**5. Planning Jerusalem during the post-1967 epoch**

In mid of the 1960s, regional tensions between Israel and the surrounding Arab countries had raised. The Jewish desire of expanding the Jewish state boundaries fed numerous border clashes. Some Arab countries developed a strategic defense agreement [37], however, Jordan which controlled East Jerusalem and the West Bank at that time, complained about the weakness of strategic Arab support, and asked for Iraqi army support [38]. Egypt carefully monitored the common borders with Israel [39]. On the first of June 1967, Israel formed a National Unity Government, and on the fourth of June decision was made to originate preemptive war. The day after, Israel initiated rigorous large-scale air strikes which marked the official beginning of the Six-Day War against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria.

The war ended rapidly, and Israel got a definitive victory. Dramatic consequences faced the conquered states because of the Israeli occupation of the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, Golan Heights in Syria, East Jerusalem, and the West Bank which were under Jordanian administration, and the Gaza Strip which was under Egyptian control [11]. Indeed, the Israeli occupation policies in Palestine present pressing issues in international law and generate far-reaching consequences in global affairs [40].

Israel annexed illegally 70.5 square kilometers of the occupied Palestinian territory (oPt) including East Jerusalem. The Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem in 1967, marked a significant event in the history of Palestine. It constituted a turning point for Jerusalem, East, and West, as both parts of the city remained under Israeli

#### *Urban Planning and Land-Use Management in Jerusalem – Chronological Analysis: Urban… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112766*

occupation to date. Israel announced the reunification of West and East Jerusalem to be one city administered by a Jewish municipality. Unifying Jerusalem earmarks a great shift in different aspects, mainly shifting from the city level to the district scale. Israel declared unified Jerusalem as its eternal capital through the Basic Law on 30 July 1980. However, this declaration is contrary to international law and thus has not been recognized by most of the international community. Accordingly, most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv. In that sense, international law, resolutions of the United Nations, as well as Israeli-Palestinian signed agreements have been aggressively violated by Israel. Palestinian people underline the Resolution (No. 252) of the United Nations Security Council that condemns illegal land confiscation and refuses all actions that would change the legal status of Jerusalem. The actual status of Jerusalem is debatable and contended to date.

According to international law, namely Fourth Geneva Convention, East Jerusalem represents territory occupied by Israel because of war. As such, Israel must guarantee the rights of the native population, avoid changing the natural demographic composition of the occupied territories, and offer a suitable level of services to native inhabitants. Opposite Israeli actions constantly take place on the ground. In Jerusalem, the Israeli regressive planning has succeeded in imposing dramatic changes in the demographic compositions, physical built-up areas, urban fabric, landscape, boundaries, and legal status. By that, Israel aims at Judaizing the city. Contrary to what Israel is supposed and obliged to do according to international law and conventions, it continues to violate critical articles of the Fourth Geneva Convention such as: Article No. (47) that guarantees to offer the rights of the Convention to the occupied people; Article No. (49) (1) and (6) that prohibit residents' displacement and deportation either individually or massively; Article (53) of the Convention states "Any destruction by the Occupying Power of real or personal property belonging individually or collectively to private persons … is prohibited."; and also Article (147) which forbids unlawful destruction and appropriation of property.

Israel has exceptional unprecedented records of violations of international law, treaties, resolutions, and conventions. Those include but are not limited to: many articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights such as Article (7) denial of equal protection under the law, Article (9) arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile, Article (13) denial of the right to return to one's country, Article (17) arbitrary expropriation of personal property, Article (18) interference with religious worship and observance; resolutions No. (242, 252, 338, 478, besides others) of the United Nations Security Council; the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR); the Hague Convention; the Convention for the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD); the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR); the Convention for the Rights of the Child (CRC); and the Convention for the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDA W).

