**2. Concept of chemical ecology**

Molluscs live in very different habitats and are highly diverse especially in their ecological behaviors. The phylum consist 10 taxonomic classes, which two are entirely extinct. Among the existing classes, Cephalopods such as squid, cuttlefish and octopus, are among the most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates, and gastropods (snails and slugs) are the most

Molluscs are highly successful animal group in terms of ecology and adaptation and they are found in all habitats ranging from deepest ocean to intertidal zone, freshwater and terrestrial lands where they occupy a wide range of habitats, but the highest diversity could be found in the sea in comparison with freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Between all classes in the phylum Mollusca, the most important class is gastropoda comprising more than 80% of all living Mollusca species. The species belonging to this class occurs in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Whereas bivalves occurs both in freshwater and marine environments, but there is not any species in terrestrial habitats. In the all classes of molluscs, 6 classes are

Molluscs are consumed as a food source for humans, birds, fish, mammals and other invertebrates, and also play a key role in the recycling of nutrients, soil-generation and water filtration. They are good bio-indicators too, for environmental quality in all types of aquatic

Molluscs have very different forms among the other animal phylums. Snails, slugs and other gastropods; clams, oysters, scallops and other bivalves; squid, cuttlefish, octopus and other cephalopods; and also lesser known subgroups have interesting diversities in structure, color and size [6]. The giant squid, which had not been observed alive in its adult form recently, is one of the largest invertebrates, with 10 m (33 ft.) long and 500 kg (1100 lb.) weighed [7].

Molluscs are an important food source for humans as mentioned earlier, but there is a risk about poisoning from toxins which can accumulate in certain molluscs under specific conditions. Besides, they are a good source of many luxury goods, such as pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye, and sea silk. Also, in ancient periods, their shells have also been used as

Mollusca are very abundant and form an important trophic level in the aquatic food chain. A large number are filter feeders and hence, are important in nutrient recycling along with the other soil invertebrates. Numerous molluscs are important food source for humans such as Clams and Snails. Some gastropods are pest and damage crops or others hosts for some disease causing parasites such as lung worm which causes schistosomiasis and liver worm for

In addition to the wide usages of molluscs in food industry, shell decorations, dyes and medicines; determination, identification and extraction of their bioactive compounds and secondary metabolites have been an important scientific field of research recently. For instance, isolated natural products from molluscs and their structural analogues are particularly well represented in the anticancer compounds in clinical trials. These compounds and their differ-

ent chemical structures could be change in each species [8–10].

numerous classes in this phylum [2].

232 Biological Resources of Water

exclusively marine species [3, 4].

habitats [4, 5].

money [4].

fascioliasis in humans [3, 5].

The different species from molluscs probably utilizes the neutral and total lipids during cold seasons in order to survive and stores them for hot seasons. The importance of stored lipids is for reproductive purposes. However, they have also been shown to provide energy during winter, when carbohydrate reserves are depleted. This indicates that the fatty acid compositions of animals, neutral lipids in particular, are dictated by their metabolic activities and components of their dietary lipids [12].

The feeding habitats and diet composition are important factors that cause changes in the levels or type of the fatty acids in the different groups of molluscs. There are different feeding habits (such as filter feeder and detritus feeder) in the different groups of this phylum. Most of the lipids and considerable amounts of C20:5ω3 and C22:6ω3 acids are provided by diatoms and dinoflagellates, respectively. For example, diet composition of bivalves which are filter feeders, consist of dinoflagellates, bacteria and particulate organic material. It is found that diatoms have high levels of C20:5ω3 acid and low C22:6ω3 acid, but dinoflagellates have high concentrations of C22:6ω3 acid. Some species of molluscs are detritus feeder, and amounts of lipids, SFAs and MUFAs of 14–18 carbons are provided by detritus. Therefore, diet composition has the important role in the variation in the level and type of the fatty acids between different groups during four seasons of the year [13–15].

