**4. Experiences in Venezuela**

Experiences in Venezuela with the use of rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of PUFA are promissory, either dairy and beef cattle, and small ruminants such as goats. Since 2007 the research group in the area of Nutrition - Reproduction interaction, in conjunction with researchers from the area of Animal Production at the College of Veterinary Sciences, Universidad Central de Venezuela, have been working on the effect of the rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids on the productive and reproductive response in ruminants.

The research has been carried out in different ecological areas, with different types of production, levels of intensification, both in experimental stations and commercial farms, using the supplementation with rumen-inert fat given in different ways: multinutritional blocks (MNB); top-dress supplementation (fat placed on the concentrate supplement), in addition to the use of calcium soaps and mixed with mineral or concentrated supplement.

Regarding the effect of rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of PUFA on the production of milk in a commercial trial, conducted with multiparous Carora breed cows, we evaluated the milk production during six months, obtaining a higher production per day and per lactation (20% more) in cows supplemented with 400 g of rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of PUFA (Energras ®) compared to cows in the control group. Results are shown in Table 3.

In crossbred Canary goats under tropical conditions, Salvador *et al*. (2009) evaluated the effect of by-pass fat supplementation (80 g Energras ® / day) on milk production and composition. They reported a beneficial effect on the duration of lactation (+44 d), the milk production (+29.4%) and the content of milk components (41% more fat, and 31.2% more protein), without altering the physical characteristic (WMT, acidity, pH, cryoscopy) of the milk the supplemented goats (Table 4).

#### Effect of Rumen-Inert Fat Enriched with High Levels of Poly-Unsaturated Fatty Acids on the Productive and Reproductive Response in Ruminants 93

Otero (2007; unpublished data)

92 Milk Production – An Up-to-Date Overview of Animal Nutrition, Management and Health

service or by increasing in the overall conception or pregnancy rates.

fat, would be a nutraceutical food.

**4. Experiences in Venezuela**

milk the supplemented goats (Table 4).

response in ruminants.

in Table 3.

The impact of this type of fat is associated with the energy balance of the animal, particularly in the cow during early lactation, decreasing the deleterious effects of the NEB and improving the reproductive activity during the early postpartum. On this regard, Staples *et al*. (1998) mentioned that 11 out of 18 studies reviewing the effect of fat in cow's reproduction, reported an increase in reproductive performance, either because it improves the conception rate at first

In addition, the supplementation with high levels of PUFA can generate a favorable response in milk production and composition, and an improvement in the fatty acid profile of the milk, particularly the levels of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Angulo *et al*. (2005) have described that some anticancer and antidiabetogenic properties of the CLA as well as the prevention of atheroma formation, the potentiation of the immune response and the improvement of bone mineralization. It may also increase levels of essential fatty acids (ω-6 and ω-3) in milk, which can cause the milk produced by cows or goats fed with this type of

Experiences in Venezuela with the use of rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of PUFA are promissory, either dairy and beef cattle, and small ruminants such as goats. Since 2007 the research group in the area of Nutrition - Reproduction interaction, in conjunction with researchers from the area of Animal Production at the College of Veterinary Sciences, Universidad Central de Venezuela, have been working on the effect of the rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids on the productive and reproductive

The research has been carried out in different ecological areas, with different types of production, levels of intensification, both in experimental stations and commercial farms, using the supplementation with rumen-inert fat given in different ways: multinutritional blocks (MNB); top-dress supplementation (fat placed on the concentrate supplement), in addition to the use of calcium soaps and mixed with mineral or concentrated supplement.

Regarding the effect of rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of PUFA on the production of milk in a commercial trial, conducted with multiparous Carora breed cows, we evaluated the milk production during six months, obtaining a higher production per day and per lactation (20% more) in cows supplemented with 400 g of rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of PUFA (Energras ®) compared to cows in the control group. Results are shown

In crossbred Canary goats under tropical conditions, Salvador *et al*. (2009) evaluated the effect of by-pass fat supplementation (80 g Energras ® / day) on milk production and composition. They reported a beneficial effect on the duration of lactation (+44 d), the milk production (+29.4%) and the content of milk components (41% more fat, and 31.2% more protein), without altering the physical characteristic (WMT, acidity, pH, cryoscopy) of the

\*\* P < 0.01; NS= not significant

(Adapted from Salvador *et al.*, 2009)

**Table 4.** Effect of rumen-inert fat on milk production, days on lactation and composition of crossbred Canary goats

On the other hand, the milk lipid profile can be manipulated when supplementation with rumen-inert fat is given. Milk tends to have low levels of unsaturated fatty acids, being oleic acid (C18:1), a monounsaturated fatty acid, the most abundant (20% approx.). The proportion of unsaturated fatty acids is less than the saturated ones. The formation of the milk fat may come from the *novo* synthesis fatty acids in the mammary gland or from the incorporation of fatty acids from the diet or body reserves. Regarding the long chain fatty acids (including ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids) which are incorporated in the milk, about 40-45% come from the diet (Palmquist, 1996). Therefore, manipulating the diet by the incorporation of higher levels of fatty acids from rumen-inert fat, could be an strategy to change the milk fat composition in ruminants.

In recent years, the manipulation of milk fat content has taken great importance, with the aim of increasing the concentration of CLA in dairy products, which may contribute significantly to generate milk with nutraceutical properties of essential fatty acids that would contribute to the human health. In this regard, Zamora (2010), supplementing crossbred Canary goats with rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of fatty acids (45 g/day ENERGRAS®), found significant differences (P<0.01) on oleic and linolenic acids

concentrations between cheeses from treated and control goats: (331.34 ± 63.25 vs. 28.02 ±67.29 mg/g and 9.78 ±1, 22 vs. 5.41 ±1.30 mg/g respectively), when compared to the cheeses made from milk of goats supplemented (treatment vs. control) respectively. In addition, there was a trend in linoleic acid concentrations to be higher in chese from treated goats: (30.26 ±9.74 vs. 19.26 ±10.37 mg/g), not affecting the quality and organoleptic properties of fresh cheeses (Table 5).

