**3. Description of the upper section of the hydro geomorphological chart of the Lluta River**

Each number of this section described in **Figure 2** corresponds to the following:

In the upper section, there are vegetation and bofedales, as shown in **Figure 3**, which in the same way are not enough so that the erosion processes are not activated. As shown in **Figures 2** and **4**, there is a permanent water course, which erodes material in this section, which is partly a consequence of its slope and there are arms around the permanent watercourse that reach the fourth order of Strahler in Ref. [3].

#### **Figure 3.**

*Boreal. Vegetal behavior near the Lluta river, which is partly the one found mainly in the upper reaches of the Lluta basin, as shown by the red circle.*

The river has a high infiltration ability (unconsolidated deposits-fill) far from the river's flood bed. On the right flank of the Lluta river in this section, there is a part of land with a very low infiltration capacity (sedimentary and mixed rocks), since it corresponds to the deposit of material from the arms that reach up to the fourth order of Strahler. The river in its highest section presents in its flood bed a medium infiltration ability (fractured volcanic rock).

The upper basin is a complex climatic zone, characterized by intense cold and strong winds; which is added to the considerable height of the location and the great geographical distances that separate it from the main urban centers; Likewise, the geology of this study area has been determined in recent times, mainly by the predominant presence of units associated with the Tarapacá Volcanic Complex, whose products have their genesis in the volcanic events that occurred from the Pliocene to the Holocene, presented as stages evolutionary of such a complex. The eruptive events included processes of successive collapse of the volcanic building, pyroclastic flows, and lahars, among others in Ref. [4].

The type of permeability is primary in porous formation, and there are unconsolidated deposits, including fluvial, glacial, alluvial, lacustrine, alluvial, eolian sediments, aquifers of variable extension, generally stratified, free or semi-confined aquifers, variable permeability, and variable chemical quality…. Likewise, combined deposits or sedimentary rocks, such as sandstones, lutites, siltstones, and claystones from lacustrine or marine deposits, aquifers of variable extension.

Secondary permeability is also present in fractured volcanic rocks, consisting of lava flows, tuffs, and andesite breccias with intercalations of continental clastic sediment, rhyolitic and dacitic ignimbrite, poorly explored aquifers, of little-known extent and importance, attributable to aquifer characteristics of these formations, volcanoes of the Altiplano.

In the same way, permeability can be seen in an extremely low to absent condition in sedimentary and mixed rocks, sedimentary-volcanic rocks, lava flows, tuffs, gaps, ignimbrite with intercalations, shale, limestone, sandstone, and conglomerates; in general impermeable, they are considered basement of the aquifer fillings. Also, in plutonic rocks, such as granitic intrusive, impermeable basements, likewise, in volcanic rocks, lava flows and rhyolitic, dacitic andesitic, and basaltic pyroclastic deposits, associated with well-preserved or active ancient volcanoes, in general, they do not present aquifers characteristics.

The Tacora volcano of 6000 m above the nm., it is cataloged as an active volcano of the fumarolic type, with a stratovolcano structure, located 17°43'S; 69°46'W. As shown in **Figure 5**, an eruption of this volcano could generate lahars.

Lahar phenomena stand for great danger mainly because they are natural phenomena of high energy, considerable destructive power, and are difficult to control. However, they are relatively easy phenomena to predict due to their movement in the direction that the valleys follow. The prediction of the time of occurrence of this type of phenomenon is not trivial, but normally the development of an eruptive event can be the antecedent to the development of this type of flow. The material could go to two main existing ones that are the Caracarani river to the east and the Azufre "Sulfer" river to the south of the slopes of the volcano.

Lahars are flows of volcanic materials generated when meteoric water, surface runoff, and partial snowmelt mixes with these materials and moves, transporting them en masse through the ravines and designated river channels that have their headwaters in the slopes of the volcano.

The Azufre "Sulfur" river found in the highlands, east, and south sector of the Tacora volcano, is close to the Peruvian border and its name is due to the high content

#### *Risk Reduction DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109404*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Tacora volcano (source, photograph by Felipe Aguilera, University of Atacama, Chile). Main source of medium infiltration ability (fractured volcanic rock), as shown in red circle on the hydrogeomorphological chart.*

#### **Figure 6.**

*Photo of the slope of the Tacora volcano showing a fumarole. (Source, photo by Felipe Aguilera, University of Atacama, Chile). Likewise, the cause of unconsolidated deposits infill, which is dragged by the sulfur river, as reflected in the hydrogeomorphological chart.*

of sulfur. It is a tributary of the Lluta river, as shown in **Figure 6**. In the upper areas of this river, there are volcanic rocks from the Miocene period.

The Azufre "Sulfur" river is formed from the meeting of several thermal springs, of which the Tacora stream is the main one, at the southwestern foot of the Tacora volcano. Its natural channel runs approximately 20 km in a SE direction.

The Asofre "Sulfur" River is currently diverted through an artificial canal to some evaporation ponds built on the Titire pampa, to avoid contamination of the Lluta. In the natural regime, the gauging practiced yield values of 30 l/s to 50 l/s as representative of the flow of the river as shown in **Figures 6** and **7**.

For this area, it is proposed to install buried tubes in Ref. [5], (Japanese defense type slit dam, and others) in the area of greatest probability of runoff into these channels, thus the lahar loses speed, dissipates energy, and delays its arrival at the channel, although only due to a sudden change in slope when reaching the base level of the flat areas on which the volcanic buildings rise, it stops, as long as the slope is gentle.

Continuing with the work of the hydrogeomorphological chart, the Caracarani river is analyzed, it originates at the foot of the Laguna Blanca pass and receives contributions almost from the borderline with Peru, from the eastern slope of the Tacora volcano 5966 m, from the new snow-capped from Chupiquiña 5787 m, and from the western slope of Cerro Caracarani 5190 m.

