**Abstract**

DNA-FACE™ (DNA Fragment Amplification & Concatemeric Expressed Nucleic Acids and Proteins) is a universal biotechnological platform, developed as *Escherichia coli* (*E. coli*) system. It is based on the ordered, head-to-tail directional ligation of the amplified DNA fragments. The technology enables the construction of targeted biomolecules - genetically programmed, concatemeric DNA, RNA, and proteins, designed to fit a particular task. The constructed, "artificial" (never seen in Nature) tandem repeat macromolecules, with specialized functions, may contain up to 500 copies of monomeric units. The technology greatly exceeds the current capabilities of chemical gene synthesis. The vector-enzymatic DNA fragment amplification assembles the DNA segments, forming continuous Open Reading Frames (ORFs). The obtained ORFs are ready for high-level expression in *E. coli* without a need for subcloning. The presented method has potential applications in pharmaceutical industry and tissue engineering, including vaccines, biological drugs, drug delivery systems, mass-production of peptide-derived biomaterials, industrial and environmental processes. The technology has been patented worldwide and used successfully in the construction of anti-HBV vaccines, proregenerative biological drugs and, recently, the anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. The anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, developed using the DNA-FACE™ technology, is nontoxic and induces strong immunological response to recombinant human spike and nucleocapsid proteins, as shown in animal studies.

**Keywords:** DNA-FACE™; DNA amplification, concatemer, gene expression, amplification vector, expression vector, protein overproduction, biotechnology, HBV, SARS-CoV-2, vaccine, biological drug, tissue regeneration


**3. Metabolism of apoB-containing lipoproteins**

Dietary lipids are absorbed in the intestine and packaged into large, triglyceride-rich chylomicrons which undergo lipolysis to form chylomicron remnants. In the last step of the so-called exogenous lipoprotein pathway, these particles are finally taken up by the liver. The liver then secretes triglyceride-rich lipoproteins known as very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) representing the first step oft the endogenous lipoprotein pathway (Figure 1). Lipoprotein kinetic studies have shown that VLDLs are metabolically heterogeneous. Following lipolysis by endothelium-bound lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and hepatic lipase (HL), these particles are converted via intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL, also called VLDL remnants) to low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or taken up by the liver. LDL is catabolized mainly by the liver or peripheral tissues via the LDL receptor. Increased plasma concentrations of LDL are a major risk factor for CVD. ApoB-100 is the major apolipoprotein of chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL and LDL.

Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] consists of an LDL-like particle which is covalently bound to the glycoprotein apolipoprotein(a) [apo(a)] by disulfide linkage and derives from the liver [15] (Figure 2). Among individuals, Lp(a) plasma concentrations vary more than 1000-fold, ranging from less than 0.1 mg/dl to more than 300 mg/dl. Depending on the investigated population and the used genetic approach, it has been shown that between 30% and 90% of this variation in plasma concentrations of Lp(a) is determined by the apo(a) gene locus, encoding proteins from <300 to >800 kDa [16-18]. Apo(a) size is negatively correlated with Lp(a) concentrations, such that low-molecular-weight (LMW) apo(a) isoforms express on average high Lp(a) plasma concentrations, while high-molecular-weight (HMW) isoforms are usually associated with lower concentrations (reviewed in reference [15]). Elevated plasma concentrations of Lp(a) have been found associated with an increased risk of developing CVD in many studies which was confirmed by recent large meta-analyses [19, 20]. In vivo kinetic studies using radio-labeled Lp(a) indicated that the large differences in Lp(a) concentrations seen among individuals are determined by synthesis and not degradation [9, 21].

experimental data and, hence, will have little predictive value. Furthermore, even if the development of models is based on experimental data, several assumptions are required in order to derive the model that is to be used. Thus, mathematical models do not determine

The software SAAM (Epsilon Group, Charlottesville, VA, USA) has become the first choice for modelling lipoprotein kinetic studies. The SAAM II program was recently developed by SAAM Inst., Inc., Seattle, WA, USA, and is frequently used to analyse lipoprotein tracer data using compartmental models [13, 14]. The primary kinetic parameter resulting after modelling with SAAM II is the fractional synthesis rate (FSR) which, under steady state conditions, is identical to the fractional catabolic rate (FCR) and has the dimension of pools/day. The reciprocal value of FSR/FCR is called retention time (RT, given in days) and indicates the residence time of the investigated tracee (the target apolipoprotein in our cases) in the circulation. The product of FSR multiplied by the concentration of tracee is

