Prologue: Sustainable Development, Economic Growth and the Fate of Tropical Forests

*Gabriel de Oliveira, Nathaniel A. Brunsell, Yosio E. Shimabukuro and Carlos A.C. dos Santos*

### **1. Tropical deforestation and its actors**

We are experiencing, especially in the past few years, critical discussions, both in science and in the general public, about the role of tropical forests to support a more sustainable world, and how we can act to protect these ecosystems [1, 2]. There is a significant concern, especially in developing countries, on how to obtain economic growth using the natural resources within the areas covered by pristine forests without compromising future generations to meet their own needs.

The sustainable development is based on the balance or trade-offs between economic, environmental and social sustainability. It seems to be a simple equation; however, it is important to consider that many actors are included in these three pillars, and to find a common point between them is often complicated. So, how to convince a farmer that it is not possible to extend the area used for agriculture because there is a natural preserved area nearby? Or how to convince mining companies that it is not possible to clear-cut the forest for oil/natural gas exploration since the land is located within an indigenous reserve? And how to convince the urban population that is better to preserve the forest standing instead of producing meat or corn for their food needs or oil/natural gas for their transportation? As we can see, this balancing is not easy to achieve, especially when we talk about developing countries and their need to make economic growth at all costs.

Most of the funding to protect the tropical forests against deforestation in developing countries comes from developed countries that need to achieve their own goals on reducing emissions of carbon to the atmosphere, thus mitigating the impacts caused by climate change. This started in the mid-1990s with the Kyoto Protocol and has been ratified more recently, in 2015, with the Paris Agreement. There has been a considerable scepticism, especially in the population of third world countries, about the fact that developed countries feel entitled to the areas covered by tropical forests, especially the Amazon, because they fund programs to protect and study these regions, and they are neither completely wrong nor completely right. There are two things to be highlighted here. The first is that no country should feel entitled to the vast and luxurious Amazon forest just because they send funds for protection and research. The second is that yet the majority of the Amazon forest belongs to Brazil, and for the indigenous people who live there, this ecosystem acts as a large carbon sink and an enormous source of water to the atmosphere and is of fundamental importance to the survival of future generations.


**2. Food packaging science and emerging trends**

Food packaging incorporates a wide range of technological activities, including design, package fabrication, shelf-life testing, distribution, and marketing. Food packaging science is a discipline that applies the perfect blend of four pioneer science areas: materials science, food science, information science, and socioeconomics in order to understand the requirements of any packaging system [9]. Material science and food science have been the two major guiding principles in the development of food packaging. Material science is essential to comprehend the appearance, mechanical strength, barrier, and physical and chemical properties of any substance used [10]. Food science is concerned with the kinetics of food deterioration and governing its shelf-life. Food packaging technology is a science-based solution to specific food packaging needs; examples include tamper-proof packaging, microwavable packaging, and modified atmospheric packaging, all of which aim to improve consumer safety, quality, and convenience [11]. The primary goal of the field of information science is to examine consumer attitudes and behaviors toward food packaging, and then analyze the results to determine what the most important features of packaging are for consumers, which are comfort for use and durability [12]. In regard to socioeconomic needs, the very distinguished ones are lifestyle changes, in a way that reflects the quality of life through the added value offered to consumers through packaged products, profitable companies, packaged product safety, and environmental protection [13].


**2. Superoxide dismutase**

The evolutionary history of metalloenzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) is aged and has been there before the differentiation of eubacteria from archaea bacteria. It is ubiquitous protein present in all living organisms and plays a vital role in the extreme pressure defense against superoxide radicals in the cell. The SOD catalyzes the conversion of the two molecules of virulent oxygen free radical (O− ) into molecular oxygen (O2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by using two equivalents of H+ ions [10]. SOD is marked as a strong free radical scavenger that can eliminate the toxic effects of superoxide produced during the reduction of molecular oxygen. SODs enzyme family have been classified based on several factors, and one is on the metal ion. In general, SODs contain the metal cofactor at their catalytic core and are classified into three major groups: copper/zinc (Cu/Zn-SOD) [11, 12], manganese (Mn-SOD) [13], and iron (Fe-SOD) [14–16]. SOD containing MnSOD, FeSOD and CuZnSOD are encrypted

*Superoxide Dismutase: A Key Enzyme for the Survival of Intracellular Pathogens in Host DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100322*

by the gene sodA, sodB, and sodC, respectively. Nickel (Ni)- and iron-zinc (Fe/Zn) containing isozymes have also been identified in several bacteria [17, 18]. FeSOD has mainly reported in prokaryotes except few protozoan parasites, whereas MnSOD and CuZnSOD are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. All these isoforms were identified based on their diverse sensitivities to cyanide (CN) and H2O2. The Cu, Zn-SOD is extremely sensitive to CN and H2O2 [19]. Mn-SOD is insensitive to CN and H2O2 [20], while Fe-SOD is not sensitive to CN but sensitive to H2O2 [21]. In addition, Mn-SOD and Fe-SOD, both were inhibited by chloroform–ethanol, but Cu, Zn-SOD is insensitive [22].

Moreover, SODs of intracellular bacteria are further classified into three groups based on their localization; Mn- and Fe-cofactor SODs are found in the cytosol. In contrast, the third one of SOD cofactor by Cu-Zn and is attached with periplasm or anchored with the lipid of the outer envelope [23, 24]. Cu/Zn-SOD of bacteria dismutase superoxide produced by host cell during phagocytosis contributes to helping bacterial virulence [25, 26]. Additionally, few families of SODs also use a Ni ion as cofactor at their catalytic core to initiate its functions [27]. A study has shown that superoxide dismutase from *Streptococcus* is capable of making a cofactor substitution with Fe in place of Mn [28]. On the other hand, *Leishmania tropica*, *Trypanosoma brueci*, and *Crithidia fasciculate* have superoxide dismutase, which is insensitivity to cyanide but sensitive to azide and peroxide [29]. SODs of Trypanosomatids are having Fe as a metal cofactor at their catalytic core and are categorized as iron superoxide dismutase (Fe-SOD). Other protozoan parasites also have the same Fe-SOD, such as *Plasmodium falciparum* and *Entamoeba histolytica*, where enzyme-mediated free radical catabolism is fully Fe-SOD dependent [30]. Fe-SOD isoform was first discovered in *Escherichia coli* in 1973 by Yost and Fridovich. Subsequently, the same isoform was characterized in *T. cruzi* in 1977. Like Trypanoredoxin (TR), SODs of *T. cruzi* differ from the mammalian host. Trypanosomatids, other protozoan parasites (*P. falciparum and E. histolytica*), some plants, and Archaea possess only Fe-SOD. However, humans and other mammalian hosts contain Cu/Zn-SOD and Mn-SOD as core metal **Figure 1** [31].