The available land reserve during the 1960s was almost consumed in the western part of Jerusalem. Hence, vertical development was enhanced rather than horizontal extensions [41]. Accordingly, the lebensraum for West Jerusalem was an irresistible catalyst for the Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem and the West Bank. The urgent need for vacant spaces to serve Jewish settlers played a major factor besides the other political ones that led to the annexation, where a wide range of vacant constructible spaces was available. This facilitates understanding the speed, physical direction, and determination, with which expansion and new construction happened after 1967. All Jewish settlements are illegally constructed and represent a direct violation of international law, and contradict the spatial sustainability and its four-dimensional

aspects [ 42 ], therefore, they aggravate urban conflict and complexify the geopolitical, socioeconomic, and environmental statuses on the ground. Unfortunately, the Jewish settlements degrade the Palestinian environmental profile, they consume wantonly the Palestinian scarce water resources, damage agricultural fields, and Palestinian valleys by discharging excessive quantities of wastewater which pollute surface and groundwater, besides dumping of solid wastes randomly on Palestinian lands [ 43 ].

 A year later to the Israeli occupation of East Jerusalem, the plan of reunified Jerusalem was produced by Hashimshony Master Plan, **Figure 8** . The main purpose of this plan as explained before, was to add extra vacant spaces in the eastern part of Jerusalem, and so to solve the dilemma of limited urban growth in West Jerusalem. The plan achieved that objective supremely, hence it continued to serve as a regulatory plan with more than seven distributed land use categories about to mid-1980s. Jerusalem master plans, before 1967, had generally gained the characteristic of advisory and guidance plans. Whereas those prepared post-1967 period were much more regulatory and detailed plans, schematic town planning and neighborhood schemes witnessed, therefore, profound interest and precise details grounded on quantitative studies and spatial data.

 Analyzing the "post-1967 epoch", would patently reveal that a lot of planning tribulations coupled with the development of Jerusalem, emerged from the geopolitical situation regarding the occupation of East Jerusalem and the adjacent parts of the West Bank. The Jewish desire to control Jerusalem with ultimate political sovereignty

 **Figure 8.**  *Hashimshony Plan 1968 [ 22 ].*

#### *Urban Planning and Land-Use Management in Jerusalem – Chronological Analysis: Urban… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112766*

and demographic dominance, especially in the eastern part of the city, offered a chief influential impact on the normative, rational, development of Jerusalem. The Israeli perception of unified Jerusalem, as the capital of the Jewish state, inflicts planning priorities unfavorable, and inimical, towards the native Palestinian residents. In other words, the chief influential factor in the Israeli planning policies, overriding any: legal, humanitarian, historical, ethical, ecological, and topographical factors, is once more, the subject of "political sovereignty" which represents the ethnical, prejudiced, and demographic sovereignty.

Israeli planning policies in Jerusalem during the post-1967 era have been misused and widely criticized. They offer to the Israeli colonial government effective planning tools and mechanisms, for applying occupational policies and achieving objectives likely to oppose the interests of native Palestinians. Administratively, Jerusalem is unified but develops in two contradictory manners. Jerusalem municipality which has been governed by Jewish administration has set up, and adopted, two paradoxical urban planning approaches: progressive planning of West Jerusalem that responds to the actual and prospective needs of the Jewish residents; and on the other hand, regressive planning of East Jerusalem that restrains the basic needs and the future development of Palestinian residents [14, 22, 44].

Accordingly, intentional prejudiced actions against the Palestinian people continue. Israeli planning policies in Jerusalem, are therefore, inequitable, implicitly biased, and reflect not what they promise to be. Urban planning is used as a tool of control over Palestinians, rather than a tool of constructive change. Control in this context means fostering Jewish demography in Jerusalem to constitute an overwhelming majority to Israelize Jerusalem, overlooking its Arabic authenticity, and in the meantime restraining Palestinians' future development. The Israeli planning policies succeeded to impose new geopolitical, demographical, and physical facts on the ground in annexed East Jerusalem. The Israeli planning laws and regulations in Jerusalem, have been sharply articulated to simplify the process of confiscating Palestinian vacant lands to be used for constructing Jewish settlements and to restrain the growth of Palestinian neighborhoods. The available vacant lands in the Palestinian neighborhoods in East Jerusalem are majorly frozen through the current Israeli zoning and land use laws. Most of those spaces are earmarked as open landscapes, where any kind of development is blocked, and no construction is allowed. As such, Israel used land use planning as a control tool to direct the Palestinian development opportunities in an 'unsustainable' manner [45].