Dietary lipids are absorbed in the intestine and packaged into large, triglyceride-rich chylomicrons which undergo lipolysis to form chylomicron remnants. In the last step of the so-called exogenous lipoprotein pathway, these particles are finally taken up by the liver. The liver then secretes triglyceride-rich lipoproteins known as very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) representing the first step oft the endogenous lipoprotein pathway (Figure 1). Lipoprotein kinetic studies have shown that VLDLs are metabolically heterogeneous. Following lipolysis by endothelium-bound lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and hepatic lipase (HL), these particles are converted via intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL, also called VLDL remnants) to low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or taken up by the liver. LDL is catabolized mainly by the liver or peripheral tissues via the LDL receptor. Increased plasma concentrations of LDL are a major risk factor for CVD. ApoB-100 is the major apolipoprotein

Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] consists of an LDL-like particle which is covalently bound to the glycoprotein apolipoprotein(a) [apo(a)] by disulfide linkage and derives from the liver [15] (Figure 2). Among individuals, Lp(a) plasma concentrations vary more than 1000-fold, ranging from less than 0.1 mg/dl to more than 300 mg/dl. Depending on the investigated population and the used genetic approach, it has been shown that between 30% and 90% of this variation in plasma concentrations of Lp(a) is determined by the apo(a) gene locus, encoding proteins from <300 to >800 kDa [16-18]. Apo(a) size is negatively correlated with Lp(a) concentrations, such that low-molecular-weight (LMW) apo(a) isoforms express on average high Lp(a) plasma concentrations, while high-molecular-weight (HMW) isoforms are usually associated with lower concentrations (reviewed in reference [15]). Elevated plasma concentrations of Lp(a) have been found associated with an increased risk of developing CVD in many studies which was confirmed by recent large meta-analyses [19, 20]. In vivo kinetic studies using radio-labeled Lp(a) indicated that the large differences in Lp(a) concentrations

seen among individuals are determined by synthesis and not degradation [9, 21].

the kinetics of lipids directly; rather, they derive an indirect approximation.

called production rate (PR) and is usually expressed as mg/kg body weight/day.

**3. Metabolism of apoB-containing lipoproteins**

of chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL and LDL.

**Figure 1.** Endogenous metabolic pathway of apolipoprotein B (apoB)-containing lipoproteins. Triglyceride-rich very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) are synthesized and secreted by the liver into the blood stream and their triglycerides catabolized by the endothel-bound enzyme lipoprotein lipase (LPL) resulting in intermediate-densitly lipoproteins (IDL). LPL and hepatic lipase (HL) further convert IDL to low-density lipoproteins (LDL) which are removed from the circulation by the liver and extrahepatic tissue cells via LDL-receptor (LDLR)-mediated endocytosis. Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] is synthesized and secreted by the human liver into circulation.

**Figure 2.** Structure of lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)]. Lp(a) consists of an LDL-like particle and the disulfidebridge-linked glycoprotein apolipoprotein(a) [apo(a)] which exerts high sequence homology to plasminogen. Apo(a) consists of an inactive protease domain (blue rectangle) and identical as well as non-identical repeats of kringle domains (blue circles). The number of identical kringles vary among individuals and gives rise to a genetically determined molecular size polymorphism of apo(a).

#### **3.1. Biosynthesis of Lp(a)**

Lp(a) has been the target of extensive and successful research particularly with respect to the unusually high degree of genetic control of its expression. In contrast, metabolism and physiological roles as well as pathogenicities of Lp(a) are still poorly understood, as recently reviewed by Dubé et al. [22]. The mechanisms that control Lp(a) secretion and assembly were investigated mostly by means of cellular hepatocyte model systems, yielded contrasting results and thus remain highly controversially discussed (see review [23]). Assembly of apo(a) and apoB to Lp(a) is generally viewed as a two-step procedure [24, 25]. In a first step, distinct domains within the apoB molecule initially associate with apo(a) in a non-covalent interaction to bring the two molecules into close proximity. In a second step, a disulfide bond is formed between apo(a) cysteine 4057 and apoB cysteine 4326 residues [24, 26]. Whether this disulfide bond is formed through a spontaneous oxidation reaction or through a specific enzymatic reaction is unclear [27, 28].

