Commonly consumed organic products included fresh vegetables, fresh fruits, meat/meat products and milk/ milk products. However, the general trend in Figure 5 and Figure 6 shows that there are marked increases in the future demand of all organic products. This augurs well for the growth of the organic industry in the Eastern Cape and in South Africa in General. The findings of this study are consistent with [52] who stated that a study by Pick-n-Pay, one of the major national retail supermarket chains and supporter of the development of the retail organic market in South Africa, on the performance and trends of fresh organic produce showed that fresh produce completely dominated the sales.

180

**Figure 5.** Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in OR Tambo District Municipality **Figure 5: Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in OR Tambo District Municipality**

**Figure 5: Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in OR Tambo District Municipality**

Future product Choice

**Figure 6.** Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in Amatole District Municipality

**Figure 6: Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in Amatole District Municipality**

15

This is an indication that the consumption of organic products is closely related to consumer awareness and knowledge of organic products. Increasing awareness about organic products to consumers is important to spur its demand. Most of the consumers had consumed organic products in South Africa with non consumers showing a general interest in organic products. Authors [53] state that consumer awareness of organic foods is the first step in developing demand for organic products. Yet, awareness does not necessarily equate with consumption. While organic refers to the way agricultural products are grown and processed [54], interest in consuming organic products may relate to food safety concerns where organic products may be a partial answer to recent food scares associated with production and handling (e. g. BSE, dioxins, Salmonella, etc. ). Food safety issues have driven consumers to search for safer foods whose qualities and attributes are guaranteed [55]. The main reasons advanced for the consumption of organic products are that organics are healthy and nutritious, have a better appearance and taste, are affordable and are safe to consume. Identified hindrances to the consumption of organics are that they are expensive and not readily available. Price and affordability of organic products was ranked as the most important consideration among all

Analysis of Production and Consumption of Organic Products in South Africa

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58356

45

The global markets for organic products have grown rapidly over the past two decades [8]. Currently 32. 2 million ha are being managed organically worldwide by more than 1. 2 million producers [11]. In Africa, South Africa has the third largest area (50, 000ha) under organic farming [11]. Organic production is particularly well-suited for smallholder farmers, who comprise the majority of the world's poor. The promotion of organic agriculture does not only constitute an important option for producersbut also responds to consumers' desire for higher food quality and food production methods that are less damaging to the environment. The consumers' concerns for food safety, quality and nutrition are increasingly becoming impor‐ tant across the world, which has provided growing opportunities for organic foods in recent years. Expectedly, the demand for organic food is steadily increasing in the developing countries. The untapped potential markets for organic foods in the countries like South Africa need to be realised with organised interventions on various fronts, which require a better understanding of the consumers' preference for organic food. Therefore, an analysis of consumer's awareness of various aspects of organic products may be considered as important ground to build the markets for organic food in the initial phase of market development. Recent analysis [53] indicate that consumer awareness of organic foods is the first step in developing demand for organic products. By identifying independent variables that explain the adoption of organic farming, the present study sought to contribute to policy formulation to promote adoption in South Africa and the rest of Africa. The identified sources of risk faced by smallholder farmers provide useful insights for policy makers, advisers, developers and sellers of risk management strategies. This information can yield substantial payouts in terms of the development of quality farm management and education programs as well as the design of

consumers when buying organic products in South Africa.

**5. Conclusions**

more effective government policies.

15

This is an indication that the consumption of organic products is closely related to consumer awareness and knowledge of organic products. Increasing awareness about organic products to consumers is important to spur its demand. Most of the consumers had consumed organic products in South Africa with non consumers showing a general interest in organic products. Authors [53] state that consumer awareness of organic foods is the first step in developing demand for organic products. Yet, awareness does not necessarily equate with consumption. While organic refers to the way agricultural products are grown and processed [54], interest in consuming organic products may relate to food safety concerns where organic products may be a partial answer to recent food scares associated with production and handling (e. g. BSE, dioxins, Salmonella, etc. ). Food safety issues have driven consumers to search for safer foods whose qualities and attributes are guaranteed [55]. The main reasons advanced for the consumption of organic products are that organics are healthy and nutritious, have a better appearance and taste, are affordable and are safe to consume. Identified hindrances to the consumption of organics are that they are expensive and not readily available. Price and affordability of organic products was ranked as the most important consideration among all consumers when buying organic products in South Africa.

#### **5. Conclusions**

15

15

**Figure 5: Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in OR Tambo District Municipality**

**Figure 5: Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in OR Tambo District Municipality**

**Figure 5.** Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in OR Tambo District Municipality

0

0

Respondents

Respondents

Fresh vegetables

Fresh vegetables

Fresh fruits

Fresh fruits

Herbs and spices

Herbs and spices

Milk and milk products

Milk and milk products

Meat and meat products

Meat and meat products

Cereals

Cereals

Oil products

Oil products

Pulses

Pulses

Beverages

Beverages

Bread and Bakery products

Bread and Bakery products

Sugar products (honey…

Sugar products (honey…

Baby Products

Baby Products

Textiles products

Textiles products

Fresh vegetables

Fresh vegetables

Fresh fruits

Fresh fruits

Herbs and spices

Herbs and spices

Milk and milk products

Milk and milk products

Meat and meat products

Meat and meat products

Cereals

Cereals

Oil products

Oil products

Pulses

Pulses

Beverages

Beverages

Bread and Bakery products

Bread and Bakery products

marmalade, chocolate)

marmalade, chocolate)

Sugar products (honey

Sugar products (honey

Baby Products

Baby Products

Textiles products

Textiles products

Future product Choice Todays product choice

Future product Choice Todays product choice

Future product Choice Todays product choice

Future product Choice Todays product choice

50

50

100

150

100

150

200

Respondents

Respondents

200

250

250

44 Organic Agriculture Towards Sustainability

**Figure 6: Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in Amatole District Municipality**

**Figure 6: Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in Amatole District Municipality**

**Figure 6.** Demand difference between organic products today and in the future in Amatole District Municipality

The global markets for organic products have grown rapidly over the past two decades [8]. Currently 32. 2 million ha are being managed organically worldwide by more than 1. 2 million producers [11]. In Africa, South Africa has the third largest area (50, 000ha) under organic farming [11]. Organic production is particularly well-suited for smallholder farmers, who comprise the majority of the world's poor. The promotion of organic agriculture does not only constitute an important option for producersbut also responds to consumers' desire for higher food quality and food production methods that are less damaging to the environment. The consumers' concerns for food safety, quality and nutrition are increasingly becoming impor‐ tant across the world, which has provided growing opportunities for organic foods in recent years. Expectedly, the demand for organic food is steadily increasing in the developing countries. The untapped potential markets for organic foods in the countries like South Africa need to be realised with organised interventions on various fronts, which require a better understanding of the consumers' preference for organic food. Therefore, an analysis of consumer's awareness of various aspects of organic products may be considered as important ground to build the markets for organic food in the initial phase of market development. Recent analysis [53] indicate that consumer awareness of organic foods is the first step in developing demand for organic products. By identifying independent variables that explain the adoption of organic farming, the present study sought to contribute to policy formulation to promote adoption in South Africa and the rest of Africa. The identified sources of risk faced by smallholder farmers provide useful insights for policy makers, advisers, developers and sellers of risk management strategies. This information can yield substantial payouts in terms of the development of quality farm management and education programs as well as the design of more effective government policies.

#### **Author details**

Maggie Kisaka-Lwayo and Ajuruchukwu Obi

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Department of Agricultural Economics & Extension, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa

[10] Parrott N, Ssekyewa C, Makunike C. , Ntambi S M. Organic Farming in Africa. In Willer/Yussefi (eds. ) The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging

Analysis of Production and Consumption of Organic Products in South Africa

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58356

47

[11] Willer H. , Klicher L. The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2009. IFOAM, Bonn, Germany and Research Institute of Organic Agriculture,

[12] Walaga C. Organic Agriculture in the Continents. In Yusseffi M. , Willer H. (ed. ) The

[13] Ssekyewa C. Organic agriculture research in Uganda. Paper presented at the Interna‐ tional Society for Organic Agriculture Research (ISOFAR) Scientific Conference,

[14] FiBL/IFOAM: Key Results from Survey on Organic Agriculture Worldwide. www.

[15] Moffet J. Principles of organic farming. Paper contributed at the 1st short course in organic farming, 25th-27th October, Spier Institute and Ellensburg Agricultural Col‐

[16] GROLINK. Feasibility study for the establishment of certification bodies for organic agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa, Report commissioned by Sida/INEC,

[17] International Trade Centre. ITC. Organic Food and Beverages: World Supply and Major European Markets. www. intracen. org/mds/sectors/organic/welcome. htm

[18] ScialabbaN. E. , Hattam C. Organic Agriculture, Environment and Food Security. http: //www. fao. org/docrep/005/y4137e/ y4137e00. HTM (accessed 2 July 2011).

[20] Millstone E. , Lang T. The Atlas of Food: Who Eats What, Where and Why?Earth

[21] Mahlanza B, Mendes E, Vink N. Comparative Advantage of Organic Wheat Produc‐

[22] Troskie D P. Factors influencing organic production: An economic perspective. Paper presented at 12 Annual Interdisciplinary Symposium, 12 September, ARC-PPRI, Stel‐

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[10] Parrott N, Ssekyewa C, Makunike C. , Ntambi S M. Organic Farming in Africa. In Willer/Yussefi (eds. ) The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2006. IFOAM, Bonn; 2006.

