Several studies have highlighted the presence of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in the surface and groundwater of the coastal city of Les Cayes [10, 14, 15]. The city is located at 18°34′00″ Northern Latitude and 72°21′00″ west Longitude on the Caribbean coast, on a coastal plain with high rainfall (over 2000 mm/year). Hydrogeologically, the basin of Les Cayes includes Plaine des Cayes and its surrounding mountains. They are drained by two principal rivers: Grand Ravine of the South and l'Acul du Sud along with many other secondary rivers. The basins of these two principal rivers are not very wide (65 and 75 km2 ) but benefit from a very abundant pluviometry which gives them particularly high specific outputs (70 and 55 ls/km2 ). Their low water output adds up to ~2.5 m3 /s. In the case of l'Acul du Sud, this low water output is supported by an important karstic resurgence that drains the calcareous plates forming the southernmost buttresses of Massif de la Hotte's summit, Pic Macaya. Similarly, Ravine du Sud, its principal waterway, has moderate water output of 4.96 m3 /s and low water output of 1.31 m3 /s. The watershed is shared between three distinct types of aquifers: alluvial aquifers with free waters, karstic aquifers, and carbonate aquifers (fissured and fragmented), from where resurgences and outputs vary [68].

The alluvial aquifer of Plaine des Cayes is, hydrographically speaking, located in the Southwestern area of Haiti. Dominated by Massif de la Hotte which measures more than 2000 m in altitude, this area receives abundant rains at the mountaintops (more than 3000 mm/year) and gradually toward the coasts (1400 mm/year) with an average of 1900 mm/year. The renewable groundwater resources which are sustained through direct rain infiltration are concentrated in massive karstified limestones. Its aquifer constitutes, for the entire region, its most important directly exploitable underground water resource. The depth of the water table exceeds 40 m at the plain's headwaters. In the high and moderate areas, the water table is free. In the low plain, the water table is restricted under an argillaceous covering. It is supplied by abundant and direct rain infiltration (1900 mm/year) on the high and moderate areas of the plain and by discharge from the mountains caused by floods [68].

Several factors play a role in explaining the presence of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in the groundwaters of major cities in Haiti. These same factors can also be considered to elaborate on the hypotheses relating to the contamination of the city of Les Cayes' nappe. They are (I) urban spaces of the country characterized by the absence of basic services, such that the collection and treatment of wastewater, the collection of solid waste, and the disposal of excreta and (II) the presence of latrines and septic tanks in alluvial and karstic formations and aquifers' recharge zones. This situation can contribute to the contamination of water resources originating from human fecal discharge. (III) In Haiti, the control of water quality which is to be carried out by public agencies is not always assured [69], and (IV) chlorination remains the only mode of treatment applied to raw water intended for human consumption. This is despite the fact that *Cryptosporidium* oocysts are resistant to chlorine.

**21**

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing…*

**4. Behavior of** *Cryptosporidium* **oocysts under chemical conditions in**

The contamination of groundwater by *Cryptosporidium* oocysts has been the subject of several studies in which the authors have approached the laboratory on the behavior of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts under chemical conditions in saturated porous media. In order to appreciate the interactions between oocysts and soil (granular porous media) techniques based on the principles of colloid and surface

Viable *Cryptosporidium* oocysts purified using discontinuous saccharose were obtained from the National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA). The oocysts were collected in fecal samples from naturally infected dairy calves and kept in an aqueous medium. They were stored (in the dark at 4°C) in potassium dichromate.

Batch equilibrium experiments were used to study the effect of chemical condition on the behavior of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in porous media. These experiments were conducted with two electrolyte solutions: 0.003 M CaCl2 and 0.001 M

> \_ Ι⁄1 + 3.3 *ax*√ \_ *I*) × *Zx*

In this equation, αx represents the diameter of the ion nm, Zx the charge of the ion, and the ion X is I and the ionic strength of the solution. αCa = 0.6; αCl = 0.3.

Five points were selected. Each point on a random sample has been taken. The samples were collected manually at a depth between 40 and 80 cm (**Figure 2**). The soil consisted of 35.6% coarse sand, 7.1% fine sands, 25.4% fine silt, 6% coarse silt, and 25.9% clay (**Table 1**). The soils were air-dried at 35°C and sieved (2 mm), which were then stored at room temperature until used. The physicochemical characteristics of soil, such as pH, organic matter, clay, and CaCO3, and cation exchange capacity (CEC) were measured using standard analytical methods presented in **Table 2** and were determined at the National Laboratory of Building and Public Works (LNBTP) Laboratory Analysis of Soil Arras (INRA) and the Institute for

In the laboratory were added 4 g of soil with a suspension of oocysts in 12 bottles of crystal polystyrene sealed at a ratio of 1:10. To avoid changing the soil properties, the ionic strength of the solutions was adjusted by the addition of a 3 mM solution of calcium chloride (CaCl2) in 6 of the 12 bottle sand and a 100 mM solution of sodium bromide (NaBr) in the remaining 6. The batch tubes were placed vertically in racks on a vibration-free bench top after mixing to allow particles to settle. These were stirred for 24 h using a shaker table at 220 shakes per minute room

oocysts/ml.

2 (4)

The concentration of oocysts in the stock solution was about 2.0 × 107

They were used for laboratory experiments within 10 days of collection.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

**4.1 Sources and purification of** *C. parvum* **oocysts**

NaBr. The Debye-Hückel equation was used Eq. (4):

Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN).

‐γ*x* = (0.51 √

**saturated porous media**

chemistry were used.

**4.2 Chemical conditions**

**4.3 Soil composition**

**4.4 Batch experiments**

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

#### **4. Behavior of** *Cryptosporidium* **oocysts under chemical conditions in saturated porous media**

The contamination of groundwater by *Cryptosporidium* oocysts has been the subject of several studies in which the authors have approached the laboratory on the behavior of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts under chemical conditions in saturated porous media. In order to appreciate the interactions between oocysts and soil (granular porous media) techniques based on the principles of colloid and surface chemistry were used.

#### **4.1 Sources and purification of** *C. parvum* **oocysts**

Viable *Cryptosporidium* oocysts purified using discontinuous saccharose were obtained from the National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA). The oocysts were collected in fecal samples from naturally infected dairy calves and kept in an aqueous medium. They were stored (in the dark at 4°C) in potassium dichromate. The concentration of oocysts in the stock solution was about 2.0 × 107 oocysts/ml. They were used for laboratory experiments within 10 days of collection.

#### **4.2 Chemical conditions**

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

**3. Case study in the city of Les Cayes**

moderate water output of 4.96 m3

where resurgences and outputs vary [68].

these two principal rivers are not very wide (65 and 75 km2

). Their low water output adds up to ~2.5 m3

plain and by discharge from the mountains caused by floods [68].

attachment [65, 67].

55 ls/km2

properties of the pore space (porosity, median grain size, bulk density), from the physical properties of water (density, viscosity, pore velocity) and from the physical properties of the colloid (density, mean diameter, particle diffusion coefficient). The collision efficiency, α, represents an empirical constant to account for the fact that repulsive forces at the collector surface (double-layer repulsion), which are not accounted for in Eq. (3), will prevent a fraction of the colloids from

Several studies have highlighted the presence of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in the surface and groundwater of the coastal city of Les Cayes [10, 14, 15]. The city is located at 18°34′00″ Northern Latitude and 72°21′00″ west Longitude on the Caribbean coast, on a coastal plain with high rainfall (over 2000 mm/year). Hydrogeologically, the basin of Les Cayes includes Plaine des Cayes and its surrounding mountains. They are drained by two principal rivers: Grand Ravine of the South and l'Acul du Sud along with many other secondary rivers. The basins of

abundant pluviometry which gives them particularly high specific outputs (70 and

/s and low water output of 1.31 m3

Sud, this low water output is supported by an important karstic resurgence that drains the calcareous plates forming the southernmost buttresses of Massif de la Hotte's summit, Pic Macaya. Similarly, Ravine du Sud, its principal waterway, has

shed is shared between three distinct types of aquifers: alluvial aquifers with free waters, karstic aquifers, and carbonate aquifers (fissured and fragmented), from

The alluvial aquifer of Plaine des Cayes is, hydrographically speaking, located in the Southwestern area of Haiti. Dominated by Massif de la Hotte which measures more than 2000 m in altitude, this area receives abundant rains at the mountaintops (more than 3000 mm/year) and gradually toward the coasts (1400 mm/year) with an average of 1900 mm/year. The renewable groundwater resources which are sustained through direct rain infiltration are concentrated in massive karstified limestones. Its aquifer constitutes, for the entire region, its most important directly exploitable underground water resource. The depth of the water table exceeds 40 m at the plain's headwaters. In the high and moderate areas, the water table is free. In the low plain, the water table is restricted under an argillaceous covering. It is supplied by abundant and direct rain infiltration (1900 mm/year) on the high and moderate areas of the

Several factors play a role in explaining the presence of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in the groundwaters of major cities in Haiti. These same factors can also be considered to elaborate on the hypotheses relating to the contamination of the city of Les Cayes' nappe. They are (I) urban spaces of the country characterized by the absence of basic services, such that the collection and treatment of wastewater, the collection of solid waste, and the disposal of excreta and (II) the presence of latrines and septic tanks in alluvial and karstic formations and aquifers' recharge zones. This situation can contribute to the contamination of water resources originating from human fecal discharge. (III) In Haiti, the control of water quality which is to be carried out by public agencies is not always assured [69], and (IV) chlorination remains the only mode of treatment applied to raw water intended for human consumption. This is despite the fact that *Cryptosporidium* oocysts are

) but benefit from a very

/s. The water-

/s. In the case of l'Acul du

**20**

resistant to chlorine.

Batch equilibrium experiments were used to study the effect of chemical condition on the behavior of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in porous media. These experiments were conducted with two electrolyte solutions: 0.003 M CaCl2 and 0.001 M NaBr. The Debye-Hückel equation was used Eq. (4):

$$\text{-}\mathsf{log}\mathbf{y}\_{\text{x}} = \left(\mathsf{o.s}\mathbf{i}\,\mathsf{v}\,\mathsf{i}\,\mathsf{y}\,\mathsf{i}\,\ast\,\mathsf{3}.\mathbf{y}\_{\text{x}}\,\mathsf{i}\,\mathsf{i}\right) \times \mathbb{Z}\_{\mathsf{x}}^{\mathsf{y}}\tag{4}$$

In this equation, αx represents the diameter of the ion nm, Zx the charge of the ion, and the ion X is I and the ionic strength of the solution. αCa = 0.6; αCl = 0.3.

#### **4.3 Soil composition**

Five points were selected. Each point on a random sample has been taken. The samples were collected manually at a depth between 40 and 80 cm (**Figure 2**). The soil consisted of 35.6% coarse sand, 7.1% fine sands, 25.4% fine silt, 6% coarse silt, and 25.9% clay (**Table 1**). The soils were air-dried at 35°C and sieved (2 mm), which were then stored at room temperature until used. The physicochemical characteristics of soil, such as pH, organic matter, clay, and CaCO3, and cation exchange capacity (CEC) were measured using standard analytical methods presented in **Table 2** and were determined at the National Laboratory of Building and Public Works (LNBTP) Laboratory Analysis of Soil Arras (INRA) and the Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN).

#### **4.4 Batch experiments**

In the laboratory were added 4 g of soil with a suspension of oocysts in 12 bottles of crystal polystyrene sealed at a ratio of 1:10. To avoid changing the soil properties, the ionic strength of the solutions was adjusted by the addition of a 3 mM solution of calcium chloride (CaCl2) in 6 of the 12 bottle sand and a 100 mM solution of sodium bromide (NaBr) in the remaining 6. The batch tubes were placed vertically in racks on a vibration-free bench top after mixing to allow particles to settle. These were stirred for 24 h using a shaker table at 220 shakes per minute room

#### **Figure 2.**

*Location of sampling soil (Plaine des Cayes). Source: [16].*

#### **Table 1.**

*Particle size distribution of soil elements.*

temperature (23 ± 2°C). At the end of the stirring period, the tubes were placed in an upright position for 20 h. Since soil particles settled much faster than oocysts, due to their different densities, the solution at the top of each tube was removed and

**23**

using Eq. (5):

*Physicochemical analysis of soil.*

**Table 2.**

L; and m, the mass in grams of dry soil.

**4.5 Enumeration of** *C. parvum* **oocysts**

**5. Retention of** *C. parvum* **oocysts in the soil**

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing…*

analyzed for oocyst amounts. The solution was analyzed by epifluorescence, and the determination of the amount of oocysts retained in the soil (qe) was calculated

where *qe* is the amount of oocysts absorbed per unit mass of solid expressed in L/g particles; C0, the initial concentration of suspension oocysts/L; *Ce*, the concentration of colloidal particles balanced oocysts/L; V, the volume of solution used in

Enumeration of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts was conducted by the method of concentration and counting [70]. Oocyst concentration in the suspension was determined by monoclonal antibodies' staining and epifluorescence. Each final suspension tube containing oocysts was placed in an Eppendorf standard micro test tube (2 ml volume). To this suspension, a volume of 250 μl fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated monoclonal antibody was added, and the mixture was incubated for 30 min at 36°C. Following incubation, the stained sample was subjected to three rinses with phosphate buffered saline (pH 7.0, 0.1 mM) and centrifugally washed (4000×*g*) for removal of unattached antibodies. Then, 100-μl aliquots were placed on six-well chamber slides and fixed with 100% methanol.