The different metabolic processes play an important role in the changes of levels and type of the fatty acids, because there are significant differences in amount of consumed energy between different metabolic processes. Between all metabolic processes, reproductive cycles is the main process for consume of energy, and this process need high levels of energy (fatty acid). Therefore, there is probably an apparent relation between reproduction cycles and fatty acid profiles. In between all fatty acids same as C20:4ω6, is mostly associated with the reproductive enzymes and highest levels of this compound is consumed in spawning times and reproductive processes.

Distribution histogram of species diversity reveals multiple metabolites, with a median number

Chemical Ecology of Biocompounds in Molluscs http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72741 235

Search results typically show small groups of structurally related compounds (analogues), regarding that the compounds vary in different habitats for the same species. For example, 25 compounds such as terpenes, nitrogenous aliphatic compounds, macrolides and fatty acid derivatives have been isolated from the sea hare *Aplysia kurodai*. Eight novel metabolites were

Its close related species *Aplysia dactylomela*, had 58 compounds which were primarily terpenes derived probably from algal diets of these cosmopolitan grazing sea hares. The *Patinopectin yessoensis* bivalve contained second highest number of sterols and algal toxins. Hence, it could be found that dietary sources contribute significantly to the chemical diversities in molluscs. Evidence for the biogenesis of secondary metabolites mostly stems from feeding experiments, which demonstrate the incorporation of radio-labeled precursors in certain groups of heterobranch molluscs. The secondary metabolites isolated, fall into a wide range of structural

Clearly, all the secondary metabolite types are present in both gastropods and bivalves. Terpenes are dominated In Gastropods, while only three terpenes were identified in bivalves. Terpenes have been an important field of research in soft-bodied grazing gastropods, which they might gain these compounds from their diet for their own defense [5]. Sterols are dominated in bivalves partly because of their role in reproduction cycles, while they are rare in gastropods, taking into account that the large number of researches in bivalves is probably due to their importance in fisheries and aquaculture. Polyproprionates and alkaloids have been isolated from both classes,

There are an extraordinary series of unusual compounds in marine invertebrates, many of them cause interesting biological properties. For instance, opisthobranchs and pulmonates, particularly are important due to their secondary metabolites, and the ecological role and biosynthesis of these compounds could be related to their diet such as microalgae and diatoms. Opisthobranchs which are unprotected with reduced or completely absent shells, have defensive strategies using different chemicals [12]. The selected sampling stations were along different ecosystems such as Indian, Chinese, Mediterranean, Australian and Atlantic coasts of Spain, and strongly indicate that the metabolism of the opisthobranchs is influenced by geographical location, ecosystem type and habitats. The feeding ecology and habitats of all molluscs species are very selective, so feeding metabolites possessed by related species are more similar, while those de novo biosynthesized are most identical in species belonging to the same family but with different geographically habitat. Also, some recent biosynthetic

Natural products research aimed at the isolation and identification of novel secondary metabolites, has only been undertaken on a small proportion of molluscan species to date. The bioactivity of many molluscan traditional medicines is yet to be substantiated, but preliminary data available from bivalves, cephalpods and caenogastropods suggests that there is likely to

of two and a maximum of 58 compounds isolated from a single species [18, 19].

classes, with some compounds being more dominant in certain taxa [21, 22].

whereas aliphatic nitrogenous compounds are relatively uncommon in both [8].

experiments possessed had been discussed [23, 24].

be some chemical basis to their medical applications.

isolated from this species in new environment, further [20].

Growth is one of the processes which needs high levels of energy too, and the energy levels (fatty acid) change in the different stages of the growth. The growth ratio is not similar for different organs and species, and different types of organs need different fatty acids level for growth. Among different organs, sexual organs such as gonads need high levels of fatty acids for growth, and the highest levels of energy are consumed for gonad growth. Therefore, metabolic ratio and followed energy level are varied in different processes, and it could be found that metabolic ratios are key roles in fatty acid amounts and their profiles [4, 5, 14].

The decrease in the ∑PUFA level of neutral lipids of mollusks may probably due to transport of fatty acids to the reproductive organs responsible for gonad maturation. In the different species of mollusks, which the winter is reproductive time, the level of fatty acids in the winter is low, in comparison with other seasons [6, 7].

