**4. Flood control in Dong-Ting Lake, China (too much)**

Different from the Yellow River basin where droughts (too little) and high turbid water (too turbid) are two key challenges for water resources managers, the Yangtze river basin where the Dong-Ting lake is located often has the threat of flood (too much). Yangtze River is the third longest river in the world, and its catchment area is about 1.91×106km2. The average annual water discharge is 918km3 and average annual load of suspended sediment is 500×106 t (1956-2003, Zhang 1995), respectively the fifth and fourth in the world (Milliman and Meade, 1983; Milliman and Syvitski, 1992). Its middle reach is known as the country of a thousand lakes that serve as an efficient flood regulator, among which Dongting is the largest lake. Due to sedimentation and reclamation over the past 50 years only few lakes have been left in this region, and the total capacity has been significantly shrunk. This region plays an important role in China's economic development, and this can be inferred from the historical proverb "If southern and northern regions of Dongting Lake harvest, the whole China's prosperity is ensured"; but if this region suffers from flooding, the whole China's economical development will be badly affected.

Dongting Lake, used to be the largest freshwater lake in China before 1950. Now it has been shrunk to be the secondary largest lake in China due to high sedimentation rate. The lake valley is surrounded by mountains on the east, south, west and Yangtze River on the north. The population in this basin in 1997 was 15 million. Many rivers drain into the lake from mountainous south and west, besides three channels connect the lake to the Yangtze River, which dumps a major proportion of the sediment suspended from Yangtze River to the lake when the lake accommodates floodwater. The lake has only one outlet on the east side.

The engineers and decision makers realized that there was no hope to solve the sedimentation problem without separation, then they divided the dam's operation into two

1. in flood seasons (July–October), turbid water is discharged to the downstream by lowing the water level at 305m, thus the flow velocity is high enough to carry the highly suspended load. In this period, if the flood discharge is greater than 2500 m3/s, all the

2. in non-flood seasons (November–June), the relatively clear water is stored and the reservoir is operated at a high operational level, with the maximum level not exceeding a value between 322 m and 326 m, to store water for irrigation and hydropower

After the separation, the new design was found effective, till now, the dam is still providing the basin with flood control, irrigation, and hydropower generation, even though some benefits are lower than the original design. The engineering experiences and management practices of Sanmenxia Dam are valuable assets to the sustainable management of reservoirs/lakes on sediment-laden or nutrient-rich rivers. It can be seen that the above operation strategy is similar to the SPP introduced in this chapter as the unwanted water (high turbid floodwater) has a short residence time in the reservoir, and the clean water in non-flood season (wanted water) has a relative long residence time for the eco-system. This project not only demonstrated the perils of existing water management, but also demonstrated that a sediment balance may be achieved across an impounded reach even in

Different from the Yellow River basin where droughts (too little) and high turbid water (too turbid) are two key challenges for water resources managers, the Yangtze river basin where the Dong-Ting lake is located often has the threat of flood (too much). Yangtze River is the third longest river in the world, and its catchment area is about 1.91×106km2. The average annual water discharge is 918km3 and average annual load of suspended sediment is 500×106 t (1956-2003, Zhang 1995), respectively the fifth and fourth in the world (Milliman and Meade, 1983; Milliman and Syvitski, 1992). Its middle reach is known as the country of a thousand lakes that serve as an efficient flood regulator, among which Dongting is the largest lake. Due to sedimentation and reclamation over the past 50 years only few lakes have been left in this region, and the total capacity has been significantly shrunk. This region plays an important role in China's economic development, and this can be inferred from the historical proverb "If southern and northern regions of Dongting Lake harvest, the whole China's prosperity is ensured"; but if this region suffers from flooding, the whole China's

Dongting Lake, used to be the largest freshwater lake in China before 1950. Now it has been shrunk to be the secondary largest lake in China due to high sedimentation rate. The lake valley is surrounded by mountains on the east, south, west and Yangtze River on the north. The population in this basin in 1997 was 15 million. Many rivers drain into the lake from mountainous south and west, besides three channels connect the lake to the Yangtze River, which dumps a major proportion of the sediment suspended from Yangtze River to the lake when the lake accommodates floodwater. The lake has only one outlet on the east side.

outlets of the dam will be opened to flush the sediment as much as possible.

a large reservoir built on a river with an extremely high sediment load.

**4. Flood control in Dong-Ting Lake, China (too much)**

economical development will be badly affected.

time periods or two different modes of operation:

generation in non-flood seasons;

This lake annually receives 173 million tons of sediment, 83% of which are carried into the lake from the Yangtze River, and 17% from other inflow rivers. Over the past 150 years, the lake area has reduced from about 6000km2 to about 2600km2 due to both natural siltation and human activity, consequently flood modulation of the lake capacity has been reduced significantly from about 30km3 in 1949 to 17km3 in 1995, about 50% of the lake's capacity has been silted. It is certain that the lake will continue to shrink, and in the near future it may serve only as a river channel during the non-flood reasons (Du et al. 2001). In another 50-100 years, this lake may totally disappear if there is no human's interference.