NS: No significant; \*: P<0.05; \*\*: P<0.01 (Adapted from Zamora, 2010).

**Table 5.** Effect of rumen-inert fat on performance, characteristics and composition of fresh pasteurized goat's cheese.

In addition, the performance of milk in terms of kilograms of cheese showed no significant differences (P>0.05) between cheese made from milk of goats supplemented with rumeninert fat and cheese made from milk of goats without fat supplementation, (at 0 h and 48 h), after the removal from the mould. Nevertheless, the cheeses made from milk of the treatment group needed less milk to produce 1 kg of fresh cheese (140g and 400g less at 0 and 48 hours after the removal from the mould, respectively). At the moment of curd preparation there was not difference in terms of content of water retained (48.1% and 48.4% for treatment and control groups respectively). This could be due to, the protein content of the serum that could affect the production of cheese (cheese making performance and the drainage of whey, especially when milk from treated goats was heated; Raynal-Ljutovac *et al.,* 2008). However, it is important to mention there were not statistical differences in terms of kg of cheese obtained from treated and control goats, the performance improved for processed cheese made from milk of goats that consumed rumen-inert fat, although they had a higher milk production, there were 47.95 kg of fresh cheese from the treated group and 25.37 kg of fresh cheese in the control group, with a difference of 47.09% for the treatment group.

94 Milk Production – An Up-to-Date Overview of Animal Nutrition, Management and Health

VARIABLE Treatment group

NS: No significant; \*: P<0.05; \*\*: P<0.01 (Adapted from Zamora, 2010).

fresh cheeses (Table 5).

**Performance**

**Characteristic:**

**Components:**

goat's cheese.

concentrations between cheeses from treated and control goats: (331.34 ± 63.25 vs. 28.02 ±67.29 mg/g and 9.78 ±1, 22 vs. 5.41 ±1.30 mg/g respectively), when compared to the cheeses made from milk of goats supplemented (treatment vs. control) respectively. In addition, there was a trend in linoleic acid concentrations to be higher in chese from treated goats: (30.26 ±9.74 vs. 19.26 ±10.37 mg/g), not affecting the quality and organoleptic properties of

Performance to 0 H 3.9 ± 0.1 4.0 ± 0.1 NS Performance to 48 H 4.8 ± 0.1 5.2 ± 0.1 NS

Acidity 13.1 ± 1.7 13.5 ± 1.7 NS Clorures 2.9 ± 0.3 2.9 ± 0.3 NS pH 5.6 ± 0.1 5.4 ± 0.1 NS

fat (%) 24.5 ± 1.2 21.9 ± 1.2 NS Protein (%) 10.2 ± 0.4 10.7 ± 0.4 NS Humidity (%) 48.1 ± 0.9 48.4 ± 0.9 NS Ash (%) 4.3 ± 0.2 4.1 ± 0.2 NS Solids (%) 51.8 ± 0.9 51.5 ± 0.9 NS Solids no fat (%) 27.3 ± 1.3 29.6 ± 1.3 NS Lactose (%) 12.7 ± 1.0 14.6 ± 1.0 NS Oleic C18:1 (mg/g) 331.3 ± 63.2 28.0 ± 67.2 \*\* Linoleic C18:2 (ω-3) (mg/g) 30.2 ± 9.7 19.2 ± 10.3 NS Linolenic C18:3 (ω-6) (mg/g) 9.7 ±1.2 5.4 ± 1.3 \*

**Table 5.** Effect of rumen-inert fat on performance, characteristics and composition of fresh pasteurized

In addition, the performance of milk in terms of kilograms of cheese showed no significant differences (P>0.05) between cheese made from milk of goats supplemented with rumeninert fat and cheese made from milk of goats without fat supplementation, (at 0 h and 48 h), after the removal from the mould. Nevertheless, the cheeses made from milk of the treatment group needed less milk to produce 1 kg of fresh cheese (140g and 400g less at 0 and 48 hours after the removal from the mould, respectively). At the moment of curd preparation there was not difference in terms of content of water retained (48.1% and 48.4% for treatment and control groups respectively). This could be due to, the protein content of

(80 g Energras®/day) Control group Probability

It is important to mention that the rumen-inert fat did not affect the characteristics of the cheese, nor the chemical composition neither of its components, except FA, concentrations and minerals in the treatment group, which had a trend to be higher. Some additional results showed that the effect of the consumption of rumen-inert fat on the proportion of *cis* and *trans* FA found in fresh goat cheese, was not significant (P>0.05). However, the proportion was higher in milk from treated goats than in milk from control goats (95.97 ± 4.31 and 85.73 ± 4.31 respectively) which aggregates a value to the cheese, having a product with unsaturated *cis* FA, which has benefits to human health, because *trans* FA from of partially hydrogenated oils have been linked to deaths due to cardiovascular diseases (Giacopini, 2008).

Regarding to reproductive responses, the use of rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of PUFA has been evaluated with promising results, particularly in first-calf Brahman cows in areas of well drained savannas in Cojedes States (Farms A and B) and Guárico States (Farm C) with acidic soils, in conditions of limited range and forage quality. In these studies Diaz *et al*. (2008; 2009) used multinutritional blocks that were formulated with the aim of providing non protein nitrogen, rumen-inert protein, minerals (macro and microelements) and rumen-inert fat (with 17% of linoleic acid [ω-6]). In the case of Farm A, the breeding season was during the rainy season, while for the two other farms (B and C) breeding seasons ware during the dry period. Data of pregnancy rate are shown in Figure 2. Results showed higher pregnancy rates than those reported for the same type of animals under tropical conditions (30%). Pregnancy rate for first calf Brahman cows in Farm A during the previous year was 46% much lower than the present results.