#### **Figure 7.**

*Inlet in the Azufre river, to divert the polluted waters toward the "parapets" Humapalca locality, commune of General Lagos, Parinacota Province, Chile. As the hydrogeomorphological chart shows, with the representation of a red arrow, the Asufre river was one of the main tributaries of the Lluta, and regardless of its diversion, the old materials deposited form part of the hydrogeomorphological chart of the Lluta.*

#### **Figure 8.**

*View of the "parapets" of the Azufre River, from the channel that diverts the waters of the river to these ponds or pools. Town of Humapalca, commune of General Lagos. (source, Elias Munoz) As the hydrogeomorphological chart shows, with the representation of a red arrow, the Sulfur River was one of the main tributaries of the Lluta, and regardless of its diversion, the old materials deposited form part of the hydrogeomorphological chart of the Lluta.*

Due to the characteristics of the basin, the Caracarani River is considered the main tributary, from its source to Humapalca, as shown In **Figure 8**. It has a category 3 with low slope and on the sides to the course scour and creep processes can be seen, bearing in mind that pluviometric events, such as the one that occurred in the year 2001 (which have the probability of being generated possibly every 30 years), where the water fell during a period of 24 hours reached 20 mm. It may be of similar characteristics where the water fell on the entire surface of the basin in unison. However, for the conditions described and analyzed in the development of these points, it is pointed out that alluvial events can be generated by surface runoff. Likewise, it is necessary to increase the flow of the channels. For this, it is proposed to apply dams of gabion structures in this segment of the channel, whose purpose is to cushion the impact of the water flow in changes of slope and on the banks of watercourses. Thus, reducing its speed and filtering the sediments, that is, it allows regulating medium and large water flows, due to its great resistance in periods of flooding.

The consumption of the Caracarani is very variable and follows the changes in ambient temperature, with an average of 400 liters/sec. The variations in the capacities show flows from 255 to 640 liter/sec.

#### *Risk Reduction DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109404*

The proposed application for this section is a dike or a sink, for its application, it must be excavated until an impermeable layer is found and if this is not found, the soil must be leveled and firmly compacted. The first row of gabions must be buried in the bed, then a second row is arranged on top of the first, although only at the ends, which make up the spillway toward the center. This run should be placed 25 cm further upstream than the first to increase resistance to the impacts of the floodwater flow in Ref. [6]. With this, it is possible to regulate water flow due to its great resistance in periods of flooding.

Likewise, in this channel, a protection system must be provided in curved sections due to the fact that the undermining in curves causes greater depths and speeds in the inner part of the same and, as a consequence, that the fluvial courses move laterally. This form of undermining is of great importance due to the serious damage it causes. The most usual forms of direct protection of the outer edge of a curve are groynes and marginal revetments or protections. With both solutions, the high-speed current lines move away from the materials that form the shore and cannot be dragged.

Another option proposed for this stretch is to consider open dams (slit dams) for this river: permeable or semi-permeable dams are more recommended, since they do not hinder the ordinary dragging of the channel or the living organisms that travel along it long of him.

Advancing toward the south of the upper basin, applying the hydrogeomorphological chart, we find the Quebrada Allane: it is a sub-basin that drains an area of 219 km2 and corresponds to the northern limit of the Pampa Cascachane, its bed is characterized by presenting a single channel with an average of slope of 5.8° and category 3, the bottom of the channel from its source to the first third downstream is flat, then it presents a V-shaped bottom, in most of its trajectory, it only presents a certain level of anastomosis in the last part of its course, just before delivering its waters to the Lluta river.

The Allane ravine falls into the Lluta from the east, its main tributary is the Colpitas river. The latter is born at the western foot of the pass of the seven turns, a site between the Luxone and Pacocagua hills. The Allane river contributes 50% to the Lluta in the year, that is, 0.53 m3 /sec., while the Lluta at that point for the same type of year, carries 0.86 m3 /sec. The bed of the Quebrada Allane is characterized by presenting a single channel in most of its trajectory, it only presents a certain level of anastomosis in the last part of its course, just before delivering its waters to the Lluta river, in Ref. [4].

In the vicinity of the Quebrada Allane, terrace escarpments are located between the glacis and the beds of the Lluta river and the Quebrada Allane; deep terrace escarpments are developed that reach an average height of approximately 100 m in the Lluta. Slide scars can be seen on the upper edge of the escarpment. At the base of these forms, numerous gravity cones develop. All these forms testify to the erosive processes that the escarpment is currently undergoing. The origin of this form is due to the dissection that the Lluta has carried out as a pre-existing river in the landscape in the face of the continuous uplift that the area has experienced since the middle tertiary in Ref. [7], giving rise to the encasing of the water course, in Ref. [8].

Therefore, as in the segment of the Caracarani river, as shown in **Figure 9**, the use of dikes with gabion structures is proposed, as well as the application of breakwaters, which are structures supported or embedded in the shore that are within the current, which divert the current lines away from the shore. In addition, it favors the depositing of materials carried by the river between them. Depending on the case, they can be simple construction solutions and, therefore, economical. The cost of its maintenance decreases over time. Even with the tip of a jetty eroded, the rest of the structure

#### **Figure 9.**

*Fluviometric station of the general Directorate of Waters of Chile, on the Caracarani river, near the town of Humapalca, commune of General Lagos, Parinacota Province. The Caracarani river is one of the tributaries of the Azufre river and, consequently, part of the deposits that it drag downstream are part of the results of the Lluta basin that are reflected in the representation of the hydrogeomorphological chart.*

continues to work, and the destruction of one of them does not seriously endanger the others. Notwithstanding the foregoing, periodic maintenance is required to ensure its permanence over time and enable simple repairs.

This course, which presents an area of gullies and slip niches, proposes the coatings or marginal protections that rest directly against the embankment of the shore and the bottom of the channel. These are parapets, and these are built with materials that cannot be carried away by the current. Between these materials and those of the edge, a filter is generally placed that prevents fine particles from escaping between the gaps in the marginal protection. Their main advantage is that they fix the shore definitively, without allowing any subsequent displacement following any curvature or configuration, although they require a more complicated and precise construction procedure than groynes; and, therefore, higher cost, in addition to requiring careful maintenance, since a failure, even of a small portion, endangers the entire protection structure.