Similar to other plain lakes, Dongting Lake has suffered many problems, if not solved properly, these problems may cause serious consequences to environment and bring about huge economic and life loss. These problems can be summarized as flood disasters in wet seasons (too much), water shortage for the ecosystem in dry seasons (too little), lake's shrinkage (too turbidity) and water pollution (too dirty).

Apart from too much and too turbid problems, the lake water was polluted by the incoming wastewater due to rapid industrial development and population growth and agriculture fertilization. In this fertile "land of fish and rice", farmers every year use 18k tons of pesticide and 1700k tons excessive fertilizer, which flows into the lake via the rivers. After 1990s eutrophication tendency has been accelerated, according to the monitoring data, 1996- 2005 main pollutants are total phosphorus and total nitrogen (Guo et al., 2007).

Li et al (2009) summarized the problems in the Donting Lake area as a chain:

Disaster in wet seasons : sedimentation marshland expansion water space shrinkage flood level raised and flood disaster aggravated. Disaster in dry seasons : sedimentation marshland expansion water space → → → → → shrinkage water pollution and fish resource depletion wetland and biodiversity reduction. → →

The average reoccurrence interval (ARI) of flood disaster was 83 years from 276 B.C.-1525, and ARI = 20 years from 1525-1853; ARI = 5 years from 1853-1949 and ARI = 4 year from 1949-2000, recently this area suffers the flood disaster almost every year. Obviously this is caused by the sedimentation that keeps reducing the lake's capability for flood retention (Yang, 2004).

All problems that the lake is facing can be well solved if the proposed SPP strategy is applied as shown in Fig. 6, in which the length of inner levee is about 240km. This is feasible because:

*1) Sedimentation*: in the current condition, almost all incoming sediment particles are deposited in the lake, i.e., 1730 million tons of sediment, and the lake functions like a sedimentation tank where the clean water run out of the tank. But with the inner dike, the incoming flow can be separated into wanted/unwanted waters, i.e., high turbid but safe floodwater will by-pass the lake and drain to the downstream. Only a small part of excessive floodwater is allowed to enter the lake, which can mitigate the flood disaster, and the majority of the water stored in the lake comes from the falling limb in the hydrograph shown in Fig. 2, thus clean and low turbid water is stored. Currently the lake's storage capacity is only 1/10 of the annual incoming water volume, if SPP is used and then the

Novel SPP Water Management Strategy and Its Applications 251

region was struck by severe drought, affecting residents and agriculture, and more than a million people did not have adequate supplies of water. About 709,000 hectares of farmland in the basin had been hit and no water for irrigation. The central region of the lake had become a vast grassland. On May, 2010, the water surface area was only 780km2, about 30%

But 10 months ago, in July, 2010, this lake suffered the flood disaster with the highest water level reading 32.9m above the sea level, and it had to rely on the upstream reservoir's regulation to mitigate the flood disaster. Thus, it is obvious that, without control, the lake cannot play a dominant role for droughts as the water has lost quickly after the previous flood. 2011 droughts can be avoided if the SPP strategy was applied and the floodwater in

Taihu Lake, the third largest freshwater lake in China, is located in the highly developed and densely populated Yangtze River Delta.  The annual water input averages 7.66×109 m3 and the residence time of its waters is about 300 days. There are over 219 inflow rivers or tributaries but only three main outflow rivers. The average of rainy days is 132 days/year and the average annual rainfall is about 1,145 mm. Rainfall varies seasonally with wet seasons between June and September, i.e., during the typhoon season or flood period, and the dry seasons from October to next May and constitutes the long dry

Taihu Lake plays multifunctional roles including floodwater storage, irrigation and navigation. It also serves as a major water resource for drinking, aquaculture and industrial needs, as well as being a source of entertainment and tourist interest. Its drainage basin extends over 37,000 km2 and is bounded by the Yangtze River to the north, the East China Sea to the east and mountainous areas to the west. While the basin accounts for 0.4% of the total area of China and 2.9% of the nation's population, it provides more than 14% of China's Gross Domestic Production (GDP). The GDP per capita is 3.5 times as much as the contry's average and its urbanization level ranks the first in China. This basin is vital for eastern China, where the lake water supports more than 60 million people (about 600–900 person/km2 on average), including the water supply to cities such as Wuxi, Suzhou, and

With the tremendous economic growth and increased population in its basin, Taihu Lake has begun to suffer from various environmental stresses, including deterioration of its water quality with increasing nutrient and other chemical inputs. The lake is becoming increasingly eutrophicated and has experienced annual lake-wide cyanobacterial blooms in recent decades; this has affected the drinking water supply of surrounding cities. Taihu Lake now receives annually approximately 30,635,000 kg total nitrogen (TN) and 1,751,000 kg total phosphorus (TP) from a combination of municipal and industrial wastewaters and agricultural soil runoff; chemical oxygen demand on chromium (CODCr) is 131,223,000 kg

Consequently, algae blooms have appeared and continued. The lake is often covered by algae blooms in summer, autumn and even spring. In 2007, a severe algae bloom caused a

2010 was impounded by the inner levees and gates shown in Fig. 6.

**5. Algal blooms control in Tai-Hu Lake, China (too dirty)**

Shanghai, one of the largest cities in the world.

of normal water surface area.

period.