**Figure 1.**

*Schematic representation of SOD localization in intracellular pathogens and SOD chemical reaction. A) Localization of SOD in bacterial pathogens, B) localization of SOD in protozoan and fungal pathogens and C) SOD reaction in mitochondria of protozoan and fungal pathogens.*

This chapter will discuss role of superoxide dismutase in various intracellular pathogens that are belong to protozoan parasites genus *Trypanosoma, Leishmania, Plasmodium* and *Toxoplasma*, bacterial intracellular pathogens belongs to genus *Mycobacterium, Salmonella, Francisella* and *Staphylococcus* and fungal intracellular pathogens belongs to genus *Cryptococcus and Histoplasma* etc.


2.Internal factors

*Risk Management and Assessment*

political regime, culture and tradition.

entire economy and in selected sectors.

reliability of a partner.

general classification:

1.External factors

the country

4.Social risk—related to the way people in a particular country behave, religion,

5.Risk of contingent events—e.g. natural disasters and calamities (flood, earthquake), accidents caused by social conflicts and prohibited acts (strike, arson).

6.Political risk—concerns the possibility of intervention on the part of state authorities in particular countries or on an international scale, both for the

7.Economic risk—related to the possibility of a change in a country's economic policy and legal regulations concerning, e.g. tax or foreign exchange law.

8.Risk of events—resulting from unexpected events which influence a particular

9.Transfer risk—concerns situations in which there are obstacles in transferring

10. Legal risk–risk of loss due to a failure to conduct transactions due to a lack of legal regulations or insufficient documentation and lack of financial

More specific areas of risk are identified depending on the specific nature of a particular business activity. The following conclusions can be drawn from the

entity or investment but without influence on the entire market.

funds abroad or changing the currency of such funds.

• Lack of a criterion which would unanimously identify risk.

• Strong relations among particular types of risk.

There are two main groups of factors which influence risk [13]:

• Risk is inherent to the financial market.

• Strong and bidirectional relations among factors which cause risk.

• Risk is determined by external and internal factors at the same time.

The list of types of risk presented above is not an exhaustive one. Given the complexity of business activity, managers of public organizations are constantly exposed to various forms of this phenomenon [7]. Although not all of the risks enumerated above can be predicted or controlled, one should be aware of their existence and limit their occurrence and impact on organization to the greatest extent possible. Since there are so many factors causing risk, it is simply impossible to avoid it. Moreover, some of these factors are beyond the control of an enterprise.

• General economic factors following from a country's economic policy and condition of the economy (economic growth or downturn, changes in the level of inflation, significant changes in the central bank's policy, budget deficit) • Political factors which consist in a change of relations and direction taken by

**60**


**CURRENT TOPICS IN GIARDIASIS**

Edited by **Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales**

#### **Current Topics in Giardiasis**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65182 Edited by Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales

#### **Contributors**

Amornnivit Kanokwanvimol, Joyce Siwila, Pablo Gortáres-Moroyoqui, Ana Balderrama-Carmona, Luis Leyva-Soto, Ruth Ulloa-Mercado, Edgar Morán-Palacio, Lourdes Mariana Díaz-Tenorio, Isaia Sotiriadou, Carmen Gallas-Lindemann, Poornima Sureshkumar, Michael J. Noack, Antonio Marty Quispe, Wanderley De Souza, Marlene Benchimol, Víctor Molina, Alfonso J. . Rodriguez-Morales

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First published in Croatia, 2017 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia

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**Author details**

Sajid Ali1 , Adnan Zahid1 \*, Ammara Fatima2 , Mukhtar Ahmad3 , Muhammad Tariq Manzoor4 , Asma Ayub1 , Ahmad Raza1 and Nauman Shafqat1

1 Department of Agronomy, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

2 Department of Environmental Science, Lahore College for Women University, Lahore, Pakistan

3 Department of Agronomy, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

4 Department of Plant Pathology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

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**Catalysis for Global Development. Contributions around the Iberoamerican Federation of Catalysis**

Special Issue Editors **Helder T. Gomes Joaquim Lu´ıs Faria**

MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade • Manchester • Tokyo • Cluj • Tianjin

*Editorial Office* MDPI St. Alban-Anlage 66 4052 Basel, Switzerland

This is a reprint of articles from the Special Issue published online in the open access journal *Catalysts* (ISSN 2073-4344) (available at: https://www.mdpi.com/journal/catalysts/special issues/ Global Development).

For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and as indicated below:

LastName, A.A.; LastName, B.B.; LastName, C.C. Article Title. *Journal Name* **Year**, *Article Number*, Page Range.

**ISBN 978-3-03928-891-5 (Hbk) ISBN 978-3-03928-892-2 (PDF)**

c 2020 by the authors. Articles in this book are Open Access and distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications.

The book as a whole is distributed by MDPI under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons license CC BY-NC-ND.

### **Contents**

### **About the Special Issue Editors**

**Helder Gomes** is currently Coordinator Professor at the Polytechnic Institute of Braganc¸a and the Product and Process Engineering topic leader at the Mountain Research Centre (CIMO). He graduated with a degree in Chemical Engineering from the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto (FEUP) in 1997. In 2002, also from FEUP, he completed his Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering in the area of Catalytic Wet Air Oxidation of Organic Pollutants. He joined the Department of Chemical and Biological Technology (DTQB) at the Polytechnic Institute of Braganc¸a (IPB) in 2001. Between 2016 and 2018 he was President of the Division of Catalysis and Porous Materials of the Portuguese Chemical Society and, since 2018, he is Vice-President of the Iberoamerican Federation of Catalysis Societies. His main research interests are focused on the synthesis and characterization of heterogeneous carbon-based materials for environmental, biomedical and bioenergy applications, the valorization of industrial and agro-industrial wastes into materials and fuels, and the development of water/wastewater treatment solutions based on advanced oxidation processes. He has published 63 ISI papers and more than 200 communications in international/national congresses. He has participated in more than 30 projects and 8 networks as coordinator.

**Joaquim L Faria** joined the Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (University of Porto) in 1994 and founded a research line on Heterogeneous Photocatalysis. He is currently Associate Professor in the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto (FEUP), Board Member of the Department of Chemical Engineering of the same Faculty, member of the Scientific Committee of the MSc in Chemical Engineering, and member of the Scientific Council of the Associate Laboratory LSRE-LCM (Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering – Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials—a distinguished research unit devoted to specific objectives of the scientific and technological policy laid down by the government. He has chaired and collaborated on the organization of several national and international meetings, and has acted as a member of several scientific boards of national and international meetings. His work focuses on chemical emergent systems (including catalytic) for sustainability and development in the areas of environmental protection, energy, and fine chemical synthesis. He has published over 180 articles in international ISI journals and more than 300 communications in international congresses and symposia (h index of 48, more than 6616 times cited without self-citations). He has written book chapters, been a guest editor of volumes on specific collections, and acted as a reviewer of scientific journals and other non-periodic publications. Prof. Faria has also performed public demonstrations of popular science for young people.

