In the menu cases, the 50% replacing of red meat (beef) content in the daily menus with local fishy products in EC1 case and with 100% in EC2 case, on the conventional MC1 menu basis, generate a reducing of overall menu EF with 27.45% in EC1 case and with 54.83% in EC2 case.

### **Menu ingredient**

Fig. 4.3. Ecological Footprint value (m2/kg) for menus natural ingredients with local and national origin

Ecological Footprint and Carbon Footprint of Organic

same nutritional equivalence of the final menu.

circuits.

**4.4 Conclusions**

and Conventional Agrofoods Production, Processing and Services 55

In case of national origin ingredients, a part of menu EF increasing produced by the replacing of red meat with fish is lost in the transportation cycle. The overall menu EF decreased at 25.91% in EC1 case and with 51.79% in EC2 case at CM1 basis (Figure 4.5). The total EF of final menu depends on the items ratio at the same origin and transportation system. Raw beef have the greatest EF amount in the all experimented menu and the vegetables the lowest value added to total EF of menu. The white meat of local origin has a reduced impact on the total menus EF because the poultry EF were with 62.87% reduced compared with red meat at the same origin and transportation system. For this reason, a replacing of red meat with poultry determined a reducing of MC2 EF with 61.54% compared with MC1. The replacing with fishy local products in EC2 case determined a reducing with almost 54.83%of the overall menu EF, because the fish EF is with 15.5% greater than poultry EF. The menu formula MC2 show the best EF values if is composed with local origin ingredients. From the environmental, nutritional and financial point of views we recommended the EC2 formula at least once in a week and MC2 formula twice in every chart pre-planification of UGAL canteen. In the situation in which the management of UGAL canteen decide to change the actual state of menu chart 2 MC1 formula +MC2+ EC1+ EC2/week with 2MC2+MC1+ EC1+ EC2/week, the canteen food EF module could be reduced with 17.27% in an academic year, with the promotion of the local acquisition

The menus designed with all ingredients of national origin showed a increasing of the overall EF of 3.8-9.2% in CM1-CM2 menus cases, 5.9-10 % in EC1-EC2 menus cases, respectively. The transportation system in the refrigerated state of fish and milk due to a increasing of resources using measured with EF value of 94.93%. On the CM1 basis, there is the possibility to reduce the menu EF with 18.6% in the EC1 case and 19% in EC2 case. On the CM2 basis, the total EF reducing value for the complete menu were of 23.07% for EC1 menu and 51.79% for EC2 menu, respectively. In the same time, the price were consistently reduced for Eco-friendly menus which replace the red meat with local origin fishy products, with about 41.66% (from 1.80 Euro in case of CM1 menu to 1.05 Euro in EC2 case) in the

The dominating components of ecological footprint were raw material production system and energy necessary for transportation. The reducing of red meat products in the student's daily menus with 50% and the reducing of long food chain at the local/regional level give a 36.24% average decreasing of EC1 menu EF and the replacing of red meat with fishy products a 72.2% reducing of EC2 menus EF. At least 20.83% less amount of money could be saved in the menu creations if we replace one day in a week 50% meat with local fishy products and the average reducing EF for menu creation in an academic year could be 17.27%. In the same time, the catering systems create an important bridge between young's and the local products and the sustainable development of the regions will be encouraged. The local origin of agro-foods reduce the environment impact despite the fact that the total efficiency is lower than in centralized regional or national farms, in terms of productivity and primary processing yield. The red meat induced the leading impact on the total agrofoods EF. Vegetables, fruits and cereals with local origin have the lower value of EF and the ratio proposed in the optimized Eco-menus must be increased in order to generate a

Fig. 4.4. Ecological Footprint value (m2/menu) for Conventional and Eco-friendly menus designed with local natural ingredients

Fig. 4.5. Ecological Footprint value (m2/menu) for conventional and Eco-friendly menus designed with national ingredients

In case of national origin ingredients, a part of menu EF increasing produced by the replacing of red meat with fish is lost in the transportation cycle. The overall menu EF decreased at 25.91% in EC1 case and with 51.79% in EC2 case at CM1 basis (Figure 4.5).

The total EF of final menu depends on the items ratio at the same origin and transportation system. Raw beef have the greatest EF amount in the all experimented menu and the vegetables the lowest value added to total EF of menu. The white meat of local origin has a reduced impact on the total menus EF because the poultry EF were with 62.87% reduced compared with red meat at the same origin and transportation system. For this reason, a replacing of red meat with poultry determined a reducing of MC2 EF with 61.54% compared with MC1. The replacing with fishy local products in EC2 case determined a reducing with almost 54.83%of the overall menu EF, because the fish EF is with 15.5% greater than poultry EF. The menu formula MC2 show the best EF values if is composed with local origin ingredients. From the environmental, nutritional and financial point of views we recommended the EC2 formula at least once in a week and MC2 formula twice in every chart pre-planification of UGAL canteen. In the situation in which the management of UGAL canteen decide to change the actual state of menu chart 2 MC1 formula +MC2+ EC1+ EC2/week with 2MC2+MC1+ EC1+ EC2/week, the canteen food EF module could be reduced with 17.27% in an academic year, with the promotion of the local acquisition circuits.

The menus designed with all ingredients of national origin showed a increasing of the overall EF of 3.8-9.2% in CM1-CM2 menus cases, 5.9-10 % in EC1-EC2 menus cases, respectively. The transportation system in the refrigerated state of fish and milk due to a increasing of resources using measured with EF value of 94.93%. On the CM1 basis, there is the possibility to reduce the menu EF with 18.6% in the EC1 case and 19% in EC2 case. On the CM2 basis, the total EF reducing value for the complete menu were of 23.07% for EC1 menu and 51.79% for EC2 menu, respectively. In the same time, the price were consistently reduced for Eco-friendly menus which replace the red meat with local origin fishy products, with about 41.66% (from 1.80 Euro in case of CM1 menu to 1.05 Euro in EC2 case) in the same nutritional equivalence of the final menu.

#### **4.4 Conclusions**

54 Research in Organic Farming

**CM1 CM2 EC1 EC2**

**EFRed Meat EF Poultry EF Fish EF Veg EF Milk EF Bread Total**

**EFRed Meat EF Poultry EF Fish EF Veg EF Milk EF Bread Total**

**EFRed Meat 12.54 0 6.27 0 EF Poultry 0 4.655 0 0 EF Fish 0 0 2.755 5.51 EF Veg 0.114 0.114 0.114 0.114 EF Milk 0.114 0.114 0.114 0.114 EF Bread 0.052 0.052 0.052 0.052 Total 12.82 4.935 9.305 5.79**

Fig. 4.4. Ecological Footprint value (m2/menu) for Conventional and Eco-friendly menus

Fig. 4.5. Ecological Footprint value (m2/menu) for conventional and Eco-friendly menus

**EFRed Meat 12.56 0 6.28 0 EF Poultry 0 4.64 0 0 EF Fish 0 0 2.82 5.64 EF Veg 0.142 0.142 0.142 0.142 EF Milk 0.121 0.121 0.121 0.121 EF Bread 0.532 0.532 0.532 0.532 Total 13.355 5.437 9.895 12.715**

**CM1 CM2 EC1 EC2**

designed with local natural ingredients

**EF(m2/kg)**

**EF(m2/kg)**

**0**

**5**

**10**

designed with national ingredients

The dominating components of ecological footprint were raw material production system and energy necessary for transportation. The reducing of red meat products in the student's daily menus with 50% and the reducing of long food chain at the local/regional level give a 36.24% average decreasing of EC1 menu EF and the replacing of red meat with fishy products a 72.2% reducing of EC2 menus EF. At least 20.83% less amount of money could be saved in the menu creations if we replace one day in a week 50% meat with local fishy products and the average reducing EF for menu creation in an academic year could be 17.27%. In the same time, the catering systems create an important bridge between young's and the local products and the sustainable development of the regions will be encouraged. The local origin of agro-foods reduce the environment impact despite the fact that the total efficiency is lower than in centralized regional or national farms, in terms of productivity and primary processing yield. The red meat induced the leading impact on the total agrofoods EF. Vegetables, fruits and cereals with local origin have the lower value of EF and the ratio proposed in the optimized Eco-menus must be increased in order to generate a

Ecological Footprint and Carbon Footprint of Organic

upwellings

Vol.32,pp. 341-345

16 ,No.2 ,pp. 150–167

Organisation, Rome.

*Pract.,*Vol. 12, pp.35–47.

16,pp. 223–248.

Plan. High. Ed. March–May.

and Conventional Agrofoods Production, Processing and Services 57

Christensen V., Walters C.( 2004). Ecopath with Ecosim: methods, capabilities and

Coll M., Shannon L. J., Moloney C. L., Palomera I., Tudela S.( 2006). Comparing trophic

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Conway, T.M., Dalton, C., Loo, J., Benakoun, L. (2008). Developing ecological footprint

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Klein-Banai, C., Theis, T.L., Brecheisen, T.A., Banai, A. (2010). A greenhouse gas inventory

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Li, G.J., Wang, Q., Gu, X.W., Liu, J.X., Ding, Y., Liang, G.Y. (2008). Application of the

Rees, W.E. (1992).Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics leaves out. *J. Environment and Urbanisation* ,Vol.4,No.2,pp.121–130. Rees, W.E., Wackernagal, M. (1996). Urban ecological footprints andwhycities cannot be

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Venetoulis, J. (2001). Assessing the ecological impact of a university: the ecological footprint for the University of Redlands*. Int. J. Sustainability High*. Ed. 2,pp. 180–196. Wackernagel, M.(1991).Land Use: Measuring a Community's Appropriated Carrying

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Thesis, The Ohio State University, Columbus.

university campus. *Ecol. Indic.* Vol.8, pp.75–78.

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significant reducing of total EF. The results also indicate that using low-carbon fish (mackerel, herring) and meats (chicken, turkey) can reduce substantially a meal's average carbon footprint. *Promoting the daily menu planning including vegetable from proximity sources (short chain producers), the public catering system could have three types of advantages: nutritional, ecological and financial.* A rational and efficient network composed from a biological agriculture source of agrofoods and an environmental friendly transportation facilities generate the best result in the reducing total EF of the final ready to eat product. By reducing the quantities of meat, especially beef and sea fish and increasing the proportion of locally organic cereals, potatoes and fruits a reducing with 50% of total daily food EF is possible in case of a eco-attitude adopted in the public institution.

With the further development of international free market economy, the living standard and living quality of people will be improved constantly, which certainly will due to a constantly increasing of energy and raw material consummation.

A global eco-strategy must be constructed in the near future in order to reduce our actual EF on the individual, institutional and national scale

#### **5. Acknowledgment**

The author would like to thank the UGAL Rector Prof. Minzu Viorel, UGAL General administration Head Ms.Narcisa Condrea, UGAL Canteen Administration Head Mr.Bichescu Cezar and his collaborator Ms.Onofrei Nicoleta. Further, the author would to express a special thank you to all the collaborators from AgroBio 35 Mr.Jaffre, Conseil Regional de Bretagne Ms. Rouger, Manger Bio35 Mr.Gabillard, Association Solidarite 35 Mr.Venien and Ms.Sinequin, Scarabee BioCoop Mr.Chevalier, FRCIVAM Mr.Marechal, Inter Bio Bretagne Ms.Fassel, Les Quisines du Quotidien Mr.Mariot.

#### **6. References**

significant reducing of total EF. The results also indicate that using low-carbon fish (mackerel, herring) and meats (chicken, turkey) can reduce substantially a meal's average carbon footprint. *Promoting the daily menu planning including vegetable from proximity sources (short chain producers), the public catering system could have three types of advantages: nutritional, ecological and financial.* A rational and efficient network composed from a biological agriculture source of agrofoods and an environmental friendly transportation facilities generate the best result in the reducing total EF of the final ready to eat product. By reducing the quantities of meat, especially beef and sea fish and increasing the proportion of locally organic cereals, potatoes and fruits a reducing with 50% of total daily food EF is

With the further development of international free market economy, the living standard and living quality of people will be improved constantly, which certainly will due to a

A global eco-strategy must be constructed in the near future in order to reduce our actual EF

The author would like to thank the UGAL Rector Prof. Minzu Viorel, UGAL General administration Head Ms.Narcisa Condrea, UGAL Canteen Administration Head Mr.Bichescu Cezar and his collaborator Ms.Onofrei Nicoleta. Further, the author would to express a special thank you to all the collaborators from AgroBio 35 Mr.Jaffre, Conseil Regional de Bretagne Ms. Rouger, Manger Bio35 Mr.Gabillard, Association Solidarite 35 Mr.Venien and Ms.Sinequin, Scarabee BioCoop Mr.Chevalier, FRCIVAM Mr.Marechal,

Arrow K., Bolin B., Costanza R., Dasgupta P., Folke C., Holling C.S., Jansson B.-O., Levin

Albino V. and Kühtz S. (2002). Environmental footprint of industrial districts using

Burgess, B., Lai, J.( 2006). Ecological Footprint Analysis and Review: Kwantlen University

Chambers, N., Simmons, C., Wackernagel, M. (2000). Sharing Nature's Interest: Ecological Footprints as an Indicator of Sustainability. *Earthscan Publications* Ltd.,London *Chambers N. and Lewis K. (2001). Ecological footprint analysis: towards a sustainability indicator*

Carbon Trust.(2006). Energy and Carbon Conversion. The Carbon Trust, London

Bagliani M., Ferlaino F. and Procopio S. (2002). Ecological footprint and inputoutput methodology: the analysis of the environmental sustainability of the economic sectors of Piedmont Region (Italy), *14th International Conference on Input-*

input/output tables based on production processes, *14th International Conference on*

*for business.* Research Report No. 65, *Association of Chartered Certified Accountants,*

possible in case of a eco-attitude adopted in the public institution.

constantly increasing of energy and raw material consummation.

