**4. Discussion**

The contents of heavy metals in the tested plants were compared to the natural and toxic contents of metals in plants provided by Kabata-Pendias and Pendias [4], which amount to, respectively: 0.05–0.2 and 5–30 μg Cd/g, 0.1–0.5 and 5–30 μg Cr/ g, 5–30 and 20–100 μg Cu/g, 0.1–5.0 and 10–100 μg Ni/g, 5–10 and 30–300 μg Pb/g, 27–150 and 100–400 μg Zn/g dm. It was found that the contents of copper and zinc in plants are within the natural ranges. However, the contents of cadmium, chromium, nickel, and lead in both plant species for both test areas exceeded the natural values. They were exceeded by several, or several dozen times: more than 3 times for lead and nickel, several times for cadmium, and the highest - several dozen times for chromium. Such high exceedances in the content of heavy metals in the tested plant species in relation to the natural value of these metals in plants indicate the anthropogenic pollution of the selected research areas. Owing to their location (TNP) and great natural value, the research areas should be free from anthropogenic pollutants, however, long-range emission in this case has a large impact on the quality of the natural environment. It should be noted that in mountain areas, the content in plants of heavy metals is influenced by long-range emissions. Communication and industrial pollutants from areas with increased emissions are transported over long distances, even several dozen to several hundred kilometers. The transport of pollutants is related to the prevailing wind directions. For the TNP area, the dominant wind direction is to the south-west. Dusts containing heavy metal are transported from this direction, i.e., from industrial areas in Poland (Silesia) as well as from the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Long-range emissions result in such a high accumulation of metals in plants of the protected area [32–34]. Additionally, the high accumulation of metals in the higher parts of the mountains is also influenced by high wind velocity and a large amount of precipitation [34].

Determining the content of heavy metals in the plants in the tested test areas, an increase in metals was found with increasing altitude. The increase in the metal content concerned all of the tested metals and two plant species. However, this increase was slight and similar for the Kasprowy Wierch and Morskie Oko test areas. Similarly to the author of the present study, an increase in the content of metals in plants along with an increase in altitude was found in their research by Shetekauri et al. [35] in the western Caucasus Mountains for As, Cd, Ti, W in mosses, Sahin et al. [36] in the Kumalar Mountains for Cu, Zn in herbaceous plants, Zechmeister [32] in the Alps for As, Pb, Zn, and V in the *P. schreberi* and *Hylocomium splendens*, Šoltés [37] for the content of Pb in the *Sphagnum girgensohnii* in the Tatra Mountains in Slovakia, Samecka-Cymerman et al. [38] in the Tatra National Park for the content of Cd, Ni, and Zn in the *Athyrium distentifoliu*, Panek [39] in the Poland's Carpathian region for Pb in *P. formosum* and Kuklová et al. [40]. Kuklová et al. [40] found an increase in the content of Cu and Zn in three plant species (the *Dryopteris filix-mas*, *Rubus idaeus*, and *V. myrtillus*) with an increase in altitude. They observed an increase in the Cd content for two plant species: the *D. filix-mas* and the *V. myrtillus*. The re-search was carried out in the Slovak Paradise National Park (Slovenský Raj National Park), Eastern Slovakia, collecting samples

Polytrichum formosum *and* Vaccinium myrtillus *as Phytoindicators of Pollutants… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99962*

of plants growing at an altitude of 750, 760, 950, 960, 1,000, and 1,110 m above sea level.

Comparing the accumulation of metals in the two tested plant species, it can be seen that the moss *P. formosum* Hedw. has higher amounts of metals compared to the European blueberry *V. myrtillus* L. The higher accumulation of metals in the moss results from its morphological structure and the ability to accumulate pollutants. In addition, the moss accumulated pollutants for longer than the European blueberry, because in the case of the moss, it was the green parts of the plant (stem and leaves), estimated to be about 3 years old, that were sampled for analysis, while in the case of the European blueberry, it was the leaves (about six months old) that were sampled for analysis. This gives several times longer accumulation time of pollutants.


**1. Introduction**

18 Magnetic Sensors – Principles and Applications

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224425.

Fluxgates are vectorial sensors of magnetic fields, commonly employed for high resolution measurements at low frequencies in applications where the sensor must operate at room temperature.

Fluxgates are usually classified in two categories: parallel and orthogonal fluxgates. In both cases, the working principle is based on a magnetic core periodically saturated in opposite directions by means of an excitation field. The measured field is superimposed to the excitation field and it alters the saturation process.