### *Editorial* **Catalysis for Global Development. Contributions around the Iberoamerican Federation of Catalysis**

**Helder Gomes 1,2,\* and Joaquim Faria 2**

Received: 28 February 2020; Accepted: 11 March 2020; Published: 19 March 2020

Following biennial meetings held since 1968, the Iberoamerican Federation of Catalysis Societies (FISoCat), the Portuguese Chemical Society (SPQ) and the University of Coimbra jointly organized the XXVI Iberoamerican Congress on Catalysis (CICat 2018), which took place in the historic city of Coimbra, Portugal, between the 9th and 14th of September 2018. CICat 2018 was of particular importance in the history of these events, as it marked the 50th anniversary since the beginning of this series of meetings—by far the most important in the field of catalysis in the Iberoamerican region. Associated with the commemoration of this event, this Special Issue, Catalysis for Global Development: Contributions around the Iberoamerican Federation of Catalysis, emerged to feature selected works presented at CICat 2018. Other possible additional contributions promoting linkages among catalytic science, technology, education, and culture plans and processes involved in cooperation programs and projects among the Iberoamerican Member States, as well as states and institutions of other regions, were also envisaged.

The topics of the conference covered various aspects of catalysis in all its diversity (environmental catalysis, industrial catalysis, oil refining, natural gas conversion and petrochemistry, catalyst design, preparation and characterization, sustainable processes and clean energies, fine chemistry, and other topics on biocatalysis, homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis), as well other related areas. The diversity of the topics covered was evidenced by the 442 delegates from 20 countries, mostly Iberoamerican countries, attending the conference, and by the presentation of 510 works, together with five plenary lessons—one lesson alluding to the history of CICat to celebrate their 50 years—eight keynotes, and six awards given during the event.

Its extensive scope and interdisciplinarity affirm catalysis to be an essential part of the process and the chemical industry. Research in catalysis supports several strategic industrial sectors in Iberoamerica development through products and processes from energy to the manufacture of materials, and has implications for the development of digital applications and devices. Catalysis plays a crucial role in environmental protection, whether by recycling waste or by reducing gas emissions that contribute to increasing global warming—thereby opening new routes for eco-friendly processes and products that are sustainable and ecologically correct. It is on these topics and directly-related subjects that sixteen selected contributions from the Iberoamerican Federation of Catalysis are gathered in this Special Issue [1–16].

We believe that the contributions published will serve as a source of inspiration and guidance to all those involved in the exciting field of catalysis, particularly for the young researchers and students taking their first steps into research on catalysis. We would like to thank the authors for their enthusiasm since the call for papers was opened, showing from the very earliest stages of the production of the Special Issue their motivation to contribute to this collection. Finally, we acknowledge the unmeasurable help of the assistant editors and reviewers involved, which allowed speeding up the production process and promoting the quality of the manuscripts presented in this Special Issue, making it, so far, the most successful conference issue in Catalysts.

#### **Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest

#### **References**

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

### *Article* **Photocatalytic Degradation of 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol by MgO–MgFe2O4 Derived from Layered Double Hydroxide Structures**

**Esthela Ramos-Ramírez 1,\* , Francisco Tzompantzi-Morales 2, Norma Gutiérrez-Ortega 3,\* , Héctor G. Mojica-Calvillo 1 and Julio Castillo-Rodríguez 2**

Received: 5 April 2019; Accepted: 14 May 2019; Published: 17 May 2019

**Abstract:** In recent years, the search for solutions for the treatment of water pollution by toxic compounds such as phenols and chlorophenols has been increasing. Phenols and their derivatives are widely used in the manufacture of pesticides, insecticides, paper, and wood preservers, among other things. Chlorophenols are partially biodegradable but not directly photodegradable by sunlight and are extremely toxic—especially 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, which is considered to be potentially carcinogenic. As a viable proposal to be applied in the treatment of water contaminated with 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, this paper presents an application study of the thermally activated Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides as photocatalysts for the mineralization of this contaminant. Activated Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides were characterized by X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis, N2 physisorption, and scanning electron microscopy with X-ray dispersive energy. The results of the photocatalytic degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol in aqueous solution showed good photocatalytic activity, with an efficiency of degradation of up to 93% and mineralization of 82%; degradation values which are higher than that of TiO2-P25, which only reached 18% degradation. The degradation capacity is attributed to the structure of the MgO–MgFe2O4 oxides derived from double laminate hydroxide Mg/Fe. A path of degradation based on a mechanism of superoxide and hollow radicals is proposed.

**Keywords:** photocatalysis; Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides; coprecipitation; chlorophenols; mixed oxides; elimination; degradation

#### **1. Introduction**

Layered double hydroxides (LDH) or hydrotalcite-type compounds are a large class of natural and synthetic compounds of the anionic clay type [1,2]. These compounds are characterized by having a laminar structure with octahedral arrays of double metal hydroxides that generate a positive residual charge, which is neutralized by the presence of hydrated interlaminar anions [3–5]. Its structural formula is represented in a general way as [M(II)1−xM(III)x(OH)2] x+[Ax/n n−]·mH2O, where M (II) and M (III) can be any divalent cation (Mg2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, and Ni2+) or trivalent cation (Al3+, Fe3+, Cr3+, In3+, Ga3+, and Mn3+), respectively; A is any anion (CO3 2−, NO3 −, SO4 2−, Cl−, CrO4 2−, etc.) of n charge; x is the fraction of the trivalent cation (at the ratio of x = M(III)/M (III)+M(II)]); and m is the number of water molecules in the interlaminar space [6,7]. The properties of an LDH will depend on its structural characteristics and will determine the applications that can be given to them. A characteristic that is determinant for the use of an LDH is its profile of evolution of phases by thermal treatment, which allows dehydration, deanionization, and dehydroxylation, with the subsequent formation of a variety of double and simple mixed metal oxides [8–10] Among the main applications that have been found to thermally decompose the products of LDHs is heterogeneous catalysis [11–14]. More specifically, heterogeneous catalysis assisted by irradiation of ultraviolet and visible light as an advanced process of oxidation of recalcitrant and/or persistent organic molecules has become of interest as a potential application of LDHs [15,16]. Several advanced oxidation processes, such as O3/Ultraviolet (UV), O3/H2O2, UV/H2O2, Fenton, UV/Fenton, and UV/TiO2, have been applied in wastewater as a treatment to mineralize many organic chemicals [17–21]. Within the persistent molecules that exist, interest in their degradation tends to increase by their toxicity and damage to the environment, as is the case for chlorophenols. Chlorophenols are aromatic compounds that are released into the environment in wastewater generated by the wood and petroleum processing industries, as well as the production of drugs, weapons, paper, textiles, and pesticides [22,23]. Most chlorophenols are considered highly toxic, depending on the nature and degree of ring substitution by chlorine. In general, the toxicity increases directly with the degree of chlorination. Specifically, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol tends to accumulate in the lipid tissues of several organisms, is mutagenic or co-mutagenic, and has been linked to cancer in animals, producing lymphomas and leukemia after consumption of contaminated food and water for long periods of time, and in high concentrations [24,25]. Specific studies on the degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol using various technologies have included biological and physicochemical treatments. Specifically, biological treatments have been inefficient because 2,4,6-trichlorophenol is a molecule resistant to biodegradation, as well as being toxic to microorganisms. Physicochemical treatments such as thermal treatment and adsorption have the disadvantage of generating other dangerous compounds as a result of decomposition or generating residues with high concentrations of the contaminant, respectively [26–30]. Therefore, it is feasible to think of advanced oxidation processes as a more effective alternative for the destruction of this pollutant, such as ozone, hydrogen peroxide, photocatalysts, and even combinations of these. Among the semiconductors most used as photocatalysts in the degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol are TiO2, Fe2O3, CeO2, CuO, ZnO, ZrO, and Al2O3, among others; they have been used either alone and mixed or doped, preferably with metals such as Ag, Au, Fe, Co, and Ni, to degrade the pollutant in a significant way [31–36]. The present work reports MgO–MgFe2O4 derived from layered double hydroxides Mg/Fe with band energy in the range of 2.28–2.47 eV, and its application in the degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol in the aqueous phase using ultraviolet radiation as a source of light.