Diaz *et al*. (2009) and Hernandez (2010) also reported a beneficial effect of the supplementation with rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of PUFA, during the postpartum period on ovarian activity of first-calf Brahman cows. Their results showed that supplementation with 150 g of fat/cow/d increased the accumulated number of Class 3 follicles (≥ 10 mm) during the first 90 d post-partum (P<0.06; Figure 3). In this regard Diaz (2009) suggested that a greater accumulated number of Class 3 follicles could be an indicator of a greater likelihood of having preovulatory follicles, so cows would have a greater chance of ovulation during the first 90 d postpartum. On the other hand, it is an indirect indicator of the onset of LH secretion after parturition, as this hormone is responsible for the final maturation of preovulatory follicles and subsequent ovulation.

**Figure 2.** Pregnancy rate for first calf Brahman cows supplemented with multinutritional blocks enriched with rumen-inert fat. The line represents the pregnancy rate for first calf Brahman cows in Venezuela (Adapted from Diaz *et al*., 2008; 2009).

**Figure 3.** Accumulated number of Class 3 follicles (≥ 10 mm) between 30 and 90 d postpartum in firstcalf Brahman cows supplemented or non with-rumen-inert fat.

Also, Hernandez (2010) reported that independent of significant difference in reproductive efficiency parameters between cows supplemented with rumen-inert fat and cows in the control group, there were numeric differences of 14 percentage points in conception rate, in favor of the supplemented cows (91% vs. 77%) and 12 d shorter interval from calving to conception (days open: 90 vs. 102 d in treatment and control group respectively). Those numbers would translate into an increase in reproductive efficiency and therefore the profitability herd.

96 Milk Production – An Up-to-Date Overview of Animal Nutrition, Management and Health

90

**Figure 2.** Pregnancy rate for first calf Brahman cows supplemented with multinutritional blocks enriched with rumen-inert fat. The line represents the pregnancy rate for first calf Brahman cows in

79

Farm A Farm B Farm C

50

Control Tratament

**Figure 3.** Accumulated number of Class 3 follicles (≥ 10 mm) between 30 and 90 d postpartum in first-

Days pospartum

30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85 88 90

calf Brahman cows supplemented or non with-rumen-inert fat.

Venezuela (Adapted from Diaz *et al*., 2008; 2009).

0

5

10

15

Accumulated Nomber of Class 3 follicles

20

25

30

35

**Pregnancy rate (%)**

In another experiment (cows received 250 g of rumen-inert fat/cow/d) we found a 20% reduction in the interval between calving and first estrus (control cows: 98 d *vs*. 78 d in supplemented cows). In this case the fat used as a supplement contained 5% ω-3 and 17% ω-6, (Unpublished data). It is important to note that the cows supplemented with ω-6 presented problems of consumption at the beginning of the trial.

Diaz *et al*. (2009) considered that the ω-6 fatty acids should be provided to stimulate cyclic ovarian activity early in the post-partum, while the ω-3 fatty acid (linolenic acid, DHA and EPA) should be supplied during early pregnancy. In this regard, several authors (Petit *et al.,* 2002;) Mattos *et al*., 2003) indicate that ω-6 fatty acids stimulate synthesis of PGF2α, as well as ω-3 stimulates the synthesis of series 3 prostaglandins, which can block the synthesis of the former, specifically the PGF2α by competitive inhibition of enzymes that regulate their synthesis.

However, there are contrasting evidences regarding the role of the ω-6 fatty acids and the synthesis of PGF2α. To this respect, Staples *et al*. (2002), indicate that linoleic acid has inhibitory effects both *in vitro* and *in vivo*, probably dose related, as the excess of this fatty acid might reduce the synthesis of prostaglandins in series 1 and 2 (i.e., PGF2α). These same authors point out, that the inhibition may be due to a competitive effect with arachidonic acid by the prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase enzyme (PGSH). Therefore, a rich source of ω-6 fatty acids could reduce the synthesis of PGF*2α*, prolonging the lifespan of the corpus luteum, allowing the implantation of the embryo and decreasing the early embryonic mortality.

On the other hand, Diaz *et al.* (2009) argue that both the maintenance of pregnancy, and the onset of postpartum ovarian activity may occur with the single supply of linoleic acid. Therefore, the use of rumen-inert fat enriched with high levels of ω-6 and/or ω-3 could contribute positively on uterine involution, the resumption of postpartum ovarian activity and reduction of days open in beef and dairy cows.


**4. Feline leukemia virus**

364 Immunodeficiency

et al., 2011; O'Brien et al., 2012).

transmission of HIV occurs mainly via mucosal routes.

(Willet et al., 2006a; Grant et al., 2009; Elder et al., 2010).

**Table 3.** Comparative disease symptoms. Modified from Elder et al., 2010.

be higher in individuals with a strong THI-type response.