**Tables 2** and **3** present the results of physicochemical analysis and particle size distribution of the soil of the study. These analyses indicate that the soil is characterized by fine particles; the size of the largest element is 2.50 mm.

= ( −) ∗ ⁄*m* (5)

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

**Table 2.**

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

**22**

**Table 1.**

**Figure 2.**

*Particle size distribution of soil elements.*

*Location of sampling soil (Plaine des Cayes). Source: [16].*

temperature (23 ± 2°C). At the end of the stirring period, the tubes were placed in an upright position for 20 h. Since soil particles settled much faster than oocysts, due to their different densities, the solution at the top of each tube was removed and *Physicochemical analysis of soil.*

analyzed for oocyst amounts. The solution was analyzed by epifluorescence, and the determination of the amount of oocysts retained in the soil (qe) was calculated using Eq. (5):

$$\mathcal{Q}\_{\mathfrak{g}} = (\mathbb{C}\_{\circ} - \mathbb{C}\_{\circ}) \ast \,\,\mathsf{V}\prime\_{\mathfrak{m}} \tag{5}$$

where *qe* is the amount of oocysts absorbed per unit mass of solid expressed in L/g particles; C0, the initial concentration of suspension oocysts/L; *Ce*, the concentration of colloidal particles balanced oocysts/L; V, the volume of solution used in L; and m, the mass in grams of dry soil.

#### **4.5 Enumeration of** *C. parvum* **oocysts**

Enumeration of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts was conducted by the method of concentration and counting [70]. Oocyst concentration in the suspension was determined by monoclonal antibodies' staining and epifluorescence. Each final suspension tube containing oocysts was placed in an Eppendorf standard micro test tube (2 ml volume). To this suspension, a volume of 250 μl fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated monoclonal antibody was added, and the mixture was incubated for 30 min at 36°C. Following incubation, the stained sample was subjected to three rinses with phosphate buffered saline (pH 7.0, 0.1 mM) and centrifugally washed (4000×*g*) for removal of unattached antibodies. Then, 100-μl aliquots were placed on six-well chamber slides and fixed with 100% methanol.

#### **5. Retention of** *C. parvum* **oocysts in the soil**

**Tables 2** and **3** present the results of physicochemical analysis and particle size distribution of the soil of the study. These analyses indicate that the soil is characterized by fine particles; the size of the largest element is 2.50 mm.

#### **Table 3.**

*Soil characterization data used in this study.*

**Figure 3.** *Particle size distribution of the soil sample of the study. Source: [16].*

This fraction represents about 25% of the sample (**Figure 3**) and consisted of 35.6% coarse sand, 7.1% fine sands, 25.4% fine silt, 6% coarse silt, and 25.9% clay. According to [71] the largest CEC values were observed for the particle size analysis 15.2 (cmol/kg) of cation exchange capacity (CEC) and a large surface area due to the presence of silts and clays there for a large number of binding sites. The highest pH value was observed pH (8.52) probably due to the high calcium carbonate content (10.3 g/kg) and a high total calcium concentration (590 g/kg).

The retention of *C. parvum* oocysts in soil was investigated in a series of batch equilibrium experiments. When combined with soil particles, and in presence of CaCl2 solution, the oocysts were removed from the suspension with a high rate (**Table 4**). The results summarized in **Table 5** showed that oocysts, in the solution of NaBr, were transferred to the solid phase, suggesting a chemical environment favorable for the retention of oocysts. In addition the alkaline pH measured in the physicochemical

**25**

**Table 5.**

**Table 4.**

cal to the activity of Br−

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing…*

**Samples C0 (oocysts) Ce (oocyst/L) VCaCl2 Msol(g) qe**

Cc1 1ml contains 40.000 0 39 4 400 Cc2 2ml contains 80.000 0 38 4 800 Cc3 3ml contains 120.000 0 37 4 1200 Cc4 4ml contains 160.000 0 36 4 1600 Cc5 5ml contains 200.000 13 35 4 2000 Cc6 6ml contains 240.000 13 34 4 2400

analyses of the soil can increase the negative charge of zeta potential of oocysts and ultimately reduce the retention capacity of the soil. This could explain the presence of oocysts in groundwater. However, interactions between small colloid particles, the size of *C. parvum* oocysts, and small soil particles, typically the clay-sized fraction (<2 μm), depend to a large extent on electrostatic and other surface forces. Hence, surface charge, characterized as electrophoretic mobility or zeta potential, may govern the interaction between oocysts and soil particles [72]. Furthermore keeping the soil in its natural condition including clay particles and organic matter, which are important for adhesion and may be high in water suspensions in the environment. The association of oocysts with clay minerals has been attributed to high cation exchange capacity (CEC) of clays [72]. This could explain adsorption of oocysts on soil particles in the test batch. The high content of organic material obtained may affect the transport of pathogenic microorganisms in the soil to promote their retention [73]. Tufenkji et al. found that

*Results of the test absorption studies between oocysts and soil with NaBr.*

*Results of the test absorption studies between oocysts and soil with CaCl2.*

the oocyst removal efficiency depended on ionic strength and solution pH.

While for NaBr, for the same ionic strength, the activity of Na+

Other studies have reported that the ionic strength of the solution can influence the behavior of oocysts in the soil. Increasing the ionic strength of the water can alter the hydrophobic behavior of oocysts. According to the Debye-Hückel equation, the two solutions used for this study had different ionic strength. This distribution can be explained by the retention of oocysts in the solution containing CaCl2 (**Table 4**).

phase to the solid phase (**Table 5**). Indeed, changes in particle surface chemistry can have a significant influence on particle aggregation and adhesion [62, 74]. An improved understanding of the influence of oocyst purification and handling methods on oocyst surface chemistry and subsequent stability (vide infra) in water may lead to more effective oocyst removal in engineered processes [75]. Thomas et al. [76] recently reported that oocysts suspended in CaCl2 solutions had near-zero electrophoretic mobility. Brush et al. [62] have reported that variations in observed electrophoretic mobilities were caused by dissimilarities in purification techniques.

ions. There is a total transfer of the oocysts of the aqueous

ions is almost identi-

**(oocyst.L/g)**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

#### **Table 4.**

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

This fraction represents about 25% of the sample (**Figure 3**) and consisted of 35.6% coarse sand, 7.1% fine sands, 25.4% fine silt, 6% coarse silt, and 25.9% clay. According to [71] the largest CEC values were observed for the particle size analysis 15.2 (cmol/kg) of cation exchange capacity (CEC) and a large surface area due to the presence of silts and clays there for a large number of binding sites. The highest pH value was observed pH (8.52) probably due to the high calcium carbonate content (10.3 g/kg) and a high total calcium concentration

*Particle size distribution of the soil sample of the study. Source: [16].*

The retention of *C. parvum* oocysts in soil was investigated in a series of batch equilibrium experiments. When combined with soil particles, and in presence of CaCl2 solution, the oocysts were removed from the suspension with a high rate (**Table 4**). The results summarized in **Table 5** showed that oocysts, in the solution of NaBr, were transferred to the solid phase, suggesting a chemical environment favorable for the retention of oocysts. In addition the alkaline pH measured in the physicochemical

**24**

(590 g/kg).

**Figure 3.**

**Table 3.**

*Soil characterization data used in this study.*

*Results of the test absorption studies between oocysts and soil with CaCl2.*

**Table 5.**

*Results of the test absorption studies between oocysts and soil with NaBr.*

analyses of the soil can increase the negative charge of zeta potential of oocysts and ultimately reduce the retention capacity of the soil. This could explain the presence of oocysts in groundwater. However, interactions between small colloid particles, the size of *C. parvum* oocysts, and small soil particles, typically the clay-sized fraction (<2 μm), depend to a large extent on electrostatic and other surface forces. Hence, surface charge, characterized as electrophoretic mobility or zeta potential, may govern the interaction between oocysts and soil particles [72]. Furthermore keeping the soil in its natural condition including clay particles and organic matter, which are important for adhesion and may be high in water suspensions in the environment. The association of oocysts with clay minerals has been attributed to high cation exchange capacity (CEC) of clays [72]. This could explain adsorption of oocysts on soil particles in the test batch. The high content of organic material obtained may affect the transport of pathogenic microorganisms in the soil to promote their retention [73]. Tufenkji et al. found that the oocyst removal efficiency depended on ionic strength and solution pH.

Other studies have reported that the ionic strength of the solution can influence the behavior of oocysts in the soil. Increasing the ionic strength of the water can alter the hydrophobic behavior of oocysts. According to the Debye-Hückel equation, the two solutions used for this study had different ionic strength. This distribution can be explained by the retention of oocysts in the solution containing CaCl2 (**Table 4**). While for NaBr, for the same ionic strength, the activity of Na+ ions is almost identical to the activity of Br− ions. There is a total transfer of the oocysts of the aqueous phase to the solid phase (**Table 5**). Indeed, changes in particle surface chemistry can have a significant influence on particle aggregation and adhesion [62, 74]. An improved understanding of the influence of oocyst purification and handling methods on oocyst surface chemistry and subsequent stability (vide infra) in water may lead to more effective oocyst removal in engineered processes [75]. Thomas et al. [76] recently reported that oocysts suspended in CaCl2 solutions had near-zero electrophoretic mobility. Brush et al. [62] have reported that variations in observed electrophoretic mobilities were caused by dissimilarities in purification techniques.

#### **5.1 Dynamics of pollution of water resources in the city of Les Cayes**

Pollution dynamics of water resources refer in this chapter to all mechanisms resulting from anthropogenic activities that contribute to the degradation of water quality. This dynamic is the result of a series of actions to be closely linked to spatial development, population growth, and especially to inaction of the public authorities.

The groundwater of the Plaine des Cayes is an important resource. From an ecological point of view, they represent a quantitatively large water reserve and contribute to the feeding of many lakes and rivers. In addition, they provide a significant part of the water supply for the population. The mode of supply is made from groundwater withdrawals with the installation of wells and boreholes and by capture of sources. Distribution takes place from networks, private connections, and public fountains. According to the data of the information, the water of the municipal system is fed by two boreholes with a flow of 66 l/s and an average production of the order of 10,134 m3 /day.

Work carried out on the groundwaters of the country indicates their saline contamination [77] and the presence of pathogenic microorganisms (S/Committee on drinking water and human waste disposal, 1991) [78] and chemical pollutants [79]. In Haiti, several factors include the lack of a system for the collection and drainage of urban effluents, the absence of wastewater treatment plants, the discharge of septic tank effluents into karstic and alluvial formations, as well as the construction of latrines in the aforementioned geological formations, contribute to microbiological contamination of groundwater. A total of 110 fecal coliforms per 100 ml of water was detected in the water distributed by the public service of the city of Les Cayes (S/Committee on drinking water and human waste disposal, 1991).

Based on findings, it appears that the population of the city of Les Cayes resorts to the use of nonreturn latrines and WC with septic tanks, improved latrines, and with non-defined systems (defecation in open air) for the evacuation of their excreta. In the same manner, the people of Les Cayes use various channels for the evacuation of their solid waste: direct removal by the trucks and other discharges into waterways, wastelands, drains, etc. Quite often, the waste which undergoes putrefaction on garbage heaps as well as it does in trash bins produces an extremely toxic liquid called lixiviant. This situation can contribute to the contamination of the water table's water resources through human fecal matter.

All of these pose serious threats to water resources that are heavily exploited in the area through wells, springs, and boreholes. Groundwater is generally polluted by the excreta. People are digging latrines until they reach the surface of the water table. After a rise of a water table above the ground surface, the excreta can be mobilized by the runoff and can be dispersed all over the surface and can pose a significant pollution hazard. It is clear that solid waste and wastewater have as receptacle the aquatic ecosystems and greatly contribute to altering the quality of water resources.

#### *5.1.1 Health impact related to the degradation of water resources*

Regarding cryptosporidiosis in Haiti, in the early 2000s, a series of environmental investigations had been conducted in Port-au-Prince and its surroundings, Les Cayes, and Cap-Haitien to identify human contamination sources. So far, these surveys consisted only in detecting *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in the environment by screening different types of water (surface water, groundwater, public water supplies) used by the population [10–12]. Cryptosporidiosis is one of the most frequent

**27**

**6. Conclusion**

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing…*

out of 57 (98%) adults and 7 out of 36 (19%) children were HIV+

*5.1.2 Environmental impacts related to the degradation of water resources*

Pollution of water resources has a particular impact on the environment, especially since water is an essential component of the ecosystem. Water pollution affects air, soil, and plants. In this, the stagnation of wastewater in the open spaces generates foul odors which constitute an inconvenience for the population. This mode of management or disposal of wastewater causes inter alia disturbances in the nutrient cycle, changes in the structure and functioning of the biotic community, and a biological imbalance in aquatic ecosystems. The high pollutant loads contained in water surface are at the origin of eutrophication. In addition, the weakness of the collection system means that solid waste is dispersed in gullies in public squares, in public markets, and accumulates in open drainage channels contributing to the degradation of the environment. In addition, the accumulation of organic waste in the urban environment favors murine swarming, a reservoir of *Cryptosporidium muris*, a species recently found in humans in Peru [83]. Leachate from leachate is leaking into the drinking water system, with old and poorly maintained pipelines on the surface in many streets. These conditions of urban insalubrity explain the particularly high rate of contamination by *Cryptosporidium* oocysts of water for human consumption. The impact on the environment affects the attractiveness of the city of Les Cayes.