**Author details**

46 Organic Agriculture Towards Sustainability

Africa

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Maggie Kisaka-Lwayo and Ajuruchukwu Obi

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Department of Agricultural Economics & Extension, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South

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**Chapter 3**

**Organic agricultural practices among small holder**

Organic agriculture and biotechnology are two key innovations that are considered to have beneficial impacts on the future sustainability of agriculture (Wheeler, 2005). Conventional farming has played an important role in improving food and fibre productivity to meet human demands but has been largely dependent on intensive inputs of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides (Tu, Louws, Creamer, Mueller, Brownie, Fager, Bell and Shuijin, 2006). Moreover, the conventional intensive agricultural systems have side–effects which compromise food production in terms of quality and safety. Therefore, problems arising from conventional practices have led to the development and promotion of organic farming system that account of the environment and public health as main concerns (Melero, Ruiz Porras, Herencia and Madejon, 2005). Besides, traditional subsistence smallholding farming can no longer meet the needs and expectation of ever-increasing population of Nigeria (Adomi, Monday-Ogbomo and Inoni, 2003). Increasing agricultural productivity, self-sufficiency and poverty alleviation depend on the acceptance and full utilization of modern inputs, as long been recognized and policy formulation and implementation have been done (Aina 2007). The-Research-Extension-Farmers-Linkage-System (REFILS) has been able to ensure some awareness about the use of

Organic farming represents a deliberate attempt to make the best use of local natural resources and is an environmental friendly system of farming. It relies much on ecosystem management which excludes external input, especially the synthetic ones. Ander son, Jolly and Green (2005) stated that organic farming is a production system that excludes the use of synthetically manufactured fertilizer, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. The system relies on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil

> © 2014 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**farmers in South Western Nigeria**

Sijuwade Adebayo and Idowu O Oladele

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57598

**1. Introduction**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

modern agro-inputs (Oladele, Sakagomi and Kazunobu 2006).

[55] ZalewskiRI. , Skawi\_ska E. Food safety: commodity science point of view. Paper pre‐ sentation at the International Association of Agricultural Economists Conference, August 12-18, Gold Coast, Australia; 2006

### **Organic agricultural practices among small holder farmers in South Western Nigeria**

Sijuwade Adebayo and Idowu O Oladele

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57598

#### **1. Introduction**

[54] Organic Trade Association. OTA. Manufacturer Survey. www. ota. com(accessed 10

[55] ZalewskiRI. , Skawi\_ska E. Food safety: commodity science point of view. Paper pre‐ sentation at the International Association of Agricultural Economists Conference,

October 2011).

50 Organic Agriculture Towards Sustainability

August 12-18, Gold Coast, Australia; 2006

Organic agriculture and biotechnology are two key innovations that are considered to have beneficial impacts on the future sustainability of agriculture (Wheeler, 2005). Conventional farming has played an important role in improving food and fibre productivity to meet human demands but has been largely dependent on intensive inputs of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides (Tu, Louws, Creamer, Mueller, Brownie, Fager, Bell and Shuijin, 2006). Moreover, the conventional intensive agricultural systems have side–effects which compromise food production in terms of quality and safety. Therefore, problems arising from conventional practices have led to the development and promotion of organic farming system that account of the environment and public health as main concerns (Melero, Ruiz Porras, Herencia and Madejon, 2005). Besides, traditional subsistence smallholding farming can no longer meet the needs and expectation of ever-increasing population of Nigeria (Adomi, Monday-Ogbomo and Inoni, 2003). Increasing agricultural productivity, self-sufficiency and poverty alleviation depend on the acceptance and full utilization of modern inputs, as long been recognized and policy formulation and implementation have been done (Aina 2007). The-Research-Extension-Farmers-Linkage-System (REFILS) has been able to ensure some awareness about the use of modern agro-inputs (Oladele, Sakagomi and Kazunobu 2006).

Organic farming represents a deliberate attempt to make the best use of local natural resources and is an environmental friendly system of farming. It relies much on ecosystem management which excludes external input, especially the synthetic ones. Ander son, Jolly and Green (2005) stated that organic farming is a production system that excludes the use of synthetically manufactured fertilizer, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. The system relies on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil

© 2014 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests. According to Agbamu (2002), organic farming technology is frequently regarded as the solution to environmental problems that are related to agriculture as well as food safety. Furthermore, Conor (2004) pointed out that organic farming developed as a response to what was perceived to be polluting food supply by modern farming methods and the ensuing degradation of the environment with chemical and other by-products of the industry.

much targeted solutions common in conventional agriculture (Watson et al., 2002). The practice of organic agriculture has been associated with returns on investment because it offers farmers a much more secure income than when they rely on only one or two inputs (Osborne, 2009; Mcguirk, 1990). Besides, organic farm precludes purchases of organic inputs, loans and thus the profit margin made by farmers increases and farmers are better off financially (Sanchez

Organic agricultural practices among small holder farmers in South Western Nigeria

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57598

53

Unlike organic agriculture, which emphasizes effective soil management and biodiversity, conventional agriculture (also referred to as intensive agriculture) relies on farming a single crop year after year. To overcome the imbalance imposed upon a conventional farm's ecosys‐ tem, harmful agents, such as pesticides and synthetic nitrogen fertilizers are used. Unfortu‐ nately, conventional agricultural practices exacerbate rather than alleviate the effects of climate change. The consequence of conventional farming's ecological imbalance is a decline in soil organic matter, soil structure, fertility, microbial and faunal biodiversity. Combine these impacts with the nutrient overload that ultimately ends up in waterways, deforestation, and overgrazing that occurs due to changes in land use, and it's not difficult to see why many are now stating that conventional agriculture represents an unsustainable long-term option.

The description of organic agriculture in the preceding section has led to the generation of research output recommended by Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems (AKIS) in order to enhance organic agriculture and make it more sustainable and profitable. The information generated on organic agriculture by various AKIS has created the need for vegetable farmers to fill the information needs and bridge the gap in their production activities. The way in which information is sought is information seeking behaviour. The study attempts to analyse the information seeking behaviour and adoption of organic farming practices

Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhan‐ ces agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accom‐ plished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system (FAO, 1999). The FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius guidelines defined organic agriculture as "a holistic produc‐ tion management [whose] primary goal is to optimize the health and productivity of interde‐

Similarly, the International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements, with over 750 member organizations in 108 countries, defined it as "a whole system approach based upon sustainable ecosystems, safe food, good nutrition, animal welfare and social justice. Organic production therefore is more than a system of production that includes or excludes certain inputs (IFOAM, 2006; IFOAM, 2002). The aim of organic farming is to create integrated,

and Swaiminathan, 2005; Mei, Jewison and Greene, 2006).

among vegetable farmers in South Western Nigeria.

pendent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people".

**2. Organic agriculture**

Soil quality is a necessary indicator of sustainability land. The two farming systems (organic and conventional) studied at farm level in Central Italy has emphasized interesting differences on soil quality. It became obvious that organic management affects soil microbiological and chemical properties by increasing soil nutrient availability, microbial biomass and microbial activity, which represent a set of sensitive indicators of soil quality. (Marinari, Mancinelli, Campiglia, Grego, 2006). The bacterial biomass that perform soil functions and resist environ‐ mental stress occurring under organic farms scores higher than in other farming systems (Mulder, De Zwart, Van Wijnen, Schouten, Breure, 2003). Furthermore, the results confirm the positive effects of organic manures and diversified crop rotations on soil quality aspects. Rigby and Ca'ceres (2001) and Defoer (2002) reported that organic agriculture tends to conserve soil fertility and system stability better than conventional farming systems. The Food and Agri‐ culture Organization of the United Nations regards organic agriculture as an effective strategy for mitigating climate change and building robust soils that are better adapted to extreme weather conditions associated with climate changes (IFOAM, 2009; Pretty, 1999).

Organic agriculture promotes food safety and quality. The past decade has been characterized by escalating public concern towards nutrition and health and food safety issues (Crutchfield & Roberts, 2000). As a result, at present, consumers perceive relatively high risks associated with the consumption of conventionally grown produce compared with other public health hazards (Williams & Hammitt, 2000, 2001). Mitchell, Hong, Koli, Barrett, Bryant, Denison and Kaffka (2007) discovered that fruits and vegetables produced organically have increased levels of flavonoids which are reported to protect against cardiovascular disease (Hertog and Hollman, 1996) and to a lesser extent, against cancer (Knekt, Kumpulainen, Jarvinen, Rissanen, Heliovaara, Reunanen, Hakulinen and Aromaa, 2002) and other age-related diseases such as dementia (Commenges, Scotet, Renaud, Jacqmin-Gadda, Barberger-Gateau and Dartigues, 2000) whereas the levels of flavonoids did not vary significantly in conventional treatment. Furthermore, Lumpkin (2005), and Zug (2006) noted that the use of chemicals in vegetable production has been identified as a major source of health risk and a cause of extensive environmental damage.