#### **2. Results and Discussion**

#### *2.1. X-Ray Di*ff*raction (XRD)*

The X-ray diffraction patterns of the LDH are shown in Figure 1a. The three patterns are similar in relation to the position of the signals, but it is observed that crystallinity increases when the Mg/Fe ratio increases, with a tendency of LDHM1F < LDHM2F < LDHM3F, which is associated with a greater crystallinity produced by the decrease of Fe3+ within the brucite type network [Mg (OH)2]. The characteristic signals are in the 2θ angles of 11.2 (003), 23.0 (006), 34.0 (012), 38.0 (015), 45 (018), 59.5 (110), and 61 (013), corresponding to the pyroaurite phase with the PDF card 25-0521 [2,37].

**Figure 1.** X-ray diffraction patterns of Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides. (**a**) Fresh and (**b**) thermally active at 400 ◦C.

In Figure 1b, the X-ray diffraction pattern of the layered double hydroxides, calcined at 400 ◦C, is shown. The presence of the crystalline phase of periclase (MgO) can be observed by characteristic signals in the 2θ angles of 36.80 (111), 42.85 (200), and 62.23 (220) (JCPDS-4-0829), showing a tendency to increase the crystallinity with respect to the Mg/Fe ratio. In the case of the solid LDHM1F, it is observed that at 400 ◦C the periclase phase has been formed but with a lower crystallinity, which is attributed to the fact that at these temperatures phase changes have occurred, although a higher temperature is required to favor crystallization. For the LDHM2F and LDHM3F solids, a better definition of the peaks is observed, which is associated with a better crystallinity, attributed to the fact that—having a lower amount of Fe—the MgO is more rapidly segregated. The above is associated with the thermal profile described in the following section, in which, in addition to the crystalline phases of MgO, the spinel phase (MgFe2O4) is segregated, which at 400 ◦C is amorphous. It is not identifiable by XRD.

#### *2.2. Thermal Analysis: DTA and TGA*

Figure 2 shows the differential thermal and thermogravimetric analysis of laminar double hydroxides. In the curve of the DTA (Figure 2a), in all cases an endothermic reaction is observed centered at 145 ◦C and associated with the elimination of interlaminar water molecules, followed by endothermic reactions centered at 290 ◦C and 350 ◦C, due to the dehydroxylation of the sheets and decomposition of the interlaminar carbonate. It can be observed that in the case of solid LDHM1F, the evolution to periclase (MgO) and to amorphous spinel (MgFe2O4) occurs at 330 ◦C. In the case of the solid LDHM2F and LDHM3F, the same profile of thermal decomposition is observed; however, it has a stability up to 350 ◦C, which is attributed to the greater crystallinity that they present as this favors the activation of the catalyst. The reactions associated with the thermal decomposition of LDH are shown in Equations (1)–(3). Thermal reactions of the LDH can be represented as:

$$\rm Mg\_6Fe\_2(OH)\_{16}CO\_3\cdot4H\_2O \rightarrow Mg\_6Fe\_2(OH)\_{16}CO\_3 + 4H\_2O \uparrow \quad 20-220 \, ^\circ C\tag{1}$$

$$\rm Mg\_6Fe\_2(OH)\_{16}CO\_3 \rightarrow Mg\_6Fe\_2O\_8(OH)\_2 + \rm 7H\_2O \uparrow + CO\_2 \uparrow \quad 220-400 \, ^\circ C\tag{2}$$

$$\rm Mg\_6Fe\_2O\_8(OH)\_2 \to MgFe\_2O\_4 + 5MgO + H\_2O \uparrow \quad 400-900 \, ^\circ C\tag{3}$$

Figure 2b shows the weight loss profiles associated with the thermal decomposition of LDH, which are similar for all solids. In the first thermal decomposition reaction the solid LDHM1F reaches a weight loss of 21%, the solid LDHM2F a loss of 12.3%, and the solid LDHM3F a loss of 14.6%, which can be attributed to the desorption of water adsorbed on the porous surface of the solid and the water

occluded in the interlaminar space. The second weight loss is attributed to the partial dehydroxylation of the lamellar structure and the elimination of interlaminar carbonate ions; 16.86% for LDHM1F, 17.7% for LDHM2F, and 19.4% for LDHM3F. Finally, the final weight loss occurs when the solid is dehydroxylated completely, resulting in the collapse of the laminar structure with the subsequent segregation of the oxide phases, with losses of 7.72% for LDHM1F, 6.86% for LDHM2F, and of 9.69% for LDHM3F. The cumulative loss of transition from LDH precursors to the MgO and MgFe2O4 oxides was 45.58%, 36.86%, and 43.69% for LDHM1F, LDHM2F, and LDHM3F, respectively.

**Figure 2.** Thermal analysis of Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides. (**a**) Differential thermal analysis (DTA) and (**b**) thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).

#### *2.3. Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectrocopy (FTIR)*

The FTIR spectra of the LDH calcined at 400 ◦C are shown in Figure 3. The signals are similar for all solids. They present a band centered on 3550 cm−1 that corresponds to the hydrogen bridge vibrations of the OH–OH2 and H2O–OH2 types of the hydroxyl and water molecules remaining. A signal at 1640 cm−1 corresponds to the H–OH vibration of the water. The band at 1360 cm−1 is attributed to the carbonate ions remaining in the structure. The bands in the range of 750 to 500 cm−1 are attributed to the metal-oxygen-metal stretch; specifically, the vibration frequency of 590 cm−1 is attributed to the Fe–OH bond, the band at 630 cm−1 corresponds to the vibration of O–Fe–O, and the band at 648 cm−1 to the Mg–OH vibration.

**Figure 3.** Fourier transformed infrared spectra of activated Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides.