Pollution of water resources in developing countries is a public health problem. This problem affects everyday life and the living standards of urban populations. In the urban areas of poor countries, uncontrolled population growth puts severe pressure on existing natural resources, particularly water resources, resulting in accelerated environmental degradation. In particular, the water resources of the city of Les Cayes are subject to various pressures on a daily basis as a result of poor sanitation and poor solid waste management. To understand the dynamics of water resource pollution by microorganisms, a study on the behavior of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts under chemical conditions was carried out. The objective of this study was to investigate the behavior of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts under chemical conditions

identified three species: 59% *C. hominis*, 38% *C. parvum*, and 3% *C. felis* [12]. It is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in people with AIDS [82]. Cryptosporidiosis is considered as a significant health problem in Haiti where cryptosporidiosis appears to be closely related to environmental issues. Water and sanitation are environmental issues to their very core and together constitute one of the top drivers of development. Water and sanitation provision have an impact on the health of the environment, through downstream pollution in particular.

causes of diarrhea in Haiti. Transmission in young children, HIV-infected individuals, and people living in low socioeconomic conditions is probably due to consumption of water or food contaminated by *Cryptosporidium* oocysts. In tropical areas and under unfavorable socioeconomic conditions, cryptosporidiosis of the child is associated with a risk of prolonged diarrhea, malnutrition, and possibly psychomotor retardation and lectin-related mannose deficiency [80].Cryptosporidiosis is responsible for 17.5% of acute diarrhea cases in children <2 years old [81] and for 30% of HIV patients with chronic diarrhea [82]. Cryptosporidiosis is associated with Haitian children with malnutrition and lectin-related mannose deficiency. In a study conducted in Port-au-Prince, the presence of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts was shown in 158 people (a prevalence of 10.3%). Among these individuals, 56

. Genotyping

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

causes of diarrhea in Haiti. Transmission in young children, HIV-infected individuals, and people living in low socioeconomic conditions is probably due to consumption of water or food contaminated by *Cryptosporidium* oocysts. In tropical areas and under unfavorable socioeconomic conditions, cryptosporidiosis of the child is associated with a risk of prolonged diarrhea, malnutrition, and possibly psychomotor retardation and lectin-related mannose deficiency [80].Cryptosporidiosis is responsible for 17.5% of acute diarrhea cases in children <2 years old [81] and for 30% of HIV patients with chronic diarrhea [82]. Cryptosporidiosis is associated with Haitian children with malnutrition and lectin-related mannose deficiency. In a study conducted in Port-au-Prince, the presence of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts was shown in 158 people (a prevalence of 10.3%). Among these individuals, 56 out of 57 (98%) adults and 7 out of 36 (19%) children were HIV+ . Genotyping identified three species: 59% *C. hominis*, 38% *C. parvum*, and 3% *C. felis* [12]. It is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in people with AIDS [82]. Cryptosporidiosis is considered as a significant health problem in Haiti where cryptosporidiosis appears to be closely related to environmental issues. Water and sanitation are environmental issues to their very core and together constitute one of the top drivers of development. Water and sanitation provision have an impact on the health of the environment, through downstream pollution in particular.

#### *5.1.2 Environmental impacts related to the degradation of water resources*

Pollution of water resources has a particular impact on the environment, especially since water is an essential component of the ecosystem. Water pollution affects air, soil, and plants. In this, the stagnation of wastewater in the open spaces generates foul odors which constitute an inconvenience for the population. This mode of management or disposal of wastewater causes inter alia disturbances in the nutrient cycle, changes in the structure and functioning of the biotic community, and a biological imbalance in aquatic ecosystems. The high pollutant loads contained in water surface are at the origin of eutrophication. In addition, the weakness of the collection system means that solid waste is dispersed in gullies in public squares, in public markets, and accumulates in open drainage channels contributing to the degradation of the environment. In addition, the accumulation of organic waste in the urban environment favors murine swarming, a reservoir of *Cryptosporidium muris*, a species recently found in humans in Peru [83]. Leachate from leachate is leaking into the drinking water system, with old and poorly maintained pipelines on the surface in many streets. These conditions of urban insalubrity explain the particularly high rate of contamination by *Cryptosporidium* oocysts of water for human consumption. The impact on the environment affects the attractiveness of the city of Les Cayes.

#### **6. Conclusion**

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

authorities.

production of the order of 10,134 m3

on drinking water and human waste disposal, 1991).

the water table's water resources through human fecal matter.

*5.1.1 Health impact related to the degradation of water resources*

**5.1 Dynamics of pollution of water resources in the city of Les Cayes**

Pollution dynamics of water resources refer in this chapter to all mechanisms resulting from anthropogenic activities that contribute to the degradation of water quality. This dynamic is the result of a series of actions to be closely linked to spatial development, population growth, and especially to inaction of the public

The groundwater of the Plaine des Cayes is an important resource. From an ecological point of view, they represent a quantitatively large water reserve and contribute to the feeding of many lakes and rivers. In addition, they provide a significant part of the water supply for the population. The mode of supply is made from groundwater withdrawals with the installation of wells and boreholes and by capture of sources. Distribution takes place from networks, private connections, and public fountains. According to the data of the information, the water of the municipal system is fed by two boreholes with a flow of 66 l/s and an average

/day. Work carried out on the groundwaters of the country indicates their saline contamination [77] and the presence of pathogenic microorganisms (S/Committee on drinking water and human waste disposal, 1991) [78] and chemical pollutants [79]. In Haiti, several factors include the lack of a system for the collection and drainage of urban effluents, the absence of wastewater treatment plants, the discharge of septic tank effluents into karstic and alluvial formations, as well as the construction of latrines in the aforementioned geological formations, contribute to microbiological contamination of groundwater. A total of 110 fecal coliforms per 100 ml of water was detected in the water distributed by the public service of the city of Les Cayes (S/Committee

Based on findings, it appears that the population of the city of Les Cayes resorts

All of these pose serious threats to water resources that are heavily exploited in the area through wells, springs, and boreholes. Groundwater is generally polluted by the excreta. People are digging latrines until they reach the surface of the water table. After a rise of a water table above the ground surface, the excreta can be mobilized by the runoff and can be dispersed all over the surface and can pose a significant pollution hazard. It is clear that solid waste and wastewater have as receptacle the aquatic ecosystems and greatly contribute to altering the quality of

Regarding cryptosporidiosis in Haiti, in the early 2000s, a series of environmental investigations had been conducted in Port-au-Prince and its surroundings, Les Cayes, and Cap-Haitien to identify human contamination sources. So far, these surveys consisted only in detecting *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in the environment by screening different types of water (surface water, groundwater, public water supplies) used by the population [10–12]. Cryptosporidiosis is one of the most frequent

to the use of nonreturn latrines and WC with septic tanks, improved latrines, and with non-defined systems (defecation in open air) for the evacuation of their excreta. In the same manner, the people of Les Cayes use various channels for the evacuation of their solid waste: direct removal by the trucks and other discharges into waterways, wastelands, drains, etc. Quite often, the waste which undergoes putrefaction on garbage heaps as well as it does in trash bins produces an extremely toxic liquid called lixiviant. This situation can contribute to the contamination of

**26**

water resources.

Pollution of water resources in developing countries is a public health problem. This problem affects everyday life and the living standards of urban populations. In the urban areas of poor countries, uncontrolled population growth puts severe pressure on existing natural resources, particularly water resources, resulting in accelerated environmental degradation. In particular, the water resources of the city of Les Cayes are subject to various pressures on a daily basis as a result of poor sanitation and poor solid waste management. To understand the dynamics of water resource pollution by microorganisms, a study on the behavior of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts under chemical conditions was carried out. The objective of this study was to investigate the behavior of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts under chemical conditions

#### *Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

and soil characteristics in saturated porous media and to describe also the water pollution dynamics of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts. Batch equilibrium tests were used to describe the partitioning of *Cryptosporidium* particles between solid and liquid phases and play a significant role in the oocyst removal from the pore fluid. Therefore it is necessary to reduce the level of exposure of the population of Les Cayes through the construction of livestock farms to prevent the free movement of animals in the city, the elimination of wild dumps, and the treatment of urban effluents, latrine sludge, and septic tanks. It is important to regularly monitor water quality (monitoring) and evaluate progress. Good management of water resources on our study site requires close collaboration between research institutes, water companies, and health authorities.

### **Author details**

Ketty Balthazard-Accou1,2\*, Evens Emmanuel3 , Patrice Agnamey4,5 and Christian Raccurt6

1 Laboratoire de Qualité de l'Eau de l'Environnement, Université Quisqueya, Port-au-Prince, Haïti

2 Association Haïtienne Femmes, Science et Technologie, Port-au-Prince, Haïti

3 École doctorale "Société et Environnement", Université Quisqueya, Port-au-Prince, Haïti

4 Laboratoire de Parasitologie—Mycologie, Hôpital Sud, CHU d'Amiens

5 AGIR—Agents Infectieux, Résistance et Chimiothérapie, UFR de Pharmacie, Amiens, France

6 Faculté des Sciences de la Santé, Université Quisqueya, Port-au-Prince, Haïti

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**29**

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing…*

p. 257

aux effluents hospitaliers [Thèse de Doctorat]. Lyon: INSA de Lyon; 2004.

contamination potential from

of Haiti. In: Laboy-Nieves EN, Goosen MFA, Emmanuel E, editors. Environmental and Human Health. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group; 2010.

[11] Brasseur P, Eyma E, Li X, Verdier Ri, Agnamey P, Liautaud B, et al. Circulation des oocystes de Cryptosporidium dans les eaux de surface et de distribution par adduction publique à Port-au-Prince, Haïti. In: Colloque International Gestion Intégrée de l'Eau en Haïti, Actes du Colloque;

[12] Raccurt CP, Brasseur P, Verdier RI, Li X, Eyma E, Panier Stockman C, et al. Cryptosporidiose humaine et espèces en cause en Haïti. Tropical Medicine and International Health. 2006;**11**:929-934

[13] Damiani C, Balthazard-Accou K, Clervil E, Diallo A, Da Costa C, Emmanuel E, et al. Cryptosporidiosis in Haiti: Surprisingly low level of species diversity revealed by molecular characterization of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts from surface water and groundwater. Parasite. 2013;**20**:45. Available from: www.parasite-journal.org

[14] Balthazard-Accou K, Emmanuel E, Agnamey P, Brasseur P, Lilite O, Totet A, et al. Presence of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts and Giardia Cysts in the surface water and groundwater in the City of Cayes, Haití. Aqua-LAC. 2009;**1**:63-71

Water. 1999;**1**:217-236

pp. 201-214

2002. pp. 172-175

[9] Pitt R, Clark S, Field R. Groundwater

stormwater infiltration practices. Urban

[10] Balthazard-Accou K, Emmanuel E, Agnamey P, Brasseur P, Totet A, Raccurt CP. *Cryptosporidium* oocysts transmission in the aquatic environment

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

[1] Eriksson E, Baun A, Mikkelsen PS, Ledin A. Risk assessment of xenobiotics in stormwater discharged to Harrestrup Å, Denmark. Desalination.

[2] Zhang Q, Li ZW, Zeng GM, Li JB, Fang Y, Yuan QS, et al. Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques in red soil hilly region: A case study of Xiangjiang watershed, China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.

[3] Fifi U. Impacts des eaux pluviales urbaines sur les eaux souterraines dans les pays en développement mécanismes de transfert des métaux lourds à travers un sol modèle de Portau-Prince, Haïti [Thèse de Doctorat]. Lyon: INSA de Lyon; 2010. p. 260

[4] Ghosh AR, Qureshi MS, Kim JI, Zalduendo J. Surges. Journal of International Economics.

[5] Krishnan RS, Srinivasan R,

Devanarayanan S. Thermal Expansion of Crystals: International Series in the Science of the Solid State (Vol. 22).

[6] Maillard P, Santos NAP. A spatialstatistical approach for modeling the effect of non-point source pollution on different water quality parameters in the Velhas river watershed-Brazil. Journal of Environmental Management.

[7] Rashid Abo ul HM, Malik MM,

Mukhtar S. Urbanization and its effects on water resources: An exploratory analysis. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution. 2018;**15**(1):67-74. DOI: 10.3233/

[8] Emmanuel E. Evaluation des risques sanitaires et écotoxicologiques liés

2007;**215**:187-197

**References**

2009;**152**:123-131

2014;**92**(2):266-285

Elsevier; 2013

2008;**86**(1):158-170

AJW-180007

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

#### **References**

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

companies, and health authorities.

Ketty Balthazard-Accou1,2\*, Evens Emmanuel3

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
provided the original work is properly cited.