The location of this assembly process is the subject of controversial discussion as well. Intracellular, extracellular and/or plasma membrane-associated assembly procedures have been reported to occur in various cell systems [23]. Lp(a), like many other oligomeric protein complexes, may assemble in the endoplasmic reticulum of the hepatocyte and be secreted as a whole particle [29, 30]. Alternatively, newly synthesized apo(a) could bind extracellularly to preexisting LDL or VLDL circulating in the plasma. Most authors postulate an extracellular assembly of Lp(a) based on studies conducted in various cellular model systems. White *et al.* could not detect an intracellular apo(a)-apoB complex by adding antiapo(a) antiserum to the culture medium of primary baboon hepatocytes, but found such complexes attached to the plasma membrane. The authors therefore concluded that, in that cellular system, Lp(a) is primarily assembled after secretion and to some extent also on the plasma membrane [31]. This conclusion has to be, however, critically evaluated since baboon hepatocytes secrete most of their apoB as VLDL, which does not associate with apo(a) [32]. Similar studies in apo(a)-transfected HepG2 cells could not demonstrate an intracellular apo(a)-apoB assembly for this human hepatocyte model and thus confirmed the results from the baboon studies [24, 33, 34]. Nevertheless, there is also evidence for intracellular assembly of Lp(a) in cell culture systems. Bonen *et al.* were able to detect an intracellular apo(a)-apoB complex in HepG2 cells transfected with an apo(a) minigene [35]. HepG2 cells have been reported to secrete a triglyceride-rich lipoprotein particle with an LDL density that does not exist at all in human plasma [36]. Taken together, the extracellular Lp(a) assembly proposed by numerous *in vitro* studies needs to be reviewed with caution, because these studies used cellular models that do not reflect the physiological lipoprotein metabolism.

#### *3.1.1. In vivo metabolism of Lp(a) and LDL in healthy subjects*

Kinetic *in vivo* studies in humans have unfortunately also produced controversial results. Krempler *et al*. injected radiolabeled VLDL in Lp(a)-positive healthy probands and found no metabolic relationship between apoB in VLDL or LDL and apoB in Lp(a). The authors therefore concluded that Lp(a) seems to be synthesized as a separate lipoprotein independently of other apoB-containing lipoproteins [37, 38]. Two *in vivo* turnover studies using stable-isotope labeling techniques came to the same conclusion: Morrisett *et al.* and Su *et al*. observed similar synthesis rates of Lp(a)-apo(a) and Lp(a)-apoB [39, 40]. While these findings are compatible with an intracellular assembly of nascent apo(a) and apoB to Lp(a), two other kinetic studies concluded that Lp(a) originates from *de novo* hepatic LDL as well as from plasma LDL [41, 42].

26 Lipoproteins – Role in Health and Diseases

through a specific enzymatic reaction is unclear [27, 28].

Lp(a) has been the target of extensive and successful research particularly with respect to the unusually high degree of genetic control of its expression. In contrast, metabolism and physiological roles as well as pathogenicities of Lp(a) are still poorly understood, as recently reviewed by Dubé et al. [22]. The mechanisms that control Lp(a) secretion and assembly were investigated mostly by means of cellular hepatocyte model systems, yielded contrasting results and thus remain highly controversially discussed (see review [23]). Assembly of apo(a) and apoB to Lp(a) is generally viewed as a two-step procedure [24, 25]. In a first step, distinct domains within the apoB molecule initially associate with apo(a) in a non-covalent interaction to bring the two molecules into close proximity. In a second step, a disulfide bond is formed between apo(a) cysteine 4057 and apoB cysteine 4326 residues [24, 26]. Whether this disulfide bond is formed through a spontaneous oxidation reaction or