The Israeli discriminatory planning policies have forced Palestinians in Jerusalem to suffer in satisfying their basic needs, and also, limited them to rely on the Israeli system of services which is based on ethnonational affiliation. Jerusalem municipality allocates of the total budget only 10% to services of Palestinians who comprise, more than 30% of the total population. Regressive Israeli planning policies with inevitable adverse consequences against Palestinians continue and involve [46]:

 Jerusalem is planned to grow divergently, forming two comparative images. East Jerusalem represents the first portrayal, where Palestinians live in urban neighborhoods surrounded by illegal Jewish Settlements. While the other one is rendered in West Jerusalem, which is almost purely inhabited by Jewish Israelis, **Figure 9** . Since the

#### **Figure 9.**

 *Urban paradox: Walled spaces and fragmented Palestinian neighborhoods (ghettos) surrounded by Jewish settlements in Jerusalem [ 47 ].*

*Urban Planning and Land-Use Management in Jerusalem – Chronological Analysis: Urban… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112766*

early start of Israeli annexation to East Jerusalem, dominant Jewish politicians insisted to transform the Arabic and Islamic fabric in Jerusalem by fabricating Israeli features. This could be clearly touched in the Jewish political discourses, for instance, during the municipal council meeting held on the thirteenth of August 1967, Rabbi Cohen declared: *"And dare I say frankly that we have to do everything within our power to make Greater Jerusalem the largest Jewish city in the world, a real Jewish city, both in terms of the population numbers and in giving a permanent Jewish character to the whole city"* [48].

The Israeli-biased planning concept was the foundational cornerstone of the political architecture in Jerusalem. It reflects the Israeli determination to Judaize Jerusalem. Political architecture of the city should render in its: physical spaces a Jewish identity, while in its population, the Jewish majority. The influential political dimension demonstrates all other factors included for the future development of Jerusalem. Political architecture is, therefore, a natural output of the governmental plans determined by Israeli decision-makers who seek every single opportunity to achieve considerable political objectives. In that sense, Mordechai Ish-Shalom, former Mayor of Jerusalem, declared: *"What is required - and quickly - is Jews, many Jews in Jerusalem. No, more trickles of immigration"* [48].

Urban planning in conflict areas and contested cities, like the case of Jerusalem, form paradoxical and complex urban planning policies accompanied in most cases, by permanent physical layouts. That is, political architecture spaces, create multiple challenges in different dimensions for the local residents, remarkably when they

The following are the chief adverse impacts on the Palestinians in Jerusalem due to these planning axes:

#### **Table 3.**

*Chief regressive planning axes in Jerusalem (author).*

constitute a group of minorities. Unfortunately, walled and fragmented spaces, are being produced progressively in Jerusalem due to three influential regressive planning axes identified in **Table 3**.

### **6. Conclusion**

Jerusalem has deeply-rooted records of a long history. It has been a focal point of attraction for several universal powers. This was reflected in the city structure and the respective urban fabric. Many distinguished civilizations with variant cultural and religious backgrounds, had not only crossed the city, but also established their cornerstone and inhabited the city successively. However, in terms of the modern notion of urban planning, Jerusalem does not offer extended history in this dimension, but rather it shows very rich and intensive changes in that aspect, especially since the nineteenth century. Within 50 years, 1917–1967, Jerusalem experienced multiple administrative systems. Namely, Ottoman rule, British Mandate, Jordanian administration, and the Israeli occupation, which altogether generated different urban planning regimes. The spatial definition during each administration has changed.

