does not flow back to pharynx. It is important to keep the blood pressure low and keep the airway clean. Also, fluid replacement can be considered according to the amount of blood loss. Systemic diseases can cause multiple bleeding sites or frequent recurrent epistaxis so blood testing should be performed in patients with those findings. Patients with posterior epistaxis, coagulopathy, coronary artery disease, uncontrolled hypertension, severe anemia or old age should be considered to treat as in-patient basis.

#### **5.1 Medical treatment**

On the first visit of a patient with minimal or moderate history of nasal bleeding, an empiric trial of medical therapy is advised. This includes several measures designed to increase humidification of the mucosa to allow the bleeding site to heal. This approach is based on the assumption that dryness is one of the most important factors causing epistaxis. The

ligation.

perforation.

**5.2 General treatment**

**5.2.1 General treatment for anterior epistaxis**

length at a time to build up the pack. (Cho, 2009 )

against which the blood can clot.

decongestant and anesthetic agent.

Epistaxis 33

Second-line therapy is then indicated, including nasal packing, cauterization, and vessel

If the bleeding site is identified, it is recommended to use pledgets impregnated with decongestant containing bosmin or phenylephrine solution. Compress both nasal dorsum directly for at least 5 minutes after packing the nasal cavity with gauzes impregnated with

In cases with coagulopathy, packing with pledget can damage the mucosa so hemostatic agents such as Avitene, Surgicel or gelfoam can be used. Electric cautery should be performed carefully because it can damage surrounding normal tissue. Also, physician should keep in mind that electric cautery on bilateral septum can lead to septal

In case epistaxis continues with former treatments, nasal packing using gauze with Vaseline and antibiotics, from posterior to anterior and from inferior to superior, should be done. Using bayonet forceps, grasp the packing about 10 cm from one end and place into the back of the nose. Loops of the packing are then placed one on top of another, gently but firmly pressing the loop onto the floor of the nose as each is placed. In this way, the pack is built up

Fig. 3. Placement of traditional or standard anterior nasal packing. A. The gauze is grasped 10cm from one end and placed into the posterior choanae. B. The gauze is layered one

Instead of gauze, compressed sponge (Merocel) can be used. The pack is introduced in a dehydrated state and is expanded by either instilling saline or by absorbing blood from the patient. As the material expands, it fills the nasal or sinus cavity, helping to stop the bleeding in two ways: by applying pressure against the mucosa and by providing a surface

sequentially. The final pack should tightly fill the nasal cavity. (Figure 3)

Table 2. Management options of epistaxis.

recommendations include applying an ointment to the anterior nose each morning and night. In between ointment applications, nasal saline is sprayed into the nose every 2 to 3 hours. In addition, every effort should be made to humidify the air of the home environment. This usually requires using a room air humidifier in the bedroom every night. Maximum effect is achieved by running the humidifier on full with the doors and windows to the room closed.

Also, medical conditions that contribute to epistaxis should be controlled. For example, in patients with hypertension, medication should be administered to lower the blood pressure to within normal range. For patients with coagulopathy, every attempt should be made to normalize clotting function. This may require discontinuing Coumadin or aspirin therapy. For patients with acute and life-threatening bleeding, platelet or plasma transfusions may be administered to reverse the bleeding disorder.

Patients with epistaxis should also minimize their activity while the nose is healing. Exercise should be deferred until the bleeding has stopped for at least 1 week. Bed rest is generally not necessary, nor is staying home from work or school. However, patients should be aware of their level of activity and take steps to avoid any activities that would elevate the blood pressure. Nose blowing should be minimized, and patients should be instructed to blow gently. Patients should also be instructed to avoid rubbing and picking at the nose. Finally, adjunctive therapy, including stool softeners and antitussives, should be considered in selected patients.