(Qin et al, 2007).

sediment carried by this part of water will be deposited in the lake, approximately only 1/10 of the total incoming sediment, the remaining sediment will by-pass the lake and go to the downstream. Hence, if the SPP is applied, every year only 173 million tons of sediment will deposit in the lake, therefore the reduction of sedimentation rate will be

$$\frac{173 - 17.3}{173} = 90\%$$

Thus the SPP strategy can reduce significantly the sedimentation rate, and the life span of the lake can be extended.

Fig. 6. Simplified river-lake system for the Dong-Ting Lake

*2) Flood disaster*: it has been mentioned that the cause of flood disaster is that the lake's storage is occupied by the runoff before the arrival of peak discharge, hence the excessive flood water incurs disasters. With the strategy of SPP, the floodwater can be separated as safe water and excessive floodwater. The former refers to that flow in BPC is safe, the incoming flow rate is less than BPC's design capacity and water level is below the BPC's design highest water level. The excessive floodwater is water that overflows the rivers and incurs the flood disaster if no retention area is provided for its temporally storage. All sluice gates are closed before the arrival of the excessive floodwater, thus in the rising limb in Fig. 2, all river flows together with sediment and non-point pollutants will by-pass the lake. Once the excessive peak flow that needs a retention area appears, the sluice gates are opened, at this time the lake is still empty, thus the flood disaster can be mitigated. After that, the water level in BPC will be lowered to the safe level, then all gates can be closed again to wait for the next flood wave, or if the weather prediction shows no more heavy rains in the catchment, the gates can be opened again to store as more clean water as possible for the next drought. Thus, at the end of wet season, the lake is full of good quality water.

*3) Water shortage*. Every year, after the flood season, this basin has a long dry period, and the basin often suffers the water shortage problem in this period. For example, in 2011, this

sediment carried by this part of water will be deposited in the lake, approximately only 1/10 of the total incoming sediment, the remaining sediment will by-pass the lake and go to the downstream. Hence, if the SPP is applied, every year only 173 million tons of sediment will

> 173 17.3 90% 173 − =

Thus the SPP strategy can reduce significantly the sedimentation rate, and the life span of

Inner dike

By-pass canal

Sluice gate

(BPC)

outlet

*2) Flood disaster*: it has been mentioned that the cause of flood disaster is that the lake's storage is occupied by the runoff before the arrival of peak discharge, hence the excessive flood water incurs disasters. With the strategy of SPP, the floodwater can be separated as safe water and excessive floodwater. The former refers to that flow in BPC is safe, the incoming flow rate is less than BPC's design capacity and water level is below the BPC's design highest water level. The excessive floodwater is water that overflows the rivers and incurs the flood disaster if no retention area is provided for its temporally storage. All sluice gates are closed before the arrival of the excessive floodwater, thus in the rising limb in Fig. 2, all river flows together with sediment and non-point pollutants will by-pass the lake. Once the excessive peak flow that needs a retention area appears, the sluice gates are opened, at this time the lake is still empty, thus the flood disaster can be mitigated. After that, the water level in BPC will be lowered to the safe level, then all gates can be closed again to wait for the next flood wave, or if the weather prediction shows no more heavy rains in the catchment, the gates can be opened again to store as more clean water as possible for the next drought. Thus, at the end of wet season, the lake is full of good quality

*3) Water shortage*. Every year, after the flood season, this basin has a long dry period, and the basin often suffers the water shortage problem in this period. For example, in 2011, this

deposit in the lake, therefore the reduction of sedimentation rate will be

Fig. 6. Simplified river-lake system for the Dong-Ting Lake

the lake can be extended.

Channels

Rivers

Yangtzi River

water.

region was struck by severe drought, affecting residents and agriculture, and more than a million people did not have adequate supplies of water. About 709,000 hectares of farmland in the basin had been hit and no water for irrigation. The central region of the lake had become a vast grassland. On May, 2010, the water surface area was only 780km2, about 30% of normal water surface area.

But 10 months ago, in July, 2010, this lake suffered the flood disaster with the highest water level reading 32.9m above the sea level, and it had to rely on the upstream reservoir's regulation to mitigate the flood disaster. Thus, it is obvious that, without control, the lake cannot play a dominant role for droughts as the water has lost quickly after the previous flood. 2011 droughts can be avoided if the SPP strategy was applied and the floodwater in 2010 was impounded by the inner levees and gates shown in Fig. 6.


13. Product quality

Spirit quality can be influenced by several factors including source of the whey, fermentation parameters, still configuration and post- distillation product treatment. Congeners, minor volatile constituents of a spirit influence it's the organoleptic qualities. The perception of congeners is considered a flaw in vodka. Congeners are present in raw whey and are formed as secondary metabolites during the fermentation process. Congeners within whey can be carried over during the distillation process and are similar to congeners in other spirits [2].