Ottomans ruled Jerusalem for more than four centuries, from 1516 to 1917. At that period Jerusalem underwent an organic growth, and its limits were spatially defined by the Old Walled City. Ottomans did not produce conventional town plans but rather conducted substantial urban renewal for the Old City, public services and infrastructure, and the fascinating encircling walls. By that, Ottomans in Jerusalem adopted an interesting "conservative approach" in their planning perspective. Ottoman rule ended in 1917, after the end of WWI when Jerusalem was captured by the British Army. During the British Mandate period which extended for three decades, from 1917 to 1948, Jerusalem witnessed a new era of modernization, and the first generation of 'conventional urban planning' showed up. The spatial definition of the city expanded to involve the Old City and its adjacent environs. The British planners emphasized the authentic value of the Old City of Jerusalem, they preserved it by encircling it with a green buffer belt to reflect the garden city concept. And so, the British adopted a "romantic planning approach" in Jerusalem and the city flourished and expanded until the termination of the mandate at the end of WWII.

A substantial radical divisional period followed, from 1948 to 1967, when Jerusalem was split into three folds: the Old City, East Jerusalem, and West Jerusalem. At that time, the Old City and East Jerusalem were under Jordanian administration. Unfortunately, Jordanians did not develop any master plan for the city. They replaced some urban British regulations, and they kept Kendal Plan to guide the physical development. As such, Jordanians adopted a "primitive regulatory approach". In the meantime, West Jerusalem was occupied by Israel after the 1948 war, the Israeli government developed several master plans for the city which expanded massively westwards to cope with tremendous numbers of Jewish residents who wanted to settle in the capital of Israel. Hence, the first generation of the 'colonial planning approach' in West Jerusalem appeared.

A wider page of colonial planning in Jerusalem was opened post the 1967 War, when Israel occupied East Jerusalem. Since then, Jerusalem, East and West, were unified and subjected to paradoxical Israeli urban planning policies. Indeed, Israel worked out several master plans for Jerusalem. In areas populated by Jewish, progressive planning policies are being employed to serve the Jewish residents' needs, and to facilitate rapid and massive urban development. On the other hand, in areas


**2.2. Gender roles**

Nama women in the colonial days had important roles such as gathering and collecting food for the entire community, whether they are close knit family or not. The roles of men as hunters were irregular, thus it was important for women to ensure that the family is well taken care of. As revealed by Deacon and Deacon [5], Nama communities attribute women to good happenings; for example – a clear distinction can be made between female and male rain. Female rain is usually gentle and helps plants grow. Male rain is usually destructive and harsh. Another significant celebration on the Nama calendar is the woman's first menstrual cycle. During this celebration which last up to two weeks, in a traditional grass and reed mat house and the youngsters usually sit on an animal skin (see **Figure 1**). Elderly women guide the youngsters about what she is going through and the ceremony concludes with a dance out ceremony attended by local indigenous people.

#### **2.3. The Nama dance**

As stated by Jones [6], despite the colonial influences, the Nama people have declared these performances, known as Namastap (a step dance) which is a symbol of the Nama identity. The Namastap dance is performed at most significant events of the calendar. Social gathering, weddings, birthday parties' forms part of the list. Wedding preparations can last up to 1 year. The couple normally only gets married 6 months or sometimes more after engagement. From an anthropological perspective, issues such as gender relations, the impact of Christianity on the Nama people and the power of colonial influences can be observed in the dance. It is important to mention that during the dance when the foot is lifted away from the central axis,

**Figure 1.** Traditional Nama mat made from Springbok Skin and usual for girls when undergoing womanhood as well as bedding: Photo by: JP Van der Westhuizen.

Empowering Namibian Indigenous People through Entrepreneurship: The Case from the Nama People http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69886 109

**Figure 2.** Nama learners at a school started as a missionary school by Rhenish and AME Churches in Maltahöhe/ Daweb!gaos (Namibia): Photo by: JP Van der Westhuizen.

instead of lifting it away from the ground; they keep contact with it by sliding across its surface. This sliding action is what differentiates the Nama of !Khubus from other Nama groups.