1 Laboratoire de Qualité de l'Eau de l'Environnement, Université Quisqueya,

2 Association Haïtienne Femmes, Science et Technologie, Port-au-Prince, Haïti

5 AGIR—Agents Infectieux, Résistance et Chimiothérapie, UFR de Pharmacie,

6 Faculté des Sciences de la Santé, Université Quisqueya, Port-au-Prince, Haïti

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

3 École doctorale "Société et Environnement", Université Quisqueya,

4 Laboratoire de Parasitologie—Mycologie, Hôpital Sud, CHU d'Amiens

**Author details**

and Christian Raccurt6

Port-au-Prince, Haïti

Port-au-Prince, Haïti

Amiens, France

and soil characteristics in saturated porous media and to describe also the water pollution dynamics of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts. Batch equilibrium tests were used to describe the partitioning of *Cryptosporidium* particles between solid and liquid phases and play a significant role in the oocyst removal from the pore fluid. Therefore it is necessary to reduce the level of exposure of the population of Les Cayes through the construction of livestock farms to prevent the free movement of animals in the city, the elimination of wild dumps, and the treatment of urban effluents, latrine sludge, and septic tanks. It is important to regularly monitor water quality (monitoring) and evaluate progress. Good management of water resources on our study site requires close collaboration between research institutes, water

, Patrice Agnamey4,5

**28**

[1] Eriksson E, Baun A, Mikkelsen PS, Ledin A. Risk assessment of xenobiotics in stormwater discharged to Harrestrup Å, Denmark. Desalination. 2007;**215**:187-197

[2] Zhang Q, Li ZW, Zeng GM, Li JB, Fang Y, Yuan QS, et al. Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques in red soil hilly region: A case study of Xiangjiang watershed, China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2009;**152**:123-131

[3] Fifi U. Impacts des eaux pluviales urbaines sur les eaux souterraines dans les pays en développement mécanismes de transfert des métaux lourds à travers un sol modèle de Portau-Prince, Haïti [Thèse de Doctorat]. Lyon: INSA de Lyon; 2010. p. 260

[4] Ghosh AR, Qureshi MS, Kim JI, Zalduendo J. Surges. Journal of International Economics. 2014;**92**(2):266-285

[5] Krishnan RS, Srinivasan R, Devanarayanan S. Thermal Expansion of Crystals: International Series in the Science of the Solid State (Vol. 22). Elsevier; 2013

[6] Maillard P, Santos NAP. A spatialstatistical approach for modeling the effect of non-point source pollution on different water quality parameters in the Velhas river watershed-Brazil. Journal of Environmental Management. 2008;**86**(1):158-170

[7] Rashid Abo ul HM, Malik MM, Mukhtar S. Urbanization and its effects on water resources: An exploratory analysis. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution. 2018;**15**(1):67-74. DOI: 10.3233/ AJW-180007

[8] Emmanuel E. Evaluation des risques sanitaires et écotoxicologiques liés

aux effluents hospitaliers [Thèse de Doctorat]. Lyon: INSA de Lyon; 2004. p. 257

[9] Pitt R, Clark S, Field R. Groundwater contamination potential from stormwater infiltration practices. Urban Water. 1999;**1**:217-236

[10] Balthazard-Accou K, Emmanuel E, Agnamey P, Brasseur P, Totet A, Raccurt CP. *Cryptosporidium* oocysts transmission in the aquatic environment of Haiti. In: Laboy-Nieves EN, Goosen MFA, Emmanuel E, editors. Environmental and Human Health. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group; 2010. pp. 201-214

[11] Brasseur P, Eyma E, Li X, Verdier Ri, Agnamey P, Liautaud B, et al. Circulation des oocystes de Cryptosporidium dans les eaux de surface et de distribution par adduction publique à Port-au-Prince, Haïti. In: Colloque International Gestion Intégrée de l'Eau en Haïti, Actes du Colloque; 2002. pp. 172-175

[12] Raccurt CP, Brasseur P, Verdier RI, Li X, Eyma E, Panier Stockman C, et al. Cryptosporidiose humaine et espèces en cause en Haïti. Tropical Medicine and International Health. 2006;**11**:929-934

[13] Damiani C, Balthazard-Accou K, Clervil E, Diallo A, Da Costa C, Emmanuel E, et al. Cryptosporidiosis in Haiti: Surprisingly low level of species diversity revealed by molecular characterization of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts from surface water and groundwater. Parasite. 2013;**20**:45. Available from: www.parasite-journal.org

[14] Balthazard-Accou K, Emmanuel E, Agnamey P, Brasseur P, Lilite O, Totet A, et al. Presence of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts and Giardia Cysts in the surface water and groundwater in the City of Cayes, Haití. Aqua-LAC. 2009;**1**:63-71

[15] Balthazard-Accou K. Contamination microbiologique des eauxsouterraines de la ville des Cayes, Haïti. Evaluation des risques pour la santédes consommateurs [Thèse de Doctorat]. Amiens: Université de Picardie Jules Verne; 2011. p. 208

[16] Balthazard-Accou K, Fif U, Agnamey P, Casimir JA, Brasseur P, Emmanuel E. Influence of ionic strength and soil characteristics on the behavior of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in saturated porous media. Chemosphere. 2014;**103**:114-120

[17] Clode PL, Koh WH, Thompson RC. Life without a host cell: What is *Cryptosporidium*? Trends in Parasitology. 2015;**31**:614-624

[18] Armon R, Gold D, Zuckerman U, Eyal Kurzbaum E. Environmental aspect of cryptosporidium. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Research. 2016;**3**(2):1048

[19] Bonnard R. Le risque biologique et la méthode d'évaluation du risque. Paris: Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques; 2001. p. 70. INERIS (DRC-01-25419-ERSA-RBn-383)

[20] Carey CM, Lee H, Trevors JT. Biology, persistence and detection of *Cryptosporidium parvum* and *Cryptosporidium hominis* oocyst. Water Research. 2004;**38**:818-862

[21] Robertson LJ, Campbell AT, Smith HV. Survival of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts under various environmental pressures. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1992;**58**:3494-3500

[22] Jenkins MB, Bowman DD, Fogarty EA, Ghiiorse WC. *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocyst inactivation in three soil types at various temperatures and water potentials. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 2002;**34**:1101-1109

[23] Fayer R, Trout JM, Jenkins MC. Infectivity of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts stored in water at environmental temperatures. Journal of Parasitology. 1998;**84**:1165-1169

[24] Fayer R, Trout JM, Nerad T. Effects of a wide range of temperatures on infectivity of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts. The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 1996;**43**:64S

[25] Chauret C, Armstrong N, Fisher J, Sharma R, Springthorpe S, Sattar S. Correlating *Cryptosporidium* and Giardia with microbial indicators. Journal of the American Water Works Association. 1995;**87**:76-84

[26] Liu W, An W, Jeppesen E, Ma J, Min Y, Dennis T. Modelling the fate and transport of Cryptosporidium, a zoonotic and waterborne pathogen, in the Daning River watershed of the three Gorges Reservoir Region, China. Journal of Environmental Management;**232**:462-474. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.064

[27] Liu J, Platts-Mills JA, Juma J, Kabir F, Nkeze J, Okoi C, et al. Use of quantitative molecular diagnostic methods to identify causes of diarrhoea in children: A reanalysis of the GEMS case-control study. Lancet. 2016;**388**:1291-1301. DOI: 10.1016/ S0140-6736(16)31529-X

[28] Gatei W, Wamae CN, Mbae C, Waruru A, Mulinge E, Waithera T, et al. Cryptosporidiosis: Prevalence, genotype analysis, and symptoms associated with infections in children in Kenya. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2006;**75**(1):78-82

[29] Craun GF, Calderon RL. Observational epidemiologic studies of endemic waterborne risks: Cohort, case-control, time-series, and ecologic studies. Journal of Water and Health. 2006;**4**:101-119

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ONE. 2012;**10**(5):e0125955

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Dupont HL. Infectivity of

10.4269/ajtmh.1999.60.157

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in Parasitology. 2013;**29**(1):3-9

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infection transmitted through the public water supply. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1994;**331**(3):161-167

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[36] Åberg R, Sjöman M, Hemminki K, Pirnes A, Räsänen S, Kalanti A, et al. *Cryptosporidium parvum* caused a large outbreak linked to frisée salad in Finland, 2012. Zoonoses and Public

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Springer; 2018. pp. 73-117. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-67664-7-5

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

oocysts stored in water at environmental temperatures. Journal of Parasitology.

[24] Fayer R, Trout JM, Nerad T. Effects of a wide range of temperatures on infectivity of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts. The Journal of Eukaryotic

[25] Chauret C, Armstrong N, Fisher J, Sharma R, Springthorpe S, Sattar S. Correlating *Cryptosporidium* and Giardia with microbial indicators. Journal of the American Water Works

[26] Liu W, An W, Jeppesen E, Ma J, Min Y, Dennis T. Modelling the fate and transport of Cryptosporidium, a zoonotic and waterborne pathogen, in the Daning River watershed of the three Gorges Reservoir Region, China. Journal of Environmental Management;**232**:462-474. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.064

[27] Liu J, Platts-Mills JA, Juma J, Kabir F, Nkeze J, Okoi C, et al. Use of quantitative molecular diagnostic methods to identify causes of diarrhoea

in children: A reanalysis of the GEMS case-control study. Lancet. 2016;**388**:1291-1301. DOI: 10.1016/

[28] Gatei W, Wamae CN, Mbae C, Waruru A, Mulinge E, Waithera T, et al. Cryptosporidiosis: Prevalence, genotype analysis, and symptoms associated with infections in children in Kenya. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine

and Hygiene. 2006;**75**(1):78-82

epidemiologic studies of endemic waterborne risks: Cohort, case-control, time-series, and ecologic studies. Journal of Water and Health. 2006;**4**:101-119

[29] Craun GF, Calderon RL. Observational

[30] Xiao L, Cama VA. Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis Foodborne Parasites. Berlin, Germany:

S0140-6736(16)31529-X

1998;**84**:1165-1169

Microbiology. 1996;**43**:64S

Association. 1995;**87**:76-84

[15] Balthazard-Accou K. Contamination microbiologique des eauxsouterraines de la ville des Cayes, Haïti. Evaluation des risques pour la santédes consommateurs [Thèse de Doctorat]. Amiens: Université de Picardie Jules Verne; 2011. p. 208

[16] Balthazard-Accou K, Fif U, Agnamey P, Casimir JA, Brasseur P, Emmanuel E. Influence of ionic strength and soil characteristics on the behavior of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in saturated porous media. Chemosphere.

[17] Clode PL, Koh WH, Thompson RC. Life without a host cell: What is *Cryptosporidium*? Trends in Parasitology.

[18] Armon R, Gold D, Zuckerman U, Eyal Kurzbaum E. Environmental aspect of cryptosporidium. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Research.

[19] Bonnard R. Le risque biologique et la méthode d'évaluation du risque. Paris: Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques; 2001. p. 70. INERIS (DRC-01-25419-ERSA-RBn-383)

[20] Carey CM, Lee H, Trevors JT. Biology, persistence and detection of *Cryptosporidium parvum* and *Cryptosporidium hominis* oocyst. Water

[21] Robertson LJ, Campbell AT, Smith HV. Survival of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts under various environmental pressures. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1992;**58**:3494-3500

[22] Jenkins MB, Bowman DD, Fogarty EA, Ghiiorse WC. *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocyst inactivation in three soil types at various temperatures and water potentials. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 2002;**34**:1101-1109

[23] Fayer R, Trout JM, Jenkins MC. Infectivity of *Cryptosporidium parvum*

Research. 2004;**38**:818-862

2014;**103**:114-120

2015;**31**:614-624

2016;**3**(2):1048

**30**

[31] Kato S, Jenkins M, Fogarty E, Bowman D. *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocyst inactivation in field soil and its relation to soil characteristics: Analyses using the geographic information systems. Science of the Total Environment. 2004;**321**(1-3):47-58. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2003.08.027

[32] Chappell CL, Okhuysen PC, Sterling CR, Wang C, Jakubowski W, Dupont HL. Infectivity of *Cryptosporidium parvum* in healthy adults with pre-existing anti-*Cryptosporidium parvum* serum immunoglobulin G. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 1999;**60**(1):157-164. DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.1999.60.157

[33] Mac Kenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of *Cryptosporidium* infection transmitted through the public water supply. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1994;**331**(3):161-167

[34] Robertson LJ, Chalmers RM. Foodborne cryptosporidiosis: Is there really more in Nordic countries? Trends in Parasitology. 2013;**29**(1):3-9

[35] Utaaker KS, Skjerve E, Robertson LJ. Keeping it cool: Survival of Giardia cysts and *Cryptosporidium* oocysts on lettuce leaves. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2017;**255**:51-57

[36] Åberg R, Sjöman M, Hemminki K, Pirnes A, Räsänen S, Kalanti A, et al. *Cryptosporidium parvum* caused a large outbreak linked to frisée salad in Finland, 2012. Zoonoses and Public Health. 2015;**62**(8):618-624

[37] McKerr C, Adak GK, Nichols G, Gorton R, Chalmers RM, Kafatos G, et al. An outbreak of *Cryptosporidium parvum* across England & Scotland

associated with consumption of fresh pre-cut salad leaves, May 2012. PLoS ONE. 2012;**10**(5):e0125955

[38] Cook N, Lim YAL. Giardia duodenalis: Part 1: Contamination of fresh produce. In: Robertson LJ, Smith H, editors. Foodborne Protozoan Parasites. Hauppauge: Nova Publishers; 2012. pp. 105-107

[39] Atwill ER, Hou L, Karle BM, Harter T, Tate KW, Dahlgren RA. Transport of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts through vegetated buffer strips and estimated filtration efficiency. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2002;**68**:5517-5527