The location of this assembly process is the subject of controversial discussion as well. Intracellular, extracellular and/or plasma membrane-associated assembly procedures have been reported to occur in various cell systems [23]. Lp(a), like many other oligomeric protein complexes, may assemble in the endoplasmic reticulum of the hepatocyte and be secreted as a whole particle [29, 30]. Alternatively, newly synthesized apo(a) could bind extracellularly to preexisting LDL or VLDL circulating in the plasma. Most authors postulate an extracellular assembly of Lp(a) based on studies conducted in various cellular model systems. White *et al.* could not detect an intracellular apo(a)-apoB complex by adding antiapo(a) antiserum to the culture medium of primary baboon hepatocytes, but found such complexes attached to the plasma membrane. The authors therefore concluded that, in that cellular system, Lp(a) is primarily assembled after secretion and to some extent also on the plasma membrane [31]. This conclusion has to be, however, critically evaluated since baboon hepatocytes secrete most of their apoB as VLDL, which does not associate with apo(a) [32]. Similar studies in apo(a)-transfected HepG2 cells could not demonstrate an intracellular apo(a)-apoB assembly for this human hepatocyte model and thus confirmed the results from the baboon studies [24, 33, 34]. Nevertheless, there is also evidence for intracellular assembly of Lp(a) in cell culture systems. Bonen *et al.* were able to detect an intracellular apo(a)-apoB complex in HepG2 cells transfected with an apo(a) minigene [35]. HepG2 cells have been reported to secrete a triglyceride-rich lipoprotein particle with an LDL density that does not exist at all in human plasma [36]. Taken together, the extracellular Lp(a) assembly proposed by numerous *in vitro* studies needs to be reviewed with caution, because these studies used

cellular models that do not reflect the physiological lipoprotein metabolism.

Kinetic *in vivo* studies in humans have unfortunately also produced controversial results. Krempler *et al*. injected radiolabeled VLDL in Lp(a)-positive healthy probands and found no metabolic relationship between apoB in VLDL or LDL and apoB in Lp(a). The authors therefore concluded that Lp(a) seems to be synthesized as a separate lipoprotein

*3.1.1. In vivo metabolism of Lp(a) and LDL in healthy subjects*

**3.1. Biosynthesis of Lp(a)**

We investigated by stable-isotope technology the metabolism of apo(a) and apoB-100, the two major Lp(a) protein components, in comparison to apoB of LDL in nine healthy probands. The metabolic data accumulating in this study after appropriate modeling present a scenario of virtually complete intracellular assembly of Lp(a) [43].

Mean FSR, RT and PR values of apo(a) from Lp(a) were similar to those of apoB from Lp(a) but significantly different from the kinetic parameters of LDL-apoB. The differences were particularly large between the PR values of LDL and Lp(a) since this parameter takes into account plasma concentrations that are much higher for LDL than for Lp(a).

Tracer/tracee data from Lp(a)-apo(a), Lp(a)-apoB, LDL-apoB and VLDL-apoB were analyzed based on the multicompartment model shown in Figure 3 in order to investigate whether Lp(a) assembles from circulating LDL or from *de novo* produced "hepatic" LDL. 92% of leucine in Lp(a)-apoB originated from the hepatic apoB pool. The remaining 8% derived from plasma LDL-apoB. LDL-apoB stemmed from two sources, namely from VLDL-apoB (54%) and from de novo synthesis (46%).

The kinetic parameters obtained from this *in vivo* turnover study of Lp(a) metabolism in healthy men allow three major conclusions: i) Since FSRs of both protein components of Lp(a) is very similar and different from those of LDL, an almost exclusive intracellular hepatic Lp(a) assembly can be assumed. This analysis, however, does not allow any conclusions to be drawn on where (inside the hepatocyte, at its plasma membrane or, eventually, in the space of Dissé) this assembly takes place. ii) Apo(a) FSR/FCR is positively related to the number of apo(a) kringle 4 repeats (e.g. apo(a) molecular size), suggesting that plasma Lp(a) concentrations are controlled not only by synthesis but also to some smaller extent by degradation. iii) Longer plasma RT of apo(a) from probands with LMW apo(a) isoforms compared to those with HMW apo(a) isoforms help to explain the potential atherogenicity of higher concentrations in carriers with LMW apo(a) isoforms.

The *de novo* synthesis of LDL is an absolute prerequisite for the postulated (intra)cellular hepatic assembly of Lp(a). Such a "direct" LDL production has been questioned by some investigators who presume that it may instead be the consequence of a very fast lipolytic pathway [45]. However, metabolic studies of apoB metabolism using stable-isotope technology fitted by multicompartmental modeling support a significant "direct" LDL production by the liver [46, 47]. A substantial amount of nascent LDL production was also detected in cultured primary human hepatocytes [48] but not in HepG2 cells [36]. Lp(a) secretion was previously demonstrated in such cells, thus additionally supporting the view of "direct" LDL synthesis by human hepatocytes [49].