For channeling work in the sectors with the highest speed (greater than 3 m/s) and in which stability and water tightness must be ensured, a reinforced parapet system is proposed based on a core of geotubes, in which the gravitational component is given by a geosynthetic tube filled with fine gravel or sand depending on availability.

From the data collected, it is pointed out that the river has very pronounced floods and that they develop rapidly, that is, the water level rises rapidly so that the runoff phenomenon is more assimilated to alluvial flow. This means that the work, in addition to resisting the erosive and dragging effect of the protection material, must consider the impact effect that a wave of these characteristics has on the work in Ref. [9].

Then, parallel to the Quebrada Allane, as shown in **Figures 10** and **11**, is the Quebrada de Colpitas. In this section, the slope processes are activated due to a steeper slope, these processes are creeping, undermining, gullies, slip niches, and linear erosion are located in the upper third of the development of the Lluta. The course of the Colpitas river, as shown in **Figure 10**, drains an area of 219 km2 and has a 5° slope and is category 3. The bottom of this riverbed in its first third from its source downstream is flat and then its bottom is V-shaped. Like the Quebrada de Allane, the Quebrada de Colpitas, as shown in **Figure 9**, presents an area of gullies and landslide niches, for which the intervention in this course must be similar to the course of the Quebrada de Allane, as shown in **Figure 12**. Therefore, the application of defense is of the same characteristic as those indicated in the previous course, or else build alluvial control structures.

#### **Figure 10.**

*View of the Quebrada de Allane in the background of the Taapaca volcano. The road passes over the right flank of the volcano in the image, the highest point is 4802 m. the union of the Quebrada de Allane and Colpitas can also be seen, where rock formations with different colors and shapes can be seen, with heights over 200 meters and vegetation conditioned to the highland desert climate. It is located at 3900 m.a.s.l. and distance of 3 km from the hamlet of Alcérreca. The Colpitas river is one of the tributaries of the Azufre river and, consequently, part of the deposits that it drags downstream are part of the results of the Lluta basin that are reflected in the representation of the hydrogeomorphological chart.*

#### **Figure 11.**

#### **Figure 12.**

*Descent to the ford over the river Humapalca (Umapalca), on the road that joins the town of coronel Alcérreca (Alzérreca) and the town of Ancolacane. The Humapalca river as the cause of the current formation of the Lluta basin.*

An important point to consider is through the general vision of the affected areas, where the spatial distribution of all the works is carried out, each one of them generates a protection zone on which its implementation will have a direct impact. Likewise, it is important to consider an interrelation of the works, which determines a correct functioning and fulfillment of the objectives. For example, in the control of gullies, the mere provision of dikes inside gullies without control of the runoff that causes this problem will be insufficient to stop its advance, so that at the head, at a distance greater than three times the depth of the gully in Ref. [10], a runoff control system must be available, by means of infiltration ditches or diversion channels among other possible alternatives to use.

It must be borne in mind that the gullies, sinkholes produced in rocks, and soils in sloping places due to the rainwater floods causing the so-called remounting erosion, contribute to the formation, normally, of ravines formed in the soft materials by the water of stream that, when there is a lack of sufficient plant cover, attacks the slopes digging long furrows with sharp edges.

The area's climate is characterized as a humid high-altitude steppe, with rainfall and temperatures highly influenced by geographic height. In the study area, annual rainfall reaches an average of approximately 300 mm, and these are concentrated mainly in the summer months, between December and March.

The base runoff of the Taapaca creek is produced mainly by the melting of the Nevados de Putre. Therefore, its higher average daily flows must occur in the summer months, and the gauged ones obtained during winter times are lower than those of summer. The maximum flows in the ravine are produced occasionally by the floods produced by the summer rains of the Altiplano winter (**Figure 13**).

The ravine is characterized by a well-formed channel with some very confined areas that show the sporadic occurrence of important flows, as shown in **Figure 14**. Its bed is, in general, stony with sectors with a high content of sand.

The flow measured at the confluence of its two headwater streams, in the Ruinas de Taapaca sector, averages 14 l/sec is increased to 30 l/sec. In the sector of the corrals downstream of Quebrada Milluni, due to the contributions coming from the affluent streams on the right side of the channel. The average flow measured is 30 l/sec. At the road crossing, it was estimated to be similar to that observed 1.3 km downstream.

Considering that the runoff of water in the Quebrada is produced by thaws, during the night there is no runoff, and it begins in the upper parts during the first hours

#### **Figure 13.**

*Colpitas river during the highland winter rains of 2012. The Colpitas river is one of the tributaries of the Azufre river. So, part of the deposits that it carries downstream are part of the results of the Lluta basin that can be seen reflected in the representation of the hydrogeomorphological chart.*

#### **Figure 14.**

*Taapaca ravine water scheme as part of the Lluta river hydrographic basin.*

of the day. In the corrals sector, a water front advance speed of 600 m/hr. has been measured, which decreases to 500 m/hr. downstream of this road, probably due to the decrease in the slope of the channel. Also bearing in mind that the Corrals sector is about 5–6 km from the confluence with the Allanes creek and, based on the data presented above, it is estimated that the waters would not be able to travel the distance to the Allanes creek before freezing or infiltrate, that is, the Taapaca creek in the area adjacent to the confluence with the Allanes creek.

Regarding eventual effects on the flora and vegetation of the sector, this is not sustained by the low flow that runs through the Taapaca creek, but, like all the vegetation of the Lauca national park, by the local rainfall regime.

Considering the characteristics of this ravine and its water contributions, background information obtained at the road crossing through the ravine approximately 1 km from its outlet to the Allane ravine, no water runs off and it is observed by dragging material and undermining, that the ravine has eventually runoff of high flows, which are attributed to floods resulting from the rains associated with the so-called Altiplanic winter.

The ravine is characterized by a well-formed channel with some very confined areas that show the sporadic occurrence of significant flows, much higher than what was observed. The characteristic of the flat channel bottom, its bed is, in general, stony with sectors with a high content of sand.