The basic structure of the orthogonal fluxgate and its difference to parallel fluxgates is illustrated in Fig. 1. The parallel fluxgate (Fig. 1-A) is composed, in its most common form, of a magnetic ring or racetrack core periodically saturated in both directions by the ac magnetic field Hex generated by the excitation coil. The output voltage is obtained with a pick-up coil wound around the core. Even harmonics arise in the output voltage when an external magnetic field Hdc is applied in the axial direction. The sensor is called a *parallel* fluxgate because the excitation field Hex and the measured field Hdc lay in the same direction. More details about parallel fluxgates can be found in (Ripka, 2001).

Orthogonal fluxgates are based on a similar principle, but they have a different structure, as shown in Fig. 1-B.

Fig. 1. Structure of parallel (A) and orthogonal (B) fluxgates.

Orthogonal Fluxgates 21

The axial field is assumed to be much lower than the saturation field HS, therefore during the part of the period when H<HS the core is not saturated. Under these conditions, when H increases, then both the angle and the amplitude of M also increase, while the component of M in the axial direction MZ does not change because HZ is constant. However, when H reaches the amplitude where the total field is Htot=HS, then the core gets saturated; if H further increases, then the amplitude of M does not increase anymore and the only effect of H is to rotate M along the circumference which describes the saturation state (Fig. 2c). Under this condition MZ is not constant anymore but it starts decreasing as the M reaches the saturated state (Fig. 2e). As a result, a variation of the magnetic flux occurs in

Since the excitation field is sinusoidal the saturation is reached twice per period (i.e. in both the positive and negative directions). This means that the induced voltage will contain even harmonics of the excitation frequency, wherein the second harmonic is generally extracted by means of a lock-in amplifier to obtain the output signal. The amplitude of the induced voltage depends on MZ, which in turn is determined by HZ. Finally, the amplitude of the

t t

Vind

e)

t

M

HS H

MZ

HZ

MZ

H

M

If the direction of HZ is reversed MZ becomes negative and the phase of the induced voltage is shifted by rad. This means that the orthogonal fluxgate is able to distinguish between positive and negative fields; usually, the real part of the second harmonic is used as an

the axial direction and a voltage is induced in the pick-up coil (Fig. 2d).

HZ

a) b) H

M

b) c)

Iex ≡ H

d)

Fig. 2. Working principle of orthogonal fluxgates.

even harmonics gives us a measurement of the axial field HZ.

The core is a cylinder of soft magnetic material, with a toroidal excitation coil wound around it. The excitation current flows through the toroidal coil generating excitation H in the circumferential direction. The core is periodically saturated in the circumferential direction by H in opposite polarities. Finally, the output voltage is obtained with a pick-up coil as it was in the parallel fluxgate. Once more, when the external field Hdc is applied in the axial direction, even harmonics arise in the output voltage. In this case, the sensor is called an *orthogonal* fluxgate because the measured field Hdc is orthogonal to the x-y plane where the excitation field H lays.

Orthogonal fluxgates have been originally proposed in (Alldredge, 1952), both with a cylindrical core and a wire-core. Later, Schonsted proposed an orthogonal fluxgate based on a magnetic wire wound in a helical shape around a conductive wire carrying an excitation current (Schonsted, 1959). Several years later, orthogonal fluxgates appeared again in (Gise & Yarbrough, 1975) where the authors proposed an orthogonal fluxgate with a core obtained by electroplating a Permalloy film on a 6.3 mm diameter glass cylinder after the deposition of a copper substrate. The sensor showed large hysteresis, and it was later improved in (Gise & Yarbrough, 1977) with a core composed of a 3.2 mm diameter copper cylinder and of an electroplated shell on it. An orthogonal fluxgate based on a composite wire, manufactured with a conductive core and electroplated magnetic thin film (about 1 µm thick), was also proposed in (Takeuchi, 1977) after which orthogonal fluxgates were almost forgotten.

From the early years, indeed, parallel fluxgates have been always preferred to orthogonal fluxgates because they usually offer better performances, especially lower noise. Thus, the mainstream of research and development focused on parallel fluxgates.

The development and improvement of techniques for the production of microwires obtained in the last decades (Vázquez et. al, 2011) have made it now possible to manufacture soft magnetic wires with an extremely narrow diameter (50-100 µm) and high permeability. Thanks to this, the principle of the orthogonal fluxgate has been rediscovered. For example, an orthogonal fluxgate sensor based on a glass covered Cobased alloy with a very narrow diameter was proposed in (Antonov et al., 2001) and a similar sensor with a Permalloy/copper wire was used as the core with a 20 µm diameter (Li et al., 2004).

Orthogonal fluxgates based on a microwire gained new popularity mainly due to the rising requests for miniaturized sensors of magnetic fields.