Organic agriculture improves ecological health because farmers maintain nutrient balances in soil through locally available organic materials or recycled farm wastes (Park, Stabler and Jones, 2008; Hynes, 2009). Stolze, Piorr, Harring and Dabbert (2000) and Olsson et al (2001) concluded that nutrient balances on organic farms are often close to zero and that energy efficiency is found to be higher in organic farming than in conventional farming. It also encourages ecosystem service which sustains agricultural productivity and resilience and advocates production intensification through ecosystem management. Fertility management in organic farming relies on a long-term integrated approach rather than the more short-term much targeted solutions common in conventional agriculture (Watson et al., 2002). The practice of organic agriculture has been associated with returns on investment because it offers farmers a much more secure income than when they rely on only one or two inputs (Osborne, 2009; Mcguirk, 1990). Besides, organic farm precludes purchases of organic inputs, loans and thus the profit margin made by farmers increases and farmers are better off financially (Sanchez and Swaiminathan, 2005; Mei, Jewison and Greene, 2006).

Unlike organic agriculture, which emphasizes effective soil management and biodiversity, conventional agriculture (also referred to as intensive agriculture) relies on farming a single crop year after year. To overcome the imbalance imposed upon a conventional farm's ecosys‐ tem, harmful agents, such as pesticides and synthetic nitrogen fertilizers are used. Unfortu‐ nately, conventional agricultural practices exacerbate rather than alleviate the effects of climate change. The consequence of conventional farming's ecological imbalance is a decline in soil organic matter, soil structure, fertility, microbial and faunal biodiversity. Combine these impacts with the nutrient overload that ultimately ends up in waterways, deforestation, and overgrazing that occurs due to changes in land use, and it's not difficult to see why many are now stating that conventional agriculture represents an unsustainable long-term option.

The description of organic agriculture in the preceding section has led to the generation of research output recommended by Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems (AKIS) in order to enhance organic agriculture and make it more sustainable and profitable. The information generated on organic agriculture by various AKIS has created the need for vegetable farmers to fill the information needs and bridge the gap in their production activities. The way in which information is sought is information seeking behaviour. The study attempts to analyse the information seeking behaviour and adoption of organic farming practices among vegetable farmers in South Western Nigeria.

#### **2. Organic agriculture**

productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests. According to Agbamu (2002), organic farming technology is frequently regarded as the solution to environmental problems that are related to agriculture as well as food safety. Furthermore, Conor (2004) pointed out that organic farming developed as a response to what was perceived to be polluting food supply by modern farming methods and the ensuing degradation of the environment with chemical and other by-products of the industry.

Soil quality is a necessary indicator of sustainability land. The two farming systems (organic and conventional) studied at farm level in Central Italy has emphasized interesting differences on soil quality. It became obvious that organic management affects soil microbiological and chemical properties by increasing soil nutrient availability, microbial biomass and microbial activity, which represent a set of sensitive indicators of soil quality. (Marinari, Mancinelli, Campiglia, Grego, 2006). The bacterial biomass that perform soil functions and resist environ‐ mental stress occurring under organic farms scores higher than in other farming systems (Mulder, De Zwart, Van Wijnen, Schouten, Breure, 2003). Furthermore, the results confirm the positive effects of organic manures and diversified crop rotations on soil quality aspects. Rigby and Ca'ceres (2001) and Defoer (2002) reported that organic agriculture tends to conserve soil fertility and system stability better than conventional farming systems. The Food and Agri‐ culture Organization of the United Nations regards organic agriculture as an effective strategy for mitigating climate change and building robust soils that are better adapted to extreme

weather conditions associated with climate changes (IFOAM, 2009; Pretty, 1999).

environmental damage.

52 Organic Agriculture Towards Sustainability

Organic agriculture promotes food safety and quality. The past decade has been characterized by escalating public concern towards nutrition and health and food safety issues (Crutchfield & Roberts, 2000). As a result, at present, consumers perceive relatively high risks associated with the consumption of conventionally grown produce compared with other public health hazards (Williams & Hammitt, 2000, 2001). Mitchell, Hong, Koli, Barrett, Bryant, Denison and Kaffka (2007) discovered that fruits and vegetables produced organically have increased levels of flavonoids which are reported to protect against cardiovascular disease (Hertog and Hollman, 1996) and to a lesser extent, against cancer (Knekt, Kumpulainen, Jarvinen, Rissanen, Heliovaara, Reunanen, Hakulinen and Aromaa, 2002) and other age-related diseases such as dementia (Commenges, Scotet, Renaud, Jacqmin-Gadda, Barberger-Gateau and Dartigues, 2000) whereas the levels of flavonoids did not vary significantly in conventional treatment. Furthermore, Lumpkin (2005), and Zug (2006) noted that the use of chemicals in vegetable production has been identified as a major source of health risk and a cause of extensive

Organic agriculture improves ecological health because farmers maintain nutrient balances in soil through locally available organic materials or recycled farm wastes (Park, Stabler and Jones, 2008; Hynes, 2009). Stolze, Piorr, Harring and Dabbert (2000) and Olsson et al (2001) concluded that nutrient balances on organic farms are often close to zero and that energy efficiency is found to be higher in organic farming than in conventional farming. It also encourages ecosystem service which sustains agricultural productivity and resilience and advocates production intensification through ecosystem management. Fertility management in organic farming relies on a long-term integrated approach rather than the more short-term

Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhan‐ ces agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accom‐ plished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system (FAO, 1999). The FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius guidelines defined organic agriculture as "a holistic produc‐ tion management [whose] primary goal is to optimize the health and productivity of interde‐ pendent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people".

Similarly, the International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements, with over 750 member organizations in 108 countries, defined it as "a whole system approach based upon sustainable ecosystems, safe food, good nutrition, animal welfare and social justice. Organic production therefore is more than a system of production that includes or excludes certain inputs (IFOAM, 2006; IFOAM, 2002). The aim of organic farming is to create integrated, humane, environmentally and economically viable agriculture systems in which maximum reliance is put on local or on-farm renewable resources, and the management of ecological and biological processes. The use of external inputs, whether inorganic or organic, is reduced as far as possible.

methods that are currently contributing to global warming (IFOAM, 2008; Swift et al, 2004). There are a number of factors indicating that organic agriculture is far more future proof than conventional agriculture. These include ecosystem services (Pimentel et al, 2005 and Stolze et al, 2000); Ecological health (Backer et al, 2009, D'Agostino and Sovacool, 2011); Soil fertility and system stability (Reddy, 2010, Mader et al, 2002); mitigating climate change (FiBL, 2007, Lee, 2005); food safety and quality (Gallagher et al, 2005, Makatouni, 2002; Magnusson et al, 2001 and Torjusen et al, 2001); return on investment and poverty alleviation (Rigby and Caceres, 2001); consumer preferences (Willer and Youssefi, 2007, Chen, 2007 and Mondelaers et al, 2009); value addition (Ohmart, 2003, Mitchell et al, 2007); market niche (Alroe and Noe,

Organic agricultural practices among small holder farmers in South Western Nigeria

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57598

55

The area of study is southwestern Nigeria which comprises of six states namely: Oyo, Osun, Ogun, Ondo, Ekiti and Lagos States. Southwest is situated mainly in the Tropical Rainforest Zone, though with swamp forest in the coastal regions in Lagos, Ogun, Ondo and Delta States. The agricultural sector forms the base of the overall development thrust of the zone. The zone covers an area ranging from swamp forest to western up lands, in between are rain forest and the northern parts of Oyo and Ogun states having derived Guinea savannah vegetation. The areas lie between latitude 5 degrees and 9 degrees North and longitude 2 degrees and 8 degrees East. It is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean in the south, Kwara and Kogi states in the north, Eastern Nigeria in the east and Republic of Benin in the west. It has a land area of about 114,271km square representing 12% of the country's total land areas. The high concentration

The research design of the study is descriptive and quantitative which is defined by Bless and Higson-Smith (2000), as a study concerned with the condition that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and attitudes that are held, processes that are on-going and trends that are developing. The study profile organic farming practices in southwestern Nigeria. The population of the study is the entire population of vegetable farmers in the South Western Nigeria. Cluster sampling technique was adopted for selecting the required sample of urban vegetable producers. From literature and preliminary surveys, vegetable production in urban areas that is market oriented is mostly carried out along perennial sources of water or lowlands. This constrains farmers to clusters around these sources of water. Therefore, cluster sampling is considered appropriate. The sampling technique involves random selection of three states in the southwestern Nigeria which were Oyo, Ogun and Ondo. Three local government areas in the urban were selected from each state to give a total number of nine local government areas used for the study. The choice of these Local government areas is based on the dominance of vegetable producers in the different areas. The three local government areas chosen in Oyo state were Akinyele, Egbeda and Ogbomoso south. The three local government areas chosen in Ogun state were Odeda, Obafemi Owode and Abeokuta north. The three local government areas selected in Ondo state were Akure south, Akure north and Ifedore. A cluster of vegetable producers was selected from each of the local government areas to give total of nine clusters.

2008) and indigenous knowledge (Tengo and Belfrage, 2004, IFOAM, 2003).

of agricultural activities justifies the choice of the study area (NARP, 1996).

**3. Methodology**

Certified organic food and fiber products are those that have been produced according to documented standards. They are foods that are guaranteed to have been produced and processed in a manner that avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, genetically modified organisms and irradiation, and which strives to enhance natural biolog‐ ical cycles and to meet minimum animal welfare standards.

"Certified organic agriculture" is defined as a certified system of agricultural production that seeks to promote and enhance ecosystem health while minimizing adverse effects on natural resources. It is seen not just as a modification of existing conventional practices, but as a restructuring of whole farm systems. However, "organic agriculture" is not limited to certified organic farms and products but can include all productive agricultural systems that use sustainable, natural processes, rather than external inputs, to enhance agricultural productiv‐ ity (Scialabba and Hattam, 2002).