Inter Bio Bretagne Ms.Fassel, Les Quisines du Quotidien Mr.Mariot.

on the individual, institutional and national scale

*Output Techniques*, Montréal

*Input-Output Techniques*, Montréal

**5. Acknowledgment**

**6. References**

College

*London*

**4**

*Iran*

Ali Aberoumand

**Assessment of Proximate and**

**Phytochemical Composition for**

**Evaluation of Nutritive Values of Some**

*Behbahan Khatemolanbia Technology University, Khuzestan Province,*

**Plant Foods Obtained from Iran and India**

The green Revolution and subsequent efforts through the application of science and technology for increasing food production in India have brought self-reliance in food. The impetus given by the Government, State Agricultural Universities, State departments of Agricultural and other organizations through the evolution and introduction of numerous hybrid varieties of cereals, legumes, fruits and vegetables and improved management practices have resulted increased food production. However, the nation still faces the problem of the use of improper methods for the storage of food stuffs, leading to great wastage of the food produced. Such loses in the food front aggravate the existing

Fruits and vegetables, which are among the perishable commodities, are important ingredients in the human dietaries. Due to their high nutritive value, they make significant nutritional contribution to human well-being. The perishable fruits and vegetables are available as seasonal surpluses during certain parts of the year in different regions and are wasted in large quantities due to absence of facilities and know-low for proper handling, distribution, marketing and storage. Furthermore, massive amounts of the perishable fruits and vegetables, produced during a particular season result in a glut in the market and become scarce during other seasons. Neither can they all be consumed in fresh condition nor

In developing countries agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. As such, it should be no surprise that agricultural industries and related activities can account for a considerable proportion of their output. Of the various types of activities that can be termed as agriculturally based, fruits and vegetables processing are among the most important. Therefore, fruits and vegetables processing has been engaging the attention of planners and policy makers as it can contribute to the economic development of rural population. The utilization of resources both material and human is one of the ways of improving the economic status of family.All forms of preserved fruits are in the reach of only the urban elite, and the rural masses who produce more than 90% of theses fruits and vegetables are

**1. Introduction**

syndromes of under nutrition and malnutrition.

sold at economically viable prices.

usually deprived of their usage.

### **Assessment of Proximate and Phytochemical Composition for Evaluation of Nutritive Values of Some Plant Foods Obtained from Iran and India**

Ali Aberoumand

*Behbahan Khatemolanbia Technology University, Khuzestan Province, Iran*

#### **1. Introduction**

58 Research in Organic Farming

Wackernagel, M., Rees, W. (1996). Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the

Wackernagel et al.(2002). Tracking the ecological overshoot of the human economy, Edward

Wright, E.P.( 2002). The Ecological Footprint of the Colorado College: An Examination of

Earth. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, BC.

O. Wilson, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

Sustainability, Independent Study.

The green Revolution and subsequent efforts through the application of science and technology for increasing food production in India have brought self-reliance in food. The impetus given by the Government, State Agricultural Universities, State departments of Agricultural and other organizations through the evolution and introduction of numerous hybrid varieties of cereals, legumes, fruits and vegetables and improved management practices have resulted increased food production. However, the nation still faces the problem of the use of improper methods for the storage of food stuffs, leading to great wastage of the food produced. Such loses in the food front aggravate the existing syndromes of under nutrition and malnutrition.

Fruits and vegetables, which are among the perishable commodities, are important ingredients in the human dietaries. Due to their high nutritive value, they make significant nutritional contribution to human well-being. The perishable fruits and vegetables are available as seasonal surpluses during certain parts of the year in different regions and are wasted in large quantities due to absence of facilities and know-low for proper handling, distribution, marketing and storage. Furthermore, massive amounts of the perishable fruits and vegetables, produced during a particular season result in a glut in the market and become scarce during other seasons. Neither can they all be consumed in fresh condition nor sold at economically viable prices.

In developing countries agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. As such, it should be no surprise that agricultural industries and related activities can account for a considerable proportion of their output. Of the various types of activities that can be termed as agriculturally based, fruits and vegetables processing are among the most important. Therefore, fruits and vegetables processing has been engaging the attention of planners and policy makers as it can contribute to the economic development of rural population. The utilization of resources both material and human is one of the ways of improving the economic status of family.All forms of preserved fruits are in the reach of only the urban elite, and the rural masses who produce more than 90% of theses fruits and vegetables are usually deprived of their usage.

Assessment of Proximate and Phytochemical Composition for Evaluation

nutritional standards during the period of low availability.

**2. Nutritional values of fruits and vegetables**

spinach are used, riboflavin intake will be high.

of Nutritive Values of Some Plant Foods Obtained from Iran and India 61

Both established and planned fruit and vegetable processing projects aim at solving a very clearly identified development problem. This is that due to insufficient demand, weak infrastructure, poor transportation and perishable nature of the crops, the grower sustains substantial losses. During the post-harvest glut, the loss is considerable and often some of the produce has to be fed to animals or allowed to rot. Food processing, therefore, refers to the application of techniques to foods in a systematic manner for preventing losses through preservation, processing, packaging, storage and distribution, ultimately to ensure greater availability of a wide variety of foods which would help to improve the food intake and

The recommendation that the diet contain four servings fruits and vegetables does not emphasize the choices to be made within this group. Because foods in this group are so diverse in nutritional value, nutrition education programs promote the use of one serving of a citrus fruit or another fruit or vegetable high in ascorbic acid every day and a serving of dark green, yellow, or orange vegetables as a sources of vitamin A every other day. Because of the low caloric content of this group of foods, the INQ for vitamin C,A, and iron usually exceeds. In addition, valuable amounts of folacin, magnesium, and calcium will be contributed. In the vegetables and fruits, the amount of vitamin C present differs with the variety, the degree of maturity, the season, climatic conditions, the length and conditions of storage, ands the part of the plant used. The loss of nutrients in fruits and vegetables begins right after harvest and may be especially rapid in the first few hours. In addition to losses caused by oxidation, further loss can be attributed to the removal of parts of the plant during preparation to make the product moiré palatable. Since relatively few of the few of the dark green or yellow fruits and vegetables that are rich sources of carotene are popular or inexpensive items in the diet, a realistic approach to a food guide suggests the use of these every other day. this is additionally justified because of the stability of vitamin A and carotene and because foods that are rich sources usually provide more than the day's allowance in one serving. Thus a daily intake of foods high in vitamin A value, although desirable, id not absolutely necessary. The vitamin A value of typical dark green and yellow vegetables varies with the degree of pigmentation. Aside from the unique contribution of carotene and vitamin C, the fruits and vegetables group contributes about 25% of the day,s intake of iron. The amount of iron varies with the foods and parts chosen: iron content is higher in leaves than in stems, fruits, or underground portions. The absorption of iron from fruits and vegetables is less than 5%, primarily because of the high cellulose and phytic acid found in most vegetables. On the other hand, the vitamin C found in many fruits enhances iron absorption. The trace mineral content of fruits and vegetables depends on the amount present in the soil in which the plant was grown. The diverse geographical sources of fruits and vegetables and modern systems of transporting produce to market reduce the chance of a low intake. Calcium intake from fruits and vegetables is small compared to that from the milk group but will assume more importance if milk intake is low. If peas or beans are chosen , a rich source of thiamin is provided, and if dark green leafy vegetables such as

Generally fruits and vegetables are poor sources of protein, and that present is of low biological value because of a lack of some essential amino acids. Roots and tubers contain

India has made a fairly good progress on the Horticulture Map of the world with a total annual production of Fruits and Vegetables touching over 131 Million Tonnes during 1998- 99. Today, India is the second largest producer of the Fruits (44 Million Tones) and vegetables(87.5 Million Tones) as mentioned in Indian Horticulture Database-2000 published by National Horticulture Board. Our share in the world production is about 10.1 per cent in fruits and 14.4 per cent in vegetables. The Horticulture crops cover about 8 per cent of the total area contributing about 20 per cent of the gross agricultural output in the country. India produces 41.7% of the world mangoes. 25.7% of the bananas and 13.6 per cent of the world onion. However, the productivity of fruits and vegetables grown in the country is low as compared to the developed countries. The overall productivity of fruits is 11.8 tonnes per hac. And vegetables is 14.9 tonnes per hac.

Table 1. Major World Producers of Fruits and Vegetables(1998-1999)\*

Through India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, out per capita consumption of fruits and vegetables for over one billion population is very low. More than 25 per cent of fruits and vegetables production is unfortunately wasted due to inadequate facilities for processing.  The processing includes pre-processing of fruits and vegetables before these are fit to be used for final conversation into processed foods. Delay in the use of harvested food takes away its freshness, palatability, appeal and nutritive value. Tropical fruits are luscious, juicy and pulpy. They can not be plucked early, cold-stored or subjected to controlled and long drawn out process as is possible in the case of fruits grown in temperate or cold regions. They are harvested at optimum maturity and processed or consumed promptly as they ripen because they require special attention and techniques. The Food preservation and processing industry has now become more of a necessity than being a luxury. It has an important role in the conservation and better utilization of fruits and vegetables. In order to avoid the glut and utilize the surplus during the season, it is necessary to employ modern methods to extend storage life for better distribution and also processing techniques to preserve them for utilization in the off season on both large scale and small scale.

India has made a fairly good progress on the Horticulture Map of the world with a total annual production of Fruits and Vegetables touching over 131 Million Tonnes during 1998- 99. Today, India is the second largest producer of the Fruits (44 Million Tones) and vegetables(87.5 Million Tones) as mentioned in Indian Horticulture Database-2000 published by National Horticulture Board. Our share in the world production is about 10.1 per cent in fruits and 14.4 per cent in vegetables. The Horticulture crops cover about 8 per cent of the total area contributing about 20 per cent of the gross agricultural output in the country. India produces 41.7% of the world mangoes. 25.7% of the bananas and 13.6 per cent of the world onion. However, the productivity of fruits and vegetables grown in the country is low as compared to the developed countries. The overall productivity of fruits is 11.8

Fruits Vegetables

Through India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, out per capita consumption of fruits and vegetables for over one billion population is very low. More than 25 per cent of fruits and vegetables production is unfortunately wasted due to inadequate facilities for processing.  The processing includes pre-processing of fruits and vegetables before these are fit to be used for final conversation into processed foods. Delay in the use of harvested food takes away its freshness, palatability, appeal and nutritive value. Tropical fruits are luscious, juicy and pulpy. They can not be plucked early, cold-stored or subjected to controlled and long drawn out process as is possible in the case of fruits grown in temperate or cold regions. They are harvested at optimum maturity and processed or consumed promptly as they ripen because they require special attention and techniques. The Food preservation and processing industry has now become more of a necessity than being a luxury. It has an important role in the conservation and better utilization of fruits and vegetables. In order to avoid the glut and utilize the surplus during the season, it is necessary to employ modern methods to extend storage life for better distribution and also processing techniques to preserve them for utilization in the off season on both large scale

Country Production (tones per hac)

WORLD 606053 INDIA 87536 CHINA 237136 USA 34924 TURKEY 21743 ITALY 14501 JAPAN 13629 IRAN 12751 EGYPT 12379 RUSSIAN 12098 SPAIN 11496

tonnes per hac. And vegetables is 14.9 tonnes per hac.

Table 1. Major World Producers of Fruits and Vegetables(1998-1999)\*

Country Production (tones per hac)

WORLD 434703 INDIA 44042 CHINA 53926 BRAZIL 37179 USA 31494 ITALY 17676 SPAIN 13323 MEXICO 12342 FRANCE 10863 TURKEY 10263 PHILIPPINES 10160

and small scale.

Both established and planned fruit and vegetable processing projects aim at solving a very clearly identified development problem. This is that due to insufficient demand, weak infrastructure, poor transportation and perishable nature of the crops, the grower sustains substantial losses. During the post-harvest glut, the loss is considerable and often some of the produce has to be fed to animals or allowed to rot. Food processing, therefore, refers to the application of techniques to foods in a systematic manner for preventing losses through preservation, processing, packaging, storage and distribution, ultimately to ensure greater availability of a wide variety of foods which would help to improve the food intake and nutritional standards during the period of low availability.

#### **2. Nutritional values of fruits and vegetables**

The recommendation that the diet contain four servings fruits and vegetables does not emphasize the choices to be made within this group. Because foods in this group are so diverse in nutritional value, nutrition education programs promote the use of one serving of a citrus fruit or another fruit or vegetable high in ascorbic acid every day and a serving of dark green, yellow, or orange vegetables as a sources of vitamin A every other day. Because of the low caloric content of this group of foods, the INQ for vitamin C,A, and iron usually exceeds. In addition, valuable amounts of folacin, magnesium, and calcium will be contributed. In the vegetables and fruits, the amount of vitamin C present differs with the variety, the degree of maturity, the season, climatic conditions, the length and conditions of storage, ands the part of the plant used. The loss of nutrients in fruits and vegetables begins right after harvest and may be especially rapid in the first few hours. In addition to losses caused by oxidation, further loss can be attributed to the removal of parts of the plant during preparation to make the product moiré palatable. Since relatively few of the few of the dark green or yellow fruits and vegetables that are rich sources of carotene are popular or inexpensive items in the diet, a realistic approach to a food guide suggests the use of these every other day. this is additionally justified because of the stability of vitamin A and carotene and because foods that are rich sources usually provide more than the day's allowance in one serving. Thus a daily intake of foods high in vitamin A value, although desirable, id not absolutely necessary. The vitamin A value of typical dark green and yellow vegetables varies with the degree of pigmentation. Aside from the unique contribution of carotene and vitamin C, the fruits and vegetables group contributes about 25% of the day,s intake of iron. The amount of iron varies with the foods and parts chosen: iron content is higher in leaves than in stems, fruits, or underground portions. The absorption of iron from fruits and vegetables is less than 5%, primarily because of the high cellulose and phytic acid found in most vegetables. On the other hand, the vitamin C found in many fruits enhances iron absorption. The trace mineral content of fruits and vegetables depends on the amount present in the soil in which the plant was grown. The diverse geographical sources of fruits and vegetables and modern systems of transporting produce to market reduce the chance of a low intake. Calcium intake from fruits and vegetables is small compared to that from the milk group but will assume more importance if milk intake is low. If peas or beans are chosen , a rich source of thiamin is provided, and if dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach are used, riboflavin intake will be high.

Generally fruits and vegetables are poor sources of protein, and that present is of low biological value because of a lack of some essential amino acids. Roots and tubers contain

Assessment of Proximate and Phytochemical Composition for Evaluation

The edible plant powder was used for the nutrients analyses.