**Yihe Yu, Po-Cheng Yu, Wan-Jung Chang, Keke Yu and Choun-Sea Lin**

Plastid Transformation: How Does It Work? Can It Be Applied to Crops? What Can It Offer? Reprinted from: *Int. J. Mol. Sci.* **2020**, *21*, 4854, doi:10.3390/ijms21144854 .............. **173**


*3.3. After the 'War of Words', the 'War of Bay'as': Alliance-Building and Fragmentation in the Age of the 'Caliphate'*

ISIS spokesperson, Abu Muhammad al-Adnani, had in effect announced the restoration of the Caliphate few weeks before al-Baghdadi's caliph-like appearance in Mosul. In his speech, al-Adnani stated that 'with this declaration of the caliphate, it is incumbent upon all Muslims to pledge allegiance to the Caliph Ibrahim and support him'. In the same vein, al-Adnani added that "the legality of all emirates, groups, states, and organizations becomes null by the expansion of the caliph's authority and arrival of its troops to their areas' (Al-Adnani 2014). The declaration of the Caliphate, thus, automatically posed a question of authority and allegiance; theoretically to all Muslims, but practically to the other groups in the jihadi movement.

With the help of technology, Adnani's call for bay'as2 reached the edges of the jihadi world. In a climate of heated debate, a flurry of online bay'as ensued. At that point, most of them were personal bay'as on social media (Holtmann 2014). Increasingly, though, collective baya's from jihadi groups started coming in. Since 2014, more than 40 groups, spanning an area from west Africa to southeast Asia, have pledged an oath of allegiance to al-Baghdadi. IS has displayed less restraint than al-Qaeda in accepting these bay'as, but nevertheless showed some caution. As early as November 2014, IS made its first round of acceptances, welcoming to its fold five jihadi groups form the Middle East. Not all bay'as were accepted, though. For instance, bay'as from Sinai, Libya, Yemen, Algeria, and the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia) resulted in the creation of wilayats (provinces), while in Caucasus and Khorasan (Af-Pak) they were delayed and other ba'yas were accepted, but not considered for official expansion (Dabiq 2014, p. 24). To justify the delays in accepting bay'as from some groups, IS put forward specific preconditions for the creation of new wilayats: unification of the jihadi forces operating in the area, nomination of a leader, a detailed plan of military conquest and submission of the 'file' to IS's central authorities for evaluation and approval (Dabiq 2015b, p. 35). These preconditions seemed to favor groups with established presence in their region, which had relatively fair chances to survive the aftermath of the bay'a.

Although IS's desire to affiliate with established groups that have operational potential is a plausible explanation, it fails to explain why the bay'a of practically non-existent groups in Algeria and Saudi Arabia was accepted in the first place. It appears more probable that expansion into Saudi Arabia was mainly guided by religious justifications and it was decided in the spirit of IS competition with al-Qaeda. In Algeria, the main motive might have been a desire to stir things within al-Qaeda in

2 Although the exact meaning of bay'a is not clear, it is used to denote a pledge of allegiance and submission to a person of authority. Originally it referred to allegiance to a Caliph (and the Prophet Muhammad himself), but later it was used more loosely. For more on this topic see (Milton and Al-Ubaydi 2015; Porter 2015; Wagemakers 2015).

Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and encourage possible defectors. It is equally noteworthy that none of the bay'as made by non-Arab groups were granted affiliation in this first round of acceptances (Milton and Al-Ubaydi 2015, p. 4). The first non-Arab wilaya was established in early 2015 in Af-Pak borderland (Khorasan Province), further highlighting the anti-al-Qaeda reasoning in IS's strategic planning. It is possible, then, that IS opted to begin its expansion with groups that, on the one hand, are smaller but possibly easier to manage (Milton and Al-Ubaydi 2015, pp. 4–5) and, on the other hand, are closer to its Syria/Iraq heartland, and possibly offer better communication channels. In 2015, IS confidence in its global aspirations grew as a result of the increasing tempo of attacks in western countries by small groups or individuals, who pledged bay'a to al-Baghdadi. This new-found confidence prompted IS to enlarge the circle of affiliates and include groups outside MENA.

IS's motivation to seek alliances in the jihadi movement seems rather straightforward. IS sought to create an arc of affiliates to claim a hegemonic role within the jihadi scene. IS expects little from its affiliates. Contrary to al-Qaeda that anticipated its affiliates to shift their priorities from local issues to fighting the far enemy, IS is content to leave its affiliates alone (Zelin 2015, p. 25). They are expected to operate under the banner of IS and they are expected to survive. In the best case scenario, these alliances might also convey logistical benefits to IS, such as streamlining fighters to Syria/Iraq (Milton and Al-Ubaydi 2015, p. 5). Apart from that, IS affiliates were free to organize their activity as they pleased.

