**6. Summary and concluding remarks**

The complex nature of the physical phenomenon of fretting involves the mixture of different fields of engineering such as fatigue, fracture and tribology. This chapter has introduced the state of the art of the currently available modeling and simulation methods to analyze fretting phenomenon. The benefits and drawbacks of each reviewed technique have been highlighted. Finally, a numerical architecture of coupled wear, fatigue and fracture methodology has been introduced, which allows to analyze the fretting phenomenon as a whole.

Among the main open challenges identified, a predominant role is taken by the need to compare the increasing amount of methodologies to assess fretting lifetime, and it is likely to become the subject of considerable debate in the research community in the near future.


*4.2. Fluorescence Studies of Protein–Protein Interactions*

Fluorescent labelling of proteins on the terminal amino group using succinimidyl esters of 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (FAM-SE) and 5(6)-carboxytetramethylrhodamine (TMR-SE) was performed as described [28]. The stoichiometry of protein labelling did not exceed 1 mole of dye per mole of protein, and FAM/TMR-labelled enzymes retained their specific activities (as detailed in Supplementary Materials, Table S1). Binding of proteins to each other was examined by fluorescence titration experiments. Fluorescence intensities of solutions of the FAM-labelled protein (APE1, APE1N∆35, or APE1N∆61) at a fixed concentration were measured in the absence and presence of varied concentrations of the partner (Polβ/PARP1/XRCC1), in a binding buffer containing 50 mM HEPES (4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid), pH 8.0, 100 mM NaCl, and 4 mM DTT. Fluorescence intensity of the samples was measured in Corning 384-well black polypropylene assay plates using a CLARIOstar multifunctional microplate reader (BMG LABTECH GmbH, Germany); fluorescence probes were excited at 482 nm (482-16 filter), and the relative fluorescence intensities were detected at the emission maximum (530 nm, 530-40 filter). All measurements were carried out in duplicate for each specific condition, and the average values of fluorescence (with mean deviations not exceeding 2%) were taken for data analysis performed using MARS (Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines) Data Analysis Software (BMG LABTECH GmbH, Germany). Data were plotted (F vs. C) and fitted by four-parameter logistic equation

$$\mathbf{F} = \mathbf{F}\_0 + (\mathbf{F}\_\infty - \mathbf{F}\_0)/[1 + (\mathbf{E}\mathbf{C}\_{50}\mathbf{/C})^\mathbf{n}] \tag{1}$$

where F is the fluorescence intensity of a solution containing the FAM-labelled protein and the binding partner at a given concentration (C), F0 is the fluorescence of a solution of the labelled protein alone, F∞ is the fluorescence of the labelled protein saturated with the partner, EC50 is the concentration of the binding partner at which F – F0 = (F∞ – F0)/2, and n is the Hill coefficient denoting the slope of the nonlinear curve.

To detect protein–protein interactions by the FRET approach, the fluorescence intensity of the FAM-labelled protein (donor probe) was measured in the absence and presence of varied concentrations of the TMR-labelled protein (acceptor probe). Measurements were performed in two series: (1) Donor probe + unlabeled partner, and (2) donor probe + acceptor probe (FRET pair). FRET efficiency (E) was calculated from the fractional decrease of the donor fluorescence (Fd) due to the presence of the acceptor (Fda)

$$\mathbf{E} = \mathbf{1} - \mathbf{F}\_{\mathbf{da}} / \mathbf{F}\_{\mathbf{d}}.\tag{2}$$

In protein–protein binding experiments performed in the presence of model DNAs (prepared as described in Supplementary Materials), the FAM-labelled protein (40 nM) was premixed with the desired DNA, and fluorescence intensity was taken as a starting F0 value. Conditions for the formation of ternary complexes were optimized by varying DNA concentration from 120 to 600 nM. Titration experiments were performed in binding buffer supplemented with 10 mM EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) (to suppress the AP-endonuclease and the 30 -50 -exonuclease activities of APE1 and its truncated forms).