#### *2.4. Textural Analysis*

The N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms of LDH calcined at 400 ◦C are shown in Figure 4, showing that for all cases, type IV isotherms corresponding to mesoporous materials are presented according to the IUPAC classification. The isotherms at high values of relative pressure (P/Po) did not show a horizontal tendency, which indicates that the nitrogen physisorption took place between the aggregates of particles that have a laminar morphology. Complementarily, the hysteresis cycles of the type H3 can be observed, which indicate the presence of pores of asymmetric size and asymmetrical shape.

**Figure 4.** N2 physisorption isotherms of activated Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides.

Table 1 shows the values of the specific areas determined by the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) method for the physisorption isotherms of N2 of activated Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides, as well as the average pore diameter calculated by the Barrett, Joyner, and Halenda (BJH) method and the volume of the pores. It is observed that when the Mg/Fe ratio increases, there is a tendency to decrease the surface area, which is associated with the increase in the crystallinity of the solids and with the respective decrease in the pore size of the solids. The increase of area in the solids is because when the materials are calcined, the double structures collapse, and the pores of the tubular material expand (shape of the isotherm). The LDH with the highest specific area is the HTM1F-400 ◦C catalyst, which reaches specific areas close to 300 m2/g, which will favor the contact area of the photocatalyst with the pollutant.

**Table 1.** Textural properties of activated Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides.

#### *2.5. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS)*

Figure 5 shows the scanning microphotographs of activated layered double hydroxides. In the case of the solids LDHM2F-400 ◦C and LDHM3F-400 ◦C, crystals of heterogeneous size with numerous edges can be observed, in which the structure of stacked sheets can be seen, with crystallinity and very similar particle size, which will favor catalytic capacity for both solids. For the solid LDHM1F-400 ◦C, the morphology looks similar, however, the particles are larger with the formation of aggregates of larger crystals, which hinders access to the active sites of the photocatalyst.

c)

**Figure 5.** Scanning micrograph of activated layered double hydroxides at 5000x. (**a**) LDHM1F-400 ◦C, (**b**) LDHM2F-400 ◦C, (**c**) LDHM3F-400 ◦C.

The elemental composition of the surface of the activated LDH particles is shown in Figure 6, which contains the X-ray scattering energy spectra. As can be seen, the three solids have the same elements: Mg, Fe, and O, corresponding to the MgO and the spinel MgFe2O4, but with different elemental molar ratios. Only in the case of solid LDHM1F-400 ◦C is a small amount of Na present, which was trapped in the LDH network at the time of synthesis. Regarding the metal molar ratio of Mg/Fe on the surface, this was 1, 1.97, and 2.1 for LDHM1F-400 ◦C, LDHM2 F-400 ◦C, and LDHM3F-400 ◦C, respectively, which for the first two solids corresponds to the theoretical molar ratio, while for the third solid a significant decrease of the same is observed.

**Figure 6.** Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy of activated layered double hydroxides at 5000x. (**a**) LDHM1F-400 ◦C, (**b**) LDHM2F-400 ◦C, (**c**) LDHM3F-400 ◦C.

#### *2.6. Di*ff*use Reflectance Spectroscopy (DRS)*

The evaluation of the band gap energy (Eg) for activated LDH was calculated using the Kubelka–Munk equation [F(R) = (1−R)2/2R], where R is the converted reflectance (%) of the UV adsorption spectra, and these are reported in Figure 7. It can be observed that the values increase from 2.28 eV to 2.46 eV as a function of the Mg/Fe ratio, associated with the Fe3+ content. These results show that the content of Fe3+ in activated LDH materials modifies the semiconductor properties of solids due to a decrease in bandgap values by increasing the amount of Fe3+, reaching values lower than 3.20 eV, corresponding to TiO2-P25.

**Figure 7.** UV-vis-KM (Kubelka–Munk Method) spectra of activated Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides.

#### *2.7. Photocatalytic Degradation of 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol*

Figure 8 shows the ultraviolet-visible spectra of the degradation of a solution with a concentration of 80 parts per million (ppm), equivalent to 80 mg/L, of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol as a function of time, using activated LDH catalysts and TiO2 at 400 ◦C as a reference control. The TiO2-P25 catalyst is used as a reference, since at the level of research and industrial application, it is used for the degradation of water polluting compounds due to its excellent stability, non-toxicity, being a semiconductor material with high photo-oxidation power, and low cost [19,36,38]. The 2,4,6-trichlorophenol spectra show three characteristic absorption bands, with the primary transition π→π\* assigned to the aromatic group between 208 and 220 nm, the secondary transition π→π\* at 243 nm due to the aromatic group, and the transition n→π\* that is attributed to the C–Cl link located at 311 nm [33,39]. In the case of activated LDH (Figure 8a–c), it can be observed that as time passes, the intensity of the three bands decreases, which is associated with the degradation of the 2,4,6-trichlorophenol molecule, until the complete disappearance of the bands of the secondary transition π→π\* at 243 nm occurs due to the aromatic group and the transition π→π\* of the C–Cl bond, as well as the decrease until almost the disappearance of the primary transition n→π\* assigned to the aromatic group at 240 min.

**Figure 8.** UV-vis spectra of the photocatalytic degradation of 2,4,6-TCP using Activated Lamellar Double Hydroxides (**a**) LDHM1F-400 ◦C, (**b**) LDHM2F-400 ◦C, (**c**) LDHM3F-400 ◦C, and (**d**) TiO2 positive control.

In the case of the LDHM1F and LDHM2F catalysts, the decrease of the bands is very similar as a function of time, reaching degradation values higher than 90% at 90 min, while the LDHM3F catalyst at 90 min has only about 50% degradation, which is attributed to its band gap values of 2.34 and 2.47 eV. This is favored by the presence of Fe in the catalysts, requiring 240 min to reach values greater than 90% degradation of the entire organochlorine molecule. For TiO2 used as a reference catalyst as a photocatalyst in the degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (Figure 8d), the intensity of the absorbance increases with the irradiation time, which is the opposite of the behavior of activated Mg/Fe LDH catalysts. The increase in the intensity of the signals is because the degradation of TiO2 produces intermediates, which have higher absorptivity coefficients (This coefficient is proportional to the intensity in the absorbance), modifying the characteristic signals of 2,4,6-tetrachlorophenol at 245 and 310.5 nm. The intermediaries that are formed are mainly catechols, as well as benzoquinones and hydroxyquinones; all of them are compounds that preserve the aromatic ring increasing the signals between 200 and 225 nm.

Figure 9 shows the graph of the relative degradation rate of 80 ppm of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol with different catalysts. It can be corroborated that the photocatalysts show a good degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol at 90 min, reaching 93% for LDHM2F-400 ◦C, 92% for LDHM1F-400 ◦C, and 55% for LDHM3F-400 ◦C—values higher than the 18% degradation of TiO2-P25-400 ◦C. For the catalysts LDHM1F-400 ◦C and LDHM2F-400 ◦C, the degradation behavior as a function of time is very similar, only showing a small difference at the beginning of the degradation process, whereas the catalyst of Mg/Fe = 1 ratio at 15 min has degraded the pollutant more quickly, but at 30 min, both catalysts reach the same speed, which at 90 min is slightly higher for the ratio catalyst Mg/Fe = 2.