Therefore, only in the event of events, such as the one that occurred in 2001, this ravine would generate a contribution that would increase the bed of the Allane ravine. Therefore, to prevent an event of that magnitude or greater, it is proposed for this ravine to materialize the application of a control technique for floods, such as that affected by flood control works.

Regarding eventual effects on the flora and vegetation of the sector, this is not sustained by the low flow that runs through the Taapaca creek, but, like all the vegetation of the Lauca national park and surrounding area, by the local rainfall regime.

#### *Natural Hazards – New Insights*

An important point of the analysis carried out in this area is to keep in mind the Tarapacá volcanic complex as defined by Clavero et al., in Ref. [11], this has historically been considered an inactive complex. However, the Spanish arrived in this part of the Andes, only about 450 years ago. In Ref. [8], the new data indicates that the Tarapacá volcanic complex is a dormant volcano, as shown the **Figure 15**, with strong potential for a future eruption. According to the spatial distribution of the domes and deposits in the Late Pleistocene-Holocene period, it is probable that, in the event of a renewal of activity, the products could be distributed on the S and SW flank of the complex. An injection of a new magmatic pulse could cause a deformation of the building, resulting in instability, and trigger a partial collapse of the upper flanks and domes, resulting in a debris avalanche toward the SSW. This sequence of events has been recurrent in stage IV (Late Pleistocene-Holocene, 0.45 Ma-Recent). In the case of an extrusion, explosion, and collapse of a dome, a pyroclastic flow can be caused, as occurred in the last stage (IV) of this volcanic complex.

In this regard, two possible scenarios could occur, the first of which could occur due to the development of an eruption between April and November, when there is a predominance of snow layers in the upper part of the complex as shown in **Figure 15**. Lahar flows may develop and probably be confined by the main valleys on the S and SW flanks of the complex, even affecting the international road that skirts Putre. Other flows could be caused in the direction of the western flank, affecting the main road that connects Putre with the towns that are further north in the Altiplano.

The second scenario, not associated with new volcanic activity, could develop during rainy seasons, from December to March. The rains induce the movement of small lahars each year, because of the remobilization of loose volcanoclastic material from the flanks of the complex.  However, if an eruption were to occur, the availability of loose material could increase, and thus the volume of these flows could increase, favoring large discharges of material.

According to these scenarios shown through a statistical analysis extracted from the document in Ref. [8], on the Taapacá volcanic complex as shown in **Figure 15**, the volcanic eruptions in the last 30 ka, it is possible to say that the rate of eruptions is 1.6 per thousand years, with a recurrence of 450 years (95% confidence interval). The probability of occurrence of an eruption in the next 100 years can be estimated at 15%, and in the next 500 years, at about 56% in Ref. [8]. Considering the eruptive

#### **Figure 15.**

*The Taapacá volcanic complex, stage II products (early late Pleistocene, 1.5–0.5 ma) and stage III (late Plesitocene, 0.5–0.47 ma) (source, manganese Los pumas environmental impact study, SGA 2011). Material from the Taapacá volcanic complex, is part of the Lluta basin deposit, as shown by the red circles.*

#### *Risk Reduction DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109404*

history in the late quaternary and its composition, another eruption can be expected in the next few years (decades).

Continuing with the description of Taapaca, the two main formations are the Taipicagua and Chilcacagua streams. Further down, the Asiruni and Ancachi streams are tributary. In the surroundings, there are nine main springs whose waters irrigate different sectors of the Andean oasis.

Extending the application of hydro geomorphological mapping, from the point where the Azufre river and the Caracarani river meet and take the name Lluta river, it is seen in this sector of the Lluta riverbed and surroundings of the town of Putre in the direction of the Tacora volcano, outcrop mainly from stratified rocks and semijoined deposits. Unconsolidated sedimentary deposits occur in a very minor proportion. More than 50% of the rocks and semi-merged deposits correspond to deposits of pyroclastic flows, lavas, and ignimbrites tuffs, mainly caused by Plio-Pleistocene volcanic activity. Older volcanic rocks, from the Miocene, outcrop 20 km to the west and about 30 km to the east of the Putre locality area.

Also, complementing what was shown above, a bibliographic compilation of theoretical-technical and contingency background was used, related to the type of study and area studied, supporteds by a visual interpretation of the surface processes, based on satellite images Landsat, SPOT, ASTER, and obtained from the Google Earth program. Plus, and topographical and geological charts, the result of which was to complement the identification of dynamic geoforms or quaternary deposits (ephemeral channels, gravitational forms, current, recent alluvial cones and fans, types of perennial channels, slopes, mass slides, etc.)

Bearing in mind that the Lluta has a category 4 in the initial stretch in the first 10 km approximately and the bottom of the river is flat and then it changes to a V-shape. At an approximate distance of 18 km to the north of the town of Putre, there are mass removal deposits, and about 30 km north-northeast of this locality, there are fluvioglacial and moraine deposits. In addition, this is an area that has medium infiltration ability, also, adding to this is the precipitation rate for topographic elevation ranges, which is what it shows, which could be the water supply.

In the Lluta study segment in the upper basin, monitoring data from two fluviometric stations have been shown on the Colpitas river in Alcerreca and the Lluta river in Alcerreca. For each of these stations, graphs of the monthly averages and the annual averages have been prepared. There is not a very marked seasonality; however, there is a tendency to register higher flows in the period from July to September.

For the design of the works to be considered, a rainfall analysis is previously needed to estimate magnitudes and intensities of rainfall in short periods of time (less than 24 hours, generally less than or equal to one hour), which directly affect the size of the works to be built. With this information and with the description of the characteristics of the land, the runoff that each conservation work must control (critical runoff) is determined, in ref [6], thus designing a diversion channel or infiltration ditch capable of transferring or retaining, respectively, in a safe way said runoff to receiving.

Although we understand that these data are only a conceptualization of reality, they show us the importance that this factor exerts on erosion, in the same way, the relevance of being able to reduce any of the characteristics of the slope, which will allow the deposition of the particles. Of soil displaced by the action of water.

From Humapalca to Allane, the route is about 26 km to the SE, and along this route, the Lluta receives from the northeast the Chuquiananta and Guancarane ravines that are born at the foot of the snow-capped mountains of those names and that are of little significance.