Organic farmers adopt practices to conserve resources, enhance biodiversity, and maintain the ecosystem for sustainable production and can lead to increased food production, in many cases we have seen a doubling of yields, which makes an important contribution to increasing the food security of a region (Park et al, 2008). Therefore, Non-certified organic agriculture' is defined as local, often traditional agriculture that is managed more or less in accordance with the principles of organic agriculture, but is not based on certification, trade and premium prices and it promises an alternative development path in rural areas of low-income countries (Halberg et al., 2006).

The principles of organic agriculture according to IFOAM are principle of Health-Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one indivisible; principle of ecology-organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them; principle of Fairness-Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities and principle of care-organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect health and the wellbeing of current and future generations and the environment. Literature suggest that the farm, farmer and institutional factors drive farmers to adopt new technologies (De Francesco, Gatto, Runge and Tretini, 2008; Rehman, Mckemey,Yates, Cooke, Garforth, Tranter, Park and Dorward, 2007; Hattam, 2006). Factors such as the financial and social-economic impacts of new technologies, effects of new technologies on the risk of the farm, available resources and technology transfer programme also have an effect on the decision of the farmer to adopt new technologies.

Organic agriculture is fast emerging as the only sustainable long-term approach to food production. Its emphasis on recycling techniques, biodiversity, low external input and high level output strategies make it an ideal replacement for the petroleum intensive agricultural methods that are currently contributing to global warming (IFOAM, 2008; Swift et al, 2004). There are a number of factors indicating that organic agriculture is far more future proof than conventional agriculture. These include ecosystem services (Pimentel et al, 2005 and Stolze et al, 2000); Ecological health (Backer et al, 2009, D'Agostino and Sovacool, 2011); Soil fertility and system stability (Reddy, 2010, Mader et al, 2002); mitigating climate change (FiBL, 2007, Lee, 2005); food safety and quality (Gallagher et al, 2005, Makatouni, 2002; Magnusson et al, 2001 and Torjusen et al, 2001); return on investment and poverty alleviation (Rigby and Caceres, 2001); consumer preferences (Willer and Youssefi, 2007, Chen, 2007 and Mondelaers et al, 2009); value addition (Ohmart, 2003, Mitchell et al, 2007); market niche (Alroe and Noe, 2008) and indigenous knowledge (Tengo and Belfrage, 2004, IFOAM, 2003).

#### **3. Methodology**

humane, environmentally and economically viable agriculture systems in which maximum reliance is put on local or on-farm renewable resources, and the management of ecological and biological processes. The use of external inputs, whether inorganic or organic, is reduced as

Certified organic food and fiber products are those that have been produced according to documented standards. They are foods that are guaranteed to have been produced and processed in a manner that avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, genetically modified organisms and irradiation, and which strives to enhance natural biolog‐

"Certified organic agriculture" is defined as a certified system of agricultural production that seeks to promote and enhance ecosystem health while minimizing adverse effects on natural resources. It is seen not just as a modification of existing conventional practices, but as a restructuring of whole farm systems. However, "organic agriculture" is not limited to certified organic farms and products but can include all productive agricultural systems that use sustainable, natural processes, rather than external inputs, to enhance agricultural productiv‐

Organic farmers adopt practices to conserve resources, enhance biodiversity, and maintain the ecosystem for sustainable production and can lead to increased food production, in many cases we have seen a doubling of yields, which makes an important contribution to increasing the food security of a region (Park et al, 2008). Therefore, Non-certified organic agriculture' is defined as local, often traditional agriculture that is managed more or less in accordance with the principles of organic agriculture, but is not based on certification, trade and premium prices and it promises an alternative development path in rural areas of low-income countries

The principles of organic agriculture according to IFOAM are principle of Health-Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one indivisible; principle of ecology-organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them; principle of Fairness-Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities and principle of care-organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect health and the wellbeing of current and future generations and the environment. Literature suggest that the farm, farmer and institutional factors drive farmers to adopt new technologies (De Francesco, Gatto, Runge and Tretini, 2008; Rehman, Mckemey,Yates, Cooke, Garforth, Tranter, Park and Dorward, 2007; Hattam, 2006). Factors such as the financial and social-economic impacts of new technologies, effects of new technologies on the risk of the farm, available resources and technology transfer programme also have an effect on the decision of the farmer to adopt new

Organic agriculture is fast emerging as the only sustainable long-term approach to food production. Its emphasis on recycling techniques, biodiversity, low external input and high level output strategies make it an ideal replacement for the petroleum intensive agricultural

ical cycles and to meet minimum animal welfare standards.

far as possible.

54 Organic Agriculture Towards Sustainability

ity (Scialabba and Hattam, 2002).

(Halberg et al., 2006).

technologies.

The area of study is southwestern Nigeria which comprises of six states namely: Oyo, Osun, Ogun, Ondo, Ekiti and Lagos States. Southwest is situated mainly in the Tropical Rainforest Zone, though with swamp forest in the coastal regions in Lagos, Ogun, Ondo and Delta States. The agricultural sector forms the base of the overall development thrust of the zone. The zone covers an area ranging from swamp forest to western up lands, in between are rain forest and the northern parts of Oyo and Ogun states having derived Guinea savannah vegetation. The areas lie between latitude 5 degrees and 9 degrees North and longitude 2 degrees and 8 degrees East. It is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean in the south, Kwara and Kogi states in the north, Eastern Nigeria in the east and Republic of Benin in the west. It has a land area of about 114,271km square representing 12% of the country's total land areas. The high concentration of agricultural activities justifies the choice of the study area (NARP, 1996).

The research design of the study is descriptive and quantitative which is defined by Bless and Higson-Smith (2000), as a study concerned with the condition that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and attitudes that are held, processes that are on-going and trends that are developing. The study profile organic farming practices in southwestern Nigeria. The population of the study is the entire population of vegetable farmers in the South Western Nigeria. Cluster sampling technique was adopted for selecting the required sample of urban vegetable producers. From literature and preliminary surveys, vegetable production in urban areas that is market oriented is mostly carried out along perennial sources of water or lowlands. This constrains farmers to clusters around these sources of water. Therefore, cluster sampling is considered appropriate. The sampling technique involves random selection of three states in the southwestern Nigeria which were Oyo, Ogun and Ondo. Three local government areas in the urban were selected from each state to give a total number of nine local government areas used for the study. The choice of these Local government areas is based on the dominance of vegetable producers in the different areas. The three local government areas chosen in Oyo state were Akinyele, Egbeda and Ogbomoso south. The three local government areas chosen in Ogun state were Odeda, Obafemi Owode and Abeokuta north. The three local government areas selected in Ondo state were Akure south, Akure north and Ifedore. A cluster of vegetable producers was selected from each of the local government areas to give total of nine clusters. Fifty producers were randomly selected from each of the nine clusters to give a total sample size of four hundred and fifty respondents for the study.

to fallow and regain its lost nutrients. Crop rotation is another measure that is used by the farmers for this purpose. In this case, the farm land is not abandoned but crops that are cultivated on the farm are planted in sequence in order to maintain the soil fertility. Crop rotation is a practice that is as old as farming practice itself. Subba Rao (1999) and Stockdale, et al (2000) observed that crop rotations and varieties are selected to suit local conditions having the potential to sufficiently balance the nitrogen demand of crops. Furthermore, Bending and Lincoln, (1999) in their work among the US farmers noted that organic growers commonly plant rapeseed, mustard, and other brassicas as rotation crops to 'clean up' soil during the winter months. Besides, Crop rotations comprising both grass-clover fields and arable crops have shown to be relatively robust in relation to most problems with weeds, pests and diseases

Organic agricultural practices among small holder farmers in South Western Nigeria

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57

Mulching ranks highly as a cost-effective means of crop residue usage against soil erosion in annual row-cropping systems on sloping lands; and is at the centre of a resurgent soil conser‐ vation ethic in much of North America (Shelton et al., 1995). However, it is not commonly used among the vegetable farmers who reported that mulching is predominantly used by yam producers. The findings of Junge et al, (2009) showed that mulching and cover cropping were mostly regarded as not labour-intensive, highly cost-effective, compatible and easy and cheap to adopt. The farmers had a positive impression of the effectiveness as erosion control measures and also mentioned additional advantages, such as the increased soil fertility from the decomposition of organic material and the release of nutrients however disadvantage of mulching was seen in the amount of grass required, the main material used as mulch in the

Other organic agricultural practices used by farmers include practices. Farm sanitation (1.69, SD=0.8), intercropping (1.66, SD=0.2), green manure (1.60, SD=0.9) and cover crop (1.55, SD=0.8). Farm Sanitation is keeping the field clean which help in preventing the growth and multiplication of weed, pest and diseases. The reason may be because farmers are also aware of those things that can prevent them from having good yield or output. Farmers go to farm everyday even after the planting period to weed at interval, remove any form of crop residue or decay of dead animal on their farm that can attract pests and diseases to the crop planted and can cause pollution in the environment. Farmers are aware that if weed are left to grow on their plot, it will compete with the crop planted for the available nutrients and will reduce their yield during harvest. Besides, some weeds affect the crop leaving a residual effect on the crop which can affect the taste or the appearance of the crop. Whenever this happened, the farmer will run at a loss because such crop will not attract buyers and may have to be sold at

Baumann et al., (2000) showed that intercropping as a cultural method can be used to suppress weeds and reduces pest population because of the diversity of crops grown. According to Sullivan (2003), if susceptible plants are separated by non-host plants that can act as a physical barrier to the pest, the susceptible plant will suffer less damage. Furthermore, intercropping reduced the nitrate content in the soil profile as intercropping uses soil nutrients more

efficiently than sole cropping (Zhang and Long Li, 2003).