The similarities and discrepancies in the physiopathology of feline and human viruses in their respective natural hosts presents striking analogies, and several intriguing differences (Tables 3 and 4). FIV and HIV share a common pattern on clinical signs, having initially a nonspecific acute phase, followed by an asymptomatic phase and a phase in which the immune system is compromised and the animal is subjected to secondary infections (Sellon e Hartmann, 2006; Gunn-Moore & Reed, 2011; Hartmann, 1998; Hartamann, 2011; Magden

The dynamics of infection by FIV and HIV in their natural hosts are very similar, like HIV, FIV can be transmitted via mucosal exposure, blood transfer, and vertically via prenatal and postnatal routes, but FIV is principally transmitted through biting, while natural

The development of disease and clinical signs are also similar in human and cat (Fig. 1 and Table 3), both virus preferentially infects CD4 + T cells, while the cell surface receptors CD4 and CD134 are used for HIV and FIV, respectively, differ: the SU glycoprotein of FIV initially binds to CD134, triggering the conformational changes in SU that allow subsequent interaction between SU and the receptor CXCR4 (Grant et al., 2009). While some viruses arising in the later stages of HIV infections are able to use CXCR4, most natural isolates of HIV use a different chemokine receptor, CCR5. Nevertheless, since CCR5 and CD134 in humans and cats, respectively, are predominantly expressed on CD4+ T cells (Table 4)

Oral lesions Yes Yes Lymphadenopathy Yes Yes Neutropenia Yes Yes CD4 T cell depletion Yes Yes Hypergammaglobulinemia Yes Yes Wasting, diahrrea Yes Yes Secondary infections Yes Yes CNS lesions Yes Yes Neoplasia Yes Yes

Host immune response against FIV in domestic cats is very similar to those induced in HIVinfected patients. Both viruses cause dysfunction of the CD4+ lymphocyte early in infection, although FIV also infects the CD8+ subset, B lymphocytes and macrophages and ultimately cause immune system collapse. Epitopes recognized by humoral and cytotoxic cellular immune responses have been described in both *Env* and *Gag* genes. Some studies suggest that progression to AIDS may be associated with a TH2-type response, while resistance may

The evaluation of vaccine strategies in animal models is essential to instruct development of a vaccine against HIV. Currently, there are studies using transgenic cats expressing HIV

**FIV HIV**

Feline leukemia virus has been reported mainly in domestic cats and, was first described in 1964 by William Jarret and co-workers. It is considered more pathogenic than FIV and FeLV infection has higher impact on mortality, because causes more severe immunosuppression than that caused by FIV infection (Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009).

The FeLV genome contains envelope (*env)*, polymerase (*pol)* e group specific antigen (*gag)* genes that encode for the surface (SU) protein glycoprotein gp70 and the transmembrane (TM) protein p15E; reverse transcriptase, protease and integrase; internal virion proteins, including p15c, p12, p27 and p10; respectively. The p27, which is used for clinical detection of FeLV and gp70 defines the virus subgroup (Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009).

Although it has not been described serotypes for FeLV virus isolates have variants or subgroups (FeLV-A, FeLV-B, FeLV-C and FeLV-T). These subgroups are distinguished by the nucleotide sequence of the *env* gene and, antigenically they are closely related. Variations in protein SU sequences would be responsible for use by the virus of different cell receptors, resulting in differences in tropism including bone marrow, salivary glands and respiratory epithelium, and pathogenicity of field isolates (Neil et al., 1991; Roy-Burman et al., 1995). Subtype A is more disseminated, it is involved in all clinical infections and is related to immunodeficiency. Only FeLV A is contagious and passed horizontally from cat to cat in nature. The host cell receptor used by FeLV is *Feline highaffinity thiamine transporter 1* (feTHTR1), found in absorption tissues and small intestine besides liver and kidneys, and also in cells of the lymphoid system. This wide distribution is consistent with the fact that the FeLV-A is found in a variety of tissues and cells and this subgroup can cause lymphomas, but usually causes injury moderate in the absence of other subgroups. Subtype B originates from recombination of FeLV-A is primarily associated with tumors. Subtype C considered the most pathogenic subgroup, emerges from mutations in the *env* gene of subtype A and is mainly associated with non-regenerative anemia*.* Subtype T was originally isolated from a cat with FeLV induced immunodeficiency (FAIDS). This subgroup arises from mutations in the SU gene sequence of the FeLV-A with approximately 96% similarity. It is defined by its T lymphotropism. This subgroup requires a membrane-spanning receptor molecule (PIT1) and a co-receptor protein (FeLIX) to infect T lymphocytes and causes usually severe immunosuppression. In fact, all naturally infected cats carry FeLV A either alone or in combination with FeLV B, FeLV C, or both (Neil et al., 1991; Roy-Burman et al., 1995; Hartamann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009).

Feline Immunodeficiency 367

**Healthy cat**

Animal resistant future infections for a period of time

(complete elimation) FeLV positive (continued viremia)

Days FeLV negative -

3 weeks FeLV positive

3-13 weeks FeLV negative

3-13 weeks FeLV positve

will be infected for the remainder of their lives. The pathogenesis of FeLV is different in each cat and depends on immune status and age, but can be classified into six stages (Table 6) (Hard et al., 1976; Charreyre & Pedersen, 1991; Hartmann, 2006; Fugino et al., 2008; Lutz,

> Efficient - virus neutralization

Failure to develop an immune response effective

Body inactive the virus, but not neutralizes

sequestered in the epithelial tissue, replicates itself, but leaves the cells

Clinical signs associated with FeLV infection are variable (Fig. 4). It has seen tumors in infected cats once FeLV is a major oncogene that causes different kind of tumors, most commonly malignant lymphoma and leukemia and other hematopoietic tumors. It also induces thymic atrophy and depletion of lymph node paracortical zones following infection Besides that it has been found immunosuppression with poor response to T-cell mitogens, reduced immunoglobulin production; hematologic disorders like lymphopenia and neutropenia; immune-mediated diseases; neuropathy; reproductive disorders; fading kitten syndrome and opportunistic infections. The lymphopenia may be characterized by preferential loss of CD4+/CD8+ ratio and losses of helper cells and cytotoxic supressor cells and primary and secondary humoral antibody responses are delayed and decreased

FeLV infected cats having concurrent protozoal, bacterial, viral, and fungal infections, most commonly bartonellosis, respiratory infections and coccidiosis (Wolf-Jäckel et al., 2012; Sobrinho et al., 2012). Diseases such as hemolytic anemia, glomerulonephritis, chronic enteritis with intestinal epithelial cell degeneration and necrosis of the crypts, liver disease, reabsorption fetal, abortion, stillbirth, lymphadenopathy, polyarthritis and neurological

**Response immune Days after**

**infection**

2009).