**6. Determination of crude lipid and crude fibre content**

difference in weight was expressed as percentage crude lipid content.

**5. Proximate analysis**

on ignition, AOAC (1990).

nitrogen content (#984.13)(AOAC 1990).

**4. Preparation of the plant material for chemical analyses**

of Nutritive Values of Some Plant Foods Obtained from Iran and India 63

These fruits or vegetables were washed with distilled water and dried at room temperature to remove residual moisture, then placed in paper envelope and oven-dried at 55ºC for 24 hours (Abuye, Urga., Knapp, Selmar, Omwega, Imungi, & Winterhalter 2003). The dried fruit were ground into powder using pestle and mortar, and sieved through 20-mesh sieve.

The methods recommended by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) were used to determine ash (#942.05), crude lipid (#920.39), crude fibre (#962.09) and

Two grams of dried fruit or vegetable were weighed in a porous thimble of a Soxhlet apparatus, with its mouthed cotton wool plugged. The thimble was placed in an extraction chamber which was suspended above a pre-weighed receiving flask containing petroleum ether (b.p. 40-60ºC). The flask was heated on a heating mantle for eight hours to extract the crude lipid. After the extraction, the thimble was removed from the Soxhlet apparatus and the solvent distilled off. The flask containing the crude lipid was heated in the oven at 100ºC for 30 minutes to evaporate the solvent, then cooled in a dessicator, and reweighed. The

Crude fibre was estimated by acid-base digestion with 1.25% H2SO4 (prepared by diluting 7.2 ml of 94% conc. acid of specific gravity 1.835g ml-1 per 1000 ml distilled water) and 1.25% NaOH (12.5 g per 1000 ml distilled water) solutions. The residue after crude lipid extraction was put into a 600 ml beaker and 200 ml of boiling 1.25% H2SO4 added. The contents were boiled for 30 minutes, cooled, filtered through a filter paper and the residue washed three times with 50 ml aliquots of boiling water. The washed residue was returned to the original beaker and further digested by boiling in 200 ml of 1.25% NaOH for 30 minutes. The digest was filtered to obtain the residue. This was washed three times with 50 ml aliquots of boiling water and finally with 25 ml ethanol. The washed residue was dried in an oven at 130ºC to constant weight and cooled in a dessicator. The residue was scraped into a pre–weighed porcelain crucible, weighed, ashed at 550ºC for two hours, cooled in a dessicator and reweighed. Crude fibre content was expressed as percentage loss in weight

**7. Determination of nitrogen content and estimation of crude protein**

Macro–Kjeldahl method was used to determine the nitrogen content of the stem. 2g of dried stem were digested in a 100 ml Kjeldahl digestion flask by boiling with 10 ml of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid and a Kjeldahl digestion tablet (a catalyst) until the mixture was clear. The digest was filtered into a 100 ml volumetric flask and the solution made up to 100 ml with distilled water. Ammonia in the digest was steam distilled from 10 ml of the digest to which had been added 20 ml of 45% sodium hydroxide solution. The ammonia liberated was collected in 50 ml of 20% boric acid solution containing a mixed

2% protein and 20% carbohydrates, whereas legumes such as pea and beans have 4% protein and 13% carbohydrate.

The energy contribution of the fruit and vegetable group is generally low because of the high proportion of cellulose and water and low fat content. Immature seeds, such as peas and beans, and starchy tubers, such as potatoes, contribute two to eight times as many calories per serving as do celery , carrots, spinach, and cabbage, which are high in cellulose and water but low in starch. One must remember, however, that the caloric contribution of a fruit or vegetable dish may be double or triple that of the basic food alone, depending on the way it is prepared. Another important nutritional benefit from the use of fruits and vegetables is the bulk provided by fiber. This promotes normal gastrointestinal motility and greatly facilitates the passage of food through the digestive tract, helping to prevent constipation. Recent evidence that low dietary fiber may be responsible for the increasing incidence of diverticulosis and that it may be associated with cancer of the colon is further reason to use fruits and vegetables.

Millions of people in many developing countries do not have enough food to meet their daily requirements and a further more people are deficient in one or more micronutrients (FAO 2004).Thus, in most cases rural communities depend on wild resources including wild edible plants to meet their food needs in periods of food crisis. we introduce plants selected for present investigation, from nutritive values point of view. Plant species selected were: *Alocacia indica Sch.,Asparagus officinalis DC.*, *Chlorophytum comosum Linn., Cordia Myxa Roxb., Eulophia Ochreata Lindl., Momordica dioicia Roxb., Portulaca oleracia Linn. and Solanum indicum Linn.* It contains importance of selected food plants, their necessity of utilization and the occurrence in natural conditions in south regions of Iran and Maharashtra state such as around of Pune in India.

Selected wild edible plants were collected from various localities of Maharashtra( India) and Iran. Three wild edible plants were collected from India to names of *Alocacia indica, Momordica dioica* and *Eulophia ochreata* in September 2006. Five wild edible plants were collected from Iran to names *Asparagus officinalis, Chlorophytum comosum, Codia myxa, Portulaca oleracia* and *Solanum indicum* collected from Iran in October 2006 and April 2007. Efforts made to collect these plants in flowering and fruiting conditions for the correct botanical identification. Healthy and disease free edible plant part/s selected and dried them under shade so as to prevent the decomposition of chemical compounds present in them. All the dried material powdered in blander for further study.

#### **3. Materials and methods**

#### **3.1 Plant material**

Plant foods such as Cordia myxa R. fruit ,Alocacia indica S. Stem, Asparagus officinalis DC. Stem , Momordica dioicia R. fruit, Eulophia ochreata L. tubers, Solanum indicum L. leaves, Portulaca oleracia L. Leaves and Stem, Chlorophytum comosum L. root tubers used as experimental material were collected from farm lands in Agricultural Research Central of Dezful , Khuzestan province, Iran and around Pune, India in October 2007. The collected plant material was placed in a polyethylene bag to prevent loss of moisture during transportation to the laboratory. Taxonomic identification of the plant was carried out at the Botany unit, Ramin Agricultural University, Ahvaz. Iran.

#### **4. Preparation of the plant material for chemical analyses**

These fruits or vegetables were washed with distilled water and dried at room temperature to remove residual moisture, then placed in paper envelope and oven-dried at 55ºC for 24 hours (Abuye, Urga., Knapp, Selmar, Omwega, Imungi, & Winterhalter 2003). The dried fruit were ground into powder using pestle and mortar, and sieved through 20-mesh sieve. The edible plant powder was used for the nutrients analyses.

#### **5. Proximate analysis**

62 Research in Organic Farming

2% protein and 20% carbohydrates, whereas legumes such as pea and beans have 4%

The energy contribution of the fruit and vegetable group is generally low because of the high proportion of cellulose and water and low fat content. Immature seeds, such as peas and beans, and starchy tubers, such as potatoes, contribute two to eight times as many calories per serving as do celery , carrots, spinach, and cabbage, which are high in cellulose and water but low in starch. One must remember, however, that the caloric contribution of a fruit or vegetable dish may be double or triple that of the basic food alone, depending on the way it is prepared. Another important nutritional benefit from the use of fruits and vegetables is the bulk provided by fiber. This promotes normal gastrointestinal motility and greatly facilitates the passage of food through the digestive tract, helping to prevent constipation. Recent evidence that low dietary fiber may be responsible for the increasing incidence of diverticulosis and that it may be associated with cancer of the colon is further

Millions of people in many developing countries do not have enough food to meet their daily requirements and a further more people are deficient in one or more micronutrients (FAO 2004).Thus, in most cases rural communities depend on wild resources including wild edible plants to meet their food needs in periods of food crisis. we introduce plants selected for present investigation, from nutritive values point of view. Plant species selected were: *Alocacia indica Sch.,Asparagus officinalis DC.*, *Chlorophytum comosum Linn., Cordia Myxa Roxb., Eulophia Ochreata Lindl., Momordica dioicia Roxb., Portulaca oleracia Linn. and Solanum indicum Linn.* It contains importance of selected food plants, their necessity of utilization and the occurrence in natural conditions in south regions of Iran and Maharashtra state such as

Selected wild edible plants were collected from various localities of Maharashtra( India) and Iran. Three wild edible plants were collected from India to names of *Alocacia indica, Momordica dioica* and *Eulophia ochreata* in September 2006. Five wild edible plants were collected from Iran to names *Asparagus officinalis, Chlorophytum comosum, Codia myxa, Portulaca oleracia* and *Solanum indicum* collected from Iran in October 2006 and April 2007. Efforts made to collect these plants in flowering and fruiting conditions for the correct botanical identification. Healthy and disease free edible plant part/s selected and dried them under shade so as to prevent the decomposition of chemical compounds present in

Plant foods such as Cordia myxa R. fruit ,Alocacia indica S. Stem, Asparagus officinalis DC. Stem , Momordica dioicia R. fruit, Eulophia ochreata L. tubers, Solanum indicum L. leaves, Portulaca oleracia L. Leaves and Stem, Chlorophytum comosum L. root tubers used as experimental material were collected from farm lands in Agricultural Research Central of Dezful , Khuzestan province, Iran and around Pune, India in October 2007. The collected plant material was placed in a polyethylene bag to prevent loss of moisture during transportation to the laboratory. Taxonomic identification of the plant was carried out at the

them. All the dried material powdered in blander for further study.

Botany unit, Ramin Agricultural University, Ahvaz. Iran.

protein and 13% carbohydrate.

reason to use fruits and vegetables.

around of Pune in India.

**3. Materials and methods**

**3.1 Plant material**

The methods recommended by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) were used to determine ash (#942.05), crude lipid (#920.39), crude fibre (#962.09) and nitrogen content (#984.13)(AOAC 1990).

#### **6. Determination of crude lipid and crude fibre content**

Two grams of dried fruit or vegetable were weighed in a porous thimble of a Soxhlet apparatus, with its mouthed cotton wool plugged. The thimble was placed in an extraction chamber which was suspended above a pre-weighed receiving flask containing petroleum ether (b.p. 40-60ºC). The flask was heated on a heating mantle for eight hours to extract the crude lipid. After the extraction, the thimble was removed from the Soxhlet apparatus and the solvent distilled off. The flask containing the crude lipid was heated in the oven at 100ºC for 30 minutes to evaporate the solvent, then cooled in a dessicator, and reweighed. The difference in weight was expressed as percentage crude lipid content.

Crude fibre was estimated by acid-base digestion with 1.25% H2SO4 (prepared by diluting 7.2 ml of 94% conc. acid of specific gravity 1.835g ml-1 per 1000 ml distilled water) and 1.25% NaOH (12.5 g per 1000 ml distilled water) solutions. The residue after crude lipid extraction was put into a 600 ml beaker and 200 ml of boiling 1.25% H2SO4 added. The contents were boiled for 30 minutes, cooled, filtered through a filter paper and the residue washed three times with 50 ml aliquots of boiling water. The washed residue was returned to the original beaker and further digested by boiling in 200 ml of 1.25% NaOH for 30 minutes. The digest was filtered to obtain the residue. This was washed three times with 50 ml aliquots of boiling water and finally with 25 ml ethanol. The washed residue was dried in an oven at 130ºC to constant weight and cooled in a dessicator. The residue was scraped into a pre–weighed porcelain crucible, weighed, ashed at 550ºC for two hours, cooled in a dessicator and reweighed. Crude fibre content was expressed as percentage loss in weight on ignition, AOAC (1990).

#### **7. Determination of nitrogen content and estimation of crude protein**

Macro–Kjeldahl method was used to determine the nitrogen content of the stem. 2g of dried stem were digested in a 100 ml Kjeldahl digestion flask by boiling with 10 ml of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid and a Kjeldahl digestion tablet (a catalyst) until the mixture was clear. The digest was filtered into a 100 ml volumetric flask and the solution made up to 100 ml with distilled water. Ammonia in the digest was steam distilled from 10 ml of the digest to which had been added 20 ml of 45% sodium hydroxide solution. The ammonia liberated was collected in 50 ml of 20% boric acid solution containing a mixed

Assessment of Proximate and Phytochemical Composition for Evaluation

**Ash(%)**

**(%) Fat(%) Total**

**Samples Protein**

*Alocacia*

*Asparagus*

*Portulaca*

*Momordica*

*Eulophia*

*Solanum*

*Cordia myxa*

*Chlorophytum comosum Linn*

edible plants obtained from India and Iran.

edible plants obtained from India and Iran.

eight edible plants obtained from India and Iran.

of Nutritive Values of Some Plant Foods Obtained from Iran and India 65

*indica Sch* 5.7 3.29 7.3 11.05 8.06 2.1 2.09 60.41 72.66

*officinalis DC* 32.69 3.44 10.7 18.5 6.86 1.53 N.D 26.28 34.67

*oleracia Linn* 23.47 5.26 22.6 8.0 0.86 0.01 N.D 39.8 40.67

*dioicia Roxb* 19.38 4.7 6.7 21.3 3.97 1.47 0.23 42.25 47.92

*ochreata Lindl* 5.44 3.25 9.1 22.9 1.62 1.48 0.46 55.75 59.31

*indicum Linn* 12.85 13.76 11.0 23.9 5.21 3.19 0.59 29.5 38.49

Table 2. Amounts of protein, fat, ash, fiber, fructose, glucose, sucrose and starch of eight

*Alocacia indica Sch* 312.4 7.9 *Asparagus officinalis DC* 340.8 0.8 *Portulaca oleracia Linn* 823.6 16.9 *Momordica dioicia Roxb* 284.2 9.3 *Eulophia ochreata Lindl* 255.6 3.1 *Solanum indicum Linn* 695.8 10.6 *Cordia myxa Roxb* 248.0 1.39 *Chlorophytum comosum Linn* 468.8 4.7

Table 3. Total Phytic acid inhibitor compound and amount of Tripsin inhibitor of eight

*Alocacia indica Sch* 0.87 N.D *Asparagus officinalis DC* 3.17 6.56 *Portulaca oleracia Linn* 5.86 11.6 *Momordica dioicia Roxb* 3.69 4.5 *Eulophia ochreata Lindl* 2.43 6.32 *Solanum indicum Linn* 7.02 N.D *Cordia myxa Roxb* 4.02 2.2 *Chlorophytum comosum Linn* 1.36 N.D

Table 4. Total phenolic compound(Antioxidant) and amount of Vitamin E(Antioxidant) of

*Roxb* 8.32 2.2 6.7 25.7 9.38 12.75 29.09 5.86 57.08

4.54 2.0 10.38 17.24 7.82 3.41 3.07 51.54 65.84

**Samples Phytic acid mg/100g Trypsin Inhibator (TIU/g)**

**Samples Total phenolic compound mg/g Vitamin E mg/100g**

**Fructose g/100g**

**Glucose g/100g**

**Sucrose g/100g**

**Starch g/100g**

**Total sugarg/ 100g**

**Fiber %**

indicator. Ammonia was estimated by titrating with standard 0.01 mol L-1 HCl solution. Blank determination was carried out in a similar manner. Crude protein was estimated by multiplying the value obtained for percentage nitrogen content by a factor of 6.25, AOAC(1990).