**Figure 3.** Multicompartmental model for apoB-100 and apo(a) metabolism. A plasma leucine pool (compartment 1) was used as a forcing function, and delay compartments that account for assembly and subsequent secretion of apoB-100 (compartment 2) and apo(a) (compartment 6), respectively. ApoB in VLDL, LDL, Lp(a), and apo(a) in Lp(a) consist all of single compartments. The input of apoB in Lp(a) is twofold: one via *de novo* synthesis from the liver and one from LDL-apoB. d(i,j) denotes the distribution of transfer from the delay compartment j to compartment i and k(i,j) represents the rate constant from compartment j to compartment i. In this model, tracer/tracee data for VLDL, LDL, Lp(a) apoB, and Lp(a) apo(a) as well as leucine masses (nmol/L) in these compartments were fitted simultaneously. The fractional catabolic rate (FCR) of apo(a)-Lp(a) and apoB-Lp(a) was equal to k(0,7) and k(0,5), respectively (taken from Frischmann et al. [44], with permission).

#### **3.2. Lipoprotein metabolism in HD patients suffering from chronic kidney disease (CKD)**

Dyslipidemia in patients with CKD and hemodialysis (HD) patients is distinct from other organ-specific diseases with far-reaching therapeutic consequences (see review [2]). It involves all lipoprotein classes, shows considerable variations depending on the stage of CKD [50, 51] and is further modified by concurrent diseases such as diabetes [52] and nephrotic syndrome [53]. In addition, major qualitative compositional changes in lipoprotein particles, such as oxidation, glycation, carbamylation and formation of small dense LDL (sdLDL – see below) which render the particles more atherogenic, have been observed [54]. Reduced activities of plasma cholesterol esterification and cholesterol ester transfer between lipoproteins – key factors for the so-called "reversed cholesterol transport" – result in substantially abnormal lipid composition of virtually all lipoprotein classes in HD patients [55].

28 Lipoproteins – Role in Health and Diseases

**Figure 3.** Multicompartmental model for apoB-100 and apo(a) metabolism. A plasma leucine pool (compartment 1) was used as a forcing function, and delay compartments that account for assembly and subsequent secretion of apoB-100 (compartment 2) and apo(a) (compartment 6), respectively. ApoB in VLDL, LDL, Lp(a), and apo(a) in Lp(a) consist all of single compartments. The input of apoB in Lp(a) is twofold: one via *de novo* synthesis from the liver and one from LDL-apoB. d(i,j) denotes the distribution of transfer from the delay compartment j to compartment i and k(i,j) represents the rate constant from compartment j to compartment i. In this model, tracer/tracee data for VLDL, LDL, Lp(a) apoB, and Lp(a) apo(a) as well as leucine masses (nmol/L) in these compartments were fitted simultaneously. The fractional catabolic rate (FCR) of apo(a)-Lp(a) and apoB-Lp(a) was equal to k(0,7) and k(0,5),

**3.2. Lipoprotein metabolism in HD patients suffering from chronic kidney**

Dyslipidemia in patients with CKD and hemodialysis (HD) patients is distinct from other organ-specific diseases with far-reaching therapeutic consequences (see review [2]). It involves all lipoprotein classes, shows considerable variations depending on the stage of CKD [50, 51] and is further modified by concurrent diseases such as diabetes [52] and nephrotic syndrome [53]. In addition, major qualitative compositional changes in lipoprotein particles, such as oxidation, glycation, carbamylation and formation of small dense LDL (sdLDL – see below)

respectively (taken from Frischmann et al. [44], with permission).

**disease (CKD)**

Plasma triglycerides start to increase in early stages of CKD and show the highest concentrations in nephrotic syndrome and in patients treated with peritoneal dialysis (PD). In pre-dialysis CKD patients, the accumulation of triglycerides is the consequence of both an increased PR and a decreased FCR of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins [56]. The increased production of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins is possibly a consequence of impaired carbohydrate tolerance and enhanced hepatic VLDL synthesis [57]. The reduced catabolism is likely due to decreased activities of LPL and HL [58, 59], two endothelium-associated lipases that cleave triglycerides into free fatty acids for energy production or storage.

Diminished catabolism results in the accumulation of IDL particles contributing to compositional and size heterogeneity of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins in plasma of CKD patients. IDL are rich in apoE, a ligand that is important for removal from the circulation by binding to the LDL receptor [60]. The arterial wall therefore is exposed to high plasma concentrations of IDL which may predispose to atherosclerosis [54].