Data for this study was generated from primary sources based on the objective of the study. Interview schedule was used to elicit information from the respondents. The questionnaire consisted of 14 organic farming practices in southwestern Nigeria from which the respondents indicated use and non-use. These practices are crop rotation, application of compost, mulching of crops, inter cropping, mixed cropping, crop residues, cover crop, animal manure, organic fertilizer, bio control, natural insect predator. A split half technique was used to determine the reliability coefficient with a reliability coefficient of 0.85. The questionnaire was face validated by panel of experts on agricultural extension, agronomist and organic agricultural researcher. The panel consisted of lecturers in agricultural extension and Agronomy. The study took into account the ethical consideration which was addressed through, voluntary participation. Data were analyzed with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 18.0 using means and standard deviation.

#### **4. Results and discussions**

Table 1 shows a list of 14 organic agriculture practices from which the respondents were asked to indicate their use or otherwise using a 2 ponit scale of Yes (2) and No(1). The actual mean is 1.5 due to the rating scale and a mean of greater than 1.5 denoted a use while a mean less than 1.5 denoted non-use. The mean scores of 11 out of 14 practices were above the actual mean which implies the use of these organic agriculture practices. These technologies are: minimum tillage, crop rotation, sanitation, intercropping, green manure, cover crop, fire, compositing, organic fertilizer, animal manure, and mulching. The results revealed the most prominent organic agriculture practices were minimum tillage (1.81, SD=0.9); crop rotation (1.80, SD=0.7) and mulching (1.79, SD=0.6). With respect to the use of minimum tillage, it is the practice that minimises the disturbance of the soil. The soil is not tilled intensively thereby improving the soil structure. It is a cultivation operation whereby soil is disturbed as little as possible to produce crop. Mulch residue from the previous crop is left on the soil surface which aids in retarding weed growth, conserving moisture, and controlling erosion. Therefore, the practice of minimum tillage is a common operation among the farmers that is usually carried out in order to prepare the soil before planting exercise. Baldwin (2006) noted that many organic farmers typically manage weeds mechanically and, therefore, cannot focus on building soil structure in the same way as conservational tillage practitioners which often relies on herbi‐ cides for weed control. Instead, organic farmers use innovative practices such as crop rotations, green manuring, and biological pest control to improve the soil structure and conserve soil organic carbon.

Crop rotation as one of the practices can be attributed to the use of indigenous knowledge, where farmers' belief that soil needs rest and some measure should be put in place to ensure soil maintenance and fertility. One of such measures is bush fallowing whereby a farmland that have been cultivated for some number of years is left uncultivated for few years in order to fallow and regain its lost nutrients. Crop rotation is another measure that is used by the farmers for this purpose. In this case, the farm land is not abandoned but crops that are cultivated on the farm are planted in sequence in order to maintain the soil fertility. Crop rotation is a practice that is as old as farming practice itself. Subba Rao (1999) and Stockdale, et al (2000) observed that crop rotations and varieties are selected to suit local conditions having the potential to sufficiently balance the nitrogen demand of crops. Furthermore, Bending and Lincoln, (1999) in their work among the US farmers noted that organic growers commonly plant rapeseed, mustard, and other brassicas as rotation crops to 'clean up' soil during the winter months. Besides, Crop rotations comprising both grass-clover fields and arable crops have shown to be relatively robust in relation to most problems with weeds, pests and diseases (Dubois et al, 1999).

Fifty producers were randomly selected from each of the nine clusters to give a total sample

Data for this study was generated from primary sources based on the objective of the study. Interview schedule was used to elicit information from the respondents. The questionnaire consisted of 14 organic farming practices in southwestern Nigeria from which the respondents indicated use and non-use. These practices are crop rotation, application of compost, mulching of crops, inter cropping, mixed cropping, crop residues, cover crop, animal manure, organic fertilizer, bio control, natural insect predator. A split half technique was used to determine the reliability coefficient with a reliability coefficient of 0.85. The questionnaire was face validated by panel of experts on agricultural extension, agronomist and organic agricultural researcher. The panel consisted of lecturers in agricultural extension and Agronomy. The study took into account the ethical consideration which was addressed through, voluntary participation. Data were analyzed with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 18.0 using means and

Table 1 shows a list of 14 organic agriculture practices from which the respondents were asked to indicate their use or otherwise using a 2 ponit scale of Yes (2) and No(1). The actual mean is 1.5 due to the rating scale and a mean of greater than 1.5 denoted a use while a mean less than 1.5 denoted non-use. The mean scores of 11 out of 14 practices were above the actual mean which implies the use of these organic agriculture practices. These technologies are: minimum tillage, crop rotation, sanitation, intercropping, green manure, cover crop, fire, compositing, organic fertilizer, animal manure, and mulching. The results revealed the most prominent organic agriculture practices were minimum tillage (1.81, SD=0.9); crop rotation (1.80, SD=0.7) and mulching (1.79, SD=0.6). With respect to the use of minimum tillage, it is the practice that minimises the disturbance of the soil. The soil is not tilled intensively thereby improving the soil structure. It is a cultivation operation whereby soil is disturbed as little as possible to produce crop. Mulch residue from the previous crop is left on the soil surface which aids in retarding weed growth, conserving moisture, and controlling erosion. Therefore, the practice of minimum tillage is a common operation among the farmers that is usually carried out in order to prepare the soil before planting exercise. Baldwin (2006) noted that many organic farmers typically manage weeds mechanically and, therefore, cannot focus on building soil structure in the same way as conservational tillage practitioners which often relies on herbi‐ cides for weed control. Instead, organic farmers use innovative practices such as crop rotations, green manuring, and biological pest control to improve the soil structure and conserve soil

Crop rotation as one of the practices can be attributed to the use of indigenous knowledge, where farmers' belief that soil needs rest and some measure should be put in place to ensure soil maintenance and fertility. One of such measures is bush fallowing whereby a farmland that have been cultivated for some number of years is left uncultivated for few years in order

size of four hundred and fifty respondents for the study.

standard deviation.

organic carbon.

**4. Results and discussions**

56 Organic Agriculture Towards Sustainability

Mulching ranks highly as a cost-effective means of crop residue usage against soil erosion in annual row-cropping systems on sloping lands; and is at the centre of a resurgent soil conser‐ vation ethic in much of North America (Shelton et al., 1995). However, it is not commonly used among the vegetable farmers who reported that mulching is predominantly used by yam producers. The findings of Junge et al, (2009) showed that mulching and cover cropping were mostly regarded as not labour-intensive, highly cost-effective, compatible and easy and cheap to adopt. The farmers had a positive impression of the effectiveness as erosion control measures and also mentioned additional advantages, such as the increased soil fertility from the decomposition of organic material and the release of nutrients however disadvantage of mulching was seen in the amount of grass required, the main material used as mulch in the area.

Other organic agricultural practices used by farmers include practices. Farm sanitation (1.69, SD=0.8), intercropping (1.66, SD=0.2), green manure (1.60, SD=0.9) and cover crop (1.55, SD=0.8). Farm Sanitation is keeping the field clean which help in preventing the growth and multiplication of weed, pest and diseases. The reason may be because farmers are also aware of those things that can prevent them from having good yield or output. Farmers go to farm everyday even after the planting period to weed at interval, remove any form of crop residue or decay of dead animal on their farm that can attract pests and diseases to the crop planted and can cause pollution in the environment. Farmers are aware that if weed are left to grow on their plot, it will compete with the crop planted for the available nutrients and will reduce their yield during harvest. Besides, some weeds affect the crop leaving a residual effect on the crop which can affect the taste or the appearance of the crop. Whenever this happened, the farmer will run at a loss because such crop will not attract buyers and may have to be sold at a ridiculous price.