The source of whey and fermentation parameters can influence the composition of congeners in fermented whey. The composition of the volatile aroma compounds within milk and other dairy products can vary depending upon the source of the milk [62]. The milk producer's diet and geographic location can be attributed to the presence volatile compounds such as terpenes and terpenoids [63, 64]. The cheese production process can also influence volatile compound composition of whey, particularly the application of heat and exposure to microorganisms. Exposure to heat can create thermal artifacts and influence chemical reaction rates within whey. The exposure of milk or whey to microbes can influence the volatile compounds

present in whey. The metabolites produced by microbes can include alcohols aldehydes, esters and ketones, all which can influence organoleptic quality. The microbial populations can differ per facility and geographic location [62]. Each cheese production facility can potentially produce wheys with different volatile compound compositions. The source of whey can influence the composition of volatile compounds present in a spirit [11].

Fermentation conditions can influence the production of secondary metabolites of K. marxianus [65, 66]. Traditional industrial ethanol production facilities take a laissez faire approach to fermentation conditions related to congeners production. These facilities' chief concern is maximizing ethanol production. A similar approach is taken at industrial whey to ethanol production facilities. The extractive distillation process is used to separate ethanol from congeners and produce a neutral spirit. It should be noted that congeners with a similar volatility as ethanol may be more difficult to separate. Diacetyl is difficult to remove via extractive distillation and can impart rancid butter or butterscotch aromas to a spirit [67]. Spirit quality is influenced by the number of plates used to separate the ethanol from the other volatile compounds. A greater number of plates allow for greater separation volatiles reducing the presence of congeners within the final spirit. The use of copper plates or other components which have contact with the spirit during the distillation process can influence the organoleptic qualities of the final product. Copper contact during distillation reduces sulfur aromas in spirits and can reduce concentration of sulfur containing compounds in the final spirit [68]. Post- distillation of filtration of the spirit can reduce the presence of congeners in the final product. Filtration with activated carbon can reduce the congeners in spirits and which can have a perceivable impact on the organoleptic qualities of the spirit [69].

If the spirit is to be sold as a vodka it should have a clean taste with no perceivable aroma. These requirements may not be as stringent if the product is to be sold as flavored spirit or mixed with other ingredients to produce a beverage such as Irish cream. Flavorings may mask presence of congeners or congeners with positive organoleptic qualities may enhance the final product.

For cheese makers with no prior knowledge of distillation, this entire process may appear intimidating. Fortunately, assistance is available for people entering into the distillation business [70].

### 14. Environmental implications of whey spirit production

The production of potable spirits from whey has the potential to reduce environmental impacts of cheese and spirit production [71]. The fermentation process reduces the environmental impact of whey. The conversion of lactose to CO2 and ethanol can reduce the BOD of whey by 75% [43] and aerobic cultivation can reduce BOD levels up to 95% [35]. The volume reduction during distillation and reduction of BOD during fermentation indicate that processing spent wash would be less economically and environmentally impactful than raw whey. K. marxianus is classified as GRAS and can be used as feed for livestock. It has also illustrated that production of a spirit from whey destined to be land spread instead of a similar grain-based spirit can reduce net CO2-equivalent emissions [71]. This 2018 study also indicated that the production of a wheybased spirit required less water than a grain-based spirit [71]. These factors indicate that the production of a spirit from whey may be beneficial to the whey producer, distiller and the environment.


*2.3.3 Family selection*

Family is a group of individuals that descended from the same ancestor. Family represents a group of animals having common genetic relationship. In family selection, it is presumed that the ancestor has outstanding merit. In animal breeding, generally, the family is a group of animals having a common genetic relationship. In animal population under random mating, generally half sibs (HS) and full sibs (FS) are the most common collateral relatives, whose records are often used to estimate the breeding value. When individual's performance is also included in calculating the sibs average performance, it is called family selection. Family selection is very useful in case of traits with low heritability [1, 3].


**1. Introduction**

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 16% of the worldwide population lives with some type of visual impairment [1]. Visually challenged people (VCP) struggle in their everyday life and have major difficulties in participating in sports, cultural, tourist, family, and other types of outdoor activities. The last two decades, a key solution to this problem has been the development of assistive devices able to help, at least partially, the VCP to adjust in the modern way of life and actively participate in different types of activities. Such assistive devices require the cooperation of researchers from different fields, such as medicine, smart electronics, computer science, and engineering. So far, as a result of this interdisciplinary cooperation, several designs and components of wearable camera-enabled systems for VCP have been proposed [2–5]. Such systems incorporate sensors, such as cameras, ultrasonic sensors, laser distance sensors, inertial measurement units, microphones, and GPS, which enable the user identify his/her position in an area of interest (i.e., outdoor environment, hospital, museum, archeological site, etc.), avoid static or moving obstacles and hazards in close proximity, and provide directions not only for navigation support but also for personalized guidance in that area. Moreover, mobile cloud-based applications [6], methodologies for optimal estimation of trajectories using GPS and other sensors accessible from a mobile device [7], and algorithms enabling efficient data coding for video streaming [8] can be considered for enhanced user experience in this context. Users should be able to easily interact with the system through speech

in real-time. Moreover, the system should be able to share the navigation experience of the user not strictly as audiovisual information but also through social interaction with remote individuals, including people with locomotor disabilities and the elderly.