#### *Natural Hazards – New Insights*

About 10 km upstream from point Allane where the ravine of that name, the river that flows into the ravine of that name, converges, the Lluta river begins to deepen its course, which came higher up at the level of the plateaus, to form a great canyon carved in the rhyolitic tuffs and in other little cohesive sediments that follow it downwards. Thus, in front of the Coronel Alcérreca station, a height of no less than 300 m can be seen between the box of the plateau and the bottom of the river.

#### **Figure 16.**

*Lluta river basin slopes map.*

#### *Risk Reduction DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109404*

Continuing to the south, in the areas close to the Lluta riverbed on its sides, we find processes of slopes, such as landslide niches, an unstable zone, which slides with respect to a stable zone, through a surface or thin strip of land. Slippage occurs when the maximum tangential stress is reached at all points in the strip. For this type of slope, the blocks tend to roll and a vertical wall is required next to the trench so that the blocks do not try to get out.

The Lluta river continues in an increasingly narrow canyon heading north-south. In the next widening, called Jamiraya, the Putre ravine joins it on the left, which is born from the meeting of several watering holes originating in bofedales at the foot of the Nevados de Putre or Taapaca, as show the **Figure 15**. The gauging practiced in the Putre river in July 1968 showed a flow of 324 liters/sec for said cause in Ref. [12]. Shortly before the Putre junction, the Ancolacaya creek flows into the Lluta, parallel to it, with a very small contribution, estimated at less than 30 liters/sec.

The riverbed unfolds in a north-south direction, presenting an anastomosed pattern, with numerous diversions of channels between banks, mainly gravel together with accumulations of sand and gravel. Currently, the river has slightly affected its own bed in the sector, forming a small fluvial terrace, so the river box contains the bed itself, with a narrow terrace and a large number of gravity cones.

Analysis of the geological and geomorphological characteristics of the derived area in the analysis of average slopes, see slopes map, as shown in **Figure 16**, generating the identification of the potential activity of the geoforms, helping to determine the morphodynamic thresholds based on the slope ranges and their erosive potential. It can be considered that, according to the average slope values, all those slopes greater than 20° are recognized as potential generators of mass movements, and already over 30° of the average slope, as areas with high morphodynamics diversified in multiple processes, predominating the gravitational, in Ref. [8].

It is also due to considering what is related to the precipitations in the area that have an annual average value of 200 mm, while the evapotranspiration is 2000 mm. This makes the water balance in the soil very negative and infiltrations into the subsoil are minimal, limited only to precipitation events concentrated in very short periods of time.


Perspective Chapter: Perspectives toward Overcoming Depression and Anxiety to Enhance Educational Success among Students in a Rural University Context

*Angelina Maphula, Lufuno Makhado and Petunia Tsheole*


**Table 2.**

**35**

**Table 3.**

*Prevention and Control of American Foulbrood in South America with Essential Oils: Review*

Moderately toxic (>2 μg EO/bee)

Slightly toxic (24 h-LD50 = 15.94 μg b.e./bee)

Virtually non-toxic (24 h-LD50 = 122 μg b.e./bee)

Toxic/non-toxic the nanoparticles of *M. alternifolia*

Moderately toxic (≥ 3 μg EO/bee)

Moderately toxic (>8 μg EO/bee)

Not determined 1.19, 2.37, 4.75,

Virtually non-toxic 2000, 4000,

Non-toxic 2.5, 5, 10 and

Non-toxic 2.5, 5, 10 and

**tested**

Non-toxic 25% (v/v) [27]

Non-toxic 10% (v/v) [50]

Slightly toxic [50]

Non-toxic 1.56% (v/v) [27]

1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 μg EO/ bee

0.19, 0.37, 0.75, 1.50, 3.0 and 6.0 μg b.e./bee

9.50, 19.0 and 28.0 μg b.e./ bee

0.625, 1.25, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0 and 20.0 μg b.e./bee

8000 and 16,000 μg/ml

20 ml per cage of EO

3, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 96 μg EO/ bee

20 μl per cage of EO

2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 μg EO/ bee

Non-toxic 5% (w/v) [48]

6.25% (w/v) [49]

Non-toxic 400 μg/ml [32]

**References**

[47]

[47]

[47]

[47]

[46]

[44]

[47]

[51]

[47]

**Essential oil Technique Toxicity Amount**

procedure

Complete exposure

*In-vivo against larva*

procedure

administration

Systemic administration

Systemic administration

Systemic administration

Systemic administration

exposure

administration

procedure

administration

exposure

procedure

administration

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85776*

*Carapa guaianensis* Spraying

*Copaifera officinalis* Spraying

*Cymbopogon citratus* Systemic

*Carapa guaianensis* nanoemulsion

*Cymbopogon citratus* + *Thymus vulgaris* (20:80, v/v)

*Cymbopogon citratus* + *Thymus vulgaris* + *Satureja hortensis* + *Origanum vulgare* + *Ocimum basilicum* (5:11:21:26:37, v/v/v/v/v)

*Cymbopogon citratus* + *Thymus vulgaris* + *Ocimum basilicum* (10:20:70,

*Cinnamomum zeylanicum*

*Eucalyptus globulus* Complete

*Eugenia* spp. Systemic

*Melaleuca alternifolia* Spraying

*Origanum vulgare* Systemic

*Rosmarinus officinalis* Complete

*Tagetes minuta* Spraying

*Thymus vulgaris* Systemic

*Essential oils toxicity assays on Apis mellifera.*

v/v/v)

*Essential oils for the in vitro Paenibacillus larvae control.*

*Prevention and Control of American Foulbrood in South America with Essential Oils: Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85776*

#### **Table 3.**

*Essential oils toxicity assays on Apis mellifera.*

*Beekeeping - New Challenges*

[40]

[48]

[41]

[42]

**34**

**Essential oil** *Tagetes minuta*

**Technique** Agar diffusion

Agar dilution Agar dilution

Broth

Inhibitory Inhibitory

macrodilution

Broth

Inhibitory

macrodilution

Agar diffusion

Broth

Inhibitory

3200–0.78 μg/

137.0 ± 12.2 μg/ml

700–800 mg/L 700–800 mg/L

950 mg/L

[42]

[36]

850 mg/L

[42]

224.8 ± 25.6 μg/ml

[36]

ml

macrodilution

Broth

Inhibitory

microdilution

Broth

Inhibitory

microdilution

Agar diffusion

Inhibitory

10 ml

Inhibitory

10 μl

Thymol (component of *Thymus vulgaris*)

*Trachyspermum ammi* L.