Elevated plasma concentrations of LDL cholesterol and –apoB are common in nephrotic syndrome and PD but do not occur in patients with advanced CKD, treated with HD. There are, however, qualitative changes in LDL in patients with CKD and dialysis patients. The fraction of sdLDL, which is considered to be highly atherogenic, is increased in HD patients. sdLDL is a subtype of LDL which penetrates the vessel wall more efficiently than normal LDL, becomes oxidized, and triggers atherosclerotic processes. In addition, sdLDL exert a high affinity for macrophages promoting their entry into the vascular wall to participate in the formation of foam cells and atherosclerotic plaques [61].

In kidney disease, elevated plasma Lp(a) concentrations are not only genetically determined but also a consequence of kidney failure [62]. In predialysis CKD patients, Lp(a) concentrations are influenced by the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). In patients with HMW apo(a) isoforms but not in those with LMW apo(a) isoforms, plasma Lp(a) concentrations begin to increase in stage 1 CKD before GFR starts to decrease [50]. This isoform-specific increase in plasma Lp(a) concentrations was observed in several but not all studies in CKD and HD patients [50, 62-66]. In contrast, in patients with nephrotic syndrome [67, 68] and in PD patients [63], increases in plasma Lp(a) concentrations occur in all apo(a) isoform groups, probably as a consequence of the pronounced protein loss and a subsequently increased production in the liver [69]. After successful kidney transplantation, a decrease in plasma Lp(a) can be observed in HD patients with HMW apo(a) isoforms [70, 71] and in PD patients with all apo(a) isoform groups [72]. Thus, the elevation of Lp(a) in CKD is due to non-genetic causes, mostly influenced by the degree of proteinuria [50, 67] and less by the cause of kidney disease [63].

In summary, the hallmarks of uremic dyslipidemia include hypertriglyceridemia and increased circulating concentrations of IDL, sdLDL and Lp(a). HD patients are characterised by normal LDL concentrations, whereas patients with nephrotic syndrome and CKD patients treated by PD are diagnosed with elevated LDL concentrations.

#### *3.2.1. Dyslipidemia and CVD in CKD*

Forty years ago, Lindner and colleagues described in their seminal report the excessive risk of CVD in HD patients for the first time [73]. Later, Foley et al. extended these observations by reporting a 10 to 20 times higher mortality rate in HD patients compared to the general population [8]. While in the general population high plasma concentrations of apoBcontaining lipoproteins, low concentrations of HDL cholesterol and high total triglyceride concentrations are associated with an increased atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk [74], most investigations, including cross-sectional [75-78] and longitudinal [66, 79-87] studies, do not support the association between dyslipidemia and CVD in hemodialysed CKD populations or even observe opposite associations. Indeed, a worse survival among HD patients has been observed with low rather than high BMI [88], blood pressure [89] and serum/plasma concentrations of cholesterol [90]. This seemingly paradoxical phenomenon is often called "reverse epidemiology" [91] and exemplified in crossing curves when relating BMI with mortality in HD patients and the general population [92].

While the BMI-associated death risk shows an almost linear negative gradient in HD patients [92], the relationship between plasma total cholesterol and mortality has been found to be U-shaped [93]. The group with total cholesterol between 200 and 250 mg/dl had the lowest risk for death, whereas those with levels >350 mg/dl had a relative risk of 1.3-fold and those with levels <100 mg/dl had a relative risk of 4.2-fold. The association between low total cholesterol and increased mortality, however, was reduced after statistical adjustment for plasma albumin levels. This dichotomous relationship was confirmed in the Choices for Healthy Outcomes in Caring for ESRD (CHOICE) study [94], which showed a nonsignificant negative association of cardiovascular mortality with plasma total as well as non–HDL cholesterol levels in the presence of inflammation and/or malnutrition; in contrast, there was a positive association between total and non–HDL cholesterol and mortality in the absence of inflammation or malnutrition. These observations are compatible with the hypothesis that the inverse association of total cholesterol levels with mortality in dialysis patients is mediated by the cholesterol-lowering effect of malnutrition and/or systemic inflammation and not due to a protective effect of high cholesterol concentrations.

The association of Lp(a) with atherosclerotic complications and CVD has been investigated in numerous studies in dialysis patients. Like other atherogenic lipoproteins, Lp(a) has been found to contribute to the high cardiovascular burden [66, 79, 84, 95-97]. When apo(a) phenotyping was performed along with plasma Lp(a) concentrations, an association between the apo(a) K-IV repeat polymorphism and CV complications was consistently observed.