#### **8. Estimation of carbohydrates and energy values**

Available carbohydrate was estimated by difference, by subtracting the total sum of percent crude protein, crude lipid, crude fibre and ash from 100% DW of the fruit The plant calorific value (in kJ) was estimated by multiplying the percentages of crude protein, crude lipid and carbohydrate by the factors 16.7, 37.7 and 16.7 respectively, AOAC(1990).

#### **9. Mineral analysis**

The mineral elements Na, K, Ca, Fe, and Zn were determined on 0.3g fruits powder by the methods of Funtua, ,Funtua and Trace (1999); Funtua (2004). using Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) transmission emission spectrometer carrying an annuar 25 mCi 109Cd isotopic excitation source that emits Ag-K X-ray (22.1 keV) and a Mo X-ray tube (50KV, 5mA) with thick foil of pure Mo used as target material for absorption correction. The system had a Canberra Si (Li) detector with a resolution of 170eV at 5.9keV line and was coupled to a computer controlled ADCCard (Trump 8K). Measurements were carried out in duplicate. Na was analyzed after wet digestion of one gr. of the fruits powder with nitric/perchloric/sulphuric acid (9:2:1 v/v/v) mixture. Sodium was analyzed with a Corning 400 flame photometer,AOAC (1990).

**Proximate analyses** were performed in triplicate according to standard methods 44-19, 46- 13, 30-25 and 08-16 of the AACC (1984), using a Goldfisch (Labconco Corp., Kansas City, MO) apparatus for fat extraction with hexane and total lipid extraction with methanol:chloroform (2:1, v/v), and a nitrogen to protein conversion factor of 6.25. Total carbohydrate content was determined by the phenol-sulfuric acid method described by Dubois et al. (1956), using raffinose as a standard. Low molecular weight sugars were analyzed by high resolution gas chromatography (Karoutis et al., 1992). Total starch was determined as glucose after hydrolysis of starch with amyloglucosidase (1,600 activity unit/g, from Rhizopus) (Sigma-Aldrich Canada Ltd., Oakville, ON). The reaction of the resultant glucose with *o*-toluidine was then colourimetrically measured (Chiang and Johnson, 1977). Total dietary fibre (TDF) was determined according to the AOAC (1985) procedure using Sigma total dietary fibre assay kit TDF-C10 (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO). Colour was evaluated with a HunterLab Colour Difference Meter (Colour QUEST, Hunter Associates Laboratory, Inc., Reston, VA) equipped with Illuminant D65

#### **10. Analysis of antinutritional factors**

Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) was determined by a modification of the procedure of Kakade et al. (1974) as described by Smith et al. (1980) and Hamerstrand et al. (1981). All samples were defatted at room temperature (approximately 23ºC) for 9 h using a wristaction shaker with three solvent replacements in order to avoid any destructive effect of heat on the TIA of the samples.

*Total phenolic assay: phenolic compounds were analyzed accordance standard method.*

indicator. Ammonia was estimated by titrating with standard 0.01 mol L-1 HCl solution. Blank determination was carried out in a similar manner. Crude protein was estimated by multiplying the value obtained for percentage nitrogen content by a factor of 6.25,

Available carbohydrate was estimated by difference, by subtracting the total sum of percent crude protein, crude lipid, crude fibre and ash from 100% DW of the fruit The plant calorific value (in kJ) was estimated by multiplying the percentages of crude protein, crude lipid and

The mineral elements Na, K, Ca, Fe, and Zn were determined on 0.3g fruits powder by the methods of Funtua, ,Funtua and Trace (1999); Funtua (2004). using Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) transmission emission spectrometer carrying an annuar 25 mCi 109Cd isotopic excitation source that emits Ag-K X-ray (22.1 keV) and a Mo X-ray tube (50KV, 5mA) with thick foil of pure Mo used as target material for absorption correction. The system had a Canberra Si (Li) detector with a resolution of 170eV at 5.9keV line and was coupled to a computer controlled ADCCard (Trump 8K). Measurements were carried out in duplicate. Na was analyzed after wet digestion of one gr. of the fruits powder with nitric/perchloric/sulphuric acid (9:2:1 v/v/v) mixture. Sodium was analyzed with a

**Proximate analyses** were performed in triplicate according to standard methods 44-19, 46- 13, 30-25 and 08-16 of the AACC (1984), using a Goldfisch (Labconco Corp., Kansas City, MO) apparatus for fat extraction with hexane and total lipid extraction with methanol:chloroform (2:1, v/v), and a nitrogen to protein conversion factor of 6.25. Total carbohydrate content was determined by the phenol-sulfuric acid method described by Dubois et al. (1956), using raffinose as a standard. Low molecular weight sugars were analyzed by high resolution gas chromatography (Karoutis et al., 1992). Total starch was determined as glucose after hydrolysis of starch with amyloglucosidase (1,600 activity unit/g, from Rhizopus) (Sigma-Aldrich Canada Ltd., Oakville, ON). The reaction of the resultant glucose with *o*-toluidine was then colourimetrically measured (Chiang and Johnson, 1977). Total dietary fibre (TDF) was determined according to the AOAC (1985) procedure using Sigma total dietary fibre assay kit TDF-C10 (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO). Colour was evaluated with a HunterLab Colour Difference Meter (Colour QUEST,

Hunter Associates Laboratory, Inc., Reston, VA) equipped with Illuminant D65

*Total phenolic assay: phenolic compounds were analyzed accordance standard method.*

Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) was determined by a modification of the procedure of Kakade et al. (1974) as described by Smith et al. (1980) and Hamerstrand et al. (1981). All samples were defatted at room temperature (approximately 23ºC) for 9 h using a wristaction shaker with three solvent replacements in order to avoid any destructive effect of heat

**8. Estimation of carbohydrates and energy values**

Corning 400 flame photometer,AOAC (1990).

**10. Analysis of antinutritional factors**

on the TIA of the samples.

carbohydrate by the factors 16.7, 37.7 and 16.7 respectively, AOAC(1990).

AOAC(1990).

**9. Mineral analysis**

Table 2. Amounts of protein, fat, ash, fiber, fructose, glucose, sucrose and starch of eight edible plants obtained from India and Iran.

Table 3. Total Phytic acid inhibitor compound and amount of Tripsin inhibitor of eight edible plants obtained from India and Iran.

Table 4. Total phenolic compound(Antioxidant) and amount of Vitamin E(Antioxidant) of eight edible plants obtained from India and Iran.

Assessment of Proximate and Phytochemical Composition for Evaluation

capacity of the body to utilize amino acids and proteins.

 Momordica*(19.38%) have protein medium value.

*Eulophia ochreata Lindl*. contains calcium medium value (7.37mg/g).

of Nutritive Values of Some Plant Foods Obtained from Iran and India 67

vegetables is small compared to that from the milk group but will assume more importance if milk intake is low. Vitamins and minerals present in the diet are necessary for normal growth and metabolism and influence the utilization of other nutrients such as protein. The deficiency of essential vitamins or minerals leads to several physiological disorders and diseases, slowed growth, and lack of deposition of proteins in tissues. An adequate supply of B- complex vitamins is necessary for critical protein utilization. The deficiency of minerals such as potassium, phosphorus, sodium, calcium, and magnesium also influences the

Sodium values of eight samples above in this study in order to mg/g were obtained 4.4, 1.84, 3.95, 1.62, 1.62, 1.51, 7.17and1.51 respectively. *Portulaca oleracia Linn.*contains the highest value of sodium and *Momordica dioicia Roxb*.,or *Solanum indicum Linn*.contain the least values of sodium. *Alocacia indica Sch.* Contains sodium medium value(4.4mg/g). Potassium values of eight samples above in this research in order to mg/g were obtained 3.4,10.94,4.29,7.83,4.63,8.25,14.71and 8.32 respectively. *Portulaca oleracia Linn*. contains the highest potassium value and *Alocacia indica Sch*.contains the least potassium value. *Cordia*

Calcium values of the samples above in order to mg/g were obtained 0.88, 0.67, 13.14, 0.46, 7.37,0.46, 18.17 and 4.48 respectively. *Portulaca oleracia Linn*.contains the highest calcium value and *Momordica dioicia Roxb*.or *Cordia myxa Roxb*. Contain the least calcium value*.*

Iron values of eight samples in this research in order to mg/g were obtained 0.48, 0.19, 1.89, 0.51, 5.04, 0.14, 0.48 and 1.56 respectively. *Eulophia ochreata Lind*l. Contains highest iron value and *Momordica dioicia Roxb* contains the least iron value. *Chlorophytum comosum Linn*.

Zinc values of the samples above in this study in order to mg/g were obtained 1.21,2.60, 0.76, 0.35, 3.83, 1.34, 3.02 and 0.95 respectively. *Eulophia ochreata Lindl*. contains the highest zinc value and *Cordia myxa Roxb*. Contains the least zinc value. *Asparagus officinalis DC*.

Therefore, it is observed that *Portulaca oleracia Linn*. contains the high value of macroelements such as sodium, potassium, calcium and especially it have high ash value in comparison with others plants in this research. Therefore, *Portulaca oleracia Linn* has high nutritional value from standpoint of macro-elements. Because *Eulophia ochreata Lindl*. contains highest micro-elements such as iron and zinc in comparison with others plants in this study, it has high nutritional value from view of point of above trace(micro) elements. *Momordica dioicia Roxb*. *or Cordia myxa Roxb* have the minimum nutritional value, because they contain the least ash values and *Momordica dioicia Roxb*. has the least value of sodium and calcium, but *Cordia myxa Roxb*. has the least value of zinc. *Alocacia indica Sch.,Asparagus officinalis DC.*, *Chlorophytum comosum Linn., Cordia Myxa Roxb., Eulophia Ochreata Lindl.*have

Protein, Fat, and calorie values of eight samples in this research were compared, it is observed that *Asparagus*(32.69%) and *Portulaca* (23.47%)have the highest protein values respectively, *Chlorophytum*(4.54%), *Eulophia*(5.44%) and *Alocacia*(5.7%) have the least protein

*Solanum*(13.76%) has the highest Fat value and *Chlorophytum*(2%) has the least Fat value. *Portulaca*(5.26%) Fat value was approximately medium and the others samples have low

Table 5. Amounts of macro and trace elements and ash of eight edible plants obtained from Iran and India

Many studies have been done by various research workers all over the world by selecting one or more plants particularly leaves, fruits, roots, stem, food plants and so on but rarely by selecting a particular family. In this investigation work seven families *(Araceae, Liliaceae, Boraginaceae, Orchidaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Portulacaceae* and *Solanaceae*) are selected.

Plant species selected were: Alocacia indica Sch.,Asparagus officinalis DC., Chlorophytum comosum Linn., Cordia Myxa Roxb., Eulophia Ochreata Lindl., Momordica dioicia Roxb., Portulaca oleracia Linn. and Solanum indicum Linn.Total ash values of eight samples of Alocacia indica Sch., Asparagus officinalis DC Chlorophytum comosum Linn.,Cordia myxa Roxb., Eulophia ochreata Lindl., Momordica dioicia Roxb., Portulaca oleracia Linn. and Solanum indicum Linn. were obtained 7.3%, 10.7%,10.38%, 6.7%, 9.1%, 6.7%, 22.6% and 11.0% respectively.The most of ash value and the least of ash value were for Portulaca oleracia Linn.and Momodica dioicia Roxb.or Cordia myxa Roxb. respectively. The ash medium value was obtained for Eulophia ochreata Lindl.(9.1%), If ash value in sample is more than others, it's mineral values is more than others. If mineral values to be high it is observe that plant have high nutritional value, because these mineral compounds are same mineral compounds of human body if theses edible plants is consumed by human in normal conditions. Minerals in the diet are required for proper growth and good health. Those needed in macro, or major quantities are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sulfur, sodium, and chlorine, and those needed in micro( trace) amounts are iron, iodine, copper, cobalt, chromium, manganese, selenium, zinc, fluorine, and molybdenum. The cruciferous and many other vegetables are excellent sources of minerals, particularly of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, iron, sodium, and most of these minerals are present in the available form. The trace mineral content of fruits and vegetables depends on the amount present in the soil in which the plant was grown. The diverse geographical sources of fruits and vegetables and modern systems of transporting produce to market reduce the chance of a low intake. Calcium intake from fruits and

*Alocacia indica Sch.* 7.3 4.4 3.4 0.88 0.48 1.21 10.7 1.84 10.94 0.67 0.19 2.60 *Asparagus*

22.6 7.17 14.71 18.71 0.48 3.02 *Portulaca oleracia*

6.7 1.51 8.25 0.46 0.14 1.34 *Momordica dioicia*

9.1 1.62 4.63 7.37 5.04 3.83 *Eulophia ochreata*

11.0 1.51 8.32 4.48 10.56 0.95 *Solanum indicum*

*Cordia myxa Roxb.* 6.7 1.62 7.83 0.46 0.51 0.35 10.38 3.95 4.29 13.14 1.89 0.76 *Chlorophytum*

Table 5. Amounts of macro and trace elements and ash of eight edible plants obtained from

Many studies have been done by various research workers all over the world by selecting one or more plants particularly leaves, fruits, roots, stem, food plants and so on but rarely by selecting a particular family. In this investigation work seven families *(Araceae, Liliaceae,*

Plant species selected were: Alocacia indica Sch.,Asparagus officinalis DC., Chlorophytum comosum Linn., Cordia Myxa Roxb., Eulophia Ochreata Lindl., Momordica dioicia Roxb., Portulaca oleracia Linn. and Solanum indicum Linn.Total ash values of eight samples of Alocacia indica Sch., Asparagus officinalis DC Chlorophytum comosum Linn.,Cordia myxa Roxb., Eulophia ochreata Lindl., Momordica dioicia Roxb., Portulaca oleracia Linn. and Solanum indicum Linn. were obtained 7.3%, 10.7%,10.38%, 6.7%, 9.1%, 6.7%, 22.6% and 11.0% respectively.The most of ash value and the least of ash value were for Portulaca oleracia Linn.and Momodica dioicia Roxb.or Cordia myxa Roxb. respectively. The ash medium value was obtained for Eulophia ochreata Lindl.(9.1%), If ash value in sample is more than others, it's mineral values is more than others. If mineral values to be high it is observe that plant have high nutritional value, because these mineral compounds are same mineral compounds of human body if theses edible plants is consumed by human in normal conditions. Minerals in the diet are required for proper growth and good health. Those needed in macro, or major quantities are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sulfur, sodium, and chlorine, and those needed in micro( trace) amounts are iron, iodine, copper, cobalt, chromium, manganese, selenium, zinc, fluorine, and molybdenum. The cruciferous and many other vegetables are excellent sources of minerals, particularly of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, iron, sodium, and most of these minerals are present in the available form. The trace mineral content of fruits and vegetables depends on the amount present in the soil in which the plant was grown. The diverse geographical sources of fruits and vegetables and modern systems of transporting produce to market reduce the chance of a low intake. Calcium intake from fruits and

*Boraginaceae, Orchidaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Portulacaceae* and *Solanaceae*) are selected.