### *4.3. AP Endonuclease Activity Assay*

The endonuclease activity of APE1 and APE1N∆61 was assayed in reaction mixtures (25–50 µL) containing 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 50 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl2, 1 mM DTT, 0.1 mg/mL BSA (bovine serum albumin), and 100 nM 5'-32P-labelled AP-DNA substrate (32 base-pair oligonucleotide with a synthetic AP site, prepared as described in Supplementary Materials). The reaction mixtures were preassembled on ice; when indicated, they were supplemented with Polβ, XRCC1, and PARP1 (at concentrations specified in the figure legends). Reaction was initiated by adding APE1 (APE1N∆61) to a final concentration of 0.5 nM; the reaction mixtures were incubated at 37 ◦C for 0.5–4 min and terminated by the addition of denaturing PAGE sample buffer and heating for 2 min at 90 ◦C. The reaction products were separated by electrophoresis in 20% denaturing polyacrylamide gels. The gels were imaged on a Typhoon FLA 9500, and the amounts of DNA substrate and product were quantified using Quantity One Basic software.


**1. Introduction**

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are the premise of pollutants for forming PM 2.5 or heavy haze and choking smog, so monitoring VOCs is a very important measure for preventing environmental pollution. In addition, rapid detection of VOCs is also very necessary in some on-site detection, including indoor air quality, industrial emissions control, air pollution emergency in urban area, rapid detection of explosives in public place, and breath analysis. Therefore, fast, on-site, high-precision, and portable systems are the pressing need for providing real-time monitoring for quantification and identification analysis of environmental samples.

Conventional gas chromatography (GC), which is a powerful and commonly used analytical technique, has become the premier technique for separation and analysis of harmful com‐ pounds due to its high resolving power. However, in some cases, gas samples need to be collected in the field and analyzed in the laboratory using conventional GC, which makes this process inefficient and inconvenient in field use.

As MEMS technology matures, micro gas chromatographic systems (µGC) [1-3] have a prospect future with some advantages of small volume, rapid analysis, and less power consumption compared with conventional GC systems, which are very urgent to be used for analyzing the complicated gas mixtures. Therefore, these attributes make these systems based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology attractive for a number of applica‐ tions involving on-site monitoring of environmental samples, and this research direction is under intensive research.

In this chapter, we reported the design, fabrication, and characterization of micro preconcentrator, micro GC column, and mini photoionization detector (mini PID). Then a mini

© 2015 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

GC system based on mini PID was integrated with the micro GC column and the micro preconcentrator.


**Abstract**

Impaired immunity induced by HIV is one of the main causes of disseminated histoplasmosis in endemic areas, and thus from 1987 WHO and then the CDC classified this condition as an AIDS-defining illness. Host factors associated independently with histoplasmosis are low level of CD4 (<150 cell/mm3 ) and CD8 count, low nadir CD4, male gender, the absence of cART, the absence of systemic antifungals, and history of herpes simplex infection. Dissemination of an exogenously new acquired infection or reinfection and reactivation of a latent infection are both described in HIV-infected patients. Also, inflammatory reconstitution disease following cART initiation is possible. Acute pulmonary infection is rare, and only in HIV-infected patients with CD4 > 200 cell/mm3 . In advanced disease, the most frequent manifestation is as disseminated histoplasmosis often acute and severe, with complications such as respiratory failure, circulatory shock, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. The subacute presentation is frequent, associated with moderate involvement of the reticuloendothelial system, with great variability of clinical manifestation. Guidelines for diagnosing and managing histoplasmosis among people living with HIV have been published from WHO, IDSA, NIH, but limited data was based on randomized clinical trials.

**Keywords:** histoplasma capsulatum, immunocompromised patients, HIV, progressive disseminated histoplasmosis, impaired immunity


**10. Conclusions**

UHR-OCT of the anterior segment enables us to perform an optical biopsy of the tear film and all layers in the cornea in normal subjects and those with pathology. These advancements provide understanding about pathological changes in microlayers of the cornea. The main advantages of the OCT include the rapid, non-invasive, in vivo imaging of structures with quantitative measurements. Recent improvements in OCT technology have led to an increase in clinical and research applications. Novel developments, such as the new-generation micro-OCT and artificial intelligence, have the potential to revolutionize corneal disease diagnosis and classifications.