Given that IS asked little from its affiliates, it is important to explore what IS offered in return. In other words, if alliances require a degree of need fulfilment on both sides, what the groups that pledged bay'a to IS expected from this affiliation. Their motivations run across the resources-ideology spectrum. Some groups were genuinely excited by the reestablishment of the caliphate (McCants 2016, p. 21). In this sense, they were driven by ideological considerations. These considerations occasionally stemmed from the local circumstances each group faced. The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) is an interesting example in this regard. Affiliated with al-Qaeda, but in close proximity to the Taliban, the foreign status of IMU in Af-Pak and its conflicts rendered the idea of IS borderless jihad more suited to IMU's goals than Taliban's nationalist aspirations (Jadoon 2018, p. 38).

In terms of resources-related motivations, some groups might have pledged allegiance to IS expecting financial rewards (Jadoon 2018, p. 32) or boosts in recruitment from the media attention their bay'a generated. IMU again is a case in point. Long detached from its main area of operations in Uzbekistan, IMU hoped that affiliation with IS will revive its influence within Uzbekistan and increase recruitment (Jadoon 2018, p. 38). Boko Haram also expected to attract more recruits from other West African countries and the diaspora, and possibly a better and wealthier pool of recruits beyond the 'poor al-majiri boys' profile of most Boko Haram's members (Zenn 2015, p. 21). Resources-related motivations were more central in low-end—operational—cooperation between IS and local groups, which expressed support but did not pledge bay'a to al-Baghdadi. This is most evident in Pakistan, where IS developed cooperative relations and conducted joint attacks with powerful groups, which did not fully share IS ideology, such as Lashkar-e-Islam (LeI), Jamaat-ul-Ahrar (JuA), Jundullah and the Balochistan National Army (Jadoon 2018, pp. 38–39; Rassler 2015, p. 9). Other groups might have been lured by the prospect of having access to IS's media apparatus, especially if they lacked a propaganda production mechanism of their own. IS-affiliated groups in Somalia are such an example. Although Al-Shabaab retained control of its very prolific media apparatus, the former al-Shabaab groups that pledged allegiance to IS could rely on IS central's media mechanism to produce and distribute their photos and videos from Somalia (Warner and Weiss 2017, p. 31). Boko Haram is also one of the organizations that benefited from better media production after their affiliation with IS (Milton and Al-Ubaydi 2015, p. 6).

While resources-related drivers varied across specific cases, a motivation shared by almost all groups was increased (local) political relevance (Jadoon 2018, p. 32). The motivation was particularly strong in groups operating in competitive jihadi environments. This quest for local power and relevance was only marginally related to the al-Qaeda–IS competition, but it was exceptionally destructive for local conflicts. It is no surprise, then, that most of the groups that pledged allegiance to IS were splinter-groups or factions from established (often al-Qaeda affiliated) organizations (Crone 2017, p. 69; McCants 2016, p. 21) These internal splits unwounded along old cleavages, regional differences or preexisting leadership disputes. They rested on divergences over interests and strategy or sometimes belied a more personal grudge, such as being overlooked in a promotion or stripped of personal fiefdoms. A case in point is the IS affiliate in Af-Pak, which attracted militants, who were unhappy with Taliban's peace negotiations with the government in Kabul. At the same time, the founders of the Khorasan Province were often passed over for leadership roles or profitable postings by the Taliban leadership (Rassler 2015, pp. 7–8; Sheikh 2017, p. 43). In the same vein, AQAP militants in Yemen, who broke away to form the IS-Yemen Province, accused AQAP that it was not doing enough to kill Shi'a Houthis (McCants 2016, p. 21). The case of AQAP also highlights the role of generational divides in movement fragmentation, as IS ideology has attracted primarily younger members of AQAP (Clausen 2017, p. 59).

In several cases geographical dispersal attenuated preexisting cleavages, festering poor communication and increasing intra-movement suppression costs. This is best evident in Somalia. Two factions split from al-Shabaab to join IS, one in northern Puntland region and the other in southern Somalia. The former, which is led by Abdulqadir Mumin, is the official IS branch in the region. It has also been the most active, with its biggest achievement being the brief capture of the port town of Qandala in Puntland (Weiss 2019, p. 29). The southern faction has been less formalized and less active. Yet, it has been the primary target of al-Shabaab efforts to stifle internal dissent. Al-Shabaab employed its internal security service, the Amniyat, to arrest and occasionally execute pro-IS members, but due to geographical distance from the Mumin-led Puntland group, it could only deploy it against the much more accessible southern factions (Warner and Weiss 2017, pp. 28–29). Likewise, Taliban were in a striking distance from IMU in Afghanistan. Thus, when IMU's leader Usman Ghazi pledged allegiance to al-Baghdadi, in the wake of the confirmation of Mullah Omar's death, Taliban could reach and defeat the Ghazi faction in November 2015, prompting some IMU members, who had followed Ghazi, to return to their fold (Jadoon 2018, pp. 37–38).