Baumann et al., (2000) showed that intercropping as a cultural method can be used to suppress weeds and reduces pest population because of the diversity of crops grown. According to Sullivan (2003), if susceptible plants are separated by non-host plants that can act as a physical barrier to the pest, the susceptible plant will suffer less damage. Furthermore, intercropping reduced the nitrate content in the soil profile as intercropping uses soil nutrients more efficiently than sole cropping (Zhang and Long Li, 2003).

the organic foods production act of 1990. Flame weeding delays the presence of weeds in crop beds by killing the weeds present before the crop has breached the soil. This can significantly reduce hand-weeding labor costs. Farmers see the use of fire as an easy and faster method of clearing the weeds, trees and bushes particularly at the on-set of planting season when the land is prepared. Besides, some farmers believe that when the land is prepared with fire, the ash of the weeds, trees or residues that were burnt will make the soil to be fertile. Farmers see the use of fire for clearing as cost-effective compared to the use of hired labour. Anon (1999) reported that in Iowa, farmer feedback on flame weeding has been positive however burning as labour-saving tool to clear land and to prevent weed infestation is now being brought into question and many development agencies now advocate no-burning. In the communities, however, it is less a question of burning or no-burning but rather when, where, and how to reduce its negative impact (Aalangdong et al., 1999). Some northern farmers have made a conscious decision to cease bush burning with the aim of regenerating organic material (Millar et al 1996). Singh (2003) noted that organic farmers in India reported the capacity of manure (compost) to fulfil nutrient demand of crops adequately and promote the activity of beneficial macro-and micro-flora in the soil. Also, Ouédraogo et al (2001) showed that farmer was aware of the role of compost in sustaining yield and improving soil quality. However, lack of equipment and adequate organic material for making compost, land tenure and the intensive labour required for making compost are major constraints for the adoption of compost technology. Olayide et al (2011) assessing farm-level limitations and potentials for organic agriculture in northern Nigeria, discovered that the current levels of organic fertilizer use as share of the minimum requirements for take-off for organic agriculture in Nigeria was low

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Vanlauwe, (2004) noted that livestock manure is important in maintaining soil organic matter levels, a critical factor in soil health. Additionally, Omiti et al, (1999) noted that animal manure compost is the most common source of soil amendment in organic agriculture in Nigeria and indeed Africa. Farmers are fully aware of the fertilizing value of animal manure as well as the differences, for example, in nutrient release between the manures as also reported by Dittoh (1999) and Karbo et al. (1999). However, Mafongoya et al (2006) reported that in Africa, though, animal manure is one of the mostly used organic inputs, but as the need for increased agri‐ cultural production rises; it has been found to be limited in quality and quantity. Williams

However the use of natural pesticides (0.36, SD=0.6), farm scaping (0.16, SD=0.6) and Bio control (0.13, SD=0.3) were below the actual mean which indicate non-use by the farmers. This may be because these practices do not fit in to the farming system in the study areas. It can also be attributed to the technicality of the use of these practices usch that the application of the practices and the associated legislation and the process of securing permission for the use

(1999) reported similar result among farmers in semi-arid West Africa.

despite its potentials.

of these practices.

**Table 1.** Distribution of the respondents by use of organic agricultural practices

Katyal (2000) reported the application of organic manure as the only option to improve the soil organic carbon for sustenance of soil quality and future agricultural productivity. Wam‐ bani et al. (2006) compared the effect of farmyard manure application with recommended rate of inorganic fertilizer and it was discovered that the recommended rate of organic manure was the most profitable and preferred by the farmers because of their low cost, availability of organic manure and longer persistence of kales under these treatments.

Cremer et al; (1996) showed that cover crop residues interfere with the emergence of weed through the allelopathic effect. In addition, Langdale et al. (1991) concluded that cover crops reduced soil erosion by 62 per cent based on a comparison of bare soil and soil planted with a cover crop in the south eastern United States. Results presented for the use of Tithonia and legume cover crops shows increase grain yields significantly in Eastern Uganda (Delve and Jama, 2002). Moreover, Cover crops can improve soil quality (Dabney et al. 2001), and when planted at the beginning of the transition phase, may provide essential soil-building properties and improve weed suppression (Barberi 2002; Martini et al. 2004); however, soil quality effects and ability of cover crops to suppress weed species varies among cover crop species (Melander et al, 2005; Snapp et al, 2005).

The results further shows that the use of organic agricultural practice covered fire (1.53, SD=0.6), composting (1.60, SD=0.4), organic fertilizer (1.68, SD=0.9) and animal manure (1.71, SD=0.3). Wilson (2007) found that flame weeding also called flame cultivation or flaming, is a thermal physical control method that is part of the National Organic Program (NOP) under the organic foods production act of 1990. Flame weeding delays the presence of weeds in crop beds by killing the weeds present before the crop has breached the soil. This can significantly reduce hand-weeding labor costs. Farmers see the use of fire as an easy and faster method of clearing the weeds, trees and bushes particularly at the on-set of planting season when the land is prepared. Besides, some farmers believe that when the land is prepared with fire, the ash of the weeds, trees or residues that were burnt will make the soil to be fertile. Farmers see the use of fire for clearing as cost-effective compared to the use of hired labour. Anon (1999) reported that in Iowa, farmer feedback on flame weeding has been positive however burning as labour-saving tool to clear land and to prevent weed infestation is now being brought into question and many development agencies now advocate no-burning. In the communities, however, it is less a question of burning or no-burning but rather when, where, and how to reduce its negative impact (Aalangdong et al., 1999). Some northern farmers have made a conscious decision to cease bush burning with the aim of regenerating organic material (Millar et al 1996). Singh (2003) noted that organic farmers in India reported the capacity of manure (compost) to fulfil nutrient demand of crops adequately and promote the activity of beneficial macro-and micro-flora in the soil. Also, Ouédraogo et al (2001) showed that farmer was aware of the role of compost in sustaining yield and improving soil quality. However, lack of equipment and adequate organic material for making compost, land tenure and the intensive labour required for making compost are major constraints for the adoption of compost technology. Olayide et al (2011) assessing farm-level limitations and potentials for organic agriculture in northern Nigeria, discovered that the current levels of organic fertilizer use as share of the minimum requirements for take-off for organic agriculture in Nigeria was low despite its potentials.

Vanlauwe, (2004) noted that livestock manure is important in maintaining soil organic matter levels, a critical factor in soil health. Additionally, Omiti et al, (1999) noted that animal manure compost is the most common source of soil amendment in organic agriculture in Nigeria and indeed Africa. Farmers are fully aware of the fertilizing value of animal manure as well as the differences, for example, in nutrient release between the manures as also reported by Dittoh (1999) and Karbo et al. (1999). However, Mafongoya et al (2006) reported that in Africa, though, animal manure is one of the mostly used organic inputs, but as the need for increased agri‐ cultural production rises; it has been found to be limited in quality and quantity. Williams (1999) reported similar result among farmers in semi-arid West Africa.

Katyal (2000) reported the application of organic manure as the only option to improve the soil organic carbon for sustenance of soil quality and future agricultural productivity. Wam‐ bani et al. (2006) compared the effect of farmyard manure application with recommended rate of inorganic fertilizer and it was discovered that the recommended rate of organic manure was the most profitable and preferred by the farmers because of their low cost, availability of

**Organic agriculture practices Mean SD** Minimum tillage 1.81 0.9 Crop rotation 1.80 0.7 Farm Sanitation 1.69 0.8 Intercropping 1.66 0.2 Green manure 1.60 0.9 Cover crop 1.55 0.8 Fire 1.53 0.6 Composting 1.60 0.4 Organic fertilizer 1.68 0.9 Animal manure 1.71 0.3 Mulching 1.79 0.6 Natural pesticides 0.36 0.6 Farm scaping 0.16 0.6 Bio control 0.13 0.3

Cremer et al; (1996) showed that cover crop residues interfere with the emergence of weed through the allelopathic effect. In addition, Langdale et al. (1991) concluded that cover crops reduced soil erosion by 62 per cent based on a comparison of bare soil and soil planted with a cover crop in the south eastern United States. Results presented for the use of Tithonia and legume cover crops shows increase grain yields significantly in Eastern Uganda (Delve and Jama, 2002). Moreover, Cover crops can improve soil quality (Dabney et al. 2001), and when planted at the beginning of the transition phase, may provide essential soil-building properties and improve weed suppression (Barberi 2002; Martini et al. 2004); however, soil quality effects and ability of cover crops to suppress weed species varies among cover crop species (Melander

The results further shows that the use of organic agricultural practice covered fire (1.53, SD=0.6), composting (1.60, SD=0.4), organic fertilizer (1.68, SD=0.9) and animal manure (1.71, SD=0.3). Wilson (2007) found that flame weeding also called flame cultivation or flaming, is a thermal physical control method that is part of the National Organic Program (NOP) under

organic manure and longer persistence of kales under these treatments.

**Table 1.** Distribution of the respondents by use of organic agricultural practices

et al, 2005; Snapp et al, 2005).

58 Organic Agriculture Towards Sustainability

However the use of natural pesticides (0.36, SD=0.6), farm scaping (0.16, SD=0.6) and Bio control (0.13, SD=0.3) were below the actual mean which indicate non-use by the farmers. This may be because these practices do not fit in to the farming system in the study areas. It can also be attributed to the technicality of the use of these practices usch that the application of the practices and the associated legislation and the process of securing permission for the use of these practices.

#### **5. Conclusions**

The paper has shown the nature and trend of the use organic agricultural practices among smallholder farmers in South Western Nigeria by highlighting organic agricultural practices that are prominent and those that were less prominent as well as practices that are not in use. Due to the prevailing opportunities and benefits associated with the use of these practices, this paper recommend that farmers should increase their awareness and use of organic agricultural practices.

gistic regression analysis. A paper presented at the Western Agricultural Economics Association 2005 Annual Meeting, July 6-8, 2005, San Francisco, California. http://

Organic agricultural practices among small holder farmers in South Western Nigeria

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57598

61

ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/36319/1/sp05an01.pdf, accessed July 2011.

ment. *British Food Journal* 111 (10):1028-1061.

right issues? *Weed Response* 42:177–193.

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[13] Chen, M, F., 2007, "Consumer attitudes and purchase intentions in relation to organic foods in Taiwan: moderating effects of food-related personality traits", *Food Quality*

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and a growers association West Cork, waterfall, Beara. 2(14)

#### **Author details**

Sijuwade Adebayo and Idowu O Oladele\*

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, North West University Mafikeng Campus, South Africa

#### **References**

gistic regression analysis. A paper presented at the Western Agricultural Economics Association 2005 Annual Meeting, July 6-8, 2005, San Francisco, California. http:// ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/36319/1/sp05an01.pdf, accessed July 2011.