During the last two years, several studies and research projects have been initiated, setting higher standards for systems for computer-assisted navigation of VCP. In [9], an Enterprise Edition of a Google glass device was employed to support visually challenged individuals during their movement. Their system comprised a user interface, a computer network platform, and an electronic device to integrate all components into a single assistive device. In [10], a commercial pair of smart glasses (KR-VISION), consisting of an RGB-D sensor (RealSense R200) and a set of bone-conducting earphones, was linked to a portable processor. The RealSense R200 sensor was also employed in [11], together with a low-power millimeter wave (MMW) radar sensor, in order to unify object detection, recognition, and fusion. Another smart assistive navigation system comprised a smart-glass with a Raspberry Pi camera attached on a Raspberry Pi processor, as well as a smart shoe with an IR sensor for obstacle detection attached on an Arduino board [12]. In [13], a binocular vision probe with two charged coupled device (CCD) cameras and a semiconductor laser was employed to capture images in a fixed frequency. A composite head-mounted wearable system with a camera, ultrasonic sensor, IR sensor, button controller, and battery for image recognition was proposed in [14]. Two less complex approaches were proposed in [15,16]. In the first, two ultrasonic sensors, two vibrating motors, two transistors, and an Arduino Pro Mini Chip were attached on a simple pair of glasses. The directions were provided to the user through vibrations. In the second, a Raspberry Pi camera and two ultrasonic sensors attached on a Raspberry Pi processor were placed on a plexiglass frame.

The aforementioned systems incorporate several types of sensors, which increase the computational demands and the energy consumption, the weight of the wearable device, as well as the complexity of the system. In addition, although directions in the form of vibrations are faster perceivable, their expressiveness is limited, and the learning curve required increases with the number of messages needed for user navigation.

This paper presents a novel visual perception system (VPS) for outdoor navigation of the VCP in cultural areas, which copes with these issues in accordance with the respective user requirements [17]. The proposed system differs from others, because it follows a novel uncertainty-aware approach to obstacle detection, incorporating salient regions generated using a Generative Adversarial Network (GAN) trained to estimate saliency maps based on human eye-fixations. The estimated eye-fixation maps, expressing the human perception of saliency in the scene, adds to the intuition of the obstacle detection methodology. Additional novelties of the proposed VPS, include: (a) it can be personalized, based on the user characteristics—the user's height, in order to minimize false alarms that may occur from the obstacle detection methodology and 3D printed to meet the user's preferences; (b) the system implements both obstacle detection and recognition; and (c) the methodologies of obstacle detection and recognition are integrated in the system in a unified way.

The rest of this paper is organized in 6 sections, namely, Section 2, where the current state-of-the-art is presented; Section 3, describing the system architecture; Section 4, analyzing the methodologies used for obstacle detection and recognition; Section 5, examining the performance of the obstacle detection and recognition tasks; Section 6, where the performance of the proposed system with respect to other systems is discussed; and finally Section 7 presenting the conclusions of this work.

#### **2. Related Work**


*Review* **Assessment in the Supine-To-Stand Task and Functional Health from Youth to Old Age: A Systematic Review**

**Maria Teresa Cattuzzo 1,\*, Frederico Santos de Santana 2, Marisete Peralta Safons 2, Alessandro Hervaldo Nicolai Ré 3, Danielle Rene Nesbitt 4, Ariane Brito Diniz Santos 1, Anderson Henry Pereira Feitoza 1 and David Franklin Stodden 5**

Received: 28 April 2020; Accepted: 27 July 2020; Published: 10 August 2020

**Abstract:** Performance in the supine-to-stand (STS) task is an important functional and health marker throughout life, but the evaluation methods and some correlates can impact it. This article aims to examine the studies that assessed the performance of the STS task of young people, adults and the elderly. Evidence of the association between the STS task and body weight status, musculoskeletal fitness and physical activity was investigated, and a general protocol was proposed. MEDLINE/Pubmed and Web of Science databases were accessed for searching studies measuring the STS task directly; identification, objective, design, sample, protocols and results data were extracted; the risk of bias was assessed (PROSPERO CRD42017055693). From 13,155 studies, 37 were included, and all demonstrated a low to moderate risk of bias. The STS task was applied in all world, but the protocols varied across studies, and they lacked detail; robust evidence demonstrating the association between STS task and musculoskeletal fitness was found; there was limited research examining body weight status, physical activity and the STS task performance. In conclusion, the STS task seems to be a universal tool to track motor functional competence and musculoskeletal fitness throughout life for clinical or research purposes.

**Keywords:** psychomotor performance; functional evaluation; human development; righting skill; rising from the floor; floor-to-stand; supine rise tasks


5. Conclusion

In this chapter, analyses and numerical simulations of mechanical properties of samples from composite structures were presented. Several studies and experiments have been carried out on samples reinforced with carbon and glass fibers, and mechanical properties allow them to form structural reinforcements of composite materials. Further, analytical models with mathematical relationships (e.g., Voigt, Reuss or Chamis model) allow to determine the unknown elastic constants E11, E22, G12, G23, ν12, ν23 of the resulting composite structure. This is followed by a more extensive description of the creation of a numerical model of a composite fiber structure pattern for determining mechanical properties, both through the description of a general continuum and a more complex numerical model with a structural arrangement to allow closer interaction of the fiber and the matrix. From the numerical models, the stress and strain distribution can be determined over a given time interval under chosen packing density Vf as well as the elastic constants. The course of elastic constants has to be compared in some cases only with analytical models because unknown constants cannot be appropriately measured. In summary, the I. continuous model is more user-friendly for numerical simulation and that is suitable for describing the principal stresses, but it does not allow to analyze and study the composite on microlevel. Thus, it does not allow the distribution of the stress between the fiber and the matrix (interphase). This can be done with more complex II. extended continuous model with a structural unit. The results of numerical models establish valuable knowledge and information, including the determination of elastic constants for a particular specific composite design. These results can be used for modeling of large samples and complicated geometries to optimize the design solution.