Weakness, as result of increased (state) counter-insurgency and military setbacks, has been at the core of some splits. For example, Egyptian army's crackdown in Sinai, in the wake of Morsi's ousting, possibly pushed Ansar Bayt al-Maqdis to make bay'a to IS (Lahoud 2015, p. 14). Likewise, the operations of the Pakistani army in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) have been central motivation for the Orakzai and Bajaur factions of Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) to switch allegiance to IS (Jadoon 2018, p. 36). Military pressure and weakness have also played a role in the case of Boko Haram. The large-scale military offensive, launched in February 2015, by Nigeria and neighboring countries (Chad, Cameroon and Niger) severely restrained Boko Haram (Crone 2017, p. 68; Cummings 2017, p. 24). Facing military setbacks and territorial losses, Boko Haram needed IS's global brand to project local relevance.

The previous discussion revealed a complex web of motivations, needs and strategic considerations behind the alliances that IS forged across the jihadi sub-system. These alliances materialized because they fulfilled some needs on both sides. Local groups benefited from media exposure, possible recruitment boosts, increased political relevance and opportunities to settle local scores with their mother-organizations. IS, on the other hand, was content with 'expanding' its global brand and solidifying its claim to hegemony within the jihadi subsystem. They did not compete directly for the same resources. Hence, they could take advantage of the benefits alliances offered without enduring the cost.


**1. Introduction**

350 Aneurysm

604-605.2004;

[15] Ho P.C., Leung C.Y.: Treatment of post-stenotic saphenous vein graft aneurysm: special considerations with the polytetrafluoroethylene-covered stent. J Invasive Cardiol 16.

> There are various intracranial aneurysms: saccular, fusiform, dissecting or mycotic. Saccular aneurysms are the most common type and account for up to 98% of all intracranial aneurysms (Yasargil, 1984). If the widest diameter of the aneurysm is equal to or exceeding 25 millimetres (mm), the aneurysm is defined by convention as giant (GIA). The etiology of GIAs is similar to smaller ones (Lemole, 2000), theories about the development of all saccular aneurysms include congenital and acquired artery defects. GIA's and other aneurysms are etiologically divided into "sidewall" and "bifurcation" aneurysms (LeRoux, 2003). In flow-related phenomena, constant enlargement of a small aneurysm in the distal part of the neck results in GIA formation. However, de novo development of GIA has also been described (Barth, 1994). The histology of GIA wall is different from smaller aneurysms: GIAs often lack a muscular layer as well as elastic laminar layers show degeneration. The incidence of intraluminal thrombosis significantly increases with the lumen size of aneurysms; in GIAs this phenomena may occur in approximately 60% of cases (LeRoux, 2003). Krings publication (Krings, 2005) was a breakthrough in large aneurysms formation knowledge; he proved that the GIA development in the internal carotid artery (ICA) and vertebral artery (VA) differ from those in other locations. Repeated subadventitial haemorrhages from vasa vasorum are a predominant factor in GIA aneurysm pathogenesis. Therefore, GIA formation can be considered as a "proliferative disease of the vessel wall induced by extravascular activity". Historically GIA rupture is known as devastating due to higher amount of extravasated blood. In contrast, recent papers indicate that rupture of some smaller aneurysms leads to more extensive SAH. The study ISUIA (Kassell, 1990) proved that the risk of rupture of GIA can reach 40% in five-year follow-up, while treatment of unruptured intracranial aneurysm carries relatively low mortality that does not exceed 2% (Molyneux, 2005). Therefore, treatment is warranted for most patients suffering from GIAs. There are two treatment modalities that can be offered to patients afflicted with GIA

© 2012 Szmuda and Sloniewski, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

pathology: endovascular or surgical. In general endovascular treatment is less invasive and has fewer complications than surgery, and therefore is preferable. Surprisingly, no randomized comparison study of these two methods in GIA treatment have been published. However, the outcome measurement and analysis may be difficult to conduct a trial in GIAs; these aneurysms constitute a heterogeneous group and they are treated using different methods in different institutions. Furthermore, there is not enough observational data in the literature discussing results of treatment and their pertinence to quality of life in patients with GIAs in comparison to smaller ones. Additionally, radiographic results assessed several years post-operatively have not been reported sufficiently. Probably it is due to the unique peculiarity of GIAs as these require extensive comprehension of the treatment strategies to achieve better results. The current study is not only aimed at describing available methods, but to compare the prognosis after treatment of GIAs versus smaller aneurysms. A new neurovascular surgeon should be accustomed to all surgical techniques for GIAs. All of the treatment possibilities, technical issues and their clinical implications are to be learned meticulously and considered preoperatively.