**3. Assessment for learning versus assessment of learning in mathematics**

Assessment is generally broken down into three categories: assessment before instruction (pre-assessment), assessment during instruction (formative assessment), and assessment after instruction (summative assessment). It could be argued that pre-assessment is both assessments of and for (as) learning—that is, it assesses "prior knowledge" (as a pre-assessment) and that data is then used to revise planned instruction (making it formative assessment). Assessment of learning is used to determine what students have learned, while assessment for learning is used to determine what students are learning. It should be clear that assessment for (as) learning is a process of gathering information about students learning and provide qualitative feedback to support individual student learning and improve teaching practice in the classroom. However, there is a significant overlap between assessment of and for learning. Therefore, learning for assessment (summative assessment) and learning from assessment (formative assessment) are two complementary purposes of assessment. For example, the same test given in one circumstance would be considered an assessment of learning, while in another circumstance be considered an assessment for (as) learning. In short then, the difference between assessment of learning and assessment for learning is a matter of function and purpose [17]. Hence assessment that occurs during the lesson to continuously assess learning throughout instruction is formative assessment. For example, in teaching mathematics, I often use concept learning where students are given an explanation, examples, and non-examples after which they engage in working problems on their own or in groups. Periodically during the lesson, I stop students and have them share their answers. This allows me to know if everyone is on the task, if everyone has understood, and whether I have to revisit the instruction in a different way if students are making several errors. At the end of instruction, assess whether or not the instruction was effective and whether the students have gained the knowledge as per lesson objective, and if they have not, then the instruction is redesigned to better cater for the students. Therefore, "if the students do not learn the way we teach them, we must teach them the way they learn [1].' I shall not give an example of *assessment of learning* task because it is predominant in high schools. However, hereunder is an example of *assessment of learning task* anchored on discovery-based learning. The objective of the task is to help students derive and apply the distance formula for calculating the length of a line segment joining any two given points.

1.Given the diagram below:

**131**

*Formative Assessment in Mathematics Education in the Twenty-First Century*

a) (*x*2; *y*1) \*Rectangular coordinates

2 + (*y*2 − *y*1) 2

2

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (*x*2 −*x*1) 2 + (*y*2 −*y*1)

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (−2 − 3) 2 + (7 − 4)2

**Question Answer Concepts employed to arrive at the answer**

b) *x*2 − *x*1 \* Distance moved from point P to point R (horizontal

c) *y*2 − *y*1 \* Distance moved from point R to point Q (vertical

d) Right-angled triangle \* Horizontal and vertical lines meet perpendicularly

displacement)

displacement)

(at 90°); hence *PR* ⊥ *RQ*

\* Pythagoras theorem (result is a quadratic equation)

 \* Solution of quadratic equation (consider the positive solution because we are dealing with distance)

> \*Application of the distance formula \*Leaving answer in surd form

In Question 3, students will be assessed on how they organized their knowledge when finding the distance formula. Also it allows the teacher to establish how students understand concepts related to Cartesian coordinate system such as rectangular coordinate system, and methods of solving a right-angled triangle and algebraic processes such as solving quadratic equations. Thus the number of links of concepts tells the teacher the knowledge gaps inherent in students' connections between and among mathematical ideas, thereby using concept map as a teaching and learning strategy [5]. The concept map below provides a summary of the different concept employed

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88996*

= (*x*2 − *x*1)

\_

(−5)2 + 32

\_ 25 + 9

*PQ* = √

= √

= √

 = √ \_ 34

in the process of finding the distance formula:

**4. What are the assessment tools in mathematics?**

In the process of teaching and learning, teachers facilitate, observe, and assess student learning. This can be achieved by making learning practical through meaningful activities, embracing collaborative learning, using quizzes to engage students in

Solution strategy:

e) *PQ*2

2. *AB* = √

3.Generate a concept map in relation to concepts used to find the distance formula.

## Solution strategy:

*Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century*

joining any two given points.

1.Given the diagram below:

a.Determine the coordinates of R.

b.What is the horizontal distance PR?