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**5. Conclusions**

Our findings raise the hypothesis that genetic risk for melatonin profile dysregulation, in combination with long-term road traffic noise, better captured in non-movers, may increase the risk for poor glucose homeostasis, particularly in diabetic patients. While our findings need replication and confirmation in other independent cohorts, experimental interventional studies should test the hypothesis to determine if counseling for noise control should be added to diabetes care.

**Supplementary Materials:** The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/14/12/1492/s1, Table S1: Characteristics of common *MTNR1B* variants included in the study; Table S2: Characteristics of study participants included and excluded in the study; Table S3: Interaction between *MTNR1B* variants (single/score) and night-time road traffic noise (10 dB difference) on change in HbA1c, in all participants; Table S4: Association between *MTNR1B* variants and measures of HbA1c (%); Table S5: Interaction between *MTNR1B* genetic risk score and 10 dB difference in night-time road, railway and aircraft noise, on change in HbA1c; Table S6: Characteristics of included participants stratified by moving status; Figure S1: Selection of participants for the present study; Figure S2: Linkage disequilibrium matrix for seven common *MTNR1B* variants; Figure S3: Distribution of night-time road traffic, aircraft and railway noise in the included participants.

**Acknowledgments:** This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation, SNF-SAPALDIA (grants numbers 33CS30-148470/1, 33CSCO-134276/1, 33CSCO-108796, 324730\_135673, 3247BO-104283, 3247BO-104288, 3247BO-104284, 3247-065896, 3100-059302, 3200-052720, 3200-042532, 4026-028099, PMPDP3\_129021/1, PMPDP3\_141671/1); SNF-SiRENE (grant number CRSII3\_147635) and the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment. SAPALDIA is also supported by the Federal Office of Public Health, the Federal Office of Roads and Transport, the canton's government of Aargau, Basel-Stadt, Basel-Land, Geneva, Luzern, Ticino, Valais, and Zürich, the Swiss Lung League, the canton's Lung League of Basel Stadt/Basel Landschaft, Geneva, Ticino, Valais, Graubünden and Zurich, Stiftung ehemals Bündner Heilstätten, SUVA, Freiwillige Akademische Gesellschaft, UBS Wealth Foundation, Talecris Biotherapeutics GmbH, Abbott Diagnostics, European Commission 018996 (GABRIEL), Wellcome Trust WT 084703MA.

**Author Contributions:** N.P.-H and I.C.E. conceived and designed the experiments; M.I., A.K., D.V., R.P., A.V., M.B., J.-M.W., C.C., M.R. and N.P.-H. performed the measurements; I.C.E., M.I., M.F., E.S., A.K., D.V., H.H., R.P., A.V., C.S., M.B., J.-M.W., C.C., M.R. and N.P.-H. analyzed the data; I.C.E., M.I., M.F., E.S., A.K., D.V., H.H., F.R., L.T., R.P., A.V., C.S., M.B., J.-M.W., C.C., M.R. and N.P.-H. wrote the paper.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no competing interests. The founding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results.


**7. Conclusion**

308 excimer phototherapy is an existing technology in treating AA. It is safe, effective, and easily administered even in difficult areas. The duration of treatment is shorter than that of whole-body phototherapy. A complete response may take 20–30 sessions, with some responses noted as early as 6–8 sessions.

Calculating the UV dose should be monitored considering the skin type, age, lesion site, and treatment response.

## **Learning points**


*3.2. Energy Production*

The PTR and SRI were found statistically superior to ARS in gross energy production in both years (Table 6). The net energy production in SRI was significantly higher over both PTR and ARS, while between PTR and ARS, PTR was found superior to ARS. The net energy production in SRI was higher by 1000 to 1500 MJ ha−1 over PTR and 4800 to 5100 MJ ha−1 over ARS. The lower net energy production in ARS was mainly due to lower yield. The saving in energy per tonne of rough rice produced in ARS was 401–492 and 86–167 MJ t−1 more than PTR and SRI. In the case of wheat, both gross and net energy production in ZTW were significantly higher than CDW and SWI. The increase in gross and net energy production in ZTW over CDW was 7500–8000 and 9200–9600 MJ ha−1 and similarly for ZTW versus SWI was 8200–8600 and 8900–9300 MJ ha−1, respectively. The ZTW required the lowest amount of energy for production of a tonne of grain. The saving in energy per tonne of grain produced was 216–488 and 274–275 MJ ha−1 over CDW and SWI, respectively. The system gross energy output was highest in ARS–ZTW but remained on par with all other CEMs in the first year. During the second year, gross energy production in ARS–ZTW was significantly higher than SRI–SWI and remained on par with PTR–CDW. In regard to net energy production, ARS–ZTW was found superior to both PTR–CDW and SRI–SWI and increased net energy production by 5900 and 4100 MJ ha−1. The energy required to produce a tonne of system yield varied between 2523 and 3039 MJ ha−1 and all three systems differed significantly, with ARS–ZTW found superior over the rest.