*Verbena officinalis* L.

*Wedelia glauca* Ortega

*Zingiber officinale* Rosc.

*aMIC, Minimal Inhibitory Concentration.*

*bMBC, Minimal Bactericidal Concentration.*

**Table 2.**

*Essential oils for the in vitro Paenibacillus larvae control.*

Inhibitory

Inhibitory

500–650 μg/ml

700–800 μl/L 900–1000 mg/L

833 mg/L 100–133 μg/ml

133 μg/ml

[26]

[36]

Inhibitory

10 μl

**Activity**

**Amount**

**MICa**

**MBCb**

**References**

[34]

**tested**

*Pelargonium graveolens* L., were able to inhibit the growth of *P. larvae* by the agar diffusion technique [38–45].

EOs from *Cymbopogon citratus*, *Cinnamomum aromaticum*, *Citrus reticulata* var. madurensis, *Citrus paradisi*, *Heterothalamus alienus*, *Melaleuca alternifolia*, *Mentha piperita*, *Origanum majorana*, *Origanum vulgare*, *Salvia sclarea*, *Syzygium aromaticum*, *Tagetes minuta*, *Thymus vulgaris*, as well as the mixtures of *Cymbopogon citratus* and *Thymus vulgaris* EOs (20:80, v/v), and *Cymbopogon citratus*, *Thymus vulgaris*, *Satureja hortensis*, *Origanum vulgare*, and *Ocimum basilicum* EOs (5:11:21:26:37, v/v/v/v/v) showed antibacterial activity against *P. larvae* [44, 46, 47].

EOs from *Citrus sinensis*, *Cinnamomum* spp., *Eugenia* spp., *Thymus vulgaris*, *Verberna* spp., *Acantholippia seriphioides*, *Cinnamomum zeylanicum*, *Heterothalamus alienus* Spreng., *Pimpinella anisum*, *Foeniculum vulgare*, and *Eucalyptus globulosus*, and the mixture of *Thymus vulgaris* EO, thymol and *Cinnamomum zeylanicum* EO (62.5:25:12.5, v/v/v) exhibited antibacterial activity against *P. larvae* by the broth macrodilution technique [40, 48–52].

#### *1.1.2 Toxicity assays on Apis mellifera*

*Citrus sinensis*, *Cinnamomum* spp., *Cinnamomum zeylanicum*, *Cuminum cyminum*, *Eugenia* spp., *Thymus vulgaris*, and *Verbena* spp. EOs were non-toxic for adult honey bees when they were fed with candy and the EO at different concentrations by systemic administration [40, 53]. *Cymbopogon citratus*, *Thymus vulgaris* and *Ocimum basilicum* EOs, as well as *Cymbopogon citratus* and *Thymus vulgaris* EO mixture (50:50, v/v) were moderately toxic to adult honey bees. However, the *Cymbopogon citratus*, *Thymus vulgaris* and *Coriandrum sativum* EO mixture (33.3:33.3:33.3, v/v/v) presented negative mortality curves, meaning that there was less mortality at high doses. This fact disclosed that bees did not consume candy with high quantities of *Coriandrum sativum* EO [54]. When a solution containing a certain amount of EO was sprayed over a group of honey bees, *Tagetes minuta*, *Carapa guianensis* and *Carapa officinalis* EOs resulted to be non-toxic for adult bees [27, 55]; whereas *Melaleuca alternifolia* EO caused the death of the bees after 7 days of treatment. Nevertheless, the use of nanoparticles of *Melaleuca alternifolia* EO did not produce any toxic effect on honey bees [56]. *Eucalyptus globosus* and *Rosmarinus officinalis* EOs and the nanoemulsion of *Carapa officinalis* EO were not toxic for adult worker honey bees when they were completely exposed to the EO, that is, bees were in contact with the EO and ingested the EO [50, 57, 58]. The nanoemulsion of *Carapa guianensis* EO exhibited a toxic effect for larvae and adult honey bees, whereas the nanoemulsion of *Carapa officinalis* EO, a low toxic effect on larvae [57].

#### *1.1.3 Mechanism of action of essential oils on P. larvae*

Different mechanisms of action of EOs on bacteria have been reported, among others: degradation of the cell wall, affecting the cell morphology and damaging the cytoplasmic membrane; damage of membrane protein, disruption of cell wall, leading to leakage of the cell contents, reduction of proton motive force, reduction of intracellular ATP pool, via decreasing ATP synthesis; inhibition of quorum sensing and alteration of cell division [59]. The alteration of the membrane permeability can be detected by the crystal violet assay [35] and the determination of the released UV-absorbing material assays [60]. The crystal violet assay is based on the fact that the compound enters easily when the cell membrane is defective. The released of UV-absorbing material assays is based on the fact that EOs can disrupt the cell membrane leading to a leakage of the cell content which is measured in the UV spectrum. The relationship between the chemical composition of EOs

**37**

*Prevention and Control of American Foulbrood in South America with Essential Oils: Review*

and their antimicrobial mode of action against *P. larvae* has not been systematically researched so far. EOs are complex mixtures of low molecular weight volatile constituents biosynthesized by plants, which mainly include two biosynthetically related groups, i.e., terpenes and terpenoids, and aromatic and aliphatic constituents [61]. Most antimicrobial compounds are constitutively expressed by the plants, but others are synthesized as mechanism of defense in response to pathogens [59, 62]. Pellegrini et al. [62] demonstrated that the essential oils of *Acantholippia seriphioides*, *Aloysia polystachia*, *Buddleja globosa*, *Lippia turbinata*, *Minthostachys mollis*, *Schinus molle* and *Solidago chilensis* permeabilized and altered the cell membrane and the cytoplasmic membrane of *P. larvae* causing the leakage