2.Use the answer you found in 1(e) to calculate the length of the line segment

3.Generate a concept map in relation to concepts used to find the distance

c.What is the vertical distance RQ?

d.What type of triangle is PQR?

joining points *A*(3;4) and *B*(−2; 7).

e.Find the length of PQ.

(summative assessment) and learning from assessment (formative assessment) are two complementary purposes of assessment. For example, the same test given in one circumstance would be considered an assessment of learning, while in another circumstance be considered an assessment for (as) learning. In short then, the difference between assessment of learning and assessment for learning is a matter of function and purpose [17]. Hence assessment that occurs during the lesson to continuously assess learning throughout instruction is formative assessment. For example, in teaching mathematics, I often use concept learning where students are given an explanation, examples, and non-examples after which they engage in working problems on their own or in groups. Periodically during the lesson, I stop students and have them share their answers. This allows me to know if everyone is on the task, if everyone has understood, and whether I have to revisit the instruction in a different way if students are making several errors. At the end of instruction, assess whether or not the instruction was effective and whether the students have gained the knowledge as per lesson objective, and if they have not, then the instruction is redesigned to better cater for the students. Therefore, "if the students do not learn the way we teach them, we must teach them the way they learn [1].' I shall not give an example of *assessment of learning* task because it is predominant in high schools. However, hereunder is an example of *assessment of learning task* anchored on discovery-based learning. The objective of the task is to help students derive and apply the distance formula for calculating the length of a line segment

**130**

formula.

In Question 3, students will be assessed on how they organized their knowledge when finding the distance formula. Also it allows the teacher to establish how students understand concepts related to Cartesian coordinate system such as rectangular coordinate system, and methods of solving a right-angled triangle and algebraic processes such as solving quadratic equations. Thus the number of links of concepts tells the teacher the knowledge gaps inherent in students' connections between and among mathematical ideas, thereby using concept map as a teaching and learning strategy [5].

The concept map below provides a summary of the different concept employed in the process of finding the distance formula:

#### **4. What are the assessment tools in mathematics?**

In the process of teaching and learning, teachers facilitate, observe, and assess student learning. This can be achieved by making learning practical through meaningful activities, embracing collaborative learning, using quizzes to engage students in

reflections, or asking students to summarize lesson taught. The assessment tools they may choose to apply to assess student learning may differ depending on the stage of learning. However, assessment only *of* learning (summative assessment) and not *for* learning (formative assessment) is not enough to promote students' integrated understanding. They may use concept maps (connections between and among mathematical ideas), concept tests, examinations, oral and poster presentations (use different representations of mathematical ideas to support and deepen mathematical understanding), peer and self-assessment (introduce the peer or self-marking of home/ classwork in the classroom, and allow for discussion if there is a disagreement of an answer), portfolios, rubrics, or written reports. All these forms of assessment tools in mathematics allow for ways of assessment that motivate students to learn and thereby avoid damage to student self-esteem [7]. Besides, these different forms of assessment tools give helpful feedback to students in that they are guided on how to avoid making similar mistakes in the main examination. Furthermore, students are guided on how to improve their performance, and this impacts positively on student learning [7].


5.1.1. Supervised learning

In supervised learning, the data is tagged with the correct values for prediction/classification associated to it. The algorithm learns by minimizing the error between its results and the correct results. This is the most common form of machine learning and the easiest, however labeled data is not easy to come by as its curation and tagging is usually expensive.

Neural networks, support vector machines (SVMs), linear/logistic regression and decision trees are a few examples of supervised learning algorithms and the applications could be classification of images, weather prediction, sentiment detection, face recognition, etc.


**4. Conclusion**

The most frequent method for preparing polymer nanotubes composites has been mixing nanotubes and polymer in a suitable solvent and to evaporate the solvent to form composite film. But to increase the advantages at its best, one needs: (i) high interfacial area between nanotubes and polymer; and, (ii) strong interfacial interaction. Unfortunately this solvent technique does not help much in achieving these targets; and as a result a nanocomposite having properties much inferior to theoretical expectations are obtained. In order to obtain higher contact area between nanotubes and polymer, the issue of dispersion needs to be ad‐ dressed. Uniform dispersion of these nanotubes produces immense internal interfacial area, which is the key to enhancement of properties of interest. On the other hand, modification of nanotubes surface through functionalisation is required for creating an effective interaction with the host matrix and to make nanotubes soluble and dispersible.