#### **2.4. Church and education**

**2.2. Gender roles**

108 Indigenous People

**2.3. The Nama dance**

bedding: Photo by: JP Van der Westhuizen.

ceremony attended by local indigenous people.

Nama women in the colonial days had important roles such as gathering and collecting food for the entire community, whether they are close knit family or not. The roles of men as hunters were irregular, thus it was important for women to ensure that the family is well taken care of. As revealed by Deacon and Deacon [5], Nama communities attribute women to good happenings; for example – a clear distinction can be made between female and male rain. Female rain is usually gentle and helps plants grow. Male rain is usually destructive and harsh. Another significant celebration on the Nama calendar is the woman's first menstrual cycle. During this celebration which last up to two weeks, in a traditional grass and reed mat house and the youngsters usually sit on an animal skin (see **Figure 1**). Elderly women guide the youngsters about what she is going through and the ceremony concludes with a dance out

As stated by Jones [6], despite the colonial influences, the Nama people have declared these performances, known as Namastap (a step dance) which is a symbol of the Nama identity. The Namastap dance is performed at most significant events of the calendar. Social gathering, weddings, birthday parties' forms part of the list. Wedding preparations can last up to 1 year. The couple normally only gets married 6 months or sometimes more after engagement. From an anthropological perspective, issues such as gender relations, the impact of Christianity on the Nama people and the power of colonial influences can be observed in the dance. It is important to mention that during the dance when the foot is lifted away from the central axis,

**Figure 1.** Traditional Nama mat made from Springbok Skin and usual for girls when undergoing womanhood as well as

Church and education are the two major topics most Nama communities are eager to discuss (see **Figure 2**). These issues impacts their daily lives. Although most Nama's are not professionally trained and highly qualified, going to school and becoming a teacher or nurse is important. Teaching and nursing are one of the most highly respected professions in the Nama culture. Many elders had grown up in a time when church and education were the only ideas transferred to them by the missionaries.


**Roshan Sharma***∗* **and Masoud Karimi-Ghartemani**

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
**\*** Correspondence<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Received:10 January 2020; Accepted: 21 February 2020; Published: 25 February 2020

**Abstract:** At high penetration level of photovoltaic (PV) generators, their abrupt disturbances (caused by moving clouds) cause voltage and frequency perturbations and increase system losses. Meanwhile, the daily irradiation profile increases the slope in the net-load profile, for example, California duck curve, which imposes the challenge of quickly bringing on-line conventional generators in the early evening hours. Accordingly, this paper presents an approach to achieve two objectives: (1) address abrupt disturbances caused by PV generators, and (2) shape the net load profile. The approach is based on employing battery energy storage (BES) systems coupled with PV generators and equipped with proper controls. The proposed BES addresses these two issues by realizing flexible power ramp-up and ramp-down rates by the combined PV and BES. This paper presents the principles, modeling and control design aspects of the proposed system. A hybrid dc/ac study system is simulated and the effectiveness of the proposed BES in reducing the impacts of disturbances on both the dc and ac subsystems is verified. It is then shown that the proposed PV-BES modifies the daily load profile to mitigate the required challenge for quickly bringing on-line synchronous generators.

**Keywords:** PV generator; power ramping; battery energy storage; duck curve; hybrid dc/ac grids


*Salmonella* - Perspectives for Low-Cost Prevention, Control and Treatment

*Edited by Hongsheng Huang and Sohail Naushad*

Published in London, United Kingdom

Salmonella - Perspectives for Low-Cost Prevention, Control and Treatment http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102150 Edited by Hongsheng Huang and Sohail Naushad

#### Contributors

Cornelius Cano Ssemakalu, Manuela Oliveira, João Bettencourt Cota, Madalena Vieira-Pinto, Leonard I. Uzairue, Olufunke B. Shittu, Ruimin Gao, Jasmine Rae Frost, Sohail Naushad, Hongsheng Huang, Dele Ogunremi, Joseph K.N. Kuria, Hongxia Zhao

#### © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2024

The rights of the editor(s) and the author(s) have been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECHOPEN LIMITED. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECHOPEN LIMITED's written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECHOPEN LIMITED rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com).