Many studies indicate that there are a positive correlation between fatty acids and temperature in the tissues of mollusks. Accumulation and increase in the amount of lipids especially PUFAs during summer and decrease in winter may be related to the adaptable regulation of the melting point of cellular lipids. Therefore, many researches are indicated that the amount of lipids in summer is higher than the winter, which returns to; (1) consume of lipid in the reproductive organs for gonad maturation and (2) the adaptable regulation of the melting point of cellular lipids. Finally, variations in the lipid levels in their tissues are related to environmental parameters (such as temperature, light and salinity), seasonal variations, feeding habitats, spawning time and reproductive processes, sexual development and growth metabolisms of molluscs [15–17].

In the total body lipids analyses of molluscs, fatty acids, phospholipids and neutral lipid fractions identified from different tissues. These fatty acids are mostly common in marine and freshwater mollusks. Also, odd-numbered fatty acids, such as C13:0, C15:0, C17:0, and C20 polyunsaturated fatty acids in body lipids of different species, were identified. As mentioned, temperature, food availability, metabolic and physiological activities can affect the lipid and fatty acids compositions of molluscs [6, 8].


*6.1.3. Stages of conflict*

Escalation theory is presented by Yasmi et al. [31] to represent the escalation of a conflict when nothing is done to address the conflict or if the conflict is not addressed in a timely manner. Escalation theory within conflict in teams is "based on inter-individuals' conflicts within organizational settings" [31]. The model presented by Yasmi et al. [31] is based on Glasl's (as cited in Thomas [31]) stage model of conflict escalation which involved nine stages of escalation: (1) hardening, (2) debate, polemics, (3) actions, not words, (4) image and coalition, (5) loss of face, (6) strategies of threat, (7) limited destructive blows, (8) fragmentation of enemy, and (9) together into the abyss.

The first stage of conflict, hardening, takes place when a typical disagreement in opinion or policy occurs between two parties. As each party attempts to resolve the conflict, both sides become more fixed in their positions, hence the descriptive term, hardening, used for this stage. Thomas [33] explained that progression to stage two occurs when either side loses faith in resolving the conflict: "When straight argumentation is abandoned in favour of tactical and manipulative argumentative tricks, the conflict slips into stage 2". During the second stage of debate, the two parties continue to hold onto their fixed position, furthering their diverging positions. Thomas identified that rational interactions escalate into emotional and power issues during this stage. At this point mistrust becomes an issue and one or both parties begin to act without consulting the other side [33]. This leads us to the third stage, actions, not words. During the actions stage, each party views the other as a competitor in which verbal communication is diminished due to a lack of trust between the parties [33]. Both parties begin to feel a sense of helplessness in that neither side can resolve the conflict.

Once the conflict becomes a matter of either victory or defeat for both parties, as Thomas [33] pointed out, the conflict has entered into the fourth stage, images and coalitions. During this fourth stage, each party suppresses the opinions and suggestions presented from the other party resulting in in-action. Attacks become more prevalent and take a form that borders acceptable norms for the two parties involved. Thomas identified these attacks as dealing through "insinuation, ambiguous comments, irony and body language" (stage 4). Once these attacks expand beyond the acceptable norms for the two parties then the conflict has entered into stage 5, loss of face. Thomas [33] identified attacks during this fifth stage to be directed toward a person's status within the group or organization, a person's 'face'. Once the conflict escalates to where one or both parties begin to make ultimatums or threats, Thomas indicated that the escalation has entered into stage 6, strategies of threats. Beyond this sixth stage, those stages of limited destructive blows, fragmentation of the enemy, and together into the abyss, are present in rare cases [33]. In most cases, conflict within a team setting will be of the stages between hardening (stage 1) and loss of face (stage 5).