associated to nanotube–nanotube interactions. Due to the high aspect ratio of CNT the per‐

Polymer Nanocomposites Containing Functionalised Multiwalled Carbon NanoTubes

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50710

103

Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5223, Ingénierie des Matériaux Poly‐

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Emmanuel Beyou, Sohaib Akbar, Philippe Chaumont and Philippe Cassagnau

mères: IMP@UCBL, 15 boulevard Latarget, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France

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colation threshold can be expected to be less than 2% of CNT.

**Author details**

**References**

*als*.

57(6), 805-836.

9780849327483.

1525-1533.

*Polymer Science*, 35(3), 357-401.

The idea of grafting PE or PP with the help of peroxide during extrusion is exciting. It was shown that cumlyoxly radical generated by thermolysis of DCP can abstract hydrogen from polyolefin chains, thus creating polyolefin macroradicals. Then, these macroradicals add to the unsaturated carbon bonds on the surface of the nanotubes. The upside of this strategy is that radicals have short lifetimes which make the procedure possible in an extruder where the residence time is generally low. On the contrary, the downside is the low selectivity of radicals leading to a competition between radical combination reactions and radical addi‐ tion reactions. Alkanes can be used as model for PE to perform the grafting of PE onto nano‐ tubes. The results were interesting however the degree of PE grafting remained lower than the model (weight loss by TGA = 22% as compared to a weight loss of 30% in case of penta‐ decane). LDPE grafting density on nanotubes was 1.1mg.m-2 while incorporation of TEMPO raised the grafting density to 1.4mg.m-2. End functionalised PE can also be used for PE graft‐ ing onto nanotubes with dichlorobenzene as solvent. As emphasized by TEM images, a lay‐ er of considerable thickness has been grafted around the periphery of the nanotubes.

In order to follow the same strategy for nanotubes functionalisation with PP, tetramethyl‐ pentadecane has been selected as a model compound for PP. It was successfully grafted onto carbon nanotubes with a grafting density of 0.92 mg/m2 . However, the grafting of PP onto nanotubes did not permit to obtain reproductible results. SEM images of the PP-*g*-MWCNTs nanocomposites with filler loadings of 3wt% in PP matrix did not show a significant im‐ provement in MWCNTs dispersion within the PP matrix although sizes of the aggregates were slightly reduced.

In addition, it can be expected that the rheological percolation, and subsequently the nonlinearity effect, depend on nanotube dispersion and aspect ratio. Low shear deformations in‐ duced an aggregation mechanism, but these aggregates broke down at high shear, forming small aggregates with less entanglements. In a high viscous polymer media, it was shown that carbon nanotubes could not be considered anymore as Brownian entities. A general rheological trend for CNTs-based nanocomposites is the appearance of a transition from a liquid-like behaviour to a solid-like behaviour increasing with the CNT content because it is associated to nanotube–nanotube interactions. Due to the high aspect ratio of CNT the per‐ colation threshold can be expected to be less than 2% of CNT.

### **Author details**

**4. Conclusion**

The most frequent method for preparing polymer nanotubes composites has been mixing nanotubes and polymer in a suitable solvent and to evaporate the solvent to form composite film. But to increase the advantages at its best, one needs: (i) high interfacial area between nanotubes and polymer; and, (ii) strong interfacial interaction. Unfortunately this solvent technique does not help much in achieving these targets; and as a result a nanocomposite having properties much inferior to theoretical expectations are obtained. In order to obtain higher contact area between nanotubes and polymer, the issue of dispersion needs to be ad‐ dressed. Uniform dispersion of these nanotubes produces immense internal interfacial area, which is the key to enhancement of properties of interest. On the other hand, modification of nanotubes surface through functionalisation is required for creating an effective interaction