[40] Davies CM, Ferguson CM, Kaucner C, Krogh M, Altavilla N, Deere DA, et al. Dispersion and transport of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts from fecal pats under simulated rainfall events. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2004;**70**:1151-1159

[41] Bradford SA, Bettahar M. Straining attachment and detachment of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in saturated porous media. Journal of Environmental Quality. 2005;**34**:469-478

[42] Tufenkji N, Dixon DR, Considine R, Drummond CJ. Multi-scale *Cryptosporidium*/sand interactions in water treatment. Water Research. 2006;**40**:3315-3331

[43] Byrd TL, Walz JY. Investigation of the interaction force between *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts and solid surfaces. Langmuir. 2007;**23**:7475-7483

[44] Liu Y, Janjaroen D, Kuhlenschmidt MS, Kuhlenschmidt TB, Nguyen TH. Deposition of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts on natural organic matter surfaces: Microscopic evidence for secondary minimum deposition in a radial stagnation point flow cell. Langmuir. 2009;**3**:1594-1605

[45] Janjaroen D, Liu Y, Kuhlenschmidt MS, Kuhlenschmidt TB, Nguyen TH. Role of divalent cations on deposition of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts on natural organic matter surfaces. Environmental Science & Technology. 2010;**44**:4519-4524

[46] Petersen HH, Enemark HL, Olsen A, Mostofa Amin MG, Dalsgaarda A. Transport of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts in soil columns following applications of raw and separated liquid slurries. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2012;**78**:5994-6000

[47] McLaughlin SJ, Kalita PK, Kuhlenschmidt MS. Fate of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts within soil, water, and plant environment. Journal of Environmental Management. 2013;**131**:121-128

[48] Darnault CJG, Peng Z, Yu C, Li B, Jacobson AR, Baveye PC. Movement of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts through soils without preferential pathways: Exploratory test. Frontiers in Environmental Science. 2017;**5**:39. DOI: 10.3389/fenvs.2017.00039

[49] Current W. Cryptosporidium: Its biology and potential for environmental transmission. CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control. 1987;**17**:21-51

[50] Kuznar Z, Elimelech M. *Cryptosporidium* oocysts surface macromolecules significantly hinder oocyst attachment. Environmental Science and Technology. 2006;**40**:1837-1842

[51] Considine RF, Dixon DR, Drummond CJ. Laterally-resolved force microscopy of biological microspheresoocysts of *Cryptosporidium parvum*. Langmuir. 2000;**16**:1323-1330

[52] Considine RF, Dixon DR, Drummond CJ. Oocysts of *Cryptosporidium parvum* and model sand surfaces in aqueous solutions: An atomic force microscope (AFM) study. Water Research. 2002;**36**:3421-3428

[53] Drozd C, Schwartzbrod J. Hydrophobic and electrostatic cell surface properties of *Cryptosporidium parvum*. Apply and Environmental Microbiology. 1996;**62**:1227-1232

[54] Hsu BM, Huang CP. Influence of ionic strength and pH on hydrophobicity and zeta potential of Giardia and *Cryptosporidium*. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2002;**3**:201-206

[55] Karaman ME, Pashley RM, Bustamante H, Shanker SR. Microelectrophoresis of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts in aqueous solutions of inorganic and surfactant cations. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 1999;**146**:217-225

[56] Ongerth JE, Pecoraro JP. Electrophoretic mobility of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts and *Giardia* cysts. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 1996;**122**:228-231

[57] Thomas F, Bard E, Rouiller MC, Prelot B, Mathieu L. Filtration-elution of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts assisted by electrostatic interactions. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2001;**195**:135-142

[58] Searcy KE, Packman AI, Atwill ER, Harter T. Association of *Cryptosporidium parvum* with suspended particles: Impact on oocyst sedimentation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2005;**71**:1072-1078

[59] Dai X, Boll J, Hayes ME, Aston DE. Adhesion of *Cryptosporidium parvum* and *Giardia lamblia* to solid surfaces: The role of surface charge and hydrophobicity. Colloids and Surfaces. B, Biointerfaces. 2004;**34**:259-263

[60] Kuznar ZA, Elimelech M. Adhesion kinetics of viable *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts to quartz surfaces.

**33**

PNUD; 1991. 70p

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing…*

[69] Ministère de la Santé Publique. Analyse de la Situation Sanitaire (Haïti). Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie Henri

[70] AFNOR NFT90-455. Qualité de l'eau. In: Recherche et Dénombrement D'oocystes de Cryptosporidium et de Kystes de Giardia—Méthode de Concentration et de Dénombrement. Association Française de Normalisation;

[71] Hillel D. Environmental Soil Physics: Fundamentals, Applications and Environmental Considerations.

[72] Peng X, Macdonald S, Murphy TM, Holden NM. The fate and transport of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in the soil. In: Ozkaraova Gungor BE, editor. Principles, Application and Assessment in Soil Science. Rijeka: InTech; 2011. pp. 179-192. ISBN: 978-953-307-740-6. Available from: http://www.intechopen. com/books/principlesapplication-andassessment-in-soil-science/the-fateand-transportof-cryptosporidium-

Academic Press; 1998. 771p

parvum-oocysts-inthesoil

3629. DOI: 10.1021/es048289y

[74] Butkus MA, Grasso D. The impact of phosphate sorption on water treatment residual surface characteristics: Prelude to reuse. Environmental Engineering Science. 1999;**16**:117-129. DOI: 10.1089/

[75] Butkus M, Bays J, Labare M. Influence of surface characteristics on the stability of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocyst. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2003;**69**(7):3819-3825

[76] Thomas F, Bard E, Rouillier MC, Prelot B, Mathieu L. Filtration-elution

ees.1999.16.117

[73] Tufenkji N, Elimelech M. Spatial distributions of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in porous media: Evidence for dual mode deposition. Environmental Science & Technology. 2005;**39**:3620-

Deschamps; 1998. 250p

2001. 25p

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

Environmental Science & Technology.

[61] Deyac KECV, López LMT, Agosto MG, Emmanuel E. The physical properties of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts and their adsorption to solid surfaces: A review.

[62] Brush C, Walter M, Anguish L, Ghiorse W. Influence of pretreatment

[63] Harvey RW, Garabedian SP. Use of colloid filtration theory in modeling movement of bacteria through a contaminated sandy aquifer.

Environmental Science and Technology.

[64] DeMarsily G. Quantitative Hydrogeology. 1st ed. San Diego, CA:

[65] Ryan JN, Elimelech M. Colloid mobilization and transport in groundwater. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering

[66] Logan BE, Jewett DG, Arnold RG, Bouwer EJ, O'Melia CR. Clarification of clean-bed filtration models. Journal of Environmental Engineering.

[67] Rajagopalan R, Tien C. Trajectory analysis of deep-bed filtration with the sphere-in-cell porous media model. AICHE Journal. 1976;**22**(3):523-533

[68] PNUD, Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement.

Développement et gestion des ressources en eau. In: Haïti: Disponibilité en eau et adéquation aux besoins. Volume VI Région Sud-Ouest. New-York (NY):

Academic Press; 1986. 440p

Aspects. 1996;**107**:1-56

1995;**121**(12):869-873

and experimental conditions on electrophoretic mobility and hydrophobicity of *Cryptosporidium*

*parvum* oocyst. Applied an Environmental Microbiology. 1998;**64**(11):4439-4445

1991;**25**:178-185

2004;**38**:6839-6845

2011

*Pollution of Water Resources and Environmental Impacts in Urban Areas of Developing… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86951*

Environmental Science & Technology. 2004;**38**:6839-6845

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

[53] Drozd C, Schwartzbrod J. Hydrophobic and electrostatic cell surface properties of *Cryptosporidium parvum*. Apply and Environmental Microbiology. 1996;**62**:1227-1232

[54] Hsu BM, Huang CP. Influence of ionic strength and pH on

[55] Karaman ME, Pashley RM, Bustamante H, Shanker SR. Microelectrophoresis of

Aspects. 1999;**146**:217-225

[56] Ongerth JE, Pecoraro JP. Electrophoretic mobility of

and Engineering Aspects.

2001;**195**:135-142

*Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts in aqueous solutions of inorganic and surfactant cations. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering

*Cryptosporidium* oocysts and *Giardia* cysts. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 1996;**122**:228-231

[57] Thomas F, Bard E, Rouiller MC, Prelot B, Mathieu L. Filtration-elution of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts assisted by electrostatic interactions. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical

[58] Searcy KE, Packman AI, Atwill ER, Harter T. Association of *Cryptosporidium parvum* with suspended particles: Impact on oocyst sedimentation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2005;**71**:1072-1078

[59] Dai X, Boll J, Hayes ME, Aston DE. Adhesion of *Cryptosporidium parvum* and *Giardia lamblia* to solid surfaces: The role of surface charge and

hydrophobicity. Colloids and Surfaces. B, Biointerfaces. 2004;**34**:259-263

[60] Kuznar ZA, Elimelech M. Adhesion kinetics of viable *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts to quartz surfaces.

hydrophobicity and zeta potential of Giardia and *Cryptosporidium*. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2002;**3**:201-206

[45] Janjaroen D, Liu Y, Kuhlenschmidt MS, Kuhlenschmidt TB, Nguyen TH. Role of divalent cations on deposition of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts on natural organic matter surfaces. Environmental Science & Technology.

[46] Petersen HH, Enemark HL, Olsen A, Mostofa Amin MG, Dalsgaarda A. Transport of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts in soil columns following applications of raw and separated liquid slurries. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2012;**78**:5994-6000

*Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts within soil, water, and plant environment. Journal of Environmental Management.

[48] Darnault CJG, Peng Z, Yu C, Li B, Jacobson AR, Baveye PC. Movement of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocysts through soils without preferential pathways: Exploratory test. Frontiers in Environmental Science. 2017;**5**:39. DOI:

[49] Current W. Cryptosporidium: Its biology and potential for environmental transmission. CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control. 1987;**17**:21-51

[47] McLaughlin SJ, Kalita PK, Kuhlenschmidt MS. Fate of

2010;**44**:4519-4524

2013;**131**:121-128

10.3389/fenvs.2017.00039

[50] Kuznar Z, Elimelech M. *Cryptosporidium* oocysts surface macromolecules significantly hinder oocyst attachment. Environmental Science and Technology. 2006;**40**:1837-1842

[51] Considine RF, Dixon DR,

[52] Considine RF, Dixon DR, Drummond CJ. Oocysts of

*Cryptosporidium parvum* and model sand surfaces in aqueous solutions: An atomic force microscope (AFM) study. Water Research. 2002;**36**:3421-3428

Drummond CJ. Laterally-resolved force microscopy of biological microspheresoocysts of *Cryptosporidium parvum*. Langmuir. 2000;**16**:1323-1330

**32**

[61] Deyac KECV, López LMT, Agosto MG, Emmanuel E. The physical properties of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts and their adsorption to solid surfaces: A review. 2011

[62] Brush C, Walter M, Anguish L, Ghiorse W. Influence of pretreatment and experimental conditions on electrophoretic mobility and hydrophobicity of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocyst. Applied an Environmental Microbiology. 1998;**64**(11):4439-4445

[63] Harvey RW, Garabedian SP. Use of colloid filtration theory in modeling movement of bacteria through a contaminated sandy aquifer. Environmental Science and Technology. 1991;**25**:178-185

[64] DeMarsily G. Quantitative Hydrogeology. 1st ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1986. 440p

[65] Ryan JN, Elimelech M. Colloid mobilization and transport in groundwater. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 1996;**107**:1-56

[66] Logan BE, Jewett DG, Arnold RG, Bouwer EJ, O'Melia CR. Clarification of clean-bed filtration models. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 1995;**121**(12):869-873

[67] Rajagopalan R, Tien C. Trajectory analysis of deep-bed filtration with the sphere-in-cell porous media model. AICHE Journal. 1976;**22**(3):523-533

[68] PNUD, Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement. Développement et gestion des ressources en eau. In: Haïti: Disponibilité en eau et adéquation aux besoins. Volume VI Région Sud-Ouest. New-York (NY): PNUD; 1991. 70p

[69] Ministère de la Santé Publique. Analyse de la Situation Sanitaire (Haïti). Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie Henri Deschamps; 1998. 250p

[70] AFNOR NFT90-455. Qualité de l'eau. In: Recherche et Dénombrement D'oocystes de Cryptosporidium et de Kystes de Giardia—Méthode de Concentration et de Dénombrement. Association Française de Normalisation; 2001. 25p

[71] Hillel D. Environmental Soil Physics: Fundamentals, Applications and Environmental Considerations. Academic Press; 1998. 771p

[72] Peng X, Macdonald S, Murphy TM, Holden NM. The fate and transport of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in the soil. In: Ozkaraova Gungor BE, editor. Principles, Application and Assessment in Soil Science. Rijeka: InTech; 2011. pp. 179-192. ISBN: 978-953-307-740-6. Available from: http://www.intechopen. com/books/principlesapplication-andassessment-in-soil-science/the-fateand-transportof-cryptosporidiumparvum-oocysts-inthesoil

[73] Tufenkji N, Elimelech M. Spatial distributions of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts in porous media: Evidence for dual mode deposition. Environmental Science & Technology. 2005;**39**:3620- 3629. DOI: 10.1021/es048289y