**5. Conclusions**

60 Organic Agriculture Towards Sustainability

**Author details**

Campus, South Africa

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Sijuwade Adebayo and Idowu O Oladele\*

*brary Review* 52(8):388-93.

(1/2), 2008

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
practices.

The paper has shown the nature and trend of the use organic agricultural practices among smallholder farmers in South Western Nigeria by highlighting organic agricultural practices that are prominent and those that were less prominent as well as practices that are not in use. Due to the prevailing opportunities and benefits associated with the use of these practices, this paper recommend that farmers should increase their awareness and use of organic agricultural

Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, North West University Mafikeng

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**Chapter 4**

**Current Status of Advisory and Extension Services for**

Europe continent is covering more than 50 countries and the third most populous and the world's second-smallest continent by surface area of which 28 belong to the European Union (EU). The European Union reached its current size of 28 member countries with the accession of Croatia on July 1, 2013. The EU was not always as big as it is today. When European countries started to cooperate economically in 1951, only Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands participated. Since that day, more and more countries decided to join the Union. As it known the European Union was built after the Second World War by the six countries who signed the Treaty of Rome in 1957. Since its creation European agricultural policy discussions have been dominated by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has always been adapted to respond to the challenges of its time. From its start in 1962, the CAP begins to restore Europe's capacity to feed itself. In the 1980s production control measures begin. The CAP refocuses on quality, safety and affordability of food and on becoming greener, fairer and more efficient. The EU's role as the world's biggest trader in farm goods gives it additional responsibilities. A big CAP reform package in 1992 requires farmers to assume responsibility

Significant reforms have been also made in recent years, notably in 2003 and during the CAP Health check in 2008, to modernise the sector and make it more market-oriented. The Europe 2020 strategy offers a new perspective. In this context, through its response to the new economic, social, environmental, climate related and technological challenges facing our society, the CAP can contribute more to developing intelligent, sustainable and inclusive growth. The CAP must also take greater account of the wealth and diversity of agriculture in the EU Member States. As a result it is adapted to meet the challenges ahead by being more efficient and contributing to a more competitive and sustainable EU agriculture. EU agriculture

> © 2014 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Organic Agriculture in Europe and Turkey**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

for environment protection and sustainable agriculture [13].

Orhan Özçatalbaş

**1. Introduction**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58541

### **Current Status of Advisory and Extension Services for Organic Agriculture in Europe and Turkey**

Orhan Özçatalbaş

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Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58541

#### **1. Introduction**

Europe continent is covering more than 50 countries and the third most populous and the world's second-smallest continent by surface area of which 28 belong to the European Union (EU). The European Union reached its current size of 28 member countries with the accession of Croatia on July 1, 2013. The EU was not always as big as it is today. When European countries started to cooperate economically in 1951, only Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands participated. Since that day, more and more countries decided to join the Union. As it known the European Union was built after the Second World War by the six countries who signed the Treaty of Rome in 1957. Since its creation European agricultural policy discussions have been dominated by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has always been adapted to respond to the challenges of its time. From its start in 1962, the CAP begins to restore Europe's capacity to feed itself. In the 1980s production control measures begin. The CAP refocuses on quality, safety and affordability of food and on becoming greener, fairer and more efficient. The EU's role as the world's biggest trader in farm goods gives it additional responsibilities. A big CAP reform package in 1992 requires farmers to assume responsibility for environment protection and sustainable agriculture [13].

Significant reforms have been also made in recent years, notably in 2003 and during the CAP Health check in 2008, to modernise the sector and make it more market-oriented. The Europe 2020 strategy offers a new perspective. In this context, through its response to the new economic, social, environmental, climate related and technological challenges facing our society, the CAP can contribute more to developing intelligent, sustainable and inclusive growth. The CAP must also take greater account of the wealth and diversity of agriculture in the EU Member States. As a result it is adapted to meet the challenges ahead by being more efficient and contributing to a more competitive and sustainable EU agriculture. EU agriculture

© 2014 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

needs to attain higher levels of production of safe and quality food, while preserving the natural resources that agricultural productivity depends upon [14]. As shown in Figure 1, in the current situation economic, environmental and territorial challenges, sustainable use of the environment, and sustainability development are among the most important objectives.

At a global level, many countries have regulatory requirements similar to those in the EU, and there are formal agreements covering trade in organic products between these countries. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) has formulated principles, sets international baseline standards, accredits national certification schemes to facilitate international trade and collaborates with the UN Food and Agriculture Organisa‐ tion (FAO) and other international organisations to harmonise International Organic

Current Status of Advisory and Extension Services for Organic Agriculture in Europe and Turkey

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69

Overall for organic farming, could be called the oldest forms of agriculture on earth. But today, this definition has become quite complex. In this context organic agriculture is a holistic production management or agricultural production system that uses matter, energy knowl‐ edge and natural life for its production and processes and for providing services. Organic agriculture is a farming system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems [15]. This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system. The production factor natural life is considered here a natural resource with particular sets of characteristics that in order to function effectively has to be respected [18]. To assess the resilience of a farming system, various elements that can build resilience are identified and the analysis shows that organic farming has a number of promising characteristics building resilience [33]. In general, the relative importance of agriculture has decreased in all European countries over last decades. However, 28 countries of the EU have significant shares in both export and demand of agricultural products in the world [8, 22]. As a result, organic agriculture is very important

Albert Howard is often referred as the father of the modern organic agriculture because first he applies the modern scientific knowledge and method to traditional agriculture. He worked as agriculture advisor from 1905-1924 in Bengal India where they documented the traditional Indian farming practices and came to regard them as superior to their conventional agriculture science. In Germany Rudoff Steiner's development was probably first comprehensive system of what we now call organic farming. Steiner emphasized the role of farmers in guiding and balancing the interaction of the animals, plant and soil. Healthy animal depend on healthy plant, health plant depends on healthy soil and health soil depends on healthy animal [24]. According to this, European organic agriculture emerged in 1924 based on the work of Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) delivered his bio-dynamic agriculture course (7-16 June 1924), at Koberwitz in Silesia. His courses, the first known to have been given on organic agriculture. After Steiner, was delivered by other persons on bio-dynamic agriculture in the 1930s and 1940s. Organic agriculture was developed in Switzerland by Hans Mueller, in Britain by Eve Balfour and

Standards [35].

**2. An overview on organic agriculture**

production system for health of human, food, soils and ecosystem.

Albert Howard and in Japan by Masanobu Fukuoka.

The above information shows that in the EU common agricultural policy are given high importance such as sustainability, conservation of natural resources, safe food and quality food production issues. For these reasons, organic agriculture is to serve the basic objectives of the CAP. In this context, the development of organic agriculture is one of the important issues. Therefore, a brief information on the subject is presented below.

Source [14]

**Figure 1.** The CAP post-2013: challenges to reform objectives

In recent years, the organic movement has increasingly become a focus of policy interest in Europe. EU countries support organic farming through agri-environmental programmes and action plans, among other instruments. These policy interventions aim at both supporting consumer choice through development of the market for organic food and encouraging the provision of public goods through support for organic land management [29]. At the EU level, organic farming as a policy domain is a recent development, and arose when the CAP became more sensitive to environmental issues. In consequence, the concept of organic farming is now increasingly shaped by actors outside the organic movement.

The EU Action Plan for Organic Food and Farming was elaborated over a period of five years from a first formulation of the idea at a European Conference in Vienna 1999 to the final communication of the Commission in 2004. Organic action plans are widely used in Europe as a means of integrating different policies that can be used to support organic food and farming.

At a global level, many countries have regulatory requirements similar to those in the EU, and there are formal agreements covering trade in organic products between these countries. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) has formulated principles, sets international baseline standards, accredits national certification schemes to facilitate international trade and collaborates with the UN Food and Agriculture Organisa‐ tion (FAO) and other international organisations to harmonise International Organic Standards [35].

#### **2. An overview on organic agriculture**

needs to attain higher levels of production of safe and quality food, while preserving the natural resources that agricultural productivity depends upon [14]. As shown in Figure 1, in the current situation economic, environmental and territorial challenges, sustainable use of the environment, and sustainability development are among the most important objectives.

The above information shows that in the EU common agricultural policy are given high importance such as sustainability, conservation of natural resources, safe food and quality food production issues. For these reasons, organic agriculture is to serve the basic objectives of the CAP. In this context, the development of organic agriculture is one of the important issues.

In recent years, the organic movement has increasingly become a focus of policy interest in Europe. EU countries support organic farming through agri-environmental programmes and action plans, among other instruments. These policy interventions aim at both supporting consumer choice through development of the market for organic food and encouraging the provision of public goods through support for organic land management [29]. At the EU level, organic farming as a policy domain is a recent development, and arose when the CAP became more sensitive to environmental issues. In consequence, the concept of organic farming is now

The EU Action Plan for Organic Food and Farming was elaborated over a period of five years from a first formulation of the idea at a European Conference in Vienna 1999 to the final communication of the Commission in 2004. Organic action plans are widely used in Europe as a means of integrating different policies that can be used to support organic food and

Therefore, a brief information on the subject is presented below.

68 Organic Agriculture Towards Sustainability

**Figure 1.** The CAP post-2013: challenges to reform objectives

increasingly shaped by actors outside the organic movement.

Source [14]

farming.