The idea of grafting PE or PP with the help of peroxide during extrusion is exciting. It was shown that cumlyoxly radical generated by thermolysis of DCP can abstract hydrogen from polyolefin chains, thus creating polyolefin macroradicals. Then, these macroradicals add to the unsaturated carbon bonds on the surface of the nanotubes. The upside of this strategy is that radicals have short lifetimes which make the procedure possible in an extruder where the residence time is generally low. On the contrary, the downside is the low selectivity of radicals leading to a competition between radical combination reactions and radical addi‐ tion reactions. Alkanes can be used as model for PE to perform the grafting of PE onto nano‐ tubes. The results were interesting however the degree of PE grafting remained lower than the model (weight loss by TGA = 22% as compared to a weight loss of 30% in case of penta‐ decane). LDPE grafting density on nanotubes was 1.1mg.m-2 while incorporation of TEMPO raised the grafting density to 1.4mg.m-2. End functionalised PE can also be used for PE graft‐ ing onto nanotubes with dichlorobenzene as solvent. As emphasized by TEM images, a lay‐

er of considerable thickness has been grafted around the periphery of the nanotubes.

carbon nanotubes with a grafting density of 0.92 mg/m2

were slightly reduced.

In order to follow the same strategy for nanotubes functionalisation with PP, tetramethyl‐ pentadecane has been selected as a model compound for PP. It was successfully grafted onto

nanotubes did not permit to obtain reproductible results. SEM images of the PP-*g*-MWCNTs nanocomposites with filler loadings of 3wt% in PP matrix did not show a significant im‐ provement in MWCNTs dispersion within the PP matrix although sizes of the aggregates

In addition, it can be expected that the rheological percolation, and subsequently the nonlinearity effect, depend on nanotube dispersion and aspect ratio. Low shear deformations in‐ duced an aggregation mechanism, but these aggregates broke down at high shear, forming small aggregates with less entanglements. In a high viscous polymer media, it was shown that carbon nanotubes could not be considered anymore as Brownian entities. A general rheological trend for CNTs-based nanocomposites is the appearance of a transition from a liquid-like behaviour to a solid-like behaviour increasing with the CNT content because it is

. However, the grafting of PP onto

with the host matrix and to make nanotubes soluble and dispersible.

102 Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites

Emmanuel Beyou, Sohaib Akbar, Philippe Chaumont and Philippe Cassagnau

Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5223, Ingénierie des Matériaux Poly‐ mères: IMP@UCBL, 15 boulevard Latarget, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France

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**Chapter 6**

**Characterization and Morphology of Modified Multi-**

**Rubber (TPNR) Composite**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50726

**1. Introduction**

properties of CNTs.

Mou'ad A. Tarawneh and Sahrim Hj. Ahmad

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**Walled Carbon Nanotubes Filled Thermoplastic Natural**

Carbon nanotubes describes a specific topic within solid-state physics, but is also of interest in other sciences like chemistry or biology. Actually the topic has floating boundaries, because we are at the molecule level. In the recent years carbon nanotubes have become more and more popular to the scientists. Initially, it was the spectacularly electronic properties, that were the basis for the great interest, but eventually other remarkable properties were also discovered. The first CNTs were prepared by M. Endo in 1978, as part of his PhD studies at the Universi‐ ty of Orleans in France. Although he produced very small diameter filaments (about 7 nm) using a vapour-growth technique, these fibers were not recognized as nanotubes and were not studied systematically. It was only after the discovery of fullerenes, C60, in 1985 that re‐ searchers started to explore carbon structures further. In 1991, when the Japanese electron microscopist Sumio Iijima [1] observed CNTs, the field really started to advance. He was studying the material deposited on the cathode during the arc-evaporation synthesis of full‐ erenes and came across CNTs. A short time later, Thomas Ebbesen and Pulickel Ajayan, from Iijima's lab, showed how nanotubes could be produced in bulk quantities by varying the arc-evaporation conditions. However, the standard arc-evaporation method only pro‐ duced only multiwall nanotubes. After some research, it was found that the addition of met‐ als such as cobalt to the graphite electrodes resulted in extremely fine single wall nanotubes. The synthesis in 1993 of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) was a major event in the development of CNTs. Although the discovery of CNTs was an accidental event, it opened the way for a flourishing research into the properties of CNTs in labs all over the world, with many scientists demonstrating promising physical, chemical, structural, and optical