**Classification of evolution of the disease**

Regressive infection extinct

Progressive Persistent

Regressive Latent

**Classification of infected animals**

> Transient viremia

viremia

infection

(Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009; Hartmann, 2011).

Atypical Complete virus is

**Table 5.** Immune responses following infection. Modified from Hartmann, 2006.

#### **4.1. Epidemiology and transmission**

The feline leukemia virus has a worldwide distribution. FeLV is contagious and spreads through close contact between viral shedding, but the prevalence of infection varies greatly depending on their age, health, environment, density of animals and lifestyle (Hard et al., 1976; Grant et al., 1980). The kittens are more susceptible, since the resistance develops with age. Because of advances in the diagnosis of disease and vaccination the prevalence of FeLV has dropped substantially in the last two decades. In Shelters and places where there is a high density of animals, it is advisable to proceed diagnosis of all animals. Infected animals should be euthanized or isolated from not infected animals.

FeLV is transmitted mainly by oronasal contact, through saliva, urine, feces, ingestion of contaminated food and water and also through bites. Transmission can also take place from an infected mother cat to her kittens, either before they are born or while they are nursing. Older cats are more resistant to FeLV infection, but can be infected by high viral doses (Lutz et al., 2009).

#### **4.2. Pathogenesis, immunity and clinical symptoms**

FeLV is present in the blood during two different stages of infection: primary viremia, an early stage of virus infection. During early stage some cats are able to mount an effective immune response, eliminate the virus from the bloodstream. The second stage is characterized by persistent infection of the bone marrow and other tissues (Table 5) (Hard et al., 1976; Hartmann, 2006; Fugino et al., 2008). If FeLV infection progresses to this stage it has passed a point of no return: the overwhelming majority of cats with secondary viremia will be infected for the remainder of their lives. The pathogenesis of FeLV is different in each cat and depends on immune status and age, but can be classified into six stages (Table 6) (Hard et al., 1976; Charreyre & Pedersen, 1991; Hartmann, 2006; Fugino et al., 2008; Lutz, 2009).

366 Immunodeficiency

et al., 2009).

1995; Hartamann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009).

**4.1. Epidemiology and transmission**

should be euthanized or isolated from not infected animals.

**4.2. Pathogenesis, immunity and clinical symptoms**

al., 1995). Subtype A is more disseminated, it is involved in all clinical infections and is related to immunodeficiency. Only FeLV A is contagious and passed horizontally from cat to cat in nature. The host cell receptor used by FeLV is *Feline highaffinity thiamine transporter 1* (feTHTR1), found in absorption tissues and small intestine besides liver and kidneys, and also in cells of the lymphoid system. This wide distribution is consistent with the fact that the FeLV-A is found in a variety of tissues and cells and this subgroup can cause lymphomas, but usually causes injury moderate in the absence of other subgroups. Subtype B originates from recombination of FeLV-A is primarily associated with tumors. Subtype C considered the most pathogenic subgroup, emerges from mutations in the *env* gene of subtype A and is mainly associated with non-regenerative anemia*.* Subtype T was originally isolated from a cat with FeLV induced immunodeficiency (FAIDS). This subgroup arises from mutations in the SU gene sequence of the FeLV-A with approximately 96% similarity. It is defined by its T lymphotropism. This subgroup requires a membrane-spanning receptor molecule (PIT1) and a co-receptor protein (FeLIX) to infect T lymphocytes and causes usually severe immunosuppression. In fact, all naturally infected cats carry FeLV A either alone or in combination with FeLV B, FeLV C, or both (Neil et al., 1991; Roy-Burman et al.,

The feline leukemia virus has a worldwide distribution. FeLV is contagious and spreads through close contact between viral shedding, but the prevalence of infection varies greatly depending on their age, health, environment, density of animals and lifestyle (Hard et al., 1976; Grant et al., 1980). The kittens are more susceptible, since the resistance develops with age. Because of advances in the diagnosis of disease and vaccination the prevalence of FeLV has dropped substantially in the last two decades. In Shelters and places where there is a high density of animals, it is advisable to proceed diagnosis of all animals. Infected animals

FeLV is transmitted mainly by oronasal contact, through saliva, urine, feces, ingestion of contaminated food and water and also through bites. Transmission can also take place from an infected mother cat to her kittens, either before they are born or while they are nursing. Older cats are more resistant to FeLV infection, but can be infected by high viral doses (Lutz

FeLV is present in the blood during two different stages of infection: primary viremia, an early stage of virus infection. During early stage some cats are able to mount an effective immune response, eliminate the virus from the bloodstream. The second stage is characterized by persistent infection of the bone marrow and other tissues (Table 5) (Hard et al., 1976; Hartmann, 2006; Fugino et al., 2008). If FeLV infection progresses to this stage it has passed a point of no return: the overwhelming majority of cats with secondary viremia

**Table 5.** Immune responses following infection. Modified from Hartmann, 2006.

Clinical signs associated with FeLV infection are variable (Fig. 4). It has seen tumors in infected cats once FeLV is a major oncogene that causes different kind of tumors, most commonly malignant lymphoma and leukemia and other hematopoietic tumors. It also induces thymic atrophy and depletion of lymph node paracortical zones following infection Besides that it has been found immunosuppression with poor response to T-cell mitogens, reduced immunoglobulin production; hematologic disorders like lymphopenia and neutropenia; immune-mediated diseases; neuropathy; reproductive disorders; fading kitten syndrome and opportunistic infections. The lymphopenia may be characterized by preferential loss of CD4+/CD8+ ratio and losses of helper cells and cytotoxic supressor cells and primary and secondary humoral antibody responses are delayed and decreased (Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009; Hartmann, 2011).