Overall for organic farming, could be called the oldest forms of agriculture on earth. But today, this definition has become quite complex. In this context organic agriculture is a holistic production management or agricultural production system that uses matter, energy knowl‐ edge and natural life for its production and processes and for providing services. Organic agriculture is a farming system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems [15]. This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system. The production factor natural life is considered here a natural resource with particular sets of characteristics that in order to function effectively has to be respected [18]. To assess the resilience of a farming system, various elements that can build resilience are identified and the analysis shows that organic farming has a number of promising characteristics building resilience [33]. In general, the relative importance of agriculture has decreased in all European countries over last decades. However, 28 countries of the EU have significant shares in both export and demand of agricultural products in the world [8, 22]. As a result, organic agriculture is very important production system for health of human, food, soils and ecosystem.

Albert Howard is often referred as the father of the modern organic agriculture because first he applies the modern scientific knowledge and method to traditional agriculture. He worked as agriculture advisor from 1905-1924 in Bengal India where they documented the traditional Indian farming practices and came to regard them as superior to their conventional agriculture science. In Germany Rudoff Steiner's development was probably first comprehensive system of what we now call organic farming. Steiner emphasized the role of farmers in guiding and balancing the interaction of the animals, plant and soil. Healthy animal depend on healthy plant, health plant depends on healthy soil and health soil depends on healthy animal [24].

According to this, European organic agriculture emerged in 1924 based on the work of Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) delivered his bio-dynamic agriculture course (7-16 June 1924), at Koberwitz in Silesia. His courses, the first known to have been given on organic agriculture. After Steiner, was delivered by other persons on bio-dynamic agriculture in the 1930s and 1940s. Organic agriculture was developed in Switzerland by Hans Mueller, in Britain by Eve Balfour and Albert Howard and in Japan by Masanobu Fukuoka.

In europe, numerous farms have started to convert to organic farming since 1960s, and development of organic agriculture has been supported by goverment subsidies. In many other countries, organic agriculture was adopted because of the growing demand for organic products in Europe, North America and Japan [54].

In Turkey, organic agriculture has been started in 1985 with the aiming for mainly export purposes. Turkish Association of Organic Agriculture Movements (ETO), a non-profit organization of organic agriculture, established in 1992 after twenty years IFOAM [1, 11]. By the Turkish Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, prepared the Regulation for plant

Current Status of Advisory and Extension Services for Organic Agriculture in Europe and Turkey

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58541

71

According to norms of EU-Regulation on organic production of agricultural products deter‐ mined on June 24th 1991 the regulation (EEC) NO. 2092/91 was published in the Official Journal of the EU and became legally binding on January 1st 1993. Until then it was only valid for organic plant products. The publishing of the regulation (EEC) No 1804/99 also included organic livestock products. The regulations on livestock products became effective on August

Advisory or extension services have been developing for organic farming in developed and developing countries. While this services have mainly provided by producer organizations and special advisory firms in EU countries it is given by buyers of organic products products

In this study, developments of organic farming in Eropean countries and European Union members and Turkey were investigated with special attention given to advisory and extension services. More specifically, advisory service providers, how these services provided and

Evidence for significant environmental amelioration via conversion to organic agriculture is very substantial, pesticides are virtually eliminated and nutrient pollution has been substan‐ tially reduced loss of biodiversity, wind and water erosion, and fossil fuel use and greenhouse warming potential are all reduced in organic agriculture relative to comparable conventional agriculture systems. As it given above the agroecological characteristics of organic agriculture are reviewed-weed, invertebrate, disease, and soil fertility management practices. Yield reductions of organic agriculture systems relative to conventional agriculture average 10-15%, however these are generally compensated for by lower input costs and higher gross margins. Large-scale conversion to organic agriculture would not result in food shortages and could be accomplished with a reduction in meat consumption. Organic agriculture systems consistently outperform conventional agriculture in drought situations, out-yielding conventional agri‐ culture by up to 100% [30]. One argument for supporting organic farming has been that it requires more labour and leads to higher rural employment. On the other hand, the high labour

Worldwide there are 1.8 million organic producers more than three quarters of the producers are located in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The countries with most producers are India (547591), Uganda (186625) and Mexico (169570). There has been 12% increase in number of producer from 2010 to 2011. Total number of producers in 2000 were 0.25 million which and

similarities and differences were investigated between EU-28 countries, and Turkey.

costs may constrain the development of the organic sector [27, 39].

and animal production based on organic production methods in 1994 [2].

24th 2000 [20].

in Turkey [39].

**3. Organic development**

Technological advances during Second World War accelerated post-war innovation in all aspects of agriculture, resulting in large advances in mechanization, fertilization, and pesti‐ cides. In 1944, an international campaign called the Green Revolution was launched in Mexico which encouraged the development of hybrid plants, chemical controls, large-scale irrigation, and heavy mechanization in agriculture around the world. During the 1950s, sustainable agriculture was a topic of scientific interest, but research tended to concentrate on developing the new chemical approaches the one of the reasons for this, was the widespread belief that high global population growth, would soon create worldwide food shortages unless human‐ kind rescue itself through agricultural technology. In 1962, Rachel Carson, a prominent scientist and naturalist, published Silent Spring, chronicling the effects of DDT and other pesticides on the environment [41]. In 1972, the International Federation of Organic Agricul‐ ture Movements (IFOAM) was founded and dedicated to spread principles and practices of organic agriculture throughout the world. In the 1980s, around the world, farming and consumer groups began seriously pressuring for government regulation of organic produc‐ tion. This led to legislation and certification standards being enacted through the 1990s and to date. Since the early 1990s, the retail market for organic farming in developed economies has been growing by about 20% annually due to increasing consumer demand.

In recent years, there has been growing trend in world trade for organic agricultural products and EU countries rank in the first place in terms of organic agricultural trade. There has been growing debate that using chemical inputs excessively following the green revolution in agricultural production raised concerns on environment and human health. For this reason, organic agriculture has developed rapidly and spread around the world [56] and organic farming is considered an alternative production sysytem. In fact, demand for organic products has increased tremendously in last a couple of decades.

IFOAM, International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements established in 1972, a non-profit organization, is a international umbrella organisation of organic agriculture organisations, and has about 778 affiliates (members, associates, and supporters) in 117 countries [26]. The mission of this organization is to lead, unit and assist the organic movement in its full diversity and its main goal is to enhance the worldwide adoption of ecologically, socially and economically sound systems based on the principles of organic agriculture [25, 26]. As it seen, organic agriculture is not a temporary fashion since bio-dynamic farming was introduced as early as in 1924. There are also other farms of organic farming with a longstanding tradition such as organic-biological or environmentally adapted farming. Organic farming is managed in harmony with nature and the agricultural holding is mainly perceived as on organism comprising humans, flora, fauna and soil [3]. However, organic agriculture, a new model for farming development, has set the goals such as minimization of environmental pollution and sustainability of farming systems [56].

In Turkey, organic agriculture has been started in 1985 with the aiming for mainly export purposes. Turkish Association of Organic Agriculture Movements (ETO), a non-profit organization of organic agriculture, established in 1992 after twenty years IFOAM [1, 11]. By the Turkish Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, prepared the Regulation for plant and animal production based on organic production methods in 1994 [2].

According to norms of EU-Regulation on organic production of agricultural products deter‐ mined on June 24th 1991 the regulation (EEC) NO. 2092/91 was published in the Official Journal of the EU and became legally binding on January 1st 1993. Until then it was only valid for organic plant products. The publishing of the regulation (EEC) No 1804/99 also included organic livestock products. The regulations on livestock products became effective on August 24th 2000 [20].

Advisory or extension services have been developing for organic farming in developed and developing countries. While this services have mainly provided by producer organizations and special advisory firms in EU countries it is given by buyers of organic products products in Turkey [39].

In this study, developments of organic farming in Eropean countries and European Union members and Turkey were investigated with special attention given to advisory and extension services. More specifically, advisory service providers, how these services provided and similarities and differences were investigated between EU-28 countries, and Turkey.

#### **3. Organic development**

In europe, numerous farms have started to convert to organic farming since 1960s, and development of organic agriculture has been supported by goverment subsidies. In many other countries, organic agriculture was adopted because of the growing demand for organic

Technological advances during Second World War accelerated post-war innovation in all aspects of agriculture, resulting in large advances in mechanization, fertilization, and pesti‐ cides. In 1944, an international campaign called the Green Revolution was launched in Mexico which encouraged the development of hybrid plants, chemical controls, large-scale irrigation, and heavy mechanization in agriculture around the world. During the 1950s, sustainable agriculture was a topic of scientific interest, but research tended to concentrate on developing the new chemical approaches the one of the reasons for this, was the widespread belief that high global population growth, would soon create worldwide food shortages unless human‐ kind rescue itself through agricultural technology. In 1962, Rachel Carson, a prominent scientist and naturalist, published Silent Spring, chronicling the effects of DDT and other pesticides on the environment [41]. In 1972, the International Federation of Organic Agricul‐ ture Movements (IFOAM) was founded and dedicated to spread principles and practices of organic agriculture throughout the world. In the 1980s, around the world, farming and consumer groups began seriously pressuring for government regulation of organic produc‐ tion. This led to legislation and certification standards being enacted through the 1990s and to date. Since the early 1990s, the retail market for organic farming in developed economies has

been growing by about 20% annually due to increasing consumer demand.

has increased tremendously in last a couple of decades.

pollution and sustainability of farming systems [56].