If initial attempts to control epistaxis with these conservative medical therapies fail, a more comprehensive approach to the problem should be initiated. This may include specific investigations to evaluate the haemoglobin, platelet levels and coagulation function. An endoscopic examination, if not already performed, should also be considered. This subset of patients might also benefit from a CT scan to rule out the possibility of an occult tumor.

Transantral ligation of the internal maxillary artery

recommendations include applying an ointment to the anterior nose each morning and night. In between ointment applications, nasal saline is sprayed into the nose every 2 to 3 hours. In addition, every effort should be made to humidify the air of the home environment. This usually requires using a room air humidifier in the bedroom every night. Maximum effect is achieved by running the humidifier on full with the doors and windows to the room closed. Also, medical conditions that contribute to epistaxis should be controlled. For example, in patients with hypertension, medication should be administered to lower the blood pressure to within normal range. For patients with coagulopathy, every attempt should be made to normalize clotting function. This may require discontinuing Coumadin or aspirin therapy. For patients with acute and life-threatening bleeding, platelet or plasma transfusions may be

Patients with epistaxis should also minimize their activity while the nose is healing. Exercise should be deferred until the bleeding has stopped for at least 1 week. Bed rest is generally not necessary, nor is staying home from work or school. However, patients should be aware of their level of activity and take steps to avoid any activities that would elevate the blood pressure. Nose blowing should be minimized, and patients should be instructed to blow gently. Patients should also be instructed to avoid rubbing and picking at the nose. Finally, adjunctive therapy, including stool softeners and antitussives, should be considered in

If initial attempts to control epistaxis with these conservative medical therapies fail, a more comprehensive approach to the problem should be initiated. This may include specific investigations to evaluate the haemoglobin, platelet levels and coagulation function. An endoscopic examination, if not already performed, should also be considered. This subset of patients might also benefit from a CT scan to rule out the possibility of an occult tumor.

Endoscopic ligation of the sphenopalatine artery

External ligation of the ethmoid arteries

Medical Management

Nasal sponges Gelfoam

Nasal balloon

Silver nitrate

Laser cautery

Septoplasty

Septal dermoplasty

Traditional anterior pack

Traditional posterior pack

Endoscopic electrocautery

Nasal packing

Cautery

Surgery

Table 2. Management options of epistaxis.

administered to reverse the bleeding disorder.

selected patients.

Embolization Arterial ligation Second-line therapy is then indicated, including nasal packing, cauterization, and vessel ligation.

## **5.2 General treatment**


**3. Results**

### *3.1. Chickens' Performance*

The production results (final body weight, average daily weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio) were similar in the three farms (Table 2) and there were no statistically significant di fferences that depended on the feed used (*p* > 0.05).

**Table 2.** Productivity parameters of "Parrilleros" chickens in the three farms under study (*n* = 75 per farm).

*n* = number of birds (whole flock); 1 Each value represents the mean of 3 replicates (25 birds per pen). No significant differences (*p* < 0.0) were found between farms. FBW: final body weight; BWG: average of daily body weight gain; FI: feed intake; FCR: feed conversion ratio.

### *3.2. Chemical Analysis*

Importantly, there were no significant di fferences (*p* > 0.05) in the total fat content between the 8 di fferent finisher diets used for chicken feed (Table 1). These diets were elaborated considering the composition and content of the ingredients used in each formula. In all the diets, linoleic (52.22%), oleic (24.87%) and palmitic (11.45%) fatty acids were identified as the predominant fatty acids.

The weight of fat by-products per chicken carcass was approximately 40 g, of which 65% corresponded to abdominal fat and 35% to gizzard fat.

 No di fferences were found (*p* > 0.05) between the lipid profiles of chicken fat by-products from the 3 farms under study.