#### *6.1.4. Conflict escalation*

Of the three levels of conflict presented by Rapaport [30] the debate level of conflict would be the best level of conflict to model in a team setting. The exchange of information is critical to resolve the team's conflict. This exchange of information allows team members to consider other points of view, which can lead to productive resolution. This is supported by Rapaport [30]: "a shift in

Escalation theory is presented by Yasmi et al. [31] to represent the escalation of a conflict when nothing is done to address the conflict or if the conflict is not addressed in a timely manner. Escalation theory within conflict in teams is "based on inter-individuals' conflicts within organizational settings" [31]. The model presented by Yasmi et al. [31] is based on Glasl's (as cited in Thomas [31]) stage model of conflict escalation which involved nine stages of escalation: (1) hardening, (2) debate, polemics, (3) actions, not words, (4) image and coalition, (5) loss of face, (6) strategies of threat, (7) limited destructive blows, (8) fragmentation of enemy,

The first stage of conflict, hardening, takes place when a typical disagreement in opinion or policy occurs between two parties. As each party attempts to resolve the conflict, both sides become more fixed in their positions, hence the descriptive term, hardening, used for this stage. Thomas [33] explained that progression to stage two occurs when either side loses faith in resolving the conflict: "When straight argumentation is abandoned in favour of tactical and manipulative argumentative tricks, the conflict slips into stage 2". During the second stage of debate, the two parties continue to hold onto their fixed position, furthering their diverging positions. Thomas identified that rational interactions escalate into emotional and power issues during this stage. At this point mistrust becomes an issue and one or both parties begin to act without consulting the other side [33]. This leads us to the third stage, actions, not words. During the actions stage, each party views the other as a competitor in which verbal communication is diminished due to a lack of trust between the parties [33]. Both parties

begin to feel a sense of helplessness in that neither side can resolve the conflict.

between hardening (stage 1) and loss of face (stage 5).

Once the conflict becomes a matter of either victory or defeat for both parties, as Thomas [33] pointed out, the conflict has entered into the fourth stage, images and coalitions. During this fourth stage, each party suppresses the opinions and suggestions presented from the other party resulting in in-action. Attacks become more prevalent and take a form that borders acceptable norms for the two parties involved. Thomas identified these attacks as dealing through "insinuation, ambiguous comments, irony and body language" (stage 4). Once these attacks expand beyond the acceptable norms for the two parties then the conflict has entered into stage 5, loss of face. Thomas [33] identified attacks during this fifth stage to be directed toward a person's status within the group or organization, a person's 'face'. Once the conflict escalates to where one or both parties begin to make ultimatums or threats, Thomas indicated that the escalation has entered into stage 6, strategies of threats. Beyond this sixth stage, those stages of limited destructive blows, fragmentation of the enemy, and together into the abyss, are present in rare cases [33]. In most cases, conflict within a team setting will be of the stages

the outlook of the other can take place only together with a shift in one's own outlook".

*6.1.3. Stages of conflict*

78 Organizational Conflict

and (9) together into the abyss.

Escalation can take one of two forms according to Pruitt [32]. Escalation where one party becomes increasingly resistant while the second party remains open to discussion is what Pruitt termed *unilateral escalation*. Alternatively, Pruitt identified *bilateral escalation* to indicate when both parties are increasingly resistant to the other corresponding party. When bilateral escalation is present on both sides, counter to each other's opinions, this eventually leads to what Pruitt termed a *conflict spiral,* resulting in an escalation in magnitude. The longer the conflict spiral persists, and the higher in magnitude the conflict becomes, each party's members may begin to develop a new set of norms surrounding the conflict. At this point, it is harder to reverse the process due to the new, differing, set of norms that have developed on the two opposing sides [32]. This view of conflict escalation provided by Pruitt is most relevant to conflict in teams in that Pruitt identified that "groups are also more prone to escalation than are individuals".