FeLV infected cats having concurrent protozoal, bacterial, viral, and fungal infections, most commonly bartonellosis, respiratory infections and coccidiosis (Wolf-Jäckel et al., 2012; Sobrinho et al., 2012). Diseases such as hemolytic anemia, glomerulonephritis, chronic enteritis with intestinal epithelial cell degeneration and necrosis of the crypts, liver disease, reabsorption fetal, abortion, stillbirth, lymphadenopathy, polyarthritis and neurological

diseases such as peripheral neuropathies, may be related to FeLV infection (Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009; Hartmann, 2011).

Feline Immunodeficiency 369

**4.3. Diagnosis and management of FeLV-infected cats**

naturally and may react negatively with a specific PCR.

(Gomes-Keller et al., 2006; Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009).

weeks.

disinfectant.

The correct and early diagnosis is important for prevention and control of FeLV infection Diagnostic tests detect antigens and, cats of any age should be tested. For the diagnosis of FeLV, virus isolation is not widely used, because it is difficult, time consuming to perform and requires special facilities, though viral antigens could be detected in peripheral blood cells, this method has been considered as the ultimate diagnostic criterion. Most often, the diagnosis of infection is done based on clinical history and detection of antigens, the FeLV core protein (p27), in leukocytes, plasma, serum or saliva of suspected animals (Barr, 1998; Hartmann, 2006). The direct immunofluorescence assay in blood smears, is the most commonly used diagnostic methods for detection of the virus, targeting mainly proteins p27 and p55 that are present in infected leukocytes (Hard, 1991). Tests such as ELISA and immunochromatography for the p27 protein have high sensitivity and specificity and are preferred used because they are less laborious, however, when doubtful results occurs it should be confirmed by direct immunofluorescence (Table 7) (Hard, 1991, Hartmann et al., 2007; Lutz et al., 2009). PCR is being used currently for detection of viral nucleic acid (RNA or proviral DNA) and is highly strain specific. PCR positive for FeLV proviral DNA indicates the presence of exogenous but not necessarily can be used as a diagnosis for viremia (Gomes-Keller et al., 2006). In these cases the RT-PCR detects the presence of viral RNA and informs the development of viremia in infected animals, but current reagents and testing protocols should be well standardized. As a retrovirus, mutations in FeLV occur

It is necessary a good classification of the stage (Table 6) of the disease to obtain an accurate diagnosis. In phases I-III only ELISA can detect viral antigens for FeLV, and in the stages IV-VI can be detected by ELISA, immunofluorescence and PCR. The combination of testing determines the FeLV infection status of most cats. Recommend annual retesting after any discordant test result until agreement. A positive test doubtful a healthy animal, it should be done further confirmatory tests such as direct immunofluorescence and PCR for provirus

For an accurate diagnosis, it is also necessary to evaluate the age and lifestyle of the animal (Table 7): Negative animals under 12 weeks who had contact with sick birds or other animals should be retested within 4-6 weeks; positive results indicate that at this age the animals are infected. Negative animals with more than 12 weeks who had contact with sick birds or other animals should be retested within 6-8 weeks; positive results at this age should be classified as follows: sick animals (positive), healthy animals, retesting within 6-8

The early and precise diagnosis is needed to enable rapid intervention. FeLV-infected cats should be isolated from uninfected ones. It is also recemmented that they could be examined by the vet regularly (every 6 months), doing biochemical tests, complete blood count and urinalysis. Infected animals should be sterilized to minimize the transmission. The living environment should be cleaned periodically, because FeLV is sensitive to any type of

**Table 6.** Stages of replication of the virus of feline leukemia (FeLV).

**Figure 4.** Gingivitis. (Courtesy Marcia Moller Nogueira).

The feline oncovirus associated-membrane antigens (FOCMA) may be associated with immunodeficiency that occurs because of depletion of lymphoid cells infected, probably due to antibody-mediated cytotoxic. Leukemia and anemia are induced by the transformation of stem cells, myeloid and lymphoid lineages, induced by infection with FeLV (Hard et al., 1976; Lutz et al., 2009; Hartmann, 2011).

#### **4.3. Diagnosis and management of FeLV-infected cats**

368 Immunodeficiency

Lutz et al., 2009; Hartmann, 2011).

I Oropharynx and

II Lymphocytes and

III Systemic lymphoid

IV Bone marrow cells

V Bone marrow stem

VI Viremia medullary

**Figure 4.** Gingivitis. (Courtesy Marcia Moller Nogueira).

1976; Lutz et al., 2009; Hartmann, 2011).