*1.1.4 Anti-quorum sensing and antimicrobial activity of essential oils*

Antúnez et al. (2010) [70] determined that during the division *P. larvae* produces and secretes different proteins with proteolytic activity, such as metalloproteases and enolase, these proteins are secreted and remain on the surface of the spores, producing a response in the immune system of *A. mellifera* and are probably

In recent years, the detection of quorum sensing (QS) detection signals in bacteria has added a new dimension to study the infection process. Through QS, bacteria depending on population density can activate specific genes [63–66]. The QS can regulate the expression of virulence factors, bioluminescence, sporulation, biofilm formation and conjugation [67–69]. Many bacteria coordinate the expression of multiple virulence factors, such as toxins, active redox compounds, siderophores, exoproteases, lipases and biofilm formation, thus maximizing the chances of infec-

The QS signals occur while the bacterial population grows until it reaches a threshold concentration perceived by the bacteria and results in the activation or repression of specific genes. The accumulation of a stimulant amount of such molecules can occur only when a specific number of cells, known as a quorum, is present. These self-inducing molecules have been identified as acylated homoserine lactones in gram-negative and oligopeptide bacteria, thiolactone/lactone peptide, lanthionines, isoprenyl groups [65] and even acylated homoserine lactones in grampositive bacteria [72, 73]. Similar signaling mechanisms have not yet been demonstrated in *P. larvae*. It is possible that larval infection by *P. larvae* is influenced by phenotypes regulated by QS, such as proteases exported by bacteria to their environment. The concept of QS has encouraged the development of a new nonantibiotic antibacterial therapy through the use of QS inhibitor compounds [74, 75]. The increase in resistance to multiple drugs of the bacteria against traditional medicines drastically reduces the efficacy of conventional antibiotics. This multiple resistance is now recognized as a global problem [76]. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new therapeutic strategy to prevent this type of multidrugging. A promising mechanism is to block cell-to-cell communication, establishing a strategy called quorum extinction [77]. Although traditional antimicrobial agents cause cell death of the pathogen, the use of systems that alter the QS sensors adopts a less aggressive strategy [78]. There are several sources of QS inhibitors (quorum quenchers), but so far the most diverse and abundant are derived from natural sources such as algae and plants. There are cases of QS inhibitors in bacteria, fungi, algae, bryozoans, corals, sponges [79], plant extracts [80], essential oils [42], compounds isolated

Essential oils extracted from plants, such as *Cymbopogon citratus*, *Cymbopogon martini*, *Rosmarinus officinalis*, *Mentha piperita*, *Pelargonium odoratissimum* and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85776*

of cytoplasmic constituents.

involved in the degradation of larval tissue.

tion and allowing better propagation [70, 71].

from bacteria [81] and furanones, among others.

*Prevention and Control of American Foulbrood in South America with Essential Oils: Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85776*

and their antimicrobial mode of action against *P. larvae* has not been systematically researched so far. EOs are complex mixtures of low molecular weight volatile constituents biosynthesized by plants, which mainly include two biosynthetically related groups, i.e., terpenes and terpenoids, and aromatic and aliphatic constituents [61]. Most antimicrobial compounds are constitutively expressed by the plants, but others are synthesized as mechanism of defense in response to pathogens [59, 62]. Pellegrini et al. [62] demonstrated that the essential oils of *Acantholippia seriphioides*, *Aloysia polystachia*, *Buddleja globosa*, *Lippia turbinata*, *Minthostachys mollis*, *Schinus molle* and *Solidago chilensis* permeabilized and altered the cell membrane and the cytoplasmic membrane of *P. larvae* causing the leakage of cytoplasmic constituents.

#### *1.1.4 Anti-quorum sensing and antimicrobial activity of essential oils*

Antúnez et al. (2010) [70] determined that during the division *P. larvae* produces and secretes different proteins with proteolytic activity, such as metalloproteases and enolase, these proteins are secreted and remain on the surface of the spores, producing a response in the immune system of *A. mellifera* and are probably involved in the degradation of larval tissue.

In recent years, the detection of quorum sensing (QS) detection signals in bacteria has added a new dimension to study the infection process. Through QS, bacteria depending on population density can activate specific genes [63–66]. The QS can regulate the expression of virulence factors, bioluminescence, sporulation, biofilm formation and conjugation [67–69]. Many bacteria coordinate the expression of multiple virulence factors, such as toxins, active redox compounds, siderophores, exoproteases, lipases and biofilm formation, thus maximizing the chances of infection and allowing better propagation [70, 71].

The QS signals occur while the bacterial population grows until it reaches a threshold concentration perceived by the bacteria and results in the activation or repression of specific genes. The accumulation of a stimulant amount of such molecules can occur only when a specific number of cells, known as a quorum, is present. These self-inducing molecules have been identified as acylated homoserine lactones in gram-negative and oligopeptide bacteria, thiolactone/lactone peptide, lanthionines, isoprenyl groups [65] and even acylated homoserine lactones in grampositive bacteria [72, 73]. Similar signaling mechanisms have not yet been demonstrated in *P. larvae*. It is possible that larval infection by *P. larvae* is influenced by phenotypes regulated by QS, such as proteases exported by bacteria to their environment. The concept of QS has encouraged the development of a new nonantibiotic antibacterial therapy through the use of QS inhibitor compounds [74, 75].

The increase in resistance to multiple drugs of the bacteria against traditional medicines drastically reduces the efficacy of conventional antibiotics. This multiple resistance is now recognized as a global problem [76]. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new therapeutic strategy to prevent this type of multidrugging. A promising mechanism is to block cell-to-cell communication, establishing a strategy called quorum extinction [77]. Although traditional antimicrobial agents cause cell death of the pathogen, the use of systems that alter the QS sensors adopts a less aggressive strategy [78]. There are several sources of QS inhibitors (quorum quenchers), but so far the most diverse and abundant are derived from natural sources such as algae and plants. There are cases of QS inhibitors in bacteria, fungi, algae, bryozoans, corals, sponges [79], plant extracts [80], essential oils [42], compounds isolated from bacteria [81] and furanones, among others.