[74] Butkus MA, Grasso D. The impact of phosphate sorption on water treatment residual surface characteristics: Prelude to reuse. Environmental Engineering Science. 1999;**16**:117-129. DOI: 10.1089/ ees.1999.16.117

[75] Butkus M, Bays J, Labare M. Influence of surface characteristics on the stability of *Cryptosporidium parvum* oocyst. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2003;**69**(7):3819-3825

[76] Thomas F, Bard E, Rouillier MC, Prelot B, Mathieu L. Filtration-elution of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts assisted by electrostatic inter-actions. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2001;**195**:135-142

[77] Simonot M. Les Ressources en eau Souterraine de la région de Port-au-Prince. Situation Actuelle et Recommandation. Port-au-Prince: PNUD (Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement; 1982. 52p

[78] Emmanuel E, Lindskog P. Regards sur la situation actuelle des ressources en eau de la République d'Haïti. In: Emmanuel E, Vermande P, editors. Actes du Colloque International Gestion Intégrée de l'Eau en Haïti. Port-au-Prince: Laboratoire de Qualité de l'Eau et de l'Environnement, Université Quisqueya; 2002. pp. 30-52

[79] Emmanuel E, Angerville R, Joseph O, Perrodin Y. Human health risk assessment of lead in drinking water: A case study from Port-au-Prince Haiti. International Journal of Environment and Pollution. 2007;**31**(3/4):280-291

[80] Kirrkpatrick BD, Danniels MM, Jean SS, Pape JW, Karp C, Litterger B, et al. *Cryptosporidiosis* stimulates an inflammatory intestinal response in malnourished Haitian children. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2002;**186**:94-101

[81] Pape JW, Levine E, Beaulieu ME, Marshall F, Verdier R, Johnson WD Jr. Cryptosporidiosis in Haitian children. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 1987;**36**:333-337

[82] Pape JW, Liautaud B, Thomas F, et al. The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Haiti. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1983;**103**:674-678

[83] Palmer CJ, Xiao L, Terashima A, et al. *Cryptosporidium muris*, a rodent pathogen, recovered from a human in Peru. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2003;**9**:1174-1176

**35**

**Chapter 3**

**Abstract**

Rainwater Harvesting

*Mirzi Betasolo and Carl Smith*

Infrastructure Management

impact of providing and designing infrastructure for massive use.

a renewable resource, climate change, sustainability

**1. Introduction to rainwater harvesting**

**1.1 What is rainwater harvesting?**

**Keywords:** rainwater harvesting, infrastructure management, natural resource,

This chapter discusses the rainwater harvesting infrastructure (RHI) management. Similar to any harvesting strategy such as in the farm, infrastructure is important to keep your harvest sustainable until the next harvest. Rainwater, like any other renewable resource, needs to be sustainable because, with human activities, the regular hydrologic cycle is affected by climate change (**Figure 1**). There are five processes at work in the hydrologic cycle: condensation, precipitation, inflitration, runoff, and evatranspiration [1]. These occur simultaneously and, result in precipitation when the conditions are suitable. Precipitation is a product of condensation of atmospheric water vapor and fall under gravity to the land surface as rain and infiltrates the soil or flows to the ocean as runoff, or surface water (e.g., lakes, streams, oceans, etc.), evaporates, returning moisture to the atmosphere, while vegetation returns water to the atmosphere by transpiration and the cycle continuous. For more understanding, necessary information on rainwater harvesting is discussed below.

Rainwater harvesting [2] is the capturing of rain from rooftops, catchments, local streams, seasonal floodwaters, and watershed management to conserve water; to provide drinking water, irrigation water, and groundwater recharge; and to

As climate change impact is affecting all countries, water scarcity is continually a pressing issue to all countries in the world. The groundwater availability around the globe and locally such as in the ground of Papua New Guinea, Lae City, the garden city of the country, is also affected by the phenomenon. An alternative source such as the rainwater which across the globe is not equally shared thus harvesting it by creating an infrastructure for wider use needs management for sustainability. The study focuses on the management of a rainwater harvesting infrastructure (RHI) from its initial stage or conceptualization by designing using axiomatic design process and creating a model prototype to show the features of the infrastructure. The axiomatic design process in the design of the rainwater harvesting infrastructure shows the customer needs and functionality of the infrastructure for cost-wise management. The chapter provides information for a broader and more significant

#### **Chapter 3**

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

of *Cryptosporidium* oocysts assisted by electrostatic inter-actions. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2001;**195**:135-142

[77] Simonot M. Les Ressources en eau Souterraine de la région de Port-au-Prince. Situation Actuelle et Recommandation. Port-au-Prince: PNUD (Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement; 1982. 52p

[78] Emmanuel E, Lindskog P. Regards sur la situation actuelle des ressources en eau de la République d'Haïti. In: Emmanuel E, Vermande P, editors. Actes du Colloque International Gestion Intégrée de l'Eau en Haïti. Port-au-Prince: Laboratoire de Qualité de l'Eau et de l'Environnement, Université Quisqueya; 2002. pp. 30-52

[79] Emmanuel E, Angerville R,

Joseph O, Perrodin Y. Human health risk assessment of lead in drinking water: A case study from Port-au-Prince Haiti. International Journal of Environment and Pollution. 2007;**31**(3/4):280-291

[80] Kirrkpatrick BD, Danniels MM, Jean SS, Pape JW, Karp C, Litterger B, et al. *Cryptosporidiosis* stimulates an inflammatory intestinal response in malnourished Haitian children. Journal of Infectious Diseases.

[81] Pape JW, Levine E, Beaulieu ME, Marshall F, Verdier R, Johnson WD Jr. Cryptosporidiosis in Haitian children. American Journal of Tropical Medicine

[82] Pape JW, Liautaud B, Thomas F, et al. The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Haiti. Annals of Internal

[83] Palmer CJ, Xiao L, Terashima A, et al. *Cryptosporidium muris*, a rodent pathogen, recovered from a human in Peru. Emerging Infectious Diseases.

and Hygiene. 1987;**36**:333-337

Medicine. 1983;**103**:674-678

2003;**9**:1174-1176

2002;**186**:94-101

**34**

## Rainwater Harvesting Infrastructure Management

*Mirzi Betasolo and Carl Smith*

#### **Abstract**

As climate change impact is affecting all countries, water scarcity is continually a pressing issue to all countries in the world. The groundwater availability around the globe and locally such as in the ground of Papua New Guinea, Lae City, the garden city of the country, is also affected by the phenomenon. An alternative source such as the rainwater which across the globe is not equally shared thus harvesting it by creating an infrastructure for wider use needs management for sustainability. The study focuses on the management of a rainwater harvesting infrastructure (RHI) from its initial stage or conceptualization by designing using axiomatic design process and creating a model prototype to show the features of the infrastructure. The axiomatic design process in the design of the rainwater harvesting infrastructure shows the customer needs and functionality of the infrastructure for cost-wise management. The chapter provides information for a broader and more significant impact of providing and designing infrastructure for massive use.

**Keywords:** rainwater harvesting, infrastructure management, natural resource, a renewable resource, climate change, sustainability

#### **1. Introduction to rainwater harvesting**

This chapter discusses the rainwater harvesting infrastructure (RHI) management. Similar to any harvesting strategy such as in the farm, infrastructure is important to keep your harvest sustainable until the next harvest. Rainwater, like any other renewable resource, needs to be sustainable because, with human activities, the regular hydrologic cycle is affected by climate change (**Figure 1**). There are five processes at work in the hydrologic cycle: condensation, precipitation, inflitration, runoff, and evatranspiration [1]. These occur simultaneously and, result in precipitation when the conditions are suitable. Precipitation is a product of condensation of atmospheric water vapor and fall under gravity to the land surface as rain and infiltrates the soil or flows to the ocean as runoff, or surface water (e.g., lakes, streams, oceans, etc.), evaporates, returning moisture to the atmosphere, while vegetation returns water to the atmosphere by transpiration and the cycle continuous. For more understanding, necessary information on rainwater harvesting is discussed below.

#### **1.1 What is rainwater harvesting?**

Rainwater harvesting [2] is the capturing of rain from rooftops, catchments, local streams, seasonal floodwaters, and watershed management to conserve water; to provide drinking water, irrigation water, and groundwater recharge; and to

**Figure 1.** *Hydrologic cycle. (Adapted from NASA.)*

reduce stormwater discharges, urban flood, water overloading in sewage treatment plants, and seawater ingress in coastal areas. It is an activity of direct or indirect collection of rainwater (**Table 1**).

The rainwater harvesting is a promising alternative infrastructure in the imminence of increasing water scarcity and escalating demand for water supply [3]. It maximizes water efficiency by capturing it rather than letting it run off. By doing so, it minimizes the increase in environmental impact from a large project in which the pressure on water supplies occurs. Allowing the rain to fall anywhere also allow deteriorating water quality and constrain the ability to meet the demand for fresh water from traditional sources as it goes to the drainage system instead of utilizing it for multiple functions. Therefore, rainwater harvesting augments availability of water, self-reliance, and sustainability.

#### **1.2 What is a rainwater harvesting system?**

For better understanding of the term rainwater harvesting system, we will define it here as a technology used to collect; convey rain for future use from relatively clean surfaces such as a roof, land surface, or rock catchment; and store it [4]. There are two classified practices in collecting rainwater from rainfall events. The two broad categories are land-based and roof-based. Land-based rainwater harvesting when runoff comes from land surfaces is collected in furrow dikes, ponds, tanks, and reservoirs. Roof-based rainwater harvesting comes from collecting rainwater runoff through roof surfaces which usually provides a much cleaner source of water for drinking purposes [5].

Due to the impact on climate change, a need for sustainable rainwater harvesting is a necessity. Thus, a sustainable rainwater harvesting system (SRHS) had been studied and is defined as the collection and storage of rainwater for human use in a manner that preserves and protects the environment and for the preservation of the natural resource (rainwater) for continuous supply today and in the future [6].

#### **1.3 What is the rainwater harvesting infrastructure?**

Rainwater harvesting was well defined above as collection and storage of rainwater for sustainability. Infrastructure is a fundamental physical and organizational structure and facilities that provide services to communities with high-cost

**37**

**Type of tests** **Test parameter**

BOD Hardness (CaCO3)

Turbidity

Calcium Magnesium

> **Table 1.**

*Table of pollution of groundwater taken from wells in Lae City.*

4.55 mg/L

20 mg/L

47 mg/L

8.9 mg/L

11 mg/L

25 mg/L

75 mg/L

63 mg/L

57 mg/L

68 mg/L

61 mg/L 8.6 mg/L

250.5 mg/L

3.54 NTU

13.13 NTU

2.0 NTU

0.21 NTU

0.27 NTU

180.5 mg/L

238 mg/L

180 mg/L

214 mg/L

3.95 mg/L

3.95 mg/L

4.30 mg/L

3.8 mg/L

3.8 mg/L

3.1 mg/L 187 mg/L 0.21 NTU

1 mg/L 100–500 mg/L

1 NTU

75–200 mg/L

30–150 mg/L

**Erap**

**Boystown (Erap)**

**40 Mile**

**Balob T/C**

**Ampo**

**Martin Luther Seminary**

**WHO recommended**

**Locations of sample tested**

*Rainwater Harvesting Infrastructure Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90342*

#### *Rainwater Harvesting Infrastructure Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90342*

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

collection of rainwater (**Table 1**).

*Hydrologic cycle. (Adapted from NASA.)*

**Figure 1.**

water, self-reliance, and sustainability.

**1.2 What is a rainwater harvesting system?**

source of water for drinking purposes [5].

**1.3 What is the rainwater harvesting infrastructure?**

reduce stormwater discharges, urban flood, water overloading in sewage treatment plants, and seawater ingress in coastal areas. It is an activity of direct or indirect

The rainwater harvesting is a promising alternative infrastructure in the imminence of increasing water scarcity and escalating demand for water supply [3]. It maximizes water efficiency by capturing it rather than letting it run off. By doing so, it minimizes the increase in environmental impact from a large project in which the pressure on water supplies occurs. Allowing the rain to fall anywhere also allow deteriorating water quality and constrain the ability to meet the demand for fresh water from traditional sources as it goes to the drainage system instead of utilizing it for multiple functions. Therefore, rainwater harvesting augments availability of

For better understanding of the term rainwater harvesting system, we will define it here as a technology used to collect; convey rain for future use from relatively clean surfaces such as a roof, land surface, or rock catchment; and store it [4]. There are two classified practices in collecting rainwater from rainfall events. The two broad categories are land-based and roof-based. Land-based rainwater harvesting when runoff comes from land surfaces is collected in furrow dikes, ponds, tanks, and reservoirs. Roof-based rainwater harvesting comes from collecting rainwater runoff through roof surfaces which usually provides a much cleaner

Due to the impact on climate change, a need for sustainable rainwater harvesting

is a necessity. Thus, a sustainable rainwater harvesting system (SRHS) had been studied and is defined as the collection and storage of rainwater for human use in a manner that preserves and protects the environment and for the preservation of the natural resource (rainwater) for continuous supply today and in the future [6].