The feline oncovirus associated-membrane antigens (FOCMA) may be associated with immunodeficiency that occurs because of depletion of lymphoid cells infected, probably due to antibody-mediated cytotoxic. Leukemia and anemia are induced by the transformation of stem cells, myeloid and lymphoid lineages, induced by infection with FeLV (Hard et al.,

lymph nodes

monocytes

centers

and epithelial cell

cells

epithelial and lymphoid

**Table 6.** Stages of replication of the virus of feline leukemia (FeLV).

diseases such as peripheral neuropathies, may be related to FeLV infection (Hartmann, 2006;

Stages Replication region Pathogenesis Days post

Infects lymphocytes, which travel to the bone marrow

Immune suppression, thymic atrophy, lymphopenia, neutropenia, neutrophil function abnormalities, loss of CD4+ cells and CD8+ lymphocytes

> Myelossuppression and leukemia

> Thrombocytopenia and neutropenia

Immune suppression 2- 12 days

Anaemia and lymphoma 2- 6 weeks

infection

2- 12 days

2- 12 days

4- 6 weeks

4- 6 weeks

The correct and early diagnosis is important for prevention and control of FeLV infection Diagnostic tests detect antigens and, cats of any age should be tested. For the diagnosis of FeLV, virus isolation is not widely used, because it is difficult, time consuming to perform and requires special facilities, though viral antigens could be detected in peripheral blood cells, this method has been considered as the ultimate diagnostic criterion. Most often, the diagnosis of infection is done based on clinical history and detection of antigens, the FeLV core protein (p27), in leukocytes, plasma, serum or saliva of suspected animals (Barr, 1998; Hartmann, 2006). The direct immunofluorescence assay in blood smears, is the most commonly used diagnostic methods for detection of the virus, targeting mainly proteins p27 and p55 that are present in infected leukocytes (Hard, 1991). Tests such as ELISA and immunochromatography for the p27 protein have high sensitivity and specificity and are preferred used because they are less laborious, however, when doubtful results occurs it should be confirmed by direct immunofluorescence (Table 7) (Hard, 1991, Hartmann et al., 2007; Lutz et al., 2009). PCR is being used currently for detection of viral nucleic acid (RNA or proviral DNA) and is highly strain specific. PCR positive for FeLV proviral DNA indicates the presence of exogenous but not necessarily can be used as a diagnosis for viremia (Gomes-Keller et al., 2006). In these cases the RT-PCR detects the presence of viral RNA and informs the development of viremia in infected animals, but current reagents and testing protocols should be well standardized. As a retrovirus, mutations in FeLV occur naturally and may react negatively with a specific PCR.

It is necessary a good classification of the stage (Table 6) of the disease to obtain an accurate diagnosis. In phases I-III only ELISA can detect viral antigens for FeLV, and in the stages IV-VI can be detected by ELISA, immunofluorescence and PCR. The combination of testing determines the FeLV infection status of most cats. Recommend annual retesting after any discordant test result until agreement. A positive test doubtful a healthy animal, it should be done further confirmatory tests such as direct immunofluorescence and PCR for provirus (Gomes-Keller et al., 2006; Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009).

For an accurate diagnosis, it is also necessary to evaluate the age and lifestyle of the animal (Table 7): Negative animals under 12 weeks who had contact with sick birds or other animals should be retested within 4-6 weeks; positive results indicate that at this age the animals are infected. Negative animals with more than 12 weeks who had contact with sick birds or other animals should be retested within 6-8 weeks; positive results at this age should be classified as follows: sick animals (positive), healthy animals, retesting within 6-8 weeks.

The early and precise diagnosis is needed to enable rapid intervention. FeLV-infected cats should be isolated from uninfected ones. It is also recemmented that they could be examined by the vet regularly (every 6 months), doing biochemical tests, complete blood count and urinalysis. Infected animals should be sterilized to minimize the transmission. The living environment should be cleaned periodically, because FeLV is sensitive to any type of disinfectant.

Feline Immunodeficiency 371

and can be vaccinated at intervals of 2-3 years. Vaccines prepared with inactivated whole virus obtained from cell cultures are available commercially, as well as vaccines containing recombinant viral proteins expressed in heterologous systems. No FeLV vaccine provides 100% efficacy of protection for FeLV and none prevents infection, but vaccination offers good prevention of fatal cases. The immunization of animals with inactivated vaccines may result in a reduction of 70% incidence of the disease. FeLV immunization should be part of the routine vaccination programmed for pet cats. However, the most effective way to prevent the spread of infection is testing for FeLV and preventing exposure of healthy cats

to FeLV infected cats (Cotter, 1991; McCaw, 1995, Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009).

Charreyre, C., Pedersen, N. C. (1991). Study of feline leukemia virus immunity. *J. Am. Vet.*

Cotter, S. M. (1991). Management of healthy feline leukemia virus-positive cats. *J. Am. Vet.*

Courchamp, F., Pontier, D. (1994). Feline immunodeficiency virus: an epidemiological

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Doménech, A., Miró, G., Collado, V. M., Ballesteros, N., Sanjosé, L., Escolar, E., Martin, S. & Gomez-Lucia E. (2011). Use of recombinant interferon omega in feline retrovirosis: from

Elder, J. H., Sundstrom, M., de Rozieres, S., de Parseval A., Grant, C. K., Lin Y. C. (2008). Molecular mechanisms of FIV infection. *Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol*. 15;123(1-2):3-13. Elder, J. H., Lin, Y. C., Fink, E. & Grant, C. K. (2010). Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) as a model for study of lentivirus infections: parallels with HIV. *Curr.* HIV *Res.* 8(1):73-80. Fujino, Y., Ohno, K., Tsujimoto, H. (2008). Molecular pathogenesis of feline leukemia virusinduced malignancies: insertional mutagenesis. *Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol.* 123(1-

Gomes-Keller, M. A., Gönczi, E., Tandon, R., Riondato, F., Hofmann-Lehmann, R., Meli, M. L., Lutz, H. (2006). Detection of feline leukemia virus RNA in saliva from naturally infected cats and correlation of PCR results with those of current diagnostic methods. *J.*

Grant, C. K., Essex, M., Gardner, M. B., Hardy, W. D. Jr. (1980). Natural feline leukemia virus infection and the immune response of cats of different ages. *Cancer Res.* 40(3):823-9.

Fabiana Alves and Jenner Karlisson Pimenta dos Reis

review. *C. R. Acad. Sci. III.* 317(12):1123-34.