*Sustainability* **2022**, *14*, 5986

**Table 5.** Partitioning of energy inputs in different forms of energy in selected crop establishment methods of wheat during first cycle of RWCS.

*Sustainability* **2022**, *14*, 5986

**Table 6.** Effect of crop establishment methods on energetic and protein yield of rice, wheat and rice–wheat cropping system.

Within a column, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 0.05 level of probability by the Duncan's multiple range test.

The gross energy production in rice was highest in RDN + Zn applied in PTR and found significantly superior over same treatments applied in SRI and ARS in both years (Table 7). Application of 75% RDN + MC1 + Zn and 75% RDN + MC2 + Zn in PTR and SRI remained on par with RDN and found significantly superior over same treatment applied in ARS in first year, while in second year only 75% RDN + MC2 + Zn in SRI was found on par with RDN. The net energy production was highest in 75% RDN + MC2 + Zn in SRI and found superior over same treatment applied in ARS in both years. The net energy production in 75% RDN + MC2 was higher by 900–1000 and 7300–8600 MJ ha−1 than RDN and 75% RDN (averaged over all CEMs). Application of MC1 increased net energy production by 6800–8300, 6900–8500 and 7100–8600 MJ ha−1, respectively, in PTR, SRI and ARS. Similarly, increase in net energy production by MC2 was 7100–8400, 7000–8600 and 7500–8800 MJ ha−1, respectively. The zinc fertilization significantly increased gross and net energy production in all CEMs and in all treatments. The increase in gross and net energy production due to Zn fertilization varied between 1600 and 7300 and 1400 and 7100 MJ ha−1, respectively. The lowest amount of energy for production of one tonne of grain was in control. Among CEMs, control in ARS had significantly lower energy per tonne of rice grain produced. Application of MC1 lower energy required per tonne of grain produced by 167–233 MJ tonne−1 and MC2 by 183 to 234 MJ tonne−1 over 75% RDN.

**Table 7.** Effect of nutrient management options on energetic and protein yield of rice in different crop establishment methods.

Within a column, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 0.05 level of probability by the Duncan's multiple range test. "\*": Indicates significant different of treatments the 0.05 level of probability by the Duncan's multiple range test; RDN \*: Recommended dose of nutrients 120 kg N ha−1 and 25.8 kg P ha−1; Zn \*\*: Soil applied 5 kg Zn ha−1 through zinc sulphate heptahydrate; MC1: (*Anabaena* sp. (CR1) + *Providencia* sp. (PR3) consortia; MC2: *Anabaena-Pseudomonas* biofilmed formulations.

In wheat, the highest amount of gross energy production was recorded in RDN + Zn in ZTW and remained on par with 75% RDN + MC1 + Zn and 75% RDN + MC2 + Zn in ZTW (Table 8). These three treatments were found significantly superior over same treatment applied in CDW and SWI except RDN in CDW. The net energy production in second year was 100 to 3500 MJ ha−1 higher than first year. The application of 75% RDN + MC2 + Zn had the highest net energy production. Application of MC1 and MC2 increases net energy production by 5500 to 6700 and 6800 to 7700 MJ ha−1. Similarly increase in net energy production due to Zn fertilization was 1200 to 7900 MJ ha−1. The energy per tonne of wheat grain produced varied between 786 and 2858 MJ tonne−1 in the first year and 853 and 2956 MJ tonne−1 in the second year. Application of microbial consortia significantly reduces energy required for production of one tonne of wheat grain, while Zn fertilization found statistically superior when applied with RDN in CDW during both the years and 75% RDN + MC1 in CDW and SWI in first year. The system gross and net energy production varied between 247.2 and 311.9 × 103 MJ ha−1 and 233.6 and 288.3 × 103 MJ ha−1 (Table 9). The highest gross and net energy production was found with RDN + Zn in ZTW and 75% RDN + MC2 + Zn in ZTW, respectively. The increase in system net returns due to microbial consortia and Zn fertilization was 12,900 to 16,100 and 4800 to 12,040 MJ ha−1, respectively.

**Table 8.** Effect of nutrient management options on energetic and protein yield of wheat in different crop establishment methods.

**Table 8.** *Cont.*

Within a column, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 0.05 level of probability by the Duncan's multiple range test. "\*": Indicates significant different of treatments the 0.05 level of probability by the Duncan's multiple range test; RDN \*: Recommended dose of nutrients 120 kg N ha−1 and 25.8 kg P ha−1; Zn \*\*: Soil applied with 5 kg Zn ha−1 through zinc sulphate heptahydrate; MC1: (*Anabaena* sp. (CR1) + *Providencia* sp. (PR3) consortia; MC2: *Anabaena-Pseudomonas* biofilmed formulations.