**Figure 9.** Relative photodegradation rate of 80 ppm of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol.

On the other hand, TiO2 shows zero activity during the first 15 min, and then the degradation of the pollutant begins at a low speed, which allows it to reach 14% degradation at 60 min after the degradation process has begun, and only 18% at 90 min, showing a decrease in rate.

#### *2.8. Kinetic Model Adjustment Study*

Figure 10 shows the adjustment of the kinetic model of the relative degradation rate of 80 ppm of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol with the different catalysts, which corresponds to a pseudo-first-order degradation behavior in all cases—corresponding to the kinetic model of Langmuir–Hinshelwood, which is used to describe many photocatalytic reactions where the rate follows the kinetics of the pseudo-first-order considering steady state conditions [38,40].

**Figure 10.** Pseudo-first-order degradation kinetics for 80 ppm of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol with activated layered double hydroxides and TiO2-P25.

As seen in the Figure 10, the velocity constantly increases when the Mg/Fe molar ratio decreases, which is attributed to the role that Fe3+ plays in decreasing the bandgap value and allowing the photodegradation process to be carried out faster for the catalysts LDHM1F-400 ◦C and LDHM2F-400 ◦C, with the constant of apparent speed greater than 250 × 10−4 min−1 and half-lives of 25 min. These are much higher than those of TiO2 of 51 × 10−4 min−1, with average lifetimes of 136 min.

#### *2.9. Mineralization Study*

The analysis of organic carbon (TOC) is shown in Figure 11, where it can be seen that the degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol reaches values close to 80% for the catalysts LDHM1F-400 ◦C and LDHM2F-400 ◦C, reaching a greater mineralization using the LDHM2F-400 ◦C catalyst at 120 min, with values of 82%, which are higher than those reached by LDHM3F-400 ◦C and TiO2-P25 of 61 and 29% at 120 min, respectively.

**Figure 11.** TOC removal during photodegradation of a 2,4,6-trichlorophenol solution.

Table 2 shows the values of the band gap, apparent speed constant, average flow time, percentage of degradation, and percentage of mineralization of the catalysts used in the degradation of 80 ppm of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol.

**Table 2.** Bandgap energy, specific area, apparent kinetic constant, half-life, percentage of degradation, and percentage of mineralization of activated layered double hydroxides.

As can be seen, the LDHM1F and LDHM2 catalysts have very similar behaviors, however, the LDHM2F catalyst has a greater apparent speed constant, as well as a half-life of less than 25 min, 93% degradation and mineralization of 82%, which is why it can be considered as the catalyst with better photodegradation capacity for 2,4,6-trichlorophenol. This allowed LDHM2F-400 ◦C to be chosen to carry out studies on the possible mechanism of this photocatalytic reaction.

#### *2.10. Detection of Hydroxyl Radicals (OH*•*)*

In order to explore the mechanism of photocatalytic degradation, the possible formation of radicals was analyzed by fluorescence spectroscopy. For the detection of said radicals, coumarin was used as a molecule that captures the hydroxyl radicals, producing the hydroxyproduct 7-hydroxycoumarin [41], as shown in Figure 12.

**Figure 12.** Fluorescence spectra of coumarin employed in the detection of OH• generated by a photocatalyst without air bubbling: (**a**) LDHM2F-400 ◦C and (**b**) TiO2-P25-400 ◦C.

The fluorescence spectra obtained with hydroxycoumarin exhibit a characteristic band of emission between 400 and 600 nm. In the case of the activated LDHM2F catalyst, the intensity of the signal is low, which implies that there is little presence of OH• radicals associated with the scarce formation of these in 60 min of reaction. On the other hand, in the case of the reference catalyst TiO2-P25, an intense band associated with the production of hydroxycoumarin can be observed, due to the ability of the reference catalyst to produce hydroxyl radicals [42,43]. The above suggests that the activated LDHM2F catalyst does not favor the formation of OH• radicals.

#### *2.11. Photocatalytic Evaluation of Superoxide Radicals (O2* −•*)*

As observed in Equation (4), when a semiconductor material is irradiated with energy greater than or equal to that of its forbidden bandwidth, the electrons are photoexcited from the valence band to the conduction band, with the probability of migrating to the surface of the semiconductor and reacting with bubbled oxygen (Equation (5)) during the reaction to produce superoxide radicals, which, like the hydroxyl radicals, have great oxidizing power for degrading the organic compound [44].

$$hh\nu + \text{photocatalyst} \to e^- + h^+ \tag{4}$$

$$O\_2 + e^- \to O\_2^{-\bullet} \tag{5}$$

Using this photocatalytic foundation as a model to determine the formation of superoxide radicals in the process, the UV-Vis spectra were obtained in the photodegradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol. How the process develops in the presence of bubbled oxygen can be compared with a process with an absence of bubbling oxygen, where instead nitrogen gas is emitted, which is inert in the processes of photodegradation [45], as shown in Figure 13.

**Figure 13.** UV-Vis spectra in the photodegradation of 246-trichlorophenol in (**a**) the presence and (**b**) the absence of oxygen.

As can be seen, in the presence of O2 the catalyst shows a good degradation capacity of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, achieving the elimination of the signals of the vibrations of the functional groups C–Cl and C–OH, as well as a decrease of the CC and CH vibrations of the aromatic ring at 240 min. On the other hand, in the presence of N2 it is observed that the catalyst is active in the partial degradation of the 2,4,6-trichlorophenol molecule, showing an almost total decrease of the vibrations of the functional groups C–Cl and C–OH, but only a small decrease in the CC and CH vibrations of the aromatic ring at 240 min.

As seen in Figure 14, the photocatalytic activity decreases by about 35% for the elimination of the OH and Cl functional groups in the absence of bubbled oxygen, according to the values of the apparent kinetic constants. The above confirms that the generation of superoxide radicals is determinant for the elimination of the functional groups, as well as for the degradation of the aromatic ring for the complete photodegradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol. The partial degradation of the 2,4,6-trichlorophenol molecule in the absence of oxygen suggests the participation of photogenerated voids (h+) in the catalyst.

**Figure 14.** Kinetic constants in the photodegradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol in the presence and absence of oxygen.

#### *2.12. Photocatalytic Evaluation of the Hole Trap (h*+*)*

The evaluation of the photocatalytic activity by gauging holes was evaluated using a model molecule of ammonium oxalate as a sacrificial agent [46–49]. Figure 15 shows the UV-Vis absorption spectra of the photodegradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol in the presence of ammonium oxalate with oxygen and nitrogen flow.

**Figure 15.** Absorption of UV-Vis for the photodegradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol in the presence of ammonium oxalate as a hole capture agent: (**a**) in the presence of oxygen; (**b**) in the presence of nitrogen.