2. The setting

ES is located in central California at the eastern side of Monterey Bay mid-way between Monterey and Santa Cruz. Several tributaries (i.e., lesser sloughs) including Bennett, Moro Cojo, and Tembladero Sloughs feed directly into ES or Moss Landing Harbor. Originally, ES was somewhat removed from direct tidal flow and the Salinas River discharged directly into Monterey Bay just north of the entrance to Moss Landing Harbor (Figure 1). In the late 1800s, the lands surrounding ES were altered through the construction of ditches and dikes to make the low-lying marshes suitable for agriculture. Around 1900, a 150-ha area near the mouth of the Slough was diked to form evaporative salt ponds. In 1908, the mouth of the Salinas River was diverted about 7 km to the south, removing any residual tidal influence from ES. When the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers created the channel between Monterey Bay and ES in 1946, the old Salinas River channel was dredged to form what is now Moss Landing Harbor (Figure 2) and the Slough was opened to full tidal circulation.

ES is about 10 km long, with depths ranging from 8 m at the harbor entrance, to 0.5 m near the head of the Slough (Figure 1). The average depth is approximately A 30-Year History of the Tides and Currents in Elkhorn Slough, California DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88671

Figure 1.

Elkhorn Slough. This map was originally drawn by John Hansen from aerial photographs in 1971 and has been updated subsequently. Circles show Smith's [10] sampling stations. Crosses show tide stations.

3 m. The main channel has a width of about 200 m landward of the Highway 1 Bridge (H1B), to 90 m near the entrance of Parsons Slough. The ES drainage area is small: 585 km3 [1], and significant fresh water enters the Slough only during winter months. The sinuous path of ES, with four major bends, has a major impact on its circulation. Because it is a complex, shallow waterway comprised of a main channel, extensive mud flats, Salicornia marsh, and small tidal channels, it is difficult to obtain reliable estimates of its volume, tidal prism, surface and crosssectional areas, and bathymetry. Figure 1 is a map of ES based on an aerial photograph taken in 1971 (Hansen, personal communication) with recent updates from 1993 aerial photographs. At low tide, the Slough consists essentially of a narrow channel whereas at high tide, waters entering the Slough inundate the surrounding mud flats, greatly increasing the surface area covered by water.

A number of prominent features in the aerial photograph of ES are shown in Figure 3: the lower Slough with the entrance cutting across the beach near the

Figure 2. Moss Landing Harbor, adapted from Duke Energy Moss Landing [10].

center; the Duke Energy Power plant with several reserve fuel storage tanks paralleling the lower slough; the now abandoned National Refractories and Minerals plant with a large tailing waste pond composed of mainly calcium carbonate precipitate, and Moss Landing Harbor with a small fishing fleet and pleasure boat moorings. The Highway 1 Bridge near the Duke power plant has been the site of a number of current meter studies. Near the main northward bend in the channel (Figures 1 and 3), a linear strip of land supports the Southern Pacific railroad and separates the main Slough from Parsons Slough and the South Marsh. This relatively large body of water is connected to the Slough through a 50-m wide channel under the railroad trestle. Because Parsons Slough and the South Marsh serve as one body with respect to ES, we will usually refer to them as Parsons Slough from this point on unless there is a reason to refer to them separately.

#### Figure 3.

A more recent aerial photograph of Elkhorn Slough taken in September 2002, looking eastward from an altitude of 1500 m (courtesy of Scott Benson).

## A 30-Year History of the Tides and Currents in Elkhorn Slough, California DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88671

During the past 25 years, major changes have occurred in the Slough's morphology, and these have further altered its tidal response. During the winter months when the Salinas River flows into the bay, a channel is bulldozed across the beach 7 km south of Moss Landing to prevent local flooding in the surrounding towns of Castroville and Moss Landing. The sources of freshwater entering the Slough during this period include rainfall and agricultural runoff from its small drainage basin. Moss Landing Harbor receives a continual supply of low salinity water from agricultural runoff, and before 1982, when the Monterey Regional Outfall began operation, treated sewage discharge from Castroville entered the system via Tembladero Slough south of Moss Landing Harbor. These waters now enter the south harbor at low tide through a tide gate. Recently, another tide gate limiting the flow of waters into Moro Cojo Slough has been removed, and that area is again open to tidal action. Recent changes in bottom depth at one location are readily apparent in the four profiles shown in Figure 4. These profiles, taken at the Highway 1 Bridge, show that bottom depth and channel width have both increased significantly since 1972.