**Table 9.** Effect of nutrient management options on energetic and protein yield of rice–wheat cropping system in different crop establishment methods.

**Table 9.** *Cont.*

Within a column, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 0.05 level of probability by the Duncan's multiple range test. "\*": Indicates significant different of treatments the 0.05 level of probability by the Duncan's multiple range test; RDN \*: Recommended dose of nutrients 120 kg N ha−1 and 25.8 kg P ha−1; Zn \*\*: Soil applied with 5 kg Zn ha−1 through zinc sulphate heptahydrate; MC1: (*Anabaena* sp. (CR1) + *Providencia* sp. (PR3) consortia; MC2: *Anabaena-Pseudomonas* biofilmed formulations.


**4. Reasons for ineffective waste management practice in Nigeria**

There are several reasons for poor waste management in Nigeria, they include, lack of reliable research data on waste. There were limited data in the past, but of recent more scientist and waste management scholars had written their dissertations on waste management. However, the problem is that the results of these studies had not been adopted and implemented by the government; the researches only end up in the shelves of libraries in the various high institutions. For proper waste management, in Nigeria there should be a meeting point between theory and practice. Agencies should be set up to create a cross fertilization of ideas between higher institutions and government agencies. This will help in the implementation

*Municipal Solid Waste Disposal in Mangrove Forest: Environmental Implication… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83809*

of recommendations from the different studies. This is because many of the studies had gone to great lengths to collect long term data, which if implemented will help government in planning for effective waste management system for the municipalities and entire region at large.

 Lack of sorting culture is also impeding the progress of waste management in the Niger Delta. People do not take it as a responsibility to separate their waste before disposal. They feel that it is a waste of time since the receivers of the waste do not care and will not sort the waste at their collection facility. Irregular collection and unhygienic disposal by private waste collectors are also some problems of ineffective waste management. Poverty is an overriding factor that had affected waste management. This is because even when rules of proper waste disposal are stipulated by the government many people do not follow such instructions because they lack the money to buy the waste containers for the collection of their waste. Government alone cannot be held responsible for poor waste management because many people exhibit poor attitude towards waste collection by not wanting to pay for waste management services. This may be attributed to lack of awareness on the dangers of improper waste management, and lack of community awareness of the economic value of waste recycling. There is also a craze for fashion which has made people to generate more waste than they can manage; especially women who adopt some fashion trend that is antagonistic to the local culture in terms of clothing and beautifying materials, which they later dispose into open dump or drain. A typical example is artificial hair, which in recent times had littered the streets of most cities. Similarly, make-up chemicals are flushed down the drain and can enter the river thus polluting the surface and ground water systems. This has a negative feedback because it can come back to humans through the food chain or drinking water causing health effects. Lastly, apart from the inaction of government and the poor attitude of citizens, there is also nonchalant attitude by industrialists and manufacturers, who are more interested in making profits than giving back to their host communities through the provision of social amenities such as waste bins and payment for waste evacuation.

## **5. Mangrove forest as refuse dump site**

Waste get into mangrove forests through two means: (1) through tidal flushing (**Figure 2b, c**) and (2) through disposal by humans (**Figure 2a**). Tide washes ashore buoyant debris from far and wide. The debris accumulates at the edges of the sea and inside mangrove forest. These kind of waste are usually materials picked by tides from elsewhere such as leaves, branches of trees, plastics, carcasses, etc. (**Figure 2c**) while waste dumped by humans are mainly municipal waste such as household and industrial items such as food, paper, clothes and plastics, industrial waste, agricultural waste and market or commercial waste, majority of which are made of organic products [20].

Mangrove forests are found at the interface between the land and the sea. They are thus recipients of waste from both the land and the sea. They are usually seen and considered as waste land because of activities that go on in the mangrove forest are often not supervised. People who dispose refuse or cut the trees are not punished making others to do the same. Mangrove forests serve as homes for many people who clear and erect their houses. Those who live close to or inside the mangrove forest dispose their waste right in the forest since waste management agents do not come to evacuate their waste. Since mangrove areas are not under the jurisdiction of waste management agents, the people manage their waste by throwing them wherever they want. Mangrove trees are also cut and used as firewood to generate energy [21] and their cuttings act as waste that litter the forest floors.


**2. Materials and Methods**

## *2.1. Materials*

Nanoclay/spring water hydrogels were prepared by mixing Alicún thermal station spring water (ALI, Granada, Spain) with two commercial fibrous nanoclays; sepiolite (PS9) and palygorskite (G30). Nanoclays were kindly gifted by the TOLSA group (Madrid, Spain).

Sepiolite hydrogel included in this study was prepared with a concentration of 10% (*w*/*w*) of PS9 dispersed in ALI spring water (ALIPS9, 250 g in total). Additionally, two palygorskite hydrogels (250 g each), ALIG30@10 and ALIG30@20, were also obtained and their final concentration was 10% *w*/*w* and 20% *w*/*w* of G30, respectively. The three formulations were prepared by means of a turbine high-speed agitator (Silverson LT, Chesham, UK) equipped with a high-traction stirrer head of square mesh and working at 8000 rpm for 5 min.