Two final considerations regarding the impact of classical risk factors for the development of CVD in CKD patients are, however, worth mentioning: the cardiovascular risk for an individual CKD patient at a given time point is the sum (or combination) of risk exposure before and after developing CKD. When taking Lp(a) concentrations and apo(a) isoforms as an example, a previously healthy subject with low Lp(a) concentrations and a HMW apo(a) isoform develops CKD with subsequently rising Lp(a) concentrations covering a relatively short period of his lifespan. A subject with LMW apo(a) isoform, on the other hand, has genetically caused elevated Lp(a) concentrations for his whole life which do not substantially increase after developing CKD. Since the HMW apo(a) carrier is exposed to elevated atherogenic Lp(a) for a much shorter period of his life, this condition has to be considered less CVD-prone than having LMW apo(a). This example demonstrates the importance of the "longitudinal" factor when considering risk factors for CVD in CKD patients.

30 Lipoproteins – Role in Health and Diseases

*3.2.1. Dyslipidemia and CVD in CKD*

mortality in HD patients and the general population [92].

and not due to a protective effect of high cholesterol concentrations.

observed.

Forty years ago, Lindner and colleagues described in their seminal report the excessive risk of CVD in HD patients for the first time [73]. Later, Foley et al. extended these observations by reporting a 10 to 20 times higher mortality rate in HD patients compared to the general population [8]. While in the general population high plasma concentrations of apoBcontaining lipoproteins, low concentrations of HDL cholesterol and high total triglyceride concentrations are associated with an increased atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk [74], most investigations, including cross-sectional [75-78] and longitudinal [66, 79-87] studies, do not support the association between dyslipidemia and CVD in hemodialysed CKD populations or even observe opposite associations. Indeed, a worse survival among HD patients has been observed with low rather than high BMI [88], blood pressure [89] and serum/plasma concentrations of cholesterol [90]. This seemingly paradoxical phenomenon is often called "reverse epidemiology" [91] and exemplified in crossing curves when relating BMI with

While the BMI-associated death risk shows an almost linear negative gradient in HD patients [92], the relationship between plasma total cholesterol and mortality has been found to be U-shaped [93]. The group with total cholesterol between 200 and 250 mg/dl had the lowest risk for death, whereas those with levels >350 mg/dl had a relative risk of 1.3-fold and those with levels <100 mg/dl had a relative risk of 4.2-fold. The association between low total cholesterol and increased mortality, however, was reduced after statistical adjustment for plasma albumin levels. This dichotomous relationship was confirmed in the Choices for Healthy Outcomes in Caring for ESRD (CHOICE) study [94], which showed a nonsignificant negative association of cardiovascular mortality with plasma total as well as non–HDL cholesterol levels in the presence of inflammation and/or malnutrition; in contrast, there was a positive association between total and non–HDL cholesterol and mortality in the absence of inflammation or malnutrition. These observations are compatible with the hypothesis that the inverse association of total cholesterol levels with mortality in dialysis patients is mediated by the cholesterol-lowering effect of malnutrition and/or systemic inflammation

The association of Lp(a) with atherosclerotic complications and CVD has been investigated in numerous studies in dialysis patients. Like other atherogenic lipoproteins, Lp(a) has been found to contribute to the high cardiovascular burden [66, 79, 84, 95-97]. When apo(a) phenotyping was performed along with plasma Lp(a) concentrations, an association between the apo(a) K-IV repeat polymorphism and CV complications was consistently

Two final considerations regarding the impact of classical risk factors for the development of CVD in CKD patients are, however, worth mentioning: the cardiovascular risk for an individual CKD patient at a given time point is the sum (or combination) of risk exposure before and after developing CKD. When taking Lp(a) concentrations and apo(a) isoforms as an example, a previously healthy subject with low Lp(a) concentrations and a HMW apo(a) isoform develops CKD with subsequently rising Lp(a) concentrations covering a relatively Finally, as already discussed in the introduction, the quantification of a target parameter deemed to be associated with or predictive for a disease can only provide a static picture and hardly reflects the true in vivo metabolism. Seemingly normal blood concentrations of suspected marker candidates can only be validated by kinetic studies in humans and have been therefore performed also in CKD patients. They have provided novel and unexpected information regarding the physiology and pathology of atherogenic apoB-containing lipoproteins (see review [98]).