**Sodium (Na ) mg/g**

**Total**

**Ash(%) Samples**

*officinalis DC.*

*Linn.*

*Roxb.*

*Lindl.*

*Linn.*

*comosum Linn.*

Iran and India

**Potassium(K) mg/g**

**Zn mg/g**

**Fe mg/g**

**Calcium(Ca) mg/g**

vegetables is small compared to that from the milk group but will assume more importance if milk intake is low. Vitamins and minerals present in the diet are necessary for normal growth and metabolism and influence the utilization of other nutrients such as protein. The deficiency of essential vitamins or minerals leads to several physiological disorders and diseases, slowed growth, and lack of deposition of proteins in tissues. An adequate supply of B- complex vitamins is necessary for critical protein utilization. The deficiency of minerals such as potassium, phosphorus, sodium, calcium, and magnesium also influences the capacity of the body to utilize amino acids and proteins.

Sodium values of eight samples above in this study in order to mg/g were obtained 4.4, 1.84, 3.95, 1.62, 1.62, 1.51, 7.17and1.51 respectively. *Portulaca oleracia Linn.*contains the highest value of sodium and *Momordica dioicia Roxb*.,or *Solanum indicum Linn*.contain the least values of sodium. *Alocacia indica Sch.* Contains sodium medium value(4.4mg/g).

Potassium values of eight samples above in this research in order to mg/g were obtained 3.4,10.94,4.29,7.83,4.63,8.25,14.71and 8.32 respectively. *Portulaca oleracia Linn*. contains the highest potassium value and *Alocacia indica Sch*.contains the least potassium value. *Cordia Myxa Roxb*. contains potassium medium value( 7.83mg/g).

Calcium values of the samples above in order to mg/g were obtained 0.88, 0.67, 13.14, 0.46, 7.37,0.46, 18.17 and 4.48 respectively. *Portulaca oleracia Linn*.contains the highest calcium value and *Momordica dioicia Roxb*.or *Cordia myxa Roxb*. Contain the least calcium value*. Eulophia ochreata Lindl*. contains calcium medium value (7.37mg/g).

Iron values of eight samples in this research in order to mg/g were obtained 0.48, 0.19, 1.89, 0.51, 5.04, 0.14, 0.48 and 1.56 respectively. *Eulophia ochreata Lind*l. Contains highest iron value and *Momordica dioicia Roxb* contains the least iron value. *Chlorophytum comosum Linn*. contains iron medium value (1.89mg/g).

Zinc values of the samples above in this study in order to mg/g were obtained 1.21,2.60, 0.76, 0.35, 3.83, 1.34, 3.02 and 0.95 respectively. *Eulophia ochreata Lindl*. contains the highest zinc value and *Cordia myxa Roxb*. Contains the least zinc value. *Asparagus officinalis DC*. contains zinc medium value (2.60mg/g).

Therefore, it is observed that *Portulaca oleracia Linn*. contains the high value of macroelements such as sodium, potassium, calcium and especially it have high ash value in comparison with others plants in this research. Therefore, *Portulaca oleracia Linn* has high nutritional value from standpoint of macro-elements. Because *Eulophia ochreata Lindl*. contains highest micro-elements such as iron and zinc in comparison with others plants in this study, it has high nutritional value from view of point of above trace(micro) elements. *Momordica dioicia Roxb*. *or Cordia myxa Roxb* have the minimum nutritional value, because they contain the least ash values and *Momordica dioicia Roxb*. has the least value of sodium and calcium, but *Cordia myxa Roxb*. has the least value of zinc. *Alocacia indica Sch.,Asparagus officinalis DC.*, *Chlorophytum comosum Linn., Cordia Myxa Roxb., Eulophia Ochreata Lindl.*have nutritional medium values.

Protein, Fat, and calorie values of eight samples in this research were compared, it is observed that *Asparagus*(32.69%) and *Portulaca* (23.47%)have the highest protein values respectively, *Chlorophytum*(4.54%), *Eulophia*(5.44%) and *Alocacia*(5.7%) have the least protein values*. Momordica*(19.38%) have protein medium value.

*Solanum*(13.76%) has the highest Fat value and *Chlorophytum*(2%) has the least Fat value.

Assessment of Proximate and Phytochemical Composition for Evaluation

harvest and post-harvest and in them storage during.

(Verbenaceae). Food Chemistry, 53, 375-379.

Hawaii, Ghana Journal Science, 39, 91-92.

crops.(pp.221-234).Taylor & Francis, London.

carbohydrates. Food Chemistry, 5, 231-235.

value.

**11. References**

247-252.

of Nutritive Values of Some Plant Foods Obtained from Iran and India 69

Samples vitamin E amounts were compared, it is observed that *portulaca* have highest value (11.5 mg/100g), but vitamin E in *Solanum, Chlorophytum* and *Alocacia* are not detected. *Portulaca* have highest values phenolic compounds and vitamin E, therefore this plant have the highest antioxidant property. The antioxidant property give to plant high shelf-life then high consumption capacity in between of people, therefore this plant have high nutritional

There is currently much interest in phytochemicals as bioactive components of food. The roles of fruit, vegetables in disease prevention have been attributed, in part, to the antioxidant properties of their constituent polyphenols (vitamins E and C, and the carotenoids). Recent studies have shown that many dietary polyphenolic constituents derived from plants are more effective antioxidants *in vitro* than vitamins E or C, and thus might contribute significantly to the protective effects *in vivo*. It is now possible to establish the antioxidant activities of plant-derived flavonoids in the aqueous and lipophilic phases, and to assess the extent to which the total antioxidant potentials of wine and tea can be accounted for by the activities of individual polyphenols. because phenolic compounds have Antioxidant properties and to prevent from damage of plant tissues and all compounds that contain double bonds and aromatic structures especially to prevent from decomposition of fatty acids, vitamins, amino acids, flavours, and pigments in plants, therefore, *Solanum indicum Linn.* and then *Cordia Myxa Roxb* and *Momordica dioicia Roxb*. and *Asparagus officinalis DC*.have high nutritional values, because the most of them nutrients will be protected in

[1] Aberoumand, A. and Deokule, S.S.2008. Comparison of compounds of some edible

[2] Abuye, C., Urga, K., Knapp, H., Selmar, D., Omwega, A., Imungi, J., & Winterhalter, P.,

[3] Aletor, V., & Adeogun, O., (1995). Chemical analysis of the fruit of *Vitex doniana*

[4] AOAC,(1990).Official methods of analysis, 14th edition, Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington DC. (pp.1137–1139). Arlington, Virginia, USA. [5] Asibey-Berko, E. & Tayie, F., (1999). The antibacterial properties of some plants found in

[6] Edmonds, J., & Chweya, J., (1995). Black nightshades, *Solanum nigrum* L. and related

[7] Faruq, U., Sani, A., & Hassan, L., (2002). Composition and distribution of deadly nightshade. Nigerian. Journal Basic Application Science, 11,157-164. [8] Funtua, I., (2004). Minerals in foods: Dietary sources, chemical forms, interactions,

[9] Funtua, I., & Trace, J.,(1999). Quantitative variability in *Pisum* seed globulins: its assessment and significance. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 17, 293-297. [10] Ifon, E.,& Bassir, O.,(1980). *Determination* of carbohydrates in foods. II—unavailable

bioavailability, Instrumentation Science. Technology, 32 , 529-536.

species. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected

(2003) A survey of wild, green, leafy vegetables and their potential in combating micronutrient deficiencies in rural populations, East African Medical Journal, 80,

plants of Iran and India, Pakistan J. Nutrition, 7 (4), 582-585.

*Momordica*( with 4125/83Kcal/Kg) and *Cordia* ( with 4067/94 Kcal/Kg) have the highest calorie values and *Portulaca*( with 2913/82 Kcal/Kg)has the least calorie value and the others samples have calorie medium values(with 3514/4Kcal/Kg- 3647/23Kcal/Kg). Therefore, *Asparagus* and *Portulaca* have the highest nutritional value from standpoint of proteins.

Plants such as vegetables and fruits have satisfactory edible proteins with high quality so that we can use them in food industries and as nutrition. Total proteins and nitrogen is related to Albumins, globulins, free Amino acids, enzymes, hormones, peptides and other nitrogen components. The most of these proteins have high nutritional values and contain all essential amino acids so that it is useful for our body cells and it is necessary that is consumed by human.

Total phenolic compounds of eight plants in this research were compared together, it is observed that *Solanum indicum Linn*.with 7.02mg/g has the highest phenolic compounds values and then *Portulaca oleracia Linn.* with 5.86mg/g contains high phenolic compounds. *Alocacia indica Sch*. with 0.87mg/g has the least phenolic compounds. *Cordia Myxa Roxb* with 4.02mg/g and *Momordica dioicia Roxb*. with 3.69mg/g and *Asparagus officinalis DC*. with 3.17mg/g contain phenolic compounds medium value.

Phytic acid contents of eight plants were compared in this research, it is reveal that *Portulaca oleracia Linn.* with 823.6mg/100g sample has maximum value and then *Solanum indicum* with 695.8 mg/100 g sample has high value and *Eulophia* with 255.6 mg/100g sample has minimum value and the others plants have less values.

Carbohydrates eight edible plants in this research were compared it is observed that fructose, glucose, sucrose and Fiber values of *Cordia myxa* Roxb. were 9.38%, 12.75%, 29.09% and 25.7% the highest values respectively, but it's starch (with 5.86%)value was the least value. Fructose, glucose, sucrose and fiber values of *Portulaca Oleracia* Linn. were the least values with values of 0.86%,0.01%, N.D.(Not detected) and 8% respectively, but it's starch value( with39.8%) was high. Starch value of *Alocacia indica* Sch. was maximum with 60.41%.*Alocacia indica* Sch. and *Asparagus officinalis* D.C. have maximum and minimum total carbohydrates with values of 72.66% and 34.67% respectively. Therefore energy value of obtained from total carbohydrates value in *Alocacia indica* Sch. was the highest value but energy values obtained from it's protein and fat were very low. Energy values of obtained from fat and protein in *Solanum indicum* and *Asparagus officinalis* D.C. were the highest values with 123.84kcal/100g and 130.76kcal/100g respectively.

Total energy values obtained from fat, protein and sugars in *Alocacia indica* Sch. and *Cordia myxa* Roxb.were 343.05kcal/100g and 281.4kcal/100g , the highest and the least values respectively.

Total sugar amounts of *Cordia* and *Asparagus* plants were compared with results of other researcher, it is showed that Parmar, C et, al (1982) reported that reducing and non-reducing sugars amounts in *Cordia* were 3.41% and 0.08 % respectively and Duke. J.A et al(1985) reported that carbohydrate and fiber values in *Asparagus* was 5% and 0.7% respectively. These comparison showed that sugar amounts of both plants in our research were very higher than them research results.

Trypsin inhibitor amounts of samples in this thesis is compared, it is observed that *portulaca* have the highest value(16.9TIU/g) and *Asparagus* have the least value(0.8TIU/g). *Solanum, Momordica* and *Alocacia* contain the high values of trypsin inhibitor respectively. trypsin inhibitor high values of samples are not relation with them protein high values. Asparagus have the most value of protein and the least value of this anti-nutrient( trypsin inhibitor).

Samples vitamin E amounts were compared, it is observed that *portulaca* have highest value (11.5 mg/100g), but vitamin E in *Solanum, Chlorophytum* and *Alocacia* are not detected. *Portulaca* have highest values phenolic compounds and vitamin E, therefore this plant have the highest antioxidant property. The antioxidant property give to plant high shelf-life then high consumption capacity in between of people, therefore this plant have high nutritional value.

There is currently much interest in phytochemicals as bioactive components of food. The roles of fruit, vegetables in disease prevention have been attributed, in part, to the antioxidant properties of their constituent polyphenols (vitamins E and C, and the carotenoids). Recent studies have shown that many dietary polyphenolic constituents derived from plants are more effective antioxidants *in vitro* than vitamins E or C, and thus might contribute significantly to the protective effects *in vivo*. It is now possible to establish the antioxidant activities of plant-derived flavonoids in the aqueous and lipophilic phases, and to assess the extent to which the total antioxidant potentials of wine and tea can be accounted for by the activities of individual polyphenols. because phenolic compounds have Antioxidant properties and to prevent from damage of plant tissues and all compounds that contain double bonds and aromatic structures especially to prevent from decomposition of fatty acids, vitamins, amino acids, flavours, and pigments in plants, therefore, *Solanum indicum Linn.* and then *Cordia Myxa Roxb* and *Momordica dioicia Roxb*. and *Asparagus officinalis DC*.have high nutritional values, because the most of them nutrients will be protected in harvest and post-harvest and in them storage during.