**Table 3.** Lipid profile (% of total lipids) of chicken fat by-products from the three farms under study.

The predominant fatty acids in chicken fat by-products were oleic (C18:1), palmitic (C16:0) and linoleic (C18:2) acids (Table 3), which reflects the lipid profile of the diets (Table 1).  Colour Properties*

The colour parameters of chicken fat by-products are shown in Table 4. Solid fat had statiscally higher (*p* < 0.05) L\* and a\* values than the melted and re-solidified fat. By contrast, the b\* coordinate, saturation index and hue values were higher (*p* < 0.05) when chicken fat by-products were previously melted.

**Table 4.**

Figure 2 presents the reflectance spectra (400–700 nm) obtained for the solid fat and the melted and re-solidified fat. As it can be seen, the shape of the spectra for both types of fat is completely di fferent. At all the wavelengths studied, solid fat showed higher (*p* < 0.05) reflectance percentages than the other fat. Melted and re-solidified fat did not show any reflectance from 400 to 480 nm (mainly corresponding to violet and blue), while from 480 to 540 nm (green) the reflectance values showed the higher increase (approx.13%), these reflectance values remaining constants until the end of the spectrum (corresponding to yellow, orange and red).

**Figure 2.**


**1. Introduction**

Diabetes in pregnancy is considered a high-risk condition for maternal and neonatal morbidity and remains a significant medical challenge. Women with diabetes have a higher risk of preeclampsia, caesarean section, and fetal outcomes including congenital anomalies, stillbirth, and macrosomia. Moreover, women with diabetes at the time of conception have more adverse outcomes (i.e., birth defects, perinatal mortality, and morbidity) than women who develop gestational diabetes during pregnancy [1]. The adverse outcomes associated with diabetes in pregnancy are substantially associated with hyperglycemia. However, the molecular mechanism underlying how maternal hyperglycemia leads to abnormal fetal growth remains unclear.

Placental transfer of amino acids via amino acid transporters is essential for optimal fetal growth and development. Decrease in amino acid transport by the placenta is implicated as a potential cause of fetal growth restriction. There are a variety of such transporters, selective for various classes of amino acids. Na+-dependent system A amino acid transporter is specific for neutral amino acids with short side chains such as glycine and alanine. System L amino acid transporter is Na+-independent exchanger specific for large neutral amino acids. Studies have shown that placental system A activity is lower in intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) compared with normal pregnancies [2,3]. However, alterations in the placental amino acid transporters in pregnancies complicated by diabetes are largely unknown.

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway has newly been suggested to be a nutrient sensor in the placenta. mTOR is a ubiquitously expressed serine/threonine protein kinase that exists in two complexes, mTOR complexes 1 (mTORC1) and 2 (mTORC2). Placental nutrient transporter expression is mainly regulated by mTORC1. We previously reported that mTORC1 might regulate placental glucose transport by altering the glucose transporter isoform-3 expression in placental trophoblast [4]. In addition, evidence has shown that mTORC1 could regulate placental amino acid transport by modulating the cell surface abundance of system A and system L transporter isoforms without affecting global protein expression in primary human trophoblast cells [5]. Alterations of placental mTORC1 activity has been found as being associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. For example, studies have shown that placental mTORC1 activity was decreased in human IUGR [6] or animal model of IUGR [7], suggesting placental mTORC1 plays an important role in the development of abnormal fetal growth. Although dysregulation of placental mTOR has been well documented in IUGR pregnancies, it has rarely been studied in pregnancy complicated with diabetes.

It is speculated that mTORC1 may be activated in diabetes in association with increased placental amino acid transport [8]. Thus, we aimed to investigate the alteration of mTORC1 pathway and system L amino acid transporters in diabetic placentas and to study the impacts of high glucose on mTORC1 activity and system L amino acid transporter expression in placental trophoblast cells.

### **2. Results**


*Supporting open minds since 2005*

Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedical Signal and Image Processing http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73344 Edited by Lulu Wang

#### Contributors

Hong Seong Park, Donguk Yu, Ihab Zaqout, Peter Larbi, Daniel Larbi, Mouloud Adel, Hichem Guedri, Hafedh Belmabrouk, Lulu Wang

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