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theory to practice. *Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol.* 143(3-4):301-6.

*Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil*

*Med. Assoc.* 199(10):1316-24.

*Med. Assoc.* 199(10):1470-3.

*Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol*. 12(1):60-6.

*Clin. Microbiol.* 44(3):916-22.

**Author details**

**5. References**

2):138-43.

**Table 7.** Interpretation of results obtained by ELISA and direct immunofluorescence. Modified from Hartmann, 2006.

As immunomodulatory therapy are used to good clinical improvement, but are still under study. Antivirals such as AZT that acts effectively against FeLV replication in vitro and in vivo reducing the viral load, improving the immune response and clinical condition of the animal (Cotter, 1991; Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009). Infected animals should be treated for other infections promptly to prevent an impaired immune system and should be vaccinated regularly against other pathogens like rabies virus, feline panleukopenia, rhinotracheitis, calicevirose, chlamydiosis and other (Cotter, 1991; McCaw, 1995, Lutz et al., 2009). Corticosteroids should be avoided, but if stomatitis or gingivitis occurs they can be used to facilitate the intake of food. In cats with anemia, blood transfusions may be useful and leukopenia can be treated with colony-stimulating factors (Cotter, 1991; McCaw, 1995, Lutz et al., 2009).

All animals should be tested for FeLV and thereafter be vaccinated at the age of 8-9 weeks and again at 12 weeks with annual boosters. Older animals are less susceptible to infection and can be vaccinated at intervals of 2-3 years. Vaccines prepared with inactivated whole virus obtained from cell cultures are available commercially, as well as vaccines containing recombinant viral proteins expressed in heterologous systems. No FeLV vaccine provides 100% efficacy of protection for FeLV and none prevents infection, but vaccination offers good prevention of fatal cases. The immunization of animals with inactivated vaccines may result in a reduction of 70% incidence of the disease. FeLV immunization should be part of the routine vaccination programmed for pet cats. However, the most effective way to prevent the spread of infection is testing for FeLV and preventing exposure of healthy cats to FeLV infected cats (Cotter, 1991; McCaw, 1995, Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009).

#### **Author details**

370 Immunodeficiency

Less than 12 weeks

More than 12 weeks

Hartmann, 2006.

Lutz et al., 2009).

 Interpretation of results obtained by ELISA and direct immunofluorescence. Modified from

As immunomodulatory therapy are used to good clinical improvement, but are still under study. Antivirals such as AZT that acts effectively against FeLV replication in vitro and in vivo reducing the viral load, improving the immune response and clinical condition of the animal (Cotter, 1991; Hartmann, 2006; Lutz et al., 2009). Infected animals should be treated for other infections promptly to prevent an impaired immune system and should be vaccinated regularly against other pathogens like rabies virus, feline panleukopenia, rhinotracheitis, calicevirose, chlamydiosis and other (Cotter, 1991; McCaw, 1995, Lutz et al., 2009). Corticosteroids should be avoided, but if stomatitis or gingivitis occurs they can be used to facilitate the intake of food. In cats with anemia, blood transfusions may be useful and leukopenia can be treated with colony-stimulating factors (Cotter, 1991; McCaw, 1995,

All animals should be tested for FeLV and thereafter be vaccinated at the age of 8-9 weeks and again at 12 weeks with annual boosters. Older animals are less susceptible to infection

Sick animal Infected

Animal health Re-test after 6-8

**Interpretation Measure**

Infected Isolation of

The result of the last test will be conclusive

animal and clinical control every six months.

The result of the last test will be conclusive

The result of the last test will be conclusive

Re-test after 4-6 weeks

Uninfected

Re-test after 6-8 weeks

Uninfected

weeks

Fabiana Alves and Jenner Karlisson Pimenta dos Reis *Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil*

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**Chapter 17**

© 2012 Tozon et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV)**

**Infection in Cats: A Possible Cause**

**of Renal Pathological Changes**

Natasa Tozon, Mauro Pistello and Alessandro Poli

The feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is a lentivirus isolated from domestic cats with an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-like condition, named feline AIDS (F-AIDS). The major immunological abnormalities observed in FIV-infected cats included a profound decline in the absolute number of the CD4+ T cells that caused the inversion of the CD4+/CD8+ T cell ratio and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections and various clinic-pathological conditions [1]. FIV viruses encompass a large group of strains classified in subgroups from A to E, which are unevenly distributed geographically and have an intersubtype diversity > 26% [2]. The isolates used in our study were Petaluma, of group A, and Pisa-M2, a local isolate belonging to group B, which encloses all isolates hitherto sequenced and circulating in Italy [3 4]. Serological screenings performed in the past demonstrated that the virus is distributed worldwide and incidence varies from 1 – 14% in healthy cats and up to 44% in sick cats. As other lentiviruses, FIV is a complex retrovirus with structural genes *gag, pol* and *env*, and a few accessory genes [5]; *gag* encodes the capsid protein p24, used in most diagnostic tests, and other inner structural proteins, *pol* encodes the enzymes necessary for viral replication and therefore targeted by most anti-lentiviral drugs, and *env* encode the outer glycoprotein (gp95) and trans-membrane protein (gp36) serving as viral receptor and, being constantly under immunological pressure, the less conserved proteins among the different subtypes. Like the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the gp95 is comprised of variable and conserved regions and binds the CD134 molecule, the FIV primary receptor [6]. Studies on HIV have shown that some conserved epitopes are accessible for neutralizing antibodies, while the co-receptor binding site is composed by interspersed domains. The binding site remains largely hidden and is therefore inaccessible for mentioned antibody. Whereas overall HIV and FIV Env structure is maintained [7], HIV uses various coreceptors, including a range transmembrane domain G-protein-coupled receptors. In

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51534

**1. Introduction**