#### **11. References**

68 Research in Organic Farming

*Momordica*( with 4125/83Kcal/Kg) and *Cordia* ( with 4067/94 Kcal/Kg) have the highest calorie values and *Portulaca*( with 2913/82 Kcal/Kg)has the least calorie value and the others samples have calorie medium values(with 3514/4Kcal/Kg- 3647/23Kcal/Kg). Therefore, *Asparagus* and *Portulaca* have the highest nutritional value from standpoint of proteins. Plants such as vegetables and fruits have satisfactory edible proteins with high quality so that we can use them in food industries and as nutrition. Total proteins and nitrogen is related to Albumins, globulins, free Amino acids, enzymes, hormones, peptides and other nitrogen components. The most of these proteins have high nutritional values and contain all essential amino acids so that it is useful for our body cells and it is necessary that is

Total phenolic compounds of eight plants in this research were compared together, it is observed that *Solanum indicum Linn*.with 7.02mg/g has the highest phenolic compounds values and then *Portulaca oleracia Linn.* with 5.86mg/g contains high phenolic compounds. *Alocacia indica Sch*. with 0.87mg/g has the least phenolic compounds. *Cordia Myxa Roxb* with 4.02mg/g and *Momordica dioicia Roxb*. with 3.69mg/g and *Asparagus officinalis DC*. with

Phytic acid contents of eight plants were compared in this research, it is reveal that *Portulaca oleracia Linn.* with 823.6mg/100g sample has maximum value and then *Solanum indicum* with 695.8 mg/100 g sample has high value and *Eulophia* with 255.6 mg/100g sample has

Carbohydrates eight edible plants in this research were compared it is observed that fructose, glucose, sucrose and Fiber values of *Cordia myxa* Roxb. were 9.38%, 12.75%, 29.09% and 25.7% the highest values respectively, but it's starch (with 5.86%)value was the least value. Fructose, glucose, sucrose and fiber values of *Portulaca Oleracia* Linn. were the least values with values of 0.86%,0.01%, N.D.(Not detected) and 8% respectively, but it's starch value( with39.8%) was high. Starch value of *Alocacia indica* Sch. was maximum with 60.41%.*Alocacia indica* Sch. and *Asparagus officinalis* D.C. have maximum and minimum total carbohydrates with values of 72.66% and 34.67% respectively. Therefore energy value of obtained from total carbohydrates value in *Alocacia indica* Sch. was the highest value but energy values obtained from it's protein and fat were very low. Energy values of obtained from fat and protein in *Solanum indicum* and *Asparagus officinalis* D.C. were the highest

Total energy values obtained from fat, protein and sugars in *Alocacia indica* Sch. and *Cordia myxa* Roxb.were 343.05kcal/100g and 281.4kcal/100g , the highest and the least values

Total sugar amounts of *Cordia* and *Asparagus* plants were compared with results of other researcher, it is showed that Parmar, C et, al (1982) reported that reducing and non-reducing sugars amounts in *Cordia* were 3.41% and 0.08 % respectively and Duke. J.A et al(1985) reported that carbohydrate and fiber values in *Asparagus* was 5% and 0.7% respectively. These comparison showed that sugar amounts of both plants in our research were very

Trypsin inhibitor amounts of samples in this thesis is compared, it is observed that *portulaca* have the highest value(16.9TIU/g) and *Asparagus* have the least value(0.8TIU/g). *Solanum, Momordica* and *Alocacia* contain the high values of trypsin inhibitor respectively. trypsin inhibitor high values of samples are not relation with them protein high values. Asparagus have the most value of protein and the least value of this anti-nutrient( trypsin inhibitor).

consumed by human.

respectively.

higher than them research results.

3.17mg/g contain phenolic compounds medium value.

minimum value and the others plants have less values.

values with 123.84kcal/100g and 130.76kcal/100g respectively.

**5**

**Technologies and Varieties of**

*Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources,*

*2Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Prague*

*Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague,*

*1Department of Crop Production,*

*Czech Republic*

**Fodder Beet in Organic Farming**

Hana Honsová1, František Hnilička2, David Bečka1 and Václav Hejnák2

In the organic farming system where the concentrate feeds are purchased a crop rotation for producing none only forage has been found to be expensive in relation to forage production costs, fossil energy inputs and the loss of production while crops are being established. The aim of organic farming is to create coexistence of multilateral, biologically and ecologically balanced weeds with low biomass production and strong culture crop. In weeds regulation we use preventive measures (seed rotation, late sowing, parallel growing of covering under sowings etc.), but also direct regulation methods, i.e. harrowing and line weeding (Petr et

Fodder beet is a crop for which cultivation areas are reduced, since in 2000 the sown area of 7597 hectares, but in 2007 decreased to 807 ha in the Czech Republic. A slight increase can be recorded in the year 2008 - 845 ha. Even though the area of fodder beet reduced this crop has an irreplaceable role in maintaining biodiversity in agro ecosystems. Therefore, at present

Fodder beet areas in all over the world are not great. But it is a pity, because this crop has very high feed quality. Nowadays fodder beet could find new use in organic farming, especially as excellent feed for dairy cattle and energy crops. In ecological production of fodder beet we have some unsolved questions concerning i.e. weeds reduction, beet competitiveness improvement and optimal stand density. Fodder beet is a wide-row crop with slow initial development, which decreases its competitiveness in relation to weeds. This crop has very high feed quality. Fodder beet could find new use in ecological farming,

Energy crops with wide ratio of nutrients – fodder beet, semi-sugar beet and sugar beet – provide more energy in comparison with cereals or forage crops. Fodder beet provides maximum amount of energy per one hectare and presents easily digestible feed (Kosař,

The most important factor determining nutritional quality of feeds is digestibility. Its value significantly influences amount of nutrients and of energy available for animal (Mudřík et

there is a new application in organic farming, which is among the good fore crop.

especially as excellent feed for dairy cattle (Kodeš et al., 2001).

**1. Introduction**

al., 1992).

1985).

al., 2006).

## **Technologies and Varieties of Fodder Beet in Organic Farming**

Hana Honsová1, František Hnilička2, David Bečka1 and Václav Hejnák2

*Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, 1Department of Crop Production, 2Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Prague Czech Republic*

#### **1. Introduction**

70 Research in Organic Farming

[11] Isong, E., & Idiong, U.,(1997). Nutrient content of the edible leaves of seven wild plants

[12] Nesamvuni, C., Steyn, N.,& Potgieter, M., (2001). nutrients analysis of selected western

[13] Plessi, M., Bertelli, D., Phonzani, A., Simonetti, M., Neri, A., & Damiani, P.,(1999). Role

[14] Sena, L., VanderJagt, D., Rivera, C., Tsin, A., Muhammadu, I., Mahamadou, O. ,Milson,

[15] Vadivel, V., & Janardhanan, K., (1999). Analysis of nutritional components of eight

of indigenous leafy vegetables in combating hunger and malnutrition, Food

M., Pastosyn, A., & Glew, R., (1998). Nutritional profile of some edible plants from

famine foods of the Republic of Nigerian. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 55,

from Nigerian. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 51, 79-84.

African foods, South African Journal of Science, 97, 51-54.

Mexico, Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 52, 17-30.

Composition Analalysis,12, 91-96.

369-381.

In the organic farming system where the concentrate feeds are purchased a crop rotation for producing none only forage has been found to be expensive in relation to forage production costs, fossil energy inputs and the loss of production while crops are being established. The aim of organic farming is to create coexistence of multilateral, biologically and ecologically balanced weeds with low biomass production and strong culture crop. In weeds regulation we use preventive measures (seed rotation, late sowing, parallel growing of covering under sowings etc.), but also direct regulation methods, i.e. harrowing and line weeding (Petr et al., 1992).

Fodder beet is a crop for which cultivation areas are reduced, since in 2000 the sown area of 7597 hectares, but in 2007 decreased to 807 ha in the Czech Republic. A slight increase can be recorded in the year 2008 - 845 ha. Even though the area of fodder beet reduced this crop has an irreplaceable role in maintaining biodiversity in agro ecosystems. Therefore, at present there is a new application in organic farming, which is among the good fore crop.

Fodder beet areas in all over the world are not great. But it is a pity, because this crop has very high feed quality. Nowadays fodder beet could find new use in organic farming, especially as excellent feed for dairy cattle and energy crops. In ecological production of fodder beet we have some unsolved questions concerning i.e. weeds reduction, beet competitiveness improvement and optimal stand density. Fodder beet is a wide-row crop with slow initial development, which decreases its competitiveness in relation to weeds.

This crop has very high feed quality. Fodder beet could find new use in ecological farming, especially as excellent feed for dairy cattle (Kodeš et al., 2001).

Energy crops with wide ratio of nutrients – fodder beet, semi-sugar beet and sugar beet – provide more energy in comparison with cereals or forage crops. Fodder beet provides maximum amount of energy per one hectare and presents easily digestible feed (Kosař, 1985).

The most important factor determining nutritional quality of feeds is digestibility. Its value significantly influences amount of nutrients and of energy available for animal (Mudřík et al., 2006).

Technologies and Varieties of Fodder Beet in Organic Farming 73

45 cm 18 cm 100 thou.ha-1 line weeding (as necessary) + 1x digging in

45 cm 18 cm 100 thou.ha-1 line weeding (as necessary) + 1x digging in

37.5 cm 18 cm 120 thou.ha-1 line weeding (as necessary) + 1x digging in

37.5 cm 18 cm 120 thou.ha-1 line weeding (as necessary) + 1x digging in

Six fodder beet varieties and one sugar beet variety were compared in three-year experiments at ecological area (in 2005 and 2006 Lenka, Hako, Kostelecká Barres, Jamon, Monro, Starmon and sugar beet Merak, in 2007 Bučanský žlutý válec site of Kostelecká

cercospora 2003 – diploid

Lenka cubical - 1992 – 2n, monogerm, yellow bulb, cylindrical

Barres compromise - 1937 - multigerm, orange bulb with olive

žlutý válec cubical multigerm, cylindrical bulb, yellow coloured

The energy content was investigated office on the basis of combustion calorimetry methods. Combustion calorimetry as one of the many destructive biological method has a wide range of applications from production and environmental plant physiology, which can be

Jamon cubical - 1997 – 3n, monogerm, yellow bulb Monro cubical - 1994 – 3n, monogerm, red bulb Starmon compromise rhisomania Monogerm, yellow bulb

**density Weed regulation**

row during singling

row before canopy connection

row during singling

row before canopy connection

form with blunt root termination

1977 – 3n, multigerm, light yellow bulb with orange shade, cylindrical with sudden termination

shape, 1/3 – ½ in ground

with orange shade, 1/3 in ground

**Canopy**

45 cm 18 cm 100 thou.ha-1 without weeds

37.5 cm 18 cm 120 thou.ha-1 without weeds

37.5 cm 25 cm 100 thou.ha-1 without weeds

**Variety Type Rezistance Properties**

rhisomania,

Table 1. Canopy organization variants and weed regulation

**Row distance**

**2.2 Varieties and energy**

Merak sugar beet

N/S

Hako cubical -

Table 2. Variants of variety experiment

Barres) (Table 2).

Kostelecká

Bučanský

**Plant distance in row**

In feed can be determined combustible heat (gross energy). Gross energy (BE) is determined in calorimeter by complete combustion of feed in oxygen atmosphere and is expressed in mega joules (MJ). Energy value of feed for cattle is determined in MJ as NELs (for lactation cattle) and NEVs (for growing cattle - weight gain above 800 g/day). For energy content determination it is also necessary to determine metabolized energy content for cattle (MEs) (Zeman, 2002).

Besides the traditional use of fodder beet as the dietary food new ways of use appear. It is the use in bioenergetics, such as the production of bioethanol (Reed et al., 1986; Mähnert and Linke, 2009; Chochola, 2007; Pulkrábek et al. 2007) and biogas (Scherer, et al., 2009; Klocke et al., 2007). Use of fodder beet as a source of renewable energy results from the fact that it provides more energy than cereals and fodder crops (Urban et al., 2005; Hnilička et al., 2009; Martínez-Pérez et al., 2007).

The aim of our research was to compare and to recommend chosen varieties of fodder beet organic growing based on production ability evaluation. In three years experiments (2005 – 2007) small-plot trials were established (in four repetitions on plots with harvest area of ten square meters) with fodder beet on certified and controlled ecological area.

### **2. Methodology**

The aim of our research was to compare and recommend 1. various growing technologies and 2. chosen varieties of fodder beet for organic growing based on production ability evaluation and to compare their feed value. In three years experiments based in 2005 - 2007 small-plot trials were established with fodder beet on certified and controlled ecological area of Experimental station of Department of Crop Production of Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague - Uhříněves.

Six cultivars of fodder beet were used in experiment – especially volume types (Lenka, Hako, Jamon and Monro) and compromise type (Kostelecká Barres, Starmon) and sugar beet cultivar Merak (Table 1). Only in 2007 variety Bučanský žlutý válec (volume type) compensated variety Kostelecká Barres.

During vegetation stands were kept in non-weed state by inter-row hoeing and by manual hoeing and weeding in rows. No chemical protection against fungal diseases was used.

Number of plants per plot was determined before harvest. Harvest was performed by manual collection of roots, which were weighed in a field. Average weight of one root was determined and also total yield per hectare was recorded.

#### **2.1 Growing technologies**

In three-year trials various growing technologies of fodder beet differ with row distance (45 cm and 37.5 cm), plant distance in row (18 and 25 cm) and weed regulation were compared. Ranking with weeds, attack by leaf diseases, chlorophyll content and yield of roots were evaluated.

The aim of the project was to reach fodder beet stand structure optimization in ecologic growing regarding weed infestation, leaf diseases and production.

Weeds regulation problematics was solved by stand organization change. In order to achieve former rows covering we tested reduction of interrow distance from 45 cm to 37.5 cm. In our experiments changes caused by different stand organization and further treatments (Table 1) per number of vascular bundle circles and production indicators were evaluated. During vegetation weed infestation and degree of leaf diseases were evaluated.