The Duke Energy of North America Power Company operates the largest power generation plant (2.5 gW) in California at Moss Landing (Figures 2 and 3). Before Duke Energy acquired the plant in 1998, it was operated by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E power plant or simply PG&E). At that time, seawater coolant was pumped from the east side of Moss Landing Harbor at a maximum rate of 2.7 106 m3 /day, with a temperature of 7–10°C above ambient [11]. The original five power generating units (1–5) discharged coolant waters into Elkhorn Slough, while coolant waters from units 6 and 7 were discharged into the head of Monterey Submarine Canyon within 200 m of the harbor entrance. In 1998, discharges into Elkhorn Slough were eliminated. In July 2002, two new 1.1 gW gas turbine generation units became operational and their coolant waters were discharged through the offshore outfall (Figure 2). Until recently, the National Refractories and Minerals (NRM) operated a magnesium extraction plant, just south of the Duke Energy

Figure 4. Bottom profiles at Highway 1 Bridge (H1B). Depths are referenced to MLLW.

plant. The National Refractories plant ceased operation in the year 2000, but the tailing pond of CaCO3 remains.

The last large-scale change to the hydrography of Elkhorn Slough was implemented by the California State Department of Fish and Game in 1983. Dairy pastures of 160 ha (1.6 106 m2 ) were returned to tidal flooding by digging a channel across former dikes and excavating about 10% of the marsh to a depth of 2 m below MLLW. This area, called the South Marsh, is now part of the Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve (ESNERR).  Cracks in the surrounding marshlands have been identified that appear to be related to this event (R. Kvitek, personal communication) and there is evidence that the Salicornia marsh has settled (G. Greene, personal communication).


**3. Conclusions**

A UHPLC-MS/MS method for the determination of DON, its metabolites and other type B trichothecenes in feedstuffs was successfully developed and validated. The main novelty of this method is that full separation of all compounds was achieved, including the isomeric forms 3Ac-DON and 15Ac-DON and that a DON-3Glc IS was used as the internal standard for quantification of DON-3Glc. In case of the IACs testing for they cross-reactivity features for DON modified forms none of them bound all derivatives and other toxins. The use of the commercially available Mycosep 225 columns allowed for quick and easy sample preparation. The results of RM analysis and the PT confirm the trueness of the method. Application of the validated method on feedstuffs revealed occurrence of DON and DON-3Glc in over 80% of positive samples. The developed method can be a tool for accurate qualification and quantification of mycotoxins and could be adopted as a confirmatory method for determination of DON and its modified mycotoxins NIV and FUS-X in a wide range of feedstuffs.


**Author details**

Riaz Shah Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, AlKhod, Oman

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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0185-2

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(02)00706-8.

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Journal. 2010;1:69-74.

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glyphosate excretion in urine. Journal of Clinical Toxicology. 2014;4:186. DOI:

[65] Sahin A, Iskender H, Kapakin KA Terim, Ainkaynak K, Hayirli A, Gonultas A, Kaynar O The effect of humic acid substances on the thyroid function and structure in lead

poisoning. Revista Brasileira de Ciência Avícola. 2016;18(4):649-654. https://doi. org/10.1590/1806-9061-2016-0299.

[66] Jusadi D, Aprilia T, Setiawati M, Suprayudi MA, Ekasari J. Dietary supplementation of fulvic acid for growth improvement and prevention of heavy metal accumulation in Nile tilapia fed with green mussel. The Egyptian

[67] Hayirli A, Esenbuga N, Macit M, Lacin E and Karaoglu M, Karaca H and Yildiz L. Nutrition Practice to Alleviate the Adverse Effects of Stress on Laying Performance, Metabolic Profile, and Egg Quality in Peak Producing Hens: I. The Humate Supplementation. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. 2005;18(9): Doi:10.5713/ajas.2005.1310.

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2402.2407

Journal of Aquatic Research. 2020;46(3):295-301. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ejar.2020.04.002.

blood serum antibody level and

10.4172/2161-0495.186.

permeation of peat substances through human skin in vitro. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2003;253 (1-2):169-75. DOI:10.1016/s0378-5173

[58] Ma'or Z, Henis Y, Alon Y, Orlov E, Sørensen KB, Oren A. Antimicrobial properties of dead sea black mineral mud. International Journal of

Dermatology. 2006;45(5):504-11. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2005.02621.x.