> © 2013 Tarawneh and Ahmad; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Tarawneh and Ahmad; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


Sustainable Smart Cities - A Vision for Tomorrow

*Edited by Amjad Almusaed and Asaad Almssad*

Published in London, United Kingdom

Sustainable Smart Cities - A Vision for Tomorrow http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100727 Edited by Amjad Almusaed and Asaad Almssad

#### Contributors

Doghmane Mohamed Zinelabidine, Eladj Said, Fachrul Kurniawan, Mochamad Hariadi, Supeno Mardi Susiki Nugroho, Prita Dewi Basoeki, Toshio Uchiyama, Tsukasa Hokimoto, Jong Woo Choi, Jae Eun You, Menachem Domb, Kamal Shahid, Muhammad Hassan, Sadaf Mukhtar, Ali Husnain, Chang-Wei Chai, Yu-Heng Huang, Tseng-Wei Chao, Margherita Pillan, Lasse Berntzen, Qian Meng, Adipandang Yudono, Sapto Wibowo, Christia Meidiana, Surjono Surjono, Irnia Nurika, Erryana Martati, Yan Akhbar Pamungkas, Daniel Adu, Ransford O. Darko, Boamah Kofi Baah, Agnes Abbey, Laurentiu Constantin Lipan, Sorin Dimitriu, Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad

#### © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2023

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#### Notice

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in London, United Kingdom, 2023 by IntechOpen IntechOpen is the global imprint of INTECHOPEN LIMITED, registered in England and Wales, registration number: 11086078, 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom

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*Article* **Evaluation of Real-time Precise Point Positioning with Ambiguity Resolution Based on Multi-GNSS OSB Products from CNES**

**Shi Du 1, Bao Shu 1,\*, Wei Xie 1, Guanwen Huang 1, Yulong Ge 2 and Pan Li 1,3**

**Abstract:** Ambiguity resolution (AR) is a core technology that helps to speed up convergence time and increase positioning accuracy for precise point positioning (PPP), and the performance of PPP-AR is based on the quality of ambiguity resolution products. Real-time PPP-AR becomes a reality as users can now obtain publicly accessible real-time observable-specific signal bias (OSB) products from the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES). Therefore, an analysis of the quality of OSB products and an evaluation of the performance of PPP-AR are required to promote the application of real-time positioning. For a total of 31 days between day of year (DOY) 121 and 151 in 2021, observation data were collected from 90 stations, and the OSB products were used to assess the experiments. As for the quality of the OSB products, the data availability (DA) of the GPS and Galileo satellites was greater than 97%, whereas that of BDS was less than 60%; the maximum fluctuation value (MAX) and standard deviation (STD) of the GPS, Galileo, and BDS satellites were 0.045 and 0.012; 0.081 and 0.028; and 0.292 and 0.085 cycles, respectively. In terms of ambiguity residuals using the OSB products, the wide-lane (WL) residual percentages within ±0.25 cycles for the GPS, Galileo, BDS-2, and BDS-3 systems were more than 92%, and the narrow-lane (NL) residual percentages within ±0.25 cycles for the four systems were 92%, 89%, 79%, and 60%, respectively. With regard to the performance of PPP-AR, the GPS+Galileo solution showed the best performance in the kinematic positioning mode, in which the mean root mean square (RMS) of positioning accuracy was 1.06, 1.27, and 2.85 cm for the east (E), north (N), and up (U) components, respectively, and the mean convergence time reached 9.6 min. In the static positioning mode, the mean convergence times of the GPS-only and GPS+Galileo solutions were 11.4 min and 8.0 min, respectively, and both of their mean RMS for positioning accuracy reached 0.79, 0.95, and 1.48 cm for the E, N, and U components, respectively. However, the addition of BDS did not further enhance the performance of multi-GNSS PPP-AR in either the kinematic or static positioning mode due to the poor quality of the real-time BDS products. More importantly, a prediction method was proposed to avoid re-convergence and to enhance the reliability of PPP-AR in the event of short-time missing real-time OSB products and to improve the positioning accuracy and the ambiguity fixed rate.

**Keywords:** real-time; precise point positioning; ambiguity resolution; OSB products