#### *6.1.5. Dual concerns*

Dual concerns have been identified in the literature to represent the dual nature of 'concern for oneself' and 'concern for others' [34–36]. The interaction of the concern for self and concern for others occurs on a diagonal where low concern for self and a low concern for others results in a team experience that attempts to avoid the conflict. As the level of concern increases along the diagonal, the level of positive strategy for conflict resolution in implemented. The highest concern for self and for others on the diagonal represents a compromise situation for team members. Although the level of concern seemingly provides for positive outcomes related to conflict resolution, team members with little or no experiences have been observed to have difficulty integrating conflict resolution strategies for long-term solutions in team conflict situations [35]. It is expected that team members who experience the stages of conflict and are novices to conflict, would have difficulty achieving positive outcomes.


**Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Dynamics of Transient Plasmas Generated by ns Laser Ablation of Memory Shape Alloys DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94748*


*Edited by Paolo Azzone*

Psychoanalysis is facing a severe crisis. Contemporary epistemology relies on an extreme materialistic reductionism and human sciences seem eager to conform as much as possible to the models and procedures of hardcore science and somatic medicine. Western society is currently harboring a deep mistrust for a discipline that fully incorporates the flesh and blood of interpersonal emotions. The standing of psychoanalysis as a basic dimension of human culture is threatened more than ever and psychoanalysis is badly in need of new strategies and new models. Unluckily, and - I must add - quite dismayingly, psychoanalytic institutions have generally appeared shy, even helpless in front of such an impressive army of critics and opponents. Nowadays, psychoanalysis appears weak. We may even qualify it as wounded. The development of the interpersonal model and of the Kleinian school in the second half of the last century has set the stage for the emergence of an original conceptualization of the unconscious mind. Within the intersubjective paradigm, the psychoanalytic situation is conceptualized as an interpersonal field to which both the analyst and the patient substantially contribute. We believe that the failure to fully integrate such an intersubjective dimension in both psychoanalytic theory and practice amounts to a core liability in 21stcentury psychoanalysis.This book gathers several contributions discussing the contemporary crises of psychoanalysis and offering new perspectives. Some contributors lament that the prevailing psychoanalytic theory and clinical practice have been unable to stay true to the fundamentals of the discipline. Other chapters explore the intersections between psychoanalysis and neural sciences. Finally, the last section demonstrates how psychoanalysis can still be fruitfully applied to the understanding of contemporary culture and society, including basic issues such as identity politics and climate change.

Published in London, UK © 2023 IntechOpen © Yurephoto / iStock

The Wounds of Our Mother Psychoanalysis - New Models for Psychoanalysis in Crisis

The Wounds of Our Mother

Psychoanalysis

New Models for Psychoanalysis in Crisis

*Edited by Paolo Azzone*


*Edited by Kook Jin Chung*

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4. The Kullback-Leibler multivariate Gaussian (KLMvG) model

Another approach, specifically the KLMvG model, has recently been used in fingerprintingbased methods to estimate the position of the objects. This model exploits the interdependencies between the RPs, such as the signal model and the geometry that can be quantified to find the correlations among the RPs. Milioris [29] proposed a KLMvG model to measure the similarity between the RSS measurements of test points and the RPs, defined as

$$\text{KL}\_{\text{MVG}}\left(p\|q\_{j}^{(\boldsymbol{\upgamma})}\right) = \frac{1}{2}\left(\left(\boldsymbol{\upmu}\_{q,j}^{\boldsymbol{\upgamma}} - \boldsymbol{\upmu}\_{p}^{\boldsymbol{\upbeta}}\right)^{\mathrm{T}}\left(\boldsymbol{\upSigma}\_{j,q}^{\boldsymbol{\upgamma}}\right)^{-1}\left(\boldsymbol{\upmu}\_{q,j}^{\boldsymbol{\upgamma}} - \boldsymbol{\upmu}\_{p}^{\boldsymbol{\upbeta}}\right) + tr\left(\boldsymbol{\upSigma}\_{\mathbb{R}}^{\boldsymbol{\upgamma}}\left(\boldsymbol{\upSigma}\_{j,q}^{\boldsymbol{\upgamma}}\right)^{-1} - I\right) - \ln\left|\boldsymbol{\upSigma}\_{p}^{\boldsymbol{\upgamma}}\left(\boldsymbol{\upSigma}\_{j,q}^{\boldsymbol{\upgamma}}\right)^{-1}\right|\right) \tag{6}$$

where S represents the matrix of RSS values from the different APs at specific locations and j represents the cell of the fingerprint location where

$$\mathcal{S}\_{\dot{\gamma}}^{(\circ)} = \left\{ \mu\_{\dot{\gamma}}^{(\circ)}, \Sigma\_{\dot{\gamma}}^{(\circ)} \right\} \tag{7}$$