[60] van Rensburg CEJ, Badenhorst BE, Gandy JJ and Snyman JR. Potassium humate reduces inflammation and clinically improves the outcomes of patients with osteoarthritis of the knee. The Open Conference Proceedings

[61] Balkrishna, A., Sakat, S.S., Joshi, K. et al. Herbo-mineral formulation 'Ashwashila' attenuates rheumatoid arthritis symptoms in collagen-

antibody-induced arthritis (CAIA) mice model. Sci Rep. 2019;9:8025. https://doi. org/10.1038/s41598-019-44485-9

[62] Islam K M, Schumacher S A, Gropp J M. Humic acid substances in animal agriculture. Pakistan J. Nutr. 2005;4:126-

Sallam SM. Impact of humic acid as an

parameters and milk production in goats and their kids growth rate. Journal of Animal and Feed Sciences. 2018;

134. 10.3923/pjn.2005.126.134

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Sagorchev P. Evaluation of the

**18**

27:105-113.

[70] Ozkan A, Sen HM, Sehitoglu I, Alacam H, Guven M, Aras AB, Akman T, Silan C, Cosar M, Karaman HIO. Neuroprotective effect of humic acid on focal cerebral ischemia injury: An experimental study in rats. Inflammation. 2015;38:32-39.

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[73] Cagin YF, Sahin N, Polat A, Erdogan MA, Atayan Y, Eyol E, Bilgic Y, Seckin Y, Colak C. The acute effect of humic acid on iron accumulation in rats. Biological Trace Element Research. 2016;171:145-155.

[74] Shikalgar TS and Naikwade NS. Evaluation of cardioprotective activity of fulvic acid against isoproterenol induced oxidative damage in rat myocardium. International Research Journal of Pharmacy. 2018;9(1): 71-80.

[75] Gao Y, He J, He Z. Effects of fulvic acid on growth performance and intestinal health of juvenile loach *Paramisgurnus dabryanus* (Sauvage). Fish & Shellfish Immunology. 2017;62:47-56. DOI: 10.1016/j. fsi.2017.01.008.

[76] Aydin SK, Dalgic S, Karaman M, Kirlangic OF, Yildirim H. Effects of fulvic acid on different cancer cell lines. *Proceedings.* 2017;*1:*1031. https://doi. org/10.3390/proceedings1101031.

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[79] Aykac A, Becer E, Okcanoğlu TB, Güvenir M, Süer K, Vatansever S.  *Proceedings.* 2018;2(25):1565.

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**23**

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

*Hemlata K. Bagla*

Biorhexistasy, Biofuel

deprived soils and declining fauna.

**1. Introduction**

Dry Cowdung Powder - Novel

Water-Food-Energy (WFE) Nexus regulates biosphere and irrespective of alphabetical or chronological order, it must have synergy for the sustainability of life. Population, Pollution and current Pandemic- COVID has made it vivid to entire scientific community that unless we strengthen this trio, our progressive humanity is sure to collapse. Humic Substances (HS), the originator of the life has promising utilization in almost every sectors of life, reinforcing WFE Nexus. This chapter dedicates to novel unearthed HS, Dry Cowdung Powder (DCP) and its unique contribution in sustaining the triangle of life, WFE. DCP has been employed as humiresin for bioremediation of wastewater containing heavy metals and radionuclides. The known candidate for Biorhexistasy, DCP increases soil fertility, minimizes erosion and acidification. It is also extensively explored as biofuel, green and clean source of energy. 'Nothing of Nature is a Waste' and 'Waste is a Commodity'

**Keywords:** Sustainability, Dry Cowdung Powder, Unearthed Humus, Humiresin,

The biosphere or Earth's layer of Living Matter harbors living organisms that interact with each other as well as with the soil, water, and air. The necessity of the entire living biota is based on Water-Food-Energy (WFE) Nexus, exceptionally governed by our Mother Nature. In the past few centuries, rapid industrialization has overexploited pristine ecosystems and led to a steady decline in the nutrient quality of ecosystems, flora, and fauna. The plume of population and pollution has created a 'water-food hungry scenario' but the 21st century socio-political race has created 'energy hungry' attitude too. The high rate of resource consumption has posed an unintended and negative impact not only on the entire ecosystem but also on global geopolitical harmony. Almost every nation has gobbled up their own abundance of natural resources due to utilitarian attitude and drive of being energy independent. This has compromised the holistic functioning of the environment and given rise to

Present resource crisis is so all-prevailing that, both developed as well as developing countries have come to the common conclusion of Sustainability through Socio-Scientific Integrity for the smooth survival of todays and tomorrows.

Unearthed Humus: Sustains

Water-Food-Energy Nexus

aptly describes DCP, the sustainer of WFE Nexus.

## **Chapter 2**