Table 1. Canopy organization variants and weed regulation

#### **2.2 Varieties and energy**

72 Research in Organic Farming

In feed can be determined combustible heat (gross energy). Gross energy (BE) is determined in calorimeter by complete combustion of feed in oxygen atmosphere and is expressed in mega joules (MJ). Energy value of feed for cattle is determined in MJ as NELs (for lactation cattle) and NEVs (for growing cattle - weight gain above 800 g/day). For energy content determination it is also necessary to determine metabolized energy content for cattle (MEs)

Besides the traditional use of fodder beet as the dietary food new ways of use appear. It is the use in bioenergetics, such as the production of bioethanol (Reed et al., 1986; Mähnert and Linke, 2009; Chochola, 2007; Pulkrábek et al. 2007) and biogas (Scherer, et al., 2009; Klocke et al., 2007). Use of fodder beet as a source of renewable energy results from the fact that it provides more energy than cereals and fodder crops (Urban et al., 2005; Hnilička et al., 2009;

The aim of our research was to compare and to recommend chosen varieties of fodder beet organic growing based on production ability evaluation. In three years experiments (2005 – 2007) small-plot trials were established (in four repetitions on plots with harvest area of ten

The aim of our research was to compare and recommend 1. various growing technologies and 2. chosen varieties of fodder beet for organic growing based on production ability evaluation and to compare their feed value. In three years experiments based in 2005 - 2007 small-plot trials were established with fodder beet on certified and controlled ecological area of Experimental station of Department of Crop Production of Czech University of Life

Six cultivars of fodder beet were used in experiment – especially volume types (Lenka, Hako, Jamon and Monro) and compromise type (Kostelecká Barres, Starmon) and sugar beet cultivar Merak (Table 1). Only in 2007 variety Bučanský žlutý válec (volume type)

During vegetation stands were kept in non-weed state by inter-row hoeing and by manual hoeing and weeding in rows. No chemical protection against fungal diseases was used. Number of plants per plot was determined before harvest. Harvest was performed by manual collection of roots, which were weighed in a field. Average weight of one root was

In three-year trials various growing technologies of fodder beet differ with row distance (45 cm and 37.5 cm), plant distance in row (18 and 25 cm) and weed regulation were compared. Ranking with weeds, attack by leaf diseases, chlorophyll content and yield of roots were

The aim of the project was to reach fodder beet stand structure optimization in ecologic

Weeds regulation problematics was solved by stand organization change. In order to achieve former rows covering we tested reduction of interrow distance from 45 cm to 37.5 cm. In our experiments changes caused by different stand organization and further treatments (Table 1) per number of vascular bundle circles and production indicators were evaluated. During vegetation weed infestation and degree of leaf diseases were evaluated.

square meters) with fodder beet on certified and controlled ecological area.

(Zeman, 2002).

Martínez-Pérez et al., 2007).

Sciences in Prague - Uhříněves.

**2.1 Growing technologies**

evaluated.

compensated variety Kostelecká Barres.

determined and also total yield per hectare was recorded.

growing regarding weed infestation, leaf diseases and production.

**2. Methodology**

Six fodder beet varieties and one sugar beet variety were compared in three-year experiments at ecological area (in 2005 and 2006 Lenka, Hako, Kostelecká Barres, Jamon, Monro, Starmon and sugar beet Merak, in 2007 Bučanský žlutý válec site of Kostelecká Barres) (Table 2).

Table 2. Variants of variety experiment

The energy content was investigated office on the basis of combustion calorimetry methods. Combustion calorimetry as one of the many destructive biological method has a wide range of applications from production and environmental plant physiology, which can be

Technologies and Varieties of Fodder Beet in Organic Farming 75

**Row distance (cm) Technology 1 bulb average weight (g)**

37.5 (25 cm in row) without weeds 1051 1490 1157 1233

Average weight of one root was the highest in 2006 in non-weed variant with narrow rows and higher distance of plants in row (1490 g). Number of vascular bundles was not influenced by stand organization (Table 4). Yield values, weight of one root and number of

Higher yields in 2007 were reached in variants with narrow rows in comparison with wider rows. The highest yield was reached by variant of narrow rows with hoeing. Differences

In 2007 average weight of one root was the highest in non-weed variant with narrow rows and higher distance between plants in row (1160 g). Number of vascular bundles was not influenced by stand organization. Values of one root weight were not statistically

> <sup>45</sup>without weeds 114.0c 79.1 87.9 93.7 <sup>45</sup>line weeding 17.2a 74.4 87.2 59.6 <sup>45</sup>line weeding and digging 59.4b 86.8 79.6 75.3 37.5 without weeds 102.5c 83.8 94.8 93.7 37.5 line weeding 23.9a 70.7 94.9 63.2 37.5 line weeding and digging 66.5b 72.5 97.0 78.7

37.5 (25 cm in row) without weeds 108.9c 72.8ns 92.3ns 91.3

Regarding relatively small weed infestation, roots production was more influenced by stand organization than by weeds regulation method. Generally higher yield was reached by variants with narrow rows in comparison with wide-rows variants. Nor can it ignore the

2005 2006 2007 average

**Row distance (cm) Technology Yield (t.ha-1)**

Table 3. One bulb average weight – technologies compare

vascular bundles were not statistically confirmative in 2006.

among obtained yields were not confirmative.

Table 4. Yield of bulbs – technologies compare

confirmative among compared variants.

 2005 2006 2007 average 45 without weeds 1095 1080 1042 1090 45 line weeding 204 1200 976 667 45 line weeding and digging 596 1300 964 982 37.5 without weeds 884 1330 842 806 37.5 line weeding 213 1120 918 739 37.5 line weeding and digging 586 1180 940 784

evaluated not only individual products but also the vegetation and ecosystem. Its foundation is the stress physiology of plants to determine the effect of exposure to stressors plants and then to detect the resistance of plant species or varieties. Important place in the combustion calorimetry quickly evaluate alternative sources of renewable bio-energy. Nor can it ignore the question of the nutritional value of feed and thus the quality of feed and fodder (primary sources, but the final product).

Obtained values of gross and net energy serves as the basis for calculations of energy balance of plant breeding, feed livestock, but also for establishing the energy efficiency of production, since the units of energy are all the same in comparison with bank transfers, and therefore it is preferable to determine the efficiency of production of individual commodities or the whole enterprise just over the energy balance.

The results were evaluated by statistical program SAS using analysis of variance at significance level = 0.05. Confirmatively different values are marked with different letters (a, b, c, d).

#### **3. Results and discussion**

#### **3.1 Technologies**

Modification in stand organization (reduction of interrow distance and stand density increasement) did not bring confirmative changes in leaf diseases infestation of plants in 2005 (Table 5). During 2006 - 2007 stand organization and weeds regulation influenced plants infestation with leaf diseases.

Statistical evaluation of harvest results in 2005 did not prove influence of interrow distance change and stand density on roots yield (Table 4). Average weight of one root was influenced by stand organization (Graph 1) and weed infestation regulation (Table 3, graph 2). Number of vascular bundles was not influenced by stand organization.

Weeds regulation method confirmatively influenced plants infestation with leaf diseases in 2005. Variants, in which weeds in row were not regulated, but they were regulated only in interrow, have been during vegetation confirmatively more infested with leaf diseases. At the end of vegetation more infested were beet leaves in non-weed variants.

Before harvest in 2006 the least statistically confirmative infestation was found in non-weed variant with wider rows (34%) and the highest infestation was found in variant with narrow rows with line weeding and hoeing (39%). Diseases infestation in 2006 in all monitored variants at the end of vegetation reached in average only 35%.

In 2007 differences before harvest disappeared, leaf diseases infestation was nonconfirmative among compared variants. In total average of all monitored variants diseases infestation reached 64% at the end of vegetation in 2007.

Roots production (graph 3 and 4) was during 2005 and 2006 significantly influenced by weeds regulation method (Table 4). In 2005 with both stand densities (determined by different interrow distances – 45 cm and 37.5 cm) the highest yield was reached by control variant without weeds.

In 2006 the highest yield was reached by variant with wider rows with hoeing (86.8 t.ha-1), control variant with narrow rows without weeds (83.8 t.ha-1). The worst were variants with narrow rows with line weeding, narrow rows with line weeding and hoeing and narrow rows without weeds with higher distance between plants in row.

evaluated not only individual products but also the vegetation and ecosystem. Its foundation is the stress physiology of plants to determine the effect of exposure to stressors plants and then to detect the resistance of plant species or varieties. Important place in the combustion calorimetry quickly evaluate alternative sources of renewable bio-energy. Nor can it ignore the question of the nutritional value of feed and thus the quality of feed and

Obtained values of gross and net energy serves as the basis for calculations of energy balance of plant breeding, feed livestock, but also for establishing the energy efficiency of production, since the units of energy are all the same in comparison with bank transfers, and therefore it is preferable to determine the efficiency of production of individual commodities

The results were evaluated by statistical program SAS using analysis of variance at significance level = 0.05. Confirmatively different values are marked with different letters

Modification in stand organization (reduction of interrow distance and stand density increasement) did not bring confirmative changes in leaf diseases infestation of plants in 2005 (Table 5). During 2006 - 2007 stand organization and weeds regulation influenced

Statistical evaluation of harvest results in 2005 did not prove influence of interrow distance change and stand density on roots yield (Table 4). Average weight of one root was influenced by stand organization (Graph 1) and weed infestation regulation (Table 3, graph

Weeds regulation method confirmatively influenced plants infestation with leaf diseases in 2005. Variants, in which weeds in row were not regulated, but they were regulated only in interrow, have been during vegetation confirmatively more infested with leaf diseases. At

Before harvest in 2006 the least statistically confirmative infestation was found in non-weed variant with wider rows (34%) and the highest infestation was found in variant with narrow rows with line weeding and hoeing (39%). Diseases infestation in 2006 in all monitored

In 2007 differences before harvest disappeared, leaf diseases infestation was nonconfirmative among compared variants. In total average of all monitored variants diseases

Roots production (graph 3 and 4) was during 2005 and 2006 significantly influenced by weeds regulation method (Table 4). In 2005 with both stand densities (determined by different interrow distances – 45 cm and 37.5 cm) the highest yield was reached by control

In 2006 the highest yield was reached by variant with wider rows with hoeing (86.8 t.ha-1), control variant with narrow rows without weeds (83.8 t.ha-1). The worst were variants with narrow rows with line weeding, narrow rows with line weeding and hoeing and narrow

2). Number of vascular bundles was not influenced by stand organization.

the end of vegetation more infested were beet leaves in non-weed variants.

variants at the end of vegetation reached in average only 35%.

rows without weeds with higher distance between plants in row.

infestation reached 64% at the end of vegetation in 2007.

fodder (primary sources, but the final product).

or the whole enterprise just over the energy balance.

(a, b, c, d).

**3.1 Technologies**

variant without weeds.

**3. Results and discussion**

plants infestation with leaf diseases.

Table 3. One bulb average weight – technologies compare

Average weight of one root was the highest in 2006 in non-weed variant with narrow rows and higher distance of plants in row (1490 g). Number of vascular bundles was not influenced by stand organization (Table 4). Yield values, weight of one root and number of vascular bundles were not statistically confirmative in 2006.

Higher yields in 2007 were reached in variants with narrow rows in comparison with wider rows. The highest yield was reached by variant of narrow rows with hoeing. Differences among obtained yields were not confirmative.

In 2007 average weight of one root was the highest in non-weed variant with narrow rows and higher distance between plants in row (1160 g). Number of vascular bundles was not influenced by stand organization. Values of one root weight were not statistically confirmative among compared variants.

Table 4. Yield of bulbs – technologies compare

Regarding relatively small weed infestation, roots production was more influenced by stand organization than by weeds regulation method. Generally higher yield was reached by variants with narrow rows in comparison with wide-rows variants. Nor can it ignore the

Technologies and Varieties of Fodder Beet in Organic Farming 77

Fig. 1. One bulb weight (g) – influence of row distance

Fig. 2. One bulb weight (g) – influence of weed infestation

question of the nutritional value of feed and thus the quality of feed and fodder (primary sources, but the final product).

Table 5. Plant attack by leaf diseases – technologies compare

In case of fodder beet organically growing it is possible to achieve high yields, but only with a thorough weeding throughout the vegetation. Row spacing or pitch variation in weed-free yield of roots was not much influenced.

All compared variants without weeds reached in the three-year average high yields of roots above ninety tonnes per hectare. This indicates the need for weeding during the growing period.

Weed infestation significantly reduced root yields. In average of three years provided the lowest yields income variations, where only line weeding were done. Weed infestation not only reduced yields but also decreased the weight of the tubers.

Significant influence of year was discovered. In 2005 exchange of canopy organization did not exchange plant attack by leaf diseases and bulb yield and way of weed regulation had significant influence to plant attack by leaf diseases and bulb production. In 2006 exchange of canopy organization exchanged plant attack by leaf diseases. Bulb yield was influenced by way of weed regulation. In 2007 exchange of canopy organization did not influence to plant attack by leaf diseases but it influenced the bulb production. Higher yield were reached at the variants of narrower rows.

question of the nutritional value of feed and thus the quality of feed and fodder (primary

**Technology % of attacked leaves before harvest**

2005 significancy 2006 significancy 2007 significancy

weeds 99 *c* 34 *c* 65 *<sup>a</sup>*

weeding 94 *bc* 37 *abc* 65 *<sup>a</sup>*

weeds 82 *ab* 35 *b* 64 *<sup>a</sup>*

weeding 92 *abc* 38 *ab* 63 *<sup>a</sup>*

weeds 80 *a* 33 *c* 64 *<sup>a</sup>*

In case of fodder beet organically growing it is possible to achieve high yields, but only with a thorough weeding throughout the vegetation. Row spacing or pitch variation in weed-free

All compared variants without weeds reached in the three-year average high yields of roots above ninety tonnes per hectare. This indicates the need for weeding during the growing

Weed infestation significantly reduced root yields. In average of three years provided the lowest yields income variations, where only line weeding were done. Weed infestation not

Significant influence of year was discovered. In 2005 exchange of canopy organization did not exchange plant attack by leaf diseases and bulb yield and way of weed regulation had significant influence to plant attack by leaf diseases and bulb production. In 2006 exchange of canopy organization exchanged plant attack by leaf diseases. Bulb yield was influenced by way of weed regulation. In 2007 exchange of canopy organization did not influence to plant attack by leaf diseases but it influenced the bulb production. Higher yield were

ns

Table 5. Plant attack by leaf diseases – technologies compare

only reduced yields but also decreased the weight of the tubers.