According to the adsorption spectra, in the case of the photodegradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol in the presence of oxygen and ammonium oxalate, a reduction in the degradation of both the functional groups and the aromatic ring is observed. This confirms that the gaps that are formed in the LDHM2F-400 ◦C catalyst contribute in a significant way to the catalytic activity. On the other hand, in the case of the process of photodegradation in the absence of oxygen and in the presence of ammonium oxalate, it can be observed that the photodegradation process is completely modified, with the formation of a new band at the center at 275 nm. This is attributed to the formation of intermediaries which are identified by the signal of 2-chlorophenol, as well as a phase shift of the aromatic band attributed to the formation of phenol [27]. The above confirms that the catalytic activity of LDHM2F depends on the presence of voids, as well as the formation of superoxide radicals.

Table 3 shows the comparison of the apparent kinetic constants, percentage of degradation, and percentage of mineralization of the evaluation of the active species involved in the photodegradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol.

**Table 3.** Apparent kinetic constant, percentage of degradation, and percentage of mineralization of activated layered double hydroxides.

The catalytic activity related to the degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol is decreased by more than 50% in the presence of ammonium oxalate and oxygen but is even more decreased in the absence of oxygen. As for mineralization, this is reduced by 77% in the absence of oxygen and in the presence of ammonium oxalate, which confirms that the degradation is partial, with the formation of intermediaries and not until mineralization has occurred. This behavior indicates that both the superoxide radicals and the holes (*h*+) are the determinants, and both species contribute to the mechanism of photodegradation until the mineralization of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol using the LDHM2F-400 ◦C catalyst. The results in Table 3 show that the oxidation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol occurs first in the holes (*h*+) photogenerated in the double-layered hydroxides under reconstruction and subsequently the intermediates are removed by further oxidation with superoxide radicals or other oxygen oxidizing species.

#### *2.13. Possible 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Degradation Mechanisms*

Figure 16 shows a diagram of the proposed mechanism for the degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol based on the properties of the catalysts and the different types of free radicals involved. As could be demonstrated in the fluorescence test for the detection of the generation of superoxide radicals, this is the main route involved in the degradation of the pollutant and, to a lesser extent, the holes. As observed in coumarin tests, photocatalysts do not favor the formation of hydroxyl radicals, so these free radicals do not contribute to the mechanism. Magnesium has a Pauling electronegativity of 1.31 eV and iron of 1.83 eV, so iron has a greater tendency to attract electrons to itself and transfer them to O2 to generate the superoxide radical.

**Figure 16.** Possible routes for the degradation/mineralization of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol by activated layered double hydroxides.

As proposed in the possible degradation routes, this occurs when the activated layered double hydroxides, which are in the form of simple and mixed oxides, meet the aqueous medium with oxygen, which when irradiated produce an excess of electrons in the conduction band and positive gaps in the valence band, as shown in Equation (6).

$$\text{LDPHMF-400}^{\circ}\text{C} + h\text{v} \rightarrow \text{h}^{+} + e^{-} \tag{6}$$

On the other hand, electrons over the conduction band react with molecular oxygen, which acts as an electron acceptor to form superoxide radicals (Equation (7)).

$$\text{e}^- + \text{O}\_2 \rightarrow \text{O}\_2^{-\bullet} \tag{7}$$

The generated superoxide radicals can attack and oxidize 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (Equation (8)).

$$\text{CO}\_2^{-\bullet} + 2.4, \text{6-richoprophenyl} \rightarrow \text{intermediate} \rightarrow \text{CO}\_2 + \text{H}\_2\text{O} \tag{8}$$

The final LDHMF catalytic precursor is recovered thanks to the memory effect, a property characteristic of the laminar double hydroxide materials [50–52]. Said precursor can be reactivated for a second cycle as a catalyst for the degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol.

The degradation to the mineralization takes place thanks to the presence of superoxide radicals accompanied by the holes until the disappearance of the total organic carbon [32,53–56], implying a mechanism in which the superoxide radicals are carrying out the degradation of the aromatic ring simultaneously with the elimination of chlorine, since the formation of monochlorinated intermediates or phenols is not observed by the ultraviolet spectrum.

The catalyst with the highest photocatalytic activity is LDHM2F, whose pore volume value is higher compared to the LDHM1F-400 ◦C and LDHM3F-400 ◦C catalysts. This may indicate that there is enough separation between the laminar structures of the catalysts, promoting an improvement in the transfer of charges (e− and h+) by decreasing the recombination and, therefore, increasing the photocatalytic activity.

In the analysis by SEM, it is observed that the particle size of the LDHM2F-400 ◦C catalysts is lower than that of LDHM1F-400 ◦C, which indicates that, by the synthesis method used, the nucleation is different with the addition of Fe to the LDH. Being smaller particles, a lower percentage of conglomerates is obtained, suggesting that Fe increases directly in the LDH by modifying its electronegativity in such a way that a better transfer of charges is obtained, and with this the photocatalytic activity increases.

The main advantages of the activated layered double hydroxides are that they are not toxic, they can regenerate for continuous use, and they can be synthesized in an easy way, and without needing to be doped.

#### **3. Materials and Methods**

#### *3.1. Obtaining Photocatalysts*

#### 3.1.1. Synthesis of Mg/Fe-Layered Double Hydroxide Catalytic Pre-Cursors of Ratios 1, 2, and 3

Layered double hydroxides with different Mg/Fe molar ratios were obtained by the coprecipitation method. The stoichiometric amounts of magnesium nitrate [Mg (NO3)·6H2O], (Fermont, Lopez Mateos, Mexico), and iron nitrate [Fe (NO3)3·9H2O] (Fermont, Lopez Mateos, Mexico)were dissolved in water and subsequently coprecipitated at a pH of 11.5 with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (Fermont, Lopez Mateos, Mexico). The coprecipitate was left and aged for 24 h, washed until it reached a pH of 9, and dried at 100 ◦C. The materials were identified as LDHM1F, LDHM2F, and LDHM3F, corresponding to the Mg/Fe = 1, 2, and 3 ratios.

#### 3.1.2. Activation of Layered Double Hydroxides

The LDHs that were synthesized were thermally treated at 400 ◦C in an air atmosphere for 4 h for the formation of the mixed Mg/Fe oxides and were identified as LDHM1F-400 ◦C, LDHM2F-400 ◦C, and LDHM3F-400 ◦C.