Rainwater harvesting was well defined above as collection and storage of rainwater for sustainability. Infrastructure is a fundamental physical and organizational structure and facilities that provide services to communities with high-cost

**36**

**Table 1.**

*Table of pollution of groundwater taken from wells in Lae City.*

investments or capital equipment such as the communal rainwater harvesting that are vital to the country's economic development and prosperity. The infrastructure is essential for any faster economic growth and alleviation of poverty in the country. The presence of an infrastructure (such as water supply, sewerage, roads, public space, electricity, bridges, tunnels, railways, canals, dams, building, airports, etc.) helps in increasing the overall productivity of the country's economy. In this chapter, the infrastructure is rainwater harvesting infrastructure.

The image shows an example of a rainwater harvesting infrastructure in Elisabeth, Jamaica (one of the author's home country, as shown in **Figure 2**). This method of harvesting rainwater is through a public infrastructure that can cater to the growing population of the city.

#### **1.4 Rainwater harvesting technologies**

For an understanding of this section, technologies used in rainwater harvesting are discussed here. There are several rainwater harvesting technologies such as rooftop, in situ, surface water, and groundwater recharge.

#### *1.4.1 Rooftop*

Rooftop rainwater harvesting technologies, according to the UNFCCC, are rainwater harvesting system that is a simple technology that promotes sustainable rainwater management and uses the roof as a catchment. The system comprises of three (3) basic elements such as catchment area (represented by the roof), conveyance system (gutters), and storage (tank). An example of a rooftop rainwater harvesting system is shown in **Figure 3**.

#### *1.4.2 In situ*

The in situ technology is a method where the storage of collected rainwater in a direct way is utilized immediately. For example, in arid and semiarid regions, the storage for the maximum amount of rainwater during the wet season is made for use at a later time when rain is low during the dry season, especially for agricultural

#### **Figure 2.**

*(a) An elevated rainwater concrete catchment of Elisabeth, Jamaica; (b) the surface runoff and the storage tank of Elisabeth, Jamaica RHI. (Adapted from Betasolo and Smith, 2017.)*

**39**

*1.4.3 Surface water*

**Figure 3.**

*from Betasolo and Smith, 2017.)*

in **Figure 4**.

*1.4.4 Groundwater recharge*

*Rainwater Harvesting Infrastructure Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90342*

and domestic water supply. This technique as other rainfall harvesting systems has

*Rainwater harvesting system (RWHS) via rooftop at Papua New Guinea University of Technology. (Adapted*

An example of in situ rainwater harvesting used in the arid and semiarid regions

Surface water is water on the surface found on wetlands that is nonsaline and is replenished by one of the processes in the hydrologic cycle—precipitation. The surface water supports the replenishment of groundwater aquifer supply if it is channeled efficiently. In most urban areas, the surface water is wasted and polluted. The wasting can be mitigated with proper utilization of surface water from rain via rainwater harvesting and storing it into the aquifer. An example is shown

Groundwater recharge is a process where groundwater is supported by several techniques to add or bring back the health of the groundwater for sustainability. It can be upstream or downstream discharge such as areas close to mountain peaks because the precipitation is higher than in the adjacent lowlands. The shallow groundwater discharges directly to the valleys, and too low-lying zones and the deep groundwater discharge directly to the oceans through return flow on irriga-

The pollution of groundwater is inevitable by an impairment of water quality by chemicals, heat, or bacteria that may not necessarily create public health hazards

tion, leakage from runoff, and wastewater collection system [6, 7].

three components: a collection, a conveyance system, and a storage area.

area to the areas of use which is the practice in Paraguay [5].

of Northeastern Brazil and Paraguay is primarily for irrigation purposes. The rainwater harvesting in situ in Brazil includes site preparation of agricultural areas which uses Topographic Depressions as Rainfall Harvesting Areas. *Tajamares* are constructed in areas of low topography used for rainwater storage with clay soils at least 3 m deep that served as distribution canals that convey water from the storage *Rainwater Harvesting Infrastructure Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90342*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

the growing population of the city.

*1.4.1 Rooftop*

*1.4.2 In situ*

**1.4 Rainwater harvesting technologies**

harvesting system is shown in **Figure 3**.

chapter, the infrastructure is rainwater harvesting infrastructure.

rooftop, in situ, surface water, and groundwater recharge.

investments or capital equipment such as the communal rainwater harvesting that are vital to the country's economic development and prosperity. The infrastructure is essential for any faster economic growth and alleviation of poverty in the country. The presence of an infrastructure (such as water supply, sewerage, roads, public space, electricity, bridges, tunnels, railways, canals, dams, building, airports, etc.) helps in increasing the overall productivity of the country's economy. In this

The image shows an example of a rainwater harvesting infrastructure in Elisabeth, Jamaica (one of the author's home country, as shown in **Figure 2**). This method of harvesting rainwater is through a public infrastructure that can cater to

For an understanding of this section, technologies used in rainwater harvesting are discussed here. There are several rainwater harvesting technologies such as

Rooftop rainwater harvesting technologies, according to the UNFCCC, are rainwater harvesting system that is a simple technology that promotes sustainable rainwater management and uses the roof as a catchment. The system comprises of three (3) basic elements such as catchment area (represented by the roof), conveyance system (gutters), and storage (tank). An example of a rooftop rainwater

The in situ technology is a method where the storage of collected rainwater in a direct way is utilized immediately. For example, in arid and semiarid regions, the storage for the maximum amount of rainwater during the wet season is made for use at a later time when rain is low during the dry season, especially for agricultural

*(a) An elevated rainwater concrete catchment of Elisabeth, Jamaica; (b) the surface runoff and the storage*

*tank of Elisabeth, Jamaica RHI. (Adapted from Betasolo and Smith, 2017.)*

**38**

**Figure 2.**

*Rainwater harvesting system (RWHS) via rooftop at Papua New Guinea University of Technology. (Adapted from Betasolo and Smith, 2017.)*

and domestic water supply. This technique as other rainfall harvesting systems has three components: a collection, a conveyance system, and a storage area.

An example of in situ rainwater harvesting used in the arid and semiarid regions of Northeastern Brazil and Paraguay is primarily for irrigation purposes. The rainwater harvesting in situ in Brazil includes site preparation of agricultural areas which uses Topographic Depressions as Rainfall Harvesting Areas. *Tajamares* are constructed in areas of low topography used for rainwater storage with clay soils at least 3 m deep that served as distribution canals that convey water from the storage area to the areas of use which is the practice in Paraguay [5].

#### *1.4.3 Surface water*

Surface water is water on the surface found on wetlands that is nonsaline and is replenished by one of the processes in the hydrologic cycle—precipitation. The surface water supports the replenishment of groundwater aquifer supply if it is channeled efficiently. In most urban areas, the surface water is wasted and polluted. The wasting can be mitigated with proper utilization of surface water from rain via rainwater harvesting and storing it into the aquifer. An example is shown in **Figure 4**.

#### *1.4.4 Groundwater recharge*

Groundwater recharge is a process where groundwater is supported by several techniques to add or bring back the health of the groundwater for sustainability. It can be upstream or downstream discharge such as areas close to mountain peaks because the precipitation is higher than in the adjacent lowlands. The shallow groundwater discharges directly to the valleys, and too low-lying zones and the deep groundwater discharge directly to the oceans through return flow on irrigation, leakage from runoff, and wastewater collection system [6, 7].

The pollution of groundwater is inevitable by an impairment of water quality by chemicals, heat, or bacteria that may not necessarily create public health hazards

**Figure 4.** *Surface water found in Papua New Guinea University of Technology.*

but does adversely affect the quality of water for domestic, farm, municipal, or industrial use [8]. The human body of an average adult contains up to 55-60% water [9]. Therefore people's health is dependent on a clean supply of water and safe sanitation. It is estimated that 50% of the people living in developing countries are suffering from water-related diseases caused directly by infection or indirectly by disease-carrying organisms that breed in water, such as mosquitoes causing malaria, diarrhea, infections by parasites, and river blindness that are among the most widespread diseases. Study of Betasolo et al. is an example of groundwater pollution where BOD and turbidity level exceeds the standard. The study area is the industrial hub of Papua New Guinea (PNG), and for the most urbanized country, the pollution is much higher than that of PNG. The tabulated data comes from the result of a test in a National Analytical and Testing Service Laboratory (NATSL) of the Papua New Guinea University of Technology, and the result is compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) standards.

#### *1.4.5 Fog and dew*

The highlands of Papua New Guinea experience for (cloud that is at the ground) as temperature ranges from 18 to 23°C such that the dew can be collected (became tiny droplets of water) similar to rainwater harvesting for drinking. An example of such method is the one used by a Canadian nonprofit organization supporting safe drinking water at the region such as FogQuest who collect fog at 0.05 to 0.5 g of water from an instrument that looks like tall volleyball nets (made of polypropylene or polyethylene mesh) hanged to capture the water droplets [10].

Other regions (desert) similar to PNG may have the opportunity to collect rainwater produced from fog during winter period. I have lived sometime in those regions and experienced the dampness of some items left outside (balcony).

#### **2. Importance of rainwater harvesting infrastructure**

Rainwater is a resource as a result of the hydrologic cycle. Humans need water for various uses such as drinking water and save high-quality drinking water sources. It is used as utility water (i.e., flushing) to reduce the potable water consumption

**41**

*Rainwater Harvesting Infrastructure Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90342*

transport, or soil erosions to coastal areas.

**2.1 Water scarcity**

over a long time [16, 17].

**2.2 Rainwater availability**

rainfall that ranges from 4000 to 5800 annually [17].

and minimize the volume of generated wastewater that can be utilized for irrigation water and groundwater recharge or replenishing groundwater levels. Rainwater harvesting will relieve the pressure on sewers, and it reduces stormwater discharges and water overloading in sewage treatment plants. It acts as an environmental measure to mitigate floods by reducing urban flood and reduce seawater ingress, sediment

Water supply scarcity is a pressing issue as population demand is increasing geometrically. In the overall earth's water supply, fresh water amounts only to 0.62%, and the amount of fresh water in the globe are decreasing as affected by climate change in its natural availability in lakes, rivers, and groundwater [11, 12]. A Ceres study [13] reported that water scarcity attributes to the following conditions: inadequate natural resources (physical water scarcity) and poor management of the sufficient available water resources (economic water scarcity). For global identification of water scarcity, the reader can participate in an interactive map available in https://waterscarcityatlas.org/. A scenario on water scarcity can be derived and produced a map for the country's water scarcity condition. As of 2006 records PNG water scarcity status is "of no scarcity", but reports show that the sustainable access to improved drinking water and improved sanitation is still 45% (40–45%) which falls below the threshold to support the increasing populations of Papua New Guinea [14, 15]. Such population will be needing more access to water of which the PNG government's goal to provide by 2030 at least a 70% access to water is critiqued by the World Bank that they are not even on track to meet either the millennium goal or its national development targets [15]. The average monthly precipitation in mm is 260.37 summarized from 30-year records (1900–2012) of the World Bank on PNG's monthly average as it is an ideal measurement to assess climate patterns studied

Rainwater availability needs to be checked in assessing the feasibility of developing an infrastructure. To determine the factor to whether rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a viable water supply system is the rainfall pattern over the year. Tropical climate with short (1–4 months) dry seasons and multiple high-intensity rainstorms like in Lae City known for its name as Rainy Lae of Papua New Guinea is a most suitable condition for water harvesting. Also, rainwater harvesting is most valuable in wet tropical climates like PNG, where the water quantity of surface water varies and passes the general rule for precipitation of over 50 mm/month. Thus the discussion in most scenario used is of Papua New Guinea (PNG), a tropical country. PNG has annual average rainfall is 3142 mm [19], an ideal water harvesting capability. However, the condition of most of the population have limited access to water supply. No access to water supply in settlement area as the water provider is unable to service them due to customary land issue. Ninety percent of the country's land is customary land which due to many ownership hinder the development of the property. Few others who can afford to dig and buy a pump have access to groundwater [18]. Other use the rooftop to harvest rainwater since Lae City has a

However, the current strategies of rooftop rainwater harvesting on access to sustainable water and sanitation cannot keep pace with rapid population growth that needs to be addressed to meet the MDG targets. Unless an RWH system

and minimize the volume of generated wastewater that can be utilized for irrigation water and groundwater recharge or replenishing groundwater levels. Rainwater harvesting will relieve the pressure on sewers, and it reduces stormwater discharges and water overloading in sewage treatment plants. It acts as an environmental measure to mitigate floods by reducing urban flood and reduce seawater ingress, sediment transport, or soil erosions to coastal areas.

#### **2.1 Water scarcity**

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

World Health Organization (WHO) standards.

*Surface water found in Papua New Guinea University of Technology.*

*1.4.5 Fog and dew*

**Figure 4.**

but does adversely affect the quality of water for domestic, farm, municipal, or industrial use [8]. The human body of an average adult contains up to 55-60% water [9]. Therefore people's health is dependent on a clean supply of water and safe sanitation. It is estimated that 50% of the people living in developing countries are suffering from water-related diseases caused directly by infection or indirectly by disease-carrying organisms that breed in water, such as mosquitoes causing malaria, diarrhea, infections by parasites, and river blindness that are among the most widespread diseases. Study of Betasolo et al. is an example of groundwater pollution where BOD and turbidity level exceeds the standard. The study area is the industrial hub of Papua New Guinea (PNG), and for the most urbanized country, the pollution is much higher than that of PNG. The tabulated data comes from the result of a test in a National Analytical and Testing Service Laboratory (NATSL) of the Papua New Guinea University of Technology, and the result is compared to the

The highlands of Papua New Guinea experience for (cloud that is at the ground) as temperature ranges from 18 to 23°C such that the dew can be collected (became tiny droplets of water) similar to rainwater harvesting for drinking. An example of such method is the one used by a Canadian nonprofit organization supporting safe drinking water at the region such as FogQuest who collect fog at 0.05 to 0.5 g of water from an instrument that looks like tall volleyball nets (made of polypropylene

Other regions (desert) similar to PNG may have the opportunity to collect rainwater produced from fog during winter period. I have lived sometime in those regions and experienced the dampness of some items left outside (balcony).