85 *ab* 35 *abc* 65 *a*

89 *abc* 39 *a* 66 *a*

sources, but the final product).

<sup>45</sup>without

<sup>45</sup>line

37.5 without

37.5 line

line weeding and digging

line weeding and digging

without

yield of roots was not much influenced.

reached at the variants of narrower rows.

**Row distance (cm)**

45

37.5

37.5 (25 cm in row)

period.

Fig. 1. One bulb weight (g) – influence of row distance

Fig. 2. One bulb weight (g) – influence of weed infestation

Technologies and Varieties of Fodder Beet in Organic Farming 79

Yields of roots were strongly influenced by year of growing and by number of plants in harvest (Table 6, graph 5). Due to timely sowing and favourable weather conditions in 2005 beet emerged well. In 2005 after singling we obtained balanced and high numbers of plants at individual plots. Long winter, late start of spring and drought in the period after sowing in 2006 caused lower emergence. In 2006 total numbers in individual variants were relatively low in order to achieve relative uniformity between plots. In 2007 due to rainfall deficiency in period after sowing the plants emerged slowly and the canopy was off

In 2005 cultivars Monro, Starmon, Hako and Kostelecká Barres reached yields of roots above one hundred tons per hectare, while in 2006 and 2007 none of varieties exceeded this level (Table 8). In 2006 the highest yields were reached in cultivars Hako and Jamon. In 2006 the highest yield of roots reached varieties Hako and Jamon, in 2007 Bučanský žlutý válec and

**Plant number in harvest**

**in thousands per hectar**

2005 2006 2007

Merak 106 41 100

Lenka 85 49 77 Hako 102 64 74

žlutý válec<sup>80</sup>

Jamon 94 64 93 Monro 104 65 92

Starmon 101 64 46

Weight of one root (Table 7, graph 6) was determined so by genetic dispositions of varieties and the canopy density and weather conditions. In average of three years varieties Lenka,

Barres 110 38

Hako. In average of three years the most yielding cultivar was Hako (graph 7).

**Variety**

Kostelecká

Bučanský

Table 6. Plant number in harvest – varieties compare

Kostelecká Barres and Hako were the highest weight of one root.

**3.2 Varieties and energy**

**3.2.1 Varieties**

balance.

Fig. 3. Yield of bulbs – influence of row distance

Fig. 4. Yield of bulbs – influence of weed infestation

### **3.2 Varieties and energy**

#### **3.2.1 Varieties**

78 Research in Organic Farming

Fig. 3. Yield of bulbs – influence of row distance

Fig. 4. Yield of bulbs – influence of weed infestation

Yields of roots were strongly influenced by year of growing and by number of plants in harvest (Table 6, graph 5). Due to timely sowing and favourable weather conditions in 2005 beet emerged well. In 2005 after singling we obtained balanced and high numbers of plants at individual plots. Long winter, late start of spring and drought in the period after sowing in 2006 caused lower emergence. In 2006 total numbers in individual variants were relatively low in order to achieve relative uniformity between plots. In 2007 due to rainfall deficiency in period after sowing the plants emerged slowly and the canopy was off balance.

In 2005 cultivars Monro, Starmon, Hako and Kostelecká Barres reached yields of roots above one hundred tons per hectare, while in 2006 and 2007 none of varieties exceeded this level (Table 8). In 2006 the highest yields were reached in cultivars Hako and Jamon. In 2006 the highest yield of roots reached varieties Hako and Jamon, in 2007 Bučanský žlutý válec and Hako. In average of three years the most yielding cultivar was Hako (graph 7).

Table 6. Plant number in harvest – varieties compare

Weight of one root (Table 7, graph 6) was determined so by genetic dispositions of varieties and the canopy density and weather conditions. In average of three years varieties Lenka, Kostelecká Barres and Hako were the highest weight of one root.

Technologies and Varieties of Fodder Beet in Organic Farming 81

Fig. 6. Average weight of 1 root – variety comparison

**Yield of bulbs**  (t.ha-1)

 2005 significancy 2006 significancy 2007 significancy average Merak 83.3 *a* 37.6 *c* 69.2 *bc* 63.4 Lenka 90.9 *abc* 79 *ab* 86.3 *a* 85.4 Hako 106 *cd* 91.5 *a* 89.4 *a* 95.6

Barres 104.3 *bcd* 61.8 *bc* 83.1

žlutý válec 91.3 *a* 91.3 Jamon 88.6 *ab* 87.5 *ab* 84.2 *ab* 86.8 Monro 108.9 *d* 74.6 *ab* 86.4 *a* 90.0 Starmon 106.3 *cd* 70.1 *ab* 71.0 *c* 82.5

**Variety**

Kostelecká

Bučanský

Table 8. Yield of bulbs – varieties compare

Fig. 5. Plant number in harvest – variety comparison

Table 7. One bulb average weight – varieties compare

**Variety Average weight of one bulb (g)**

Merak 790 930 701 807

Lenka 1078 1640 1133 1284

Hako 1047 1430 1215 1231

Jamon 944 1420 914 1093

Monro 1051 1160 945 1052

Starmon 1055 1120 1287 1154

Kostelecká Barres 955 1570 1263

Bučanský žlutý válec 1177 1177

2005 2006 2007 average

Fig. 5. Plant number in harvest – variety comparison

Table 7. One bulb average weight – varieties compare

Fig. 6. Average weight of 1 root – variety comparison

Table 8. Yield of bulbs – varieties compare

Technologies and Varieties of Fodder Beet in Organic Farming 83

From the experimental genotypes showed a variety Jamon, Lenka and Starmon lower energy content than the average value was calculated net energy of all observed varieties, which was 16.93 kJ.g-1. From Figure 1 shows that the lowest energy content showed a variety Jamon (16.54 kJ.g-1) and the highest variety Lenka (16.87 kJ.g-1). On the other hand, higher energy content in comparison with the average variety, should Monro (17.17 kJ.g-1) and Hako (17.28 kJ.g-1). The results obtained are in contradiction with the conclusions (Golley, 1961; Novák and Hnilička, 1996; Hnilička, 1999; Bláha et al., 2003; Hnilička et al., 2010). The authors note that monitored between genotypes of wheat, corn, but in general there are differences in energy content. Consistent with these findings indicates Honsová et al. (2007) that among the genotypes of fodder beet there are conclusive difference in energy content. In contrast, according Hnilička et al. (2005) and Urban et al. (2005) were surveyed

Besides the variety in energy content was influenced by vintage bulb beet growing, as documented by graph 9. Based on the results of statistical analysis by Tukey HSD test was taken on a significance level = 0.05 alternative hypothesis statistically conclusive differences between the years of cultivation. The above analysis shows conclusively that statistically the lowest average net energy content was obtained in 2007 in comparison with other experimental years. This year, the average energy content of 16.71 kJ.g-1, as documented in graph 8. On the other hand, the highest gross calorific value were measured in 2006, when the average net energy of bulb was 17.12 kJ.g-1. Effect of volume on the energy content of corn is confirmed as working (Fuksa et al., 2006), beet (Urban et al., 2005; Hnilička

> **Yield of bulb (t.ha-1)**

2005 16.72 a. b 80.52 a 1345.54 a 2006 16.95 b 89.12 b 1511.83 b 2007 17.12 a. b 94.50 c 1617.09 c average 16.93 88.05 1491.49

Table 10. Plant a Statistical analysis by Tukey HSD test the impact of volume on observed

Table 10 shows the results of statistical analysis of genotype and response to the annual energy content. From the statistical analysis at a significance level = 0.05 shows conclusively that the lowest energy content was found in 2007 in a variety Starmon (16.38 kJ.g-1), while the highest value of net energy this year was found in a variety Hako (17.62 kJ.g-1). Similarly, the lowest energy content in 2005 was set at a variety Starmon (16.47 kJ.g-1) and highest for variety Hako (17.61 kJ.g-1). In 2006, the interval of the measured values of net

The values for the energy contained in the unit of dry matter and economic yield of the main

**Energy yield (GJ.t-1)**

between beet genotypes found conclusive difference.

et al., 2005) and fodder beet (Honsová et al., 2007).

**(kJ.g-1)**

Legend: a, b, c - statistically significant difference on the border

energy from 16.53 kJ.g-1 (Jamon) to 17.53 kJ.g-1 (Monro).

**<IP_ADDRESS> The energy yield of fodder beet**

product is possible to calculate the energy yield.

**year Energy content**

characteristics.

Fig. 7. Average yield of bulbs - variety comparison

Table 9. Plant attack by leaf diseases – varieties compare

#### **3.2.2 Energy**

#### **<IP_ADDRESS> The energy content of fodder beet**

The content of energy in bulb of beet has been investigated by combustion calorimetry. The method is based on a complete burning of plant material in 100% oxygen atmosphere. The burning of the sample was used parabolic calorimeter IKA C200 (company IKA, Germany). To determine the net energy (energy content of ash-free) on the dry matter of sample.

**% of attacked leaves before harvest**

59 *a* 2 *c* 5 *b*  89 *b* 22 *c* 45 *a*

Hako 99 *b* 26 *ab* 46 *a*

žlutý válec 46 *<sup>a</sup>*

Jamon 91 *b* 29 *a* 43 *a*  Monro 94 *b* 36 *a* 60 *a*  Starmon 90 *b* 28 *ab* 56 *a*

The content of energy in bulb of beet has been investigated by combustion calorimetry. The method is based on a complete burning of plant material in 100% oxygen atmosphere. The burning of the sample was used parabolic calorimeter IKA C200 (company IKA, Germany).

To determine the net energy (energy content of ash-free) on the dry matter of sample.

2005 significancy 2006 significancy 2007 significancy

Fig. 7. Average yield of bulbs - variety comparison

Barres 94 *b* 30 *ab*

Table 9. Plant attack by leaf diseases – varieties compare

**<IP_ADDRESS> The energy content of fodder beet**

Variety

Kostelecká

Bučanský

**3.2.2 Energy**

From the experimental genotypes showed a variety Jamon, Lenka and Starmon lower energy content than the average value was calculated net energy of all observed varieties, which was 16.93 kJ.g-1. From Figure 1 shows that the lowest energy content showed a variety Jamon (16.54 kJ.g-1) and the highest variety Lenka (16.87 kJ.g-1). On the other hand, higher energy content in comparison with the average variety, should Monro (17.17 kJ.g-1) and Hako (17.28 kJ.g-1). The results obtained are in contradiction with the conclusions (Golley, 1961; Novák and Hnilička, 1996; Hnilička, 1999; Bláha et al., 2003; Hnilička et al., 2010). The authors note that monitored between genotypes of wheat, corn, but in general there are differences in energy content. Consistent with these findings indicates Honsová et al. (2007) that among the genotypes of fodder beet there are conclusive difference in energy content. In contrast, according Hnilička et al. (2005) and Urban et al. (2005) were surveyed between beet genotypes found conclusive difference.

Besides the variety in energy content was influenced by vintage bulb beet growing, as documented by graph 9. Based on the results of statistical analysis by Tukey HSD test was taken on a significance level = 0.05 alternative hypothesis statistically conclusive differences between the years of cultivation. The above analysis shows conclusively that statistically the lowest average net energy content was obtained in 2007 in comparison with other experimental years. This year, the average energy content of 16.71 kJ.g-1, as documented in graph 8. On the other hand, the highest gross calorific value were measured in 2006, when the average net energy of bulb was 17.12 kJ.g-1. Effect of volume on the energy content of corn is confirmed as working (Fuksa et al., 2006), beet (Urban et al., 2005; Hnilička et al., 2005) and fodder beet (Honsová et al., 2007).

Legend: a, b, c - statistically significant difference on the border

Table 10. Plant a Statistical analysis by Tukey HSD test the impact of volume on observed characteristics.

Table 10 shows the results of statistical analysis of genotype and response to the annual energy content. From the statistical analysis at a significance level = 0.05 shows conclusively that the lowest energy content was found in 2007 in a variety Starmon (16.38 kJ.g-1), while the highest value of net energy this year was found in a variety Hako (17.62 kJ.g-1). Similarly, the lowest energy content in 2005 was set at a variety Starmon (16.47 kJ.g-1) and highest for variety Hako (17.61 kJ.g-1). In 2006, the interval of the measured values of net energy from 16.53 kJ.g-1 (Jamon) to 17.53 kJ.g-1 (Monro).

#### **<IP_ADDRESS> The energy yield of fodder beet**

The values for the energy contained in the unit of dry matter and economic yield of the main product is possible to calculate the energy yield.

Technologies and Varieties of Fodder Beet in Organic Farming 85

GJ.ha-1. Similarly, the results were not confirmed by Mohammedi et al. (2008), who observed the yield of potatoes in Iran and provides its value 20.81 GJ.ha-1. Energy output was also higher than in their work shows Koga (2009). The author states that energy sugar beet production is 346.1 GJ.ha-1. This difference is probably due not only to the amount of revenue the main product, but also the energy content per unit of dry matter and its conversion from gross energy to net energy. The energy yield of fodder beet is located in the

Fig. 9. The influence of genotypes and year onto energy yield by bulb of beet (GJ.t-1)

fodder beet 1445.52 GJ.ha-1 (Jamon) to 1849.18 GJ.ha-1 (Lenka).

eight cuts fescue by Spasov and Kornyšev (1989).

Table II shows the results of statistical analysis of genotype and response to the annual energy yield. From the statistical analysis by Tukey at a significance level = 0.05 shows conclusively that the lowest yield was recorded in 2007 for a variety Starmon (1162.41 GJ.ha-1), where also was the value of all monitored years and varieties lowest. The highest energy yield this year was found in a variety Monro (1480.05 GJ.ha-1). In 2005 was set at the lowest yield varieties of Monro (1221.19 GJ.t-1) and highest for variety Hako (1917.68 GJ.ha-1). This value was also the maximum value. In 2006, the interval of the energy yield of bulb by