**1.3.2 Task-level decomposition**

In task-level decomposition the functional partitions of the algorithm are assigned to different processors. As shown in Fig.10 the process of decoding H.264 consists of performing a series of operations on the coded input bitstream. Some of these tasks can be done in parallel. For example, Inverse Quantization (IQ) and the Inverse Transform (IDCT) can be done in parallel with the Motion Compensation (MC) stage. In Fig. 10a the tasks are mapped to a 4-processor system. A control processor is in charge of synchronization and parsing the bitstream. One processor is in charge of Entropy Decoding, IQ and IDCT, another one of the prediction stage (MC or IntraP), and a third one is responsible for the deblocking filter.

H.264 Motion Estimation and Applications 73

parallelism requires a lot of memory for storing all the frames, and therefore this technique maps well to multicomputers in which each processing node has a lot of computational and memory resources. However, parallelization at the GOP-level results in a very high latency that cannot be tolerated in some applications. This scheme is therefore not well suited for multicore architectures, in which the memory is shared by all the processors, because of

At frame-level in fig.12, the input video stream is divided in GOPs. Since GOPs are usually made independent from each other, it is possible to develop a parallel architecture where a controller is in charge of distributing the GOPs among the available cores.In a sequence of I-B-B-P frames inside a GOP, some frames are used as reference for other frames (like I and P frames) but some frames (the B frames in this case) might not. Thus in this case the B frames can be processed in parallel. To do so, a control/central processor assigns independent

Frame-level parallelism has scalability problems due to the fact that usually there are no more than two or three B frames between P frames. The advantages of this model are clear:

Fig. 11. GOP Structure of H.264 Video

**1.3.5 Frame-level parallelism for independent frames**

cache pollution.

frames to different processors.

Fig. 12. Frame-level Parallelism

Fig. 10. H.264 parallelization techniques. **a** Task-level decomposition. **b** Data-level decomposition.

Task-level decomposition requires significant communication between the different tasks in order to move the data from one processing stage to the other, and this may become the bottleneck. This overhead can be reduced using double buffering and blocking to maintain the piece of data that is currently being processed in cache or local memory. Additionally, synchronization is required for activating the different modules at the right time. This should be performed by a control processor and adds significant overhead.

The main drawbacks, however, of task-level decomposition are load balancing and scalability. Balancing the load is difficult because the time to execute each task is not known a priori and depends on the data being processed. In a task-level pipeline the executiontime for each stage is not constant and some stage can block the processing of the others. Scalability is also difficult to achieve. If the application requires higher performance, for example by going from standard to high definition resolution, it is necessary to reimplement the task partitioning which is a complex task and at some point it could not provide the required performance for high throughput demands. Finally from the software optimization perspective the task-level decomposition requires that each task/processor implements a specific software optimization strategy, i.e., the code for each processor is different and requires different optimizations.


**2.5 Cu(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) complexes**

2-Methoxybenzaldehyde-S-2-methylbenzyl dithiocarbamate and 3-methoxybenzalde hyde-S-2-methylbenzyl dithiocarbamate and its Cu(II), Ni(II), Zn(II) complexes were inactive against MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines [64].

**Figure 4.** *Cytotoxic activity of Cu(II), Zn(II) and Ni(II) complexes of thiosemicarbazones.*