Essential oils extracted from plants, such as *Cymbopogon citratus*, *Cymbopogon martini*, *Rosmarinus officinalis*, *Mentha piperita*, *Pelargonium odoratissimum* and

*Beekeeping - New Challenges*

diffusion technique [38–45].

macrodilution technique [40, 48–52].

*1.1.2 Toxicity assays on Apis mellifera*

*1.1.3 Mechanism of action of essential oils on P. larvae*

*Pelargonium graveolens* L., were able to inhibit the growth of *P. larvae* by the agar

v/v/v/v/v) showed antibacterial activity against *P. larvae* [44, 46, 47].

EOs from *Cymbopogon citratus*, *Cinnamomum aromaticum*, *Citrus reticulata* var. madurensis, *Citrus paradisi*, *Heterothalamus alienus*, *Melaleuca alternifolia*, *Mentha piperita*, *Origanum majorana*, *Origanum vulgare*, *Salvia sclarea*, *Syzygium aromaticum*, *Tagetes minuta*, *Thymus vulgaris*, as well as the mixtures of *Cymbopogon citratus* and *Thymus vulgaris* EOs (20:80, v/v), and *Cymbopogon citratus*, *Thymus vulgaris*, *Satureja hortensis*, *Origanum vulgare*, and *Ocimum basilicum* EOs (5:11:21:26:37,

EOs from *Citrus sinensis*, *Cinnamomum* spp., *Eugenia* spp., *Thymus vulgaris*, *Verberna* spp., *Acantholippia seriphioides*, *Cinnamomum zeylanicum*, *Heterothalamus alienus* Spreng., *Pimpinella anisum*, *Foeniculum vulgare*, and *Eucalyptus globulosus*, and the mixture of *Thymus vulgaris* EO, thymol and *Cinnamomum zeylanicum* EO (62.5:25:12.5, v/v/v) exhibited antibacterial activity against *P. larvae* by the broth

*Citrus sinensis*, *Cinnamomum* spp., *Cinnamomum zeylanicum*, *Cuminum cyminum*, *Eugenia* spp., *Thymus vulgaris*, and *Verbena* spp. EOs were non-toxic for adult honey bees when they were fed with candy and the EO at different concentrations by systemic administration [40, 53]. *Cymbopogon citratus*, *Thymus vulgaris* and *Ocimum basilicum* EOs, as well as *Cymbopogon citratus* and *Thymus vulgaris* EO mixture (50:50, v/v) were moderately toxic to adult honey bees. However, the *Cymbopogon citratus*, *Thymus vulgaris* and *Coriandrum sativum* EO mixture (33.3:33.3:33.3, v/v/v) presented negative mortality curves, meaning that there was less mortality at high doses. This fact disclosed that bees did not consume candy with high quantities of *Coriandrum sativum* EO [54]. When a solution containing a certain amount of EO was sprayed over a group of honey bees, *Tagetes minuta*, *Carapa guianensis* and *Carapa officinalis* EOs resulted to be non-toxic for adult bees [27, 55]; whereas *Melaleuca alternifolia* EO caused the death of the bees after 7 days of treatment. Nevertheless, the use of nanoparticles of *Melaleuca alternifolia* EO did not produce any toxic effect on honey bees [56]. *Eucalyptus globosus* and *Rosmarinus officinalis* EOs and the nanoemulsion of *Carapa officinalis* EO were not toxic for adult worker honey bees when they were completely exposed to the EO, that is, bees were in contact with the EO and ingested the EO [50, 57, 58]. The nanoemulsion of *Carapa guianensis* EO exhibited a toxic effect for larvae and adult honey bees, whereas the nanoemulsion of *Carapa officinalis* EO, a low toxic effect on larvae [57].

Different mechanisms of action of EOs on bacteria have been reported, among others: degradation of the cell wall, affecting the cell morphology and damaging the cytoplasmic membrane; damage of membrane protein, disruption of cell wall, leading to leakage of the cell contents, reduction of proton motive force, reduction of intracellular ATP pool, via decreasing ATP synthesis; inhibition of quorum sensing and alteration of cell division [59]. The alteration of the membrane permeability can be detected by the crystal violet assay [35] and the determination of the released UV-absorbing material assays [60]. The crystal violet assay is based on the fact that the compound enters easily when the cell membrane is defective. The released of UV-absorbing material assays is based on the fact that EOs can disrupt the cell membrane leading to a leakage of the cell content which is measured in the UV spectrum. The relationship between the chemical composition of EOs

**36**

*Negundo vitex*, and different products, such as citral, geraniol, thymol and the linalool, have been used to evaluate its protease inhibitory activity, constituting one of the virulence factors of bacteria that can be regulated by QS [82].

Pellegrini et al. [62] propose that the EO will act by inhibiting the production of proteases, inhibiting its transportation and secretion, inhibiting the detection of quorum or avoiding the loading of proteases. All extracellular bacterial proteases are synthesized as an inactive pre-proenzyme consisting of a signal peptide, a prosequence and a maturity sequence. The peptide functions as a signal for the translocation of the pre-proenzyme to the membrane. The pre-proenzyme is processed in the proenzyme by the peptidase signal. The accusation acts as a molecular chaperone that leads to a self-cleavage of the peptide bond that links the pro and mature sequences [83]. The EOs acted at some point in this regulatory mechanism. The inhibition of larval proteases by EO could be a form of therapeutic intervention; the blocking of bacterial virulence factors does not destroy or inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria. It is expected that this strategy will generate little pressure on the selection of bacteria and, therefore, could diminish the appearance of bacterial resistance and avoid the interruption of the microbiota of benefits in urticaria. In future investigations, it will be interesting to isolate and characterize automatically the potential autoinductors of *P. larvae* and study their relationship with protease regulation. EOs studies are promising to use EOs in hives with symptoms of Foulbrood for the control of damage caused by *P. larvae*.