#### *3.2. Physicochemical Characterization of Catalytic Pre-Cursors and Catalysts*

The materials were characterized by physicochemically fresh and calcined. To corroborate the present crystalline phase, X-ray diffraction was performed on a Siemens D500 powder diffractometer (University of Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico) with CuKα radiation, a graphite crystal monochromator with a step of 2θ equal to 0.02 s−1, and a counting time of 9 s per point. The thermal analyses were carried out in a TA Instruments Thermoanalyzer (University of Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico) at a heating rate of 10 ◦C/min in an air atmosphere, at a speed of 100 mL/min and using α-alumina as a reference. The infrared spectra with Fourier transform were obtained in a Bruker model Tensor 27 Hyperion 7000 (University of Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico) with a resolution of 4 cm−1 and 20 scans, from 400 to 4000 cm−1, and the samples were prepared by dilution with KBr. The nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms were determined in TriStar Micromeritics equipment (University of Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico), with the samples previously dried at 100 ◦ C for 24 h, with a degassing at 150 ◦C, and a vacuum pressure of up to 0.5 mmHg. The BET model was used to obtain the specific area. Scanning electron microscopy analysis was performed on a Seizz 1550VP microscope with field emission, with Oxford EDS equipment (University of Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico) with an opening of 30.0 μm and a width of 3.1 mm. The band gap energy of the photocatalysts was calculated from the ultraviolet absorption spectra coupled with an integrating sphere (diffuse reflectance) in a UV-Vis Recording S UV2401 Shimadzu instrument (University of Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico), and using the Kubelka–Munk theory, which consists of plotting the energy of the photon against the square root of the Kubelka–Munk function multiplied by the energy of the photon and extrapolating the linear part with the abscissa axis.

#### *3.3. Evaluation of the Photocatalytic Activity in the Degradation of 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol*

#### 3.3.1. Degradation of 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol

The photocatalytic degradation capacity of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol using activated LDH was determined under the following conditions: standard 200 ml solution at a concentration of 80 ppm of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), in a Batch reactor at a controlled temperature of 25 ◦C with constant magnetic stirring of 700 rpm, with a flow of air of 2 mL/s and a UV light irradiation of 254 nm, and an emission of 2.5 mW/cm2 generated by a Pen-Ray UV lamp inserted in a tube of quartz. The photoactivity of all materials was determined by using 1 g/L of photocatalyst. To determine the adsorption phenomena effect, the suspension was stirred at 800 rpm under airflow in dark conditions for 1 h; after that, an aliquot was collected, and the reaction was started by turning on the UV lamp that was kept on for 240 min while stirring. Additionally, a sample of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol solution was subjected to photolysis in the absence of any catalyst to determine the effect of the radiation on the contaminant. In addition, for the comparison against a reference photocatalyst, commercial TiO2-P25 was used. In all cases, the process of degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol was monitored using an aliquot sample of the reactor, with the subsequent quantification of this in a UV-Vis Cary 100 spectrophotometer (Metropolitan Autonomous University, Mexico City, Mexico) at a wavelength of 310.5 nm. The aliquots were collected at 15-minute intervals for 240 min, and in order to separate the solid catalyst from the aqueous solution, the aliquots were filtered using a nitrocellulose membrane with a pore size of 0.22 μm (Millipore Corporation, Burlington, Massachusetts, Estados Unidos). The amount of total organic carbon present in the irradiated solution was determined in a TOC-V-CSH/CSN Shimadzu 5000 TOC (Metropolitan Autonomous University, Mexico City, Mexico) to corroborate the degradation of the molecule until mineralization.

#### 3.3.2. Detection of Hydroxyl and Superoxide Radicals and Study of the Hole Trap

A dilute aqueous solution (2 × 10−3 M) of coumarin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) was prepared, in which 200 mL of solution and 200 mg of photocatalyst to be analyzed were poured into a Batch reactor. TiO2-P25 was used as the reference material. As above, the study was carried out in the absence of a photocatalyst (Photolysis) to observe the possible production of hydroxyl radicals with and without a photocatalyst. Once this was done, the solution was irradiated with UV light for 1 h with a Pen-Ray lamp (λ = 254 nm and I0 = 4.4 mWcm−2) under conditions of constant stirring, oxygen bubbling, and temperature (800 rpm, 1 mL/s, and 25 ◦C, respectively), extracting 3 mL aliquots at 10 min intervals. Finally, the fluorescence emission spectra in the irradiated solution were analyzed by photoluminescence in a Fluorescence spectroscopy Scinco FS-2 spectrometer (Metropolitan Autonomous University, Mexico City, Mexico), a wavelength of 320 nm, and the results obtained with the synthesized materials and photolysis were compared with those obtained using the reference solid TiO2-P25.

#### 3.3.3. Photocatalytic Evaluation of Hole Capture with Ammonium Oxalate as a Sacrificial Agent

The photocatalytic reaction was monitored with the material with the highest photodegradation (HTM2F-400 ◦C) in the presence of ammonium oxalate (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), and with oxygen and nitrogen flow. An aqueous solution of 246-TCF at 80 ppm was used, and 1 g/L of the photocatalyst with higher activity and a concentration of 0.004 M of ammonium oxalate were poured into a reactor. The solution was irradiated with UV light, maintaining the conditions of constant stirring, bubbling of nitrogen/oxygen, and temperature (800 rpm, 1 mL/s, and 25 ◦C, respectively), while extracting aliquots of 3 mL to be analyzed by UV-Vis spectroscopy.

#### **4. Conclusions**

The results of the present work show that layered double hydroxides of different Mg/Fe molar ratio can be synthesized by the coprecipitation method, which have a hydrotalcite crystalline structure, and which when calcined at 400 ◦C evolve to a crystalline phase of periclase and an amorphous phase of spinel, with Type IV isotherms characteristic of mesoporous materials and specific areas between 273.9 and 248.9 m2/g. Layered double hydroxides activated at 400 ◦C have Eg values ranging from 2.28 to 2.47, which are lower values than TiO2, so they have better semiconductor properties. These photocatalysts have good photocatalytic activity, with degradation efficiencies for 2,4,6-trichlorophenol of 93% LDHM2F-400 ◦C > 92% LDHM1F-400 ◦C > 55% LDHM3F-400 ◦C > 18% TiO2-P25- 400 ◦C in less than 90 minutes. Therefore, it is concluded that the most active catalysts are LDHM2FI-400 ◦C and LDHM1F-400 ◦C, which present a greater amount of iron in the structure and which reach mineralization values of up to 82%. The degradation mechanism proposed for the photodegradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol considers that the degradation occurs first in the photogenerated holes in the layered double hydroxides under reconstruction and then the intermediates are removed by further oxidation with the superoxide radicals or other oxidizing species of oxygen. These photocatalysts obtained from Mg/Fe layered double hydroxides are promising for the photodegradation of recalcitrant chlorinated compounds.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, E.R.-R. and N.G.-O.; methodology, E.R.-R., H.G.M.-C., and J.C.-R.; software, J.C.-R.; validation, F.T.-M.; formal analysis, F.T.-M., H.G.M.-C., and J.C.-R.; investigation, F.T.-M.; resources, H.G.M.-C.; data curation, N.G.-O.; writing—original draft preparation, E.R.-R.; writing—review and editing, N.G.-O. and E.R.-R.; funding acquisition, E.R.-R.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding. Funding was received from the resources of the University of Guanajuato.

**Acknowledgments:** We would like to especially thank the Directorate for Research and Postgraduate Support (DAIP) at the University of Guanajuato for their support in developing this project. Also, we thank the University of Guanajuato-CONACyT National Laboratory SEM-EDS. Additionally, we thank the CONACyT for the graduate scholarship and UAM-I for technical support.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

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