μj �ð Þ is the mean of Jth column of the RSS measurement and Σj �ð Þ represents the covariance matrix, where j j Σ is the determinant of Σ. Now, using a KLMvG model, we can formulate a probability kernel-based approach. The kernel regression scheme allows us to estimate the PDF of the training datasets and the true positives (TPs) from the online phase that are used to estimate the location of the object. The KLMVG model is used to measure the distance between the likelihood of the input sample and the RPs in order to determine which class it belongs to. The RSS distribution can be defined as

$$D(p, q\_{\ell}) = \exp\left(-\frac{\text{KL}\_{\text{MVG}}\left(p \| q\_{j}^{(\circ)}\right)}{2\sigma^{2}}\right) \tag{8}$$

where σ is the kernel smoothing factor. The probability will be equal to 1 if p = q, and the output will decrease when the difference between p and q becomes larger.

#### Algorithm 1. The Kullback-Leibler multivariate Gaussian positioning method.

Δ �ð Þ j ¼ Δ �ð Þ 1,j ;Δ �ð Þ 2,j ; Δ �ð Þ 3,j

146 Machine Learning - Advanced Techniques and Emerging Applications

Δ �ð Þ i,j ¼ 1 t � 1

j ) with q

q �ð Þ j ¼ q �ð Þ 1,j ; q �ð Þ 2,j ; q �ð Þ 3,j

During the online phase, the RSS measurement is denoted as

i,j is the variance for AP i at RP j with orientation � ��

�ð Þ

where

where Δ �ð Þ

Radio Map is (xj, yj

KLMVG pkqj

μj

�ð Þ � �

¼ 1 2 μS

The RSS distribution can be defined as

q,j � μS p � �T

represents the cell of the fingerprint location where

, q �ð Þ j ,Δ �ð Þ ; ::…Δ �ð Þ L,j

� �2

; ::………; q

þ tr Σs

� �

R Σs j, q � ��1

� �

� I

� ln Σs p Σs j, q � ��1 �

� � �

�ð Þ represents the covariance

A (8)

� � � �

(6)

(7)

h i

pr ¼ p1,r; p2,r; :……; pL,r h i

Another approach, specifically the KLMvG model, has recently been used in fingerprintingbased methods to estimate the position of the objects. This model exploits the interdependencies between the RPs, such as the signal model and the geometry that can be quantified to find the correlations among the RPs. Milioris [29] proposed a KLMvG model to measure the

�ð Þ i,j

> �ð Þ L,j

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

; thus, the database table of the

h i

Xt τ¼1 q �ð Þ i,j ð Þ� τ q

j defined as

4. The Kullback-Leibler multivariate Gaussian (KLMvG) model

similarity between the RSS measurements of test points and the RPs, defined as

Sj

�ð Þ is the mean of Jth column of the RSS measurement and Σj

D p; qℓ

� � ¼ exp �

μS q,j � μS p � �

�ð Þ ¼ μj

where S represents the matrix of RSS values from the different APs at specific locations and j

matrix, where j j Σ is the determinant of Σ. Now, using a KLMvG model, we can formulate a probability kernel-based approach. The kernel regression scheme allows us to estimate the PDF of the training datasets and the true positives (TPs) from the online phase that are used to estimate the location of the object. The KLMVG model is used to measure the distance between the likelihood of the input sample and the RPs in order to determine which class it belongs to.

> 0 @

�ð Þ;Σj �ð Þ n o

KLMVG pkq

2σ2

�ð Þ j � �

1

Σs j, q � ��1