**4. Discussion**

The results of this study confirmed our hypothesis; prosthetic designs play a significant role in postoperative active ROM, despite nonfunctional rotator cuffs. Even if functional scores were similar between the two groups, IG had better postoperative anterior forward flexion, and OG a better postoperative active external rotation, even if the infraspinatus and teres minor presented severe fatty infiltration.

We observed a statistically significant increase in external rotation by 7.4◦ in the OG with lateralized humerus compared to IG with medialized humerus. This result might be related to (1) an increased humeral lateralization, either due to the use of an onlay design or due to the use of a more varus neck-shaft angle stem (145◦ vs. 155◦) [14,16], (2) a tenodesis effect and a retensioning of the remnant posterior cuff (Figure 1), (3) a better recruitment of the posterior deltoid (Figure 1), and (4) less scapular notching [17].

**Figure 1.** Factors influencing postoperative external rotation. (**A**) Native shoulder. The center of rotation is in the humeral head, and the level of deltoid arm does not allow deltoid recruitment. (**B**) A combination of lateral glenoid/medial humerus RSA. As in native shoulders, the bony lateralization of the center of rotation decreases recruitment of the deltoid for rotation. Additionally, due to the medialized center of rotation compared to the native shoulder, the rotator cuff is slackened and thus less efficient in rotatory motion. (**C**) A combination of lateral glenoid/lateral humerus RSA. Additional lateralization on the humeral side allows important deltoid recruitment and a tenodesis effect and a retensioning of the remnant posterior cuff.

Increased lateralization on the humeral side might have important biomechanical consequences and affect clinical outcomes. This is theorized to increase the tension of the rotator cuff muscles, so that their rotational capacities improve [14,18,19]. Lädermann et al. have shown that the greatest lengthening of the infraspinatus is achieved when a combination of bone increased offset RSA with a 145◦ onlay stem is used [14]. Several biomechanical studies showed improvement of rotator cuff (especially infraspinatus and teres minor) and posterior deltoid moment arms in lateralized humeral designs [20,21]. The increase in lateralization could potentially improve the length–tension relationship of the posterior remnant of the rotator cuff and thus increase its efficiency. However, the increase of external rotation, we found, may be mainly due to a so-called "tenodesis effect" of the remnant posterior cuff, which could prevent some loss of active external rotation.

Humeral lateralization improves deltoid muscle efficiency. The increase of external rotation could perhaps be explained through the "wrapping effect" of the posterior deltoid when a prosthetic design of lateralized humerus is used [22]. By lateralizing the center of rotation, a major part of the posterior deltoid fibers is preserved for rotational motion, which allows for a possible increase in active external rotation [20,23,24]. The moment arm for the posterior part of the deltoid is approximately 20% of that for the infraspinatus and teres minor [20,23]. Collin et al. showed that patients with an absence of posterosuperior rotator cuff (type E rotator cuff tear) still have an external rotation of 20◦ at 90◦ of abduction, potentially generated by the posterior deltoid [9].

A low neck-shaft angle, limiting inferior friction-type impingement, and consequently, scapular notching, could also explain the difference in external rotation between the two groups of the present study [17,25–27]. Only one clinical study, performed by Merolla et al., compared the same groups as ours using an OG and IG RSA design with a minimum follow-up of 2 years [28]. Both implants showed similar postoperative ROM between the low (OG) and high (IG) neck-shaft angles, although the former was associated with significantly greater delta scores of external rotation and lower rates of scapular notching [28]. Lateralization seems to play a significant role in scapular notching [29].

Simovitch et al. reported on the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) for different shoulder outcome metrics and ROM after shoulder arthroplasty. They noted that the MCID in terms of active forward anterior forward flexion is 12◦ ± 4◦ and for active external rotation is 3◦ ± 2◦ [30]. With that knowledge in mind, we can explain why we were not able to find any statistical difference between the clinical outcomes of the OG and the IG. We noticed a significant improvement of movement in one plane in each group. In OG, it was external rotation, whereas in IG, it was abduction, which in the end negated each other; consequently, we could not find a substantial difference between the clinical outcomes of the two analyzed groups.

All previously mentioned findings are crucial when planning RSA in a patient with a loss of active external rotation. Effectively, it has traditionally been implied for this condition that a latissimus dorsi transfer +/ − teres major tendon transfer(s) be undertaken [31,32]. Our study demonstrated that an adequate prosthetic design could be sufficient to restore active external rotation, confirming other reports [33]. Consequently, due to the additional difficulty, increased operative time, associated loss of internal rotation [34], and increased neurological complication rate [35], primary transfers do no longer seem justified, as a simple change in prosthetic design could achieve similar results.


**Chapter 5**

*Operations Management - Emerging Trend in the Digital Era*

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**4. Summary**

OI has been a strong application tool in almost every discipline of science and engineering. As devices based fundamentally on the superposition of light and all-optical, noninvasive signal processing, these methods have remarkable flexibility and relevance. In this chapter, an overview of the most recent applications has been presented. While typical applications in science and engineering research have seen remarkable updates in the past few years, some novel applications have also emerged as a result of collaborative efforts in cross-disciplinary projects.