Rainwater is a resource as a result of the hydrologic cycle. Humans need water for various uses such as drinking water and save high-quality drinking water sources. It is used as utility water (i.e., flushing) to reduce the potable water consumption

or polyethylene mesh) hanged to capture the water droplets [10].

**2. Importance of rainwater harvesting infrastructure**

**40**

Water supply scarcity is a pressing issue as population demand is increasing geometrically. In the overall earth's water supply, fresh water amounts only to 0.62%, and the amount of fresh water in the globe are decreasing as affected by climate change in its natural availability in lakes, rivers, and groundwater [11, 12]. A Ceres study [13] reported that water scarcity attributes to the following conditions: inadequate natural resources (physical water scarcity) and poor management of the sufficient available water resources (economic water scarcity).

For global identification of water scarcity, the reader can participate in an interactive map available in https://waterscarcityatlas.org/. A scenario on water scarcity can be derived and produced a map for the country's water scarcity condition. As of 2006 records PNG water scarcity status is "of no scarcity", but reports show that the sustainable access to improved drinking water and improved sanitation is still 45% (40–45%) which falls below the threshold to support the increasing populations of Papua New Guinea [14, 15]. Such population will be needing more access to water of which the PNG government's goal to provide by 2030 at least a 70% access to water is critiqued by the World Bank that they are not even on track to meet either the millennium goal or its national development targets [15]. The average monthly precipitation in mm is 260.37 summarized from 30-year records (1900–2012) of the World Bank on PNG's monthly average as it is an ideal measurement to assess climate patterns studied over a long time [16, 17].

#### **2.2 Rainwater availability**

Rainwater availability needs to be checked in assessing the feasibility of developing an infrastructure. To determine the factor to whether rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a viable water supply system is the rainfall pattern over the year. Tropical climate with short (1–4 months) dry seasons and multiple high-intensity rainstorms like in Lae City known for its name as Rainy Lae of Papua New Guinea is a most suitable condition for water harvesting. Also, rainwater harvesting is most valuable in wet tropical climates like PNG, where the water quantity of surface water varies and passes the general rule for precipitation of over 50 mm/month. Thus the discussion in most scenario used is of Papua New Guinea (PNG), a tropical country.

PNG has annual average rainfall is 3142 mm [19], an ideal water harvesting capability. However, the condition of most of the population have limited access to water supply. No access to water supply in settlement area as the water provider is unable to service them due to customary land issue. Ninety percent of the country's land is customary land which due to many ownership hinder the development of the property. Few others who can afford to dig and buy a pump have access to groundwater [18]. Other use the rooftop to harvest rainwater since Lae City has a rainfall that ranges from 4000 to 5800 annually [17].

However, the current strategies of rooftop rainwater harvesting on access to sustainable water and sanitation cannot keep pace with rapid population growth that needs to be addressed to meet the MDG targets. Unless an RWH system

infrastructure portfolio of significant investment is provided that can meet the increasing population demand to sustainable water supply and sanitation, the national goals to 2030 are also unlikely to be achieved. Therefore, proper management of rainwater resource for sustainability by creating an infrastructure is the aim of this chapter to mitigate the impact of water scarcity while there is an available untapped resource.

#### **3. Types of rainwater harvesting**

To further understand why rainwater harvesting infrastructure is important to sustain an increasing population, a discussion of the types of rainwater harvesting is presented in this section.

#### **3.1 Rainwater harvesting via the roof**

Rainwater harvesting via roof had been the source for domestic water supply in Papua New Guinea according to study of Betasolo et al. [17] by harvesting water through roof and collecting the rainwater with Tuffa tank [8] as shown in **Figure 3**. The roof is a collection area and the first contact to collect the rainwater. How effective and efficient the collection depends on the material of the roof, how the roof is build, and the quality of rainwater. From the roof, the rainwater is conveyed through gutters or conveyors or pipes for storage. The roof materials consists of inert material such as galvanized, wood, aluminum, plastic, glass, and fiberglass to maintain good quality of rainwater harvest.

The rainwater storage connecting the roof is made from an inert material such as corrugated galvanized iron, plastic, reinforced concrete, stainless steel, and fiberglass constructed as a separate unit from the building but connected via pipe systems.

#### **3.2 Rainwater harvesting via catchments**

The harvesting of rainwater is played by the catchments. A catchment is a collection of rainfall through a natural drainage area or natural landscape. A catchment area is a geographical area in which the river and its tributaries are drained or funneled. Papua New Guinea has large local streams (basins) such as Sepik River (the largest catchment of 78,000 km2 ), Fly River (61,000 km2 ), Purari River (33,670 km2 ), Markham River (12,000 km2 ), and Busu River. Markham River and Busu River are located closely to Lae City.

#### **3.3 Rainwater harvesting via local streams seasonal floodwaters**

Rainwater harvesting through local streams from floodwaters is harvesting rainwater that fall into the local streams, increasing the capacity of the streams and become floodwater affecting many of the vegetation. On the other hand, harvesting floodwater can support the needs of water on land irrigation as there are no irrigation facilities available in the country but rainfall to support the subsistence farming of most of the population. Rainwater harvesting through local streams also will provide groundwater recharge and decrease of salt water ingress on areas near the coastal line such as Lae City of Papua New Guinea that rely solely on groundwater as a water supply in the urban area.

**43**

**Table 2.** *Runoff coefficients.*

*Rainwater Harvesting Infrastructure Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90342*

captures the water supply.

and UV (**Table 2**).

Ground surface coverings

• The acrylic glass (PMMA)

• Concrete

• Plastic sheeting

*\*Adapted from Roger S.*

**3.4 Rainwater harvesting via watershed management to conserve water**

Watershed development and management is a technique to conserve water. However, it does not directly provide the water supply of the people, but it supports a continuous supply of the resource. Thus, management of the watershed, which also involved a great sum of the fund, is as equally important as creating the infrastructure that caters to the direct supply of drinking water and service water. The requirement of a huge sum is because it requires an integration of technologies that

A watershed is defined as an area from which rain runoff flows directly into a large stream, river, lake, or pond which has an independent hydrological unit because it provides an optimum use and conservation of soil and water resources. A development of an integrated watershed refers to the development and management of the water resources that achieve higher sustainable production without ecological imbalances because the proper management of watershed restores the ecosystem. One activity that achieves the reduction of surface runoff is by constructing a suitable structure or by changes in land management. Further, the reduction of surface runoff will increase infiltration and help in water conservation.

Rainwater harvesting sustainability requires engineering the rainwater harvesting process and designing it to support demand of increasing population and the financing to enable the development of the infrastructure according to its demand. The design parameters of rainwater harvesting systems includes rain, catchment area (roof, pavement area, storm drains, etc.), conveyance system (gutters, downpipes), storage units or tanks (overground/underground), and distribution system (pipelines, pumps)with the addition of disinfection method such as chlorination

Rainwater Harvested = Rainfall (mm/year) × Catchment area (m)

A water conservation approach can increase the period of water availability and overcome water scarcity through agronomic and engineering procedures. Agronomics or the science that deals with field crop production and soil management has measures that include contour farming, off-season tillage, deep tillage, mulching, and providing vegetative barriers on the contour, which mainly prevent soil erosion and also help in improving soil moisture availability in the watershed.

**Type of catchments Coefficients**

× Runoff Coefficient (1)

0.6–0.8\* 0.6–0.9 0.7–0.8\* 0.8–0.9\*

**4. Design of rainwater harvesting using axiomatic design**

The equation used to design based on the rational method is

*Environmental Health - Management and Prevention Practices*

available untapped resource.

is presented in this section.

**3. Types of rainwater harvesting**

**3.1 Rainwater harvesting via the roof**

fiberglass to maintain good quality of rainwater harvest.

**3.2 Rainwater harvesting via catchments**

River (the largest catchment of 78,000 km2

Busu River are located closely to Lae City.

a water supply in the urban area.

), Markham River (12,000 km2

**3.3 Rainwater harvesting via local streams seasonal floodwaters**

infrastructure portfolio of significant investment is provided that can meet the increasing population demand to sustainable water supply and sanitation, the national goals to 2030 are also unlikely to be achieved. Therefore, proper management of rainwater resource for sustainability by creating an infrastructure is the aim of this chapter to mitigate the impact of water scarcity while there is an

To further understand why rainwater harvesting infrastructure is important to sustain an increasing population, a discussion of the types of rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting via roof had been the source for domestic water supply in Papua New Guinea according to study of Betasolo et al. [17] by harvesting water through roof and collecting the rainwater with Tuffa tank [8] as shown in **Figure 3**. The roof is a collection area and the first contact to collect the rainwater. How effective and efficient the collection depends on the material of the roof, how the roof is build, and the quality of rainwater. From the roof, the rainwater is conveyed through gutters or conveyors or pipes for storage. The roof materials consists of inert material such as galvanized, wood, aluminum, plastic, glass, and

The rainwater storage connecting the roof is made from an inert material such as corrugated galvanized iron, plastic, reinforced concrete, stainless steel, and fiberglass constructed as a separate unit from the building but connected via pipe

The harvesting of rainwater is played by the catchments. A catchment is a collection of rainfall through a natural drainage area or natural landscape. A catchment area is a geographical area in which the river and its tributaries are drained or funneled. Papua New Guinea has large local streams (basins) such as Sepik

Rainwater harvesting through local streams from floodwaters is harvesting rainwater that fall into the local streams, increasing the capacity of the streams and become floodwater affecting many of the vegetation. On the other hand, harvesting floodwater can support the needs of water on land irrigation as there are no irrigation facilities available in the country but rainfall to support the subsistence farming of most of the population. Rainwater harvesting through local streams also will provide groundwater recharge and decrease of salt water ingress on areas near the coastal line such as Lae City of Papua New Guinea that rely solely on groundwater as

), Fly River (61,000 km2

), and Busu River. Markham River and

), Purari River

**42**

systems.

(33,670 km2

#### **3.4 Rainwater harvesting via watershed management to conserve water**

Watershed development and management is a technique to conserve water. However, it does not directly provide the water supply of the people, but it supports a continuous supply of the resource. Thus, management of the watershed, which also involved a great sum of the fund, is as equally important as creating the infrastructure that caters to the direct supply of drinking water and service water. The requirement of a huge sum is because it requires an integration of technologies that captures the water supply.

A watershed is defined as an area from which rain runoff flows directly into a large stream, river, lake, or pond which has an independent hydrological unit because it provides an optimum use and conservation of soil and water resources. A development of an integrated watershed refers to the development and management of the water resources that achieve higher sustainable production without ecological imbalances because the proper management of watershed restores the ecosystem. One activity that achieves the reduction of surface runoff is by constructing a suitable structure or by changes in land management. Further, the reduction of surface runoff will increase infiltration and help in water conservation.

### **4. Design of rainwater harvesting using axiomatic design**

Rainwater harvesting sustainability requires engineering the rainwater harvesting process and designing it to support demand of increasing population and the financing to enable the development of the infrastructure according to its demand. The design parameters of rainwater harvesting systems includes rain, catchment area (roof, pavement area, storm drains, etc.), conveyance system (gutters, downpipes), storage units or tanks (overground/underground), and distribution system (pipelines, pumps)with the addition of disinfection method such as chlorination and UV (**Table 2**).

The equation used to design based on the rational method is

$$\begin{array}{l}\text{Rainwater} \text{ Hartreeested} = \text{Rainfall (mm/year)} \times \text{Catchment area (m)}\\ \times \text{Runoff Coefficient} \end{array} \tag{1}$$

A water conservation approach can increase the period of water availability and overcome water scarcity through agronomic and engineering procedures. Agronomics or the science that deals with field crop production and soil management has measures that include contour farming, off-season tillage, deep tillage, mulching, and providing vegetative barriers on the contour, which mainly prevent soil erosion and also help in improving soil moisture availability in the watershed.

#### **4.1 What is axiomatic design (AD)?**

Suh defines axiomatic design as a design that provides a clear basis to improve the technical design process based on logical and rational thought processes and tools [20]. The AD simplifies the complexity of the modeling and simulation as designers identify what they want to achieve. In the case of rainwater harvesting infrastructure, building a model is identified achievable than creating infrastructure as funding is a challenge with a difficult economy not only in PNG but to many developing countries. With the building of a model, it achieves how accurately it will simulate the design of the rainwater harvesting. The process Axiomatic Design (AD) on infrastructure development of rainwater harvesting is illustrated by Betasolo and Smith [15] in **Figures 5** and **6**.

#### **Figure 5.**

*AD mapping from CN to FR to PD and PV. (Adapted from Betasolo and Smith)*.

**45**

**DPs** **FRs** FR0 FR1 FR1.1

FR2 FR2.1