Violations are liable to prosecution under the governing Copyright Law.

Individual chapters of this publication are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License which permits commercial use, distribution and reproduction of the individual chapters, provided the original author(s) and source publication are appropriately acknowledged. If so indicated, certain images may not be included under the Creative Commons license. In such cases users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. More details and guidelines concerning content reuse and adaptation can be found at http://www.intechopen.com/copyright-policy.html.

#### Notice

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in London, United Kingdom, 2024 by IntechOpen IntechOpen is the global imprint of INTECHOPEN LIMITED, registered in England and Wales, registration number: 11086078, 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Salmonella - Perspectives for Low-Cost Prevention, Control and Treatment Edited by Hongsheng Huang and Sohail Naushad p. cm. Print ISBN 978-1-83962-473-5 Online ISBN 978-1-83962-474-2 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-1-83962-500-8


*Article* **Effects of Nanosilver and Heat Treatment on the Pull-Off Strength of Sealer-Clear Finish in Solid Wood Species**

**Hamid R. Taghiyari 1,\* , Dorina Camelia Ilies 2 , Petar Antov 3,\* , Grama Vasile 2 , Reza Majidinajafabadi 4 and Seng Hua Lee 5,6**

**Abstract:** Pull-off strength is an important property of solid wood, influencing the quality of paints and finishes in the modern furniture industry, as well as in historical furniture and for preservation and restoration of heritage objects. The thermal modification and heat treatment of solid wood have been the most used commercial wood modification techniques over the past decades globally. The effects of heat treatment at two mild temperatures (145 and 185 ◦C) on the pull-off strength of three common solid wood species, i.e., common beech (*Fagus sylvatica* L.), black poplar (*Populus nigra* L.), and silver fir (*Abies alba* Mill.), were studied in the present research work. The specimens were coated with an unpigmented sealer–clear finish based on an organic solvent. The results demonstrated a positive correlation between the density and pull-off strength in the solid wood species. Heat treatment at 145 ◦C resulted in an increase in the pull-off strength in all three species, due to the formation of new bonds in the cell-wall polymers. Thermal degradation of the polymers at 185 ◦C weakened the positive effect of the formation of new bonds, resulting in a largely unchanged pull-off strength in comparison with the control specimens. Impregnation with a silver nano-suspension decreased the pull-off strength in beech specimens. It was concluded that density is the decisive factor in determining the pull-off strength, having a significant positive correlation (R-squared value of 0.89). Heat treatment at lower temperatures is recommended, to increase pull-off strength. Higher temperatures can have a decreasing effect on pull-off strength, due to the thermal degradation of cell-wall polymers.

**Keywords:** coating; heat treatment; nanotechnology; nanosilver; permeability; porous structure; solid wood; thermal modification


**3. Geometry and Reference Cases**

The validation reference case is based on experimental data published in the literature. The experiments were conducted at the "TU - Heat and Mass Transfer Laboratory" at the von Karman Institute in Sint Genesius Rode, Belgium. The flow data are taken from Virgilio et al. [20] and the heat transfer data from Virgilio et al. [21]. For the velocity measurements, a low-speed water tunnel was used. The measurement setup is configured in a way that the pressure at the inlet can be assumed to be constant; for a full optical access, the pipe is made of acrylic glass. Two different helical turbulators are measured, defined as RIB-1 and RIB-2, illustrated in Figure 1. The RIB-1 is the continuous helicoidal turbulator studied by Mayo et al. [17]. These are made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene using a 3D printer. The diameter D of the pipe examined here is 150 mm; in the experiment, the pipe length is 15 × D. The rib pitch *p* corresponds to 63 mm, rib height *e* is 5.4 mm, angle between the axial and helix-wise directions is 80°, and the rib width is 10.8 mm. RIB-2 is different in that the height of the semi-circular rib changes along the helical pattern direction, but the maximum height remains the same for both ribs. After an angular displacement of 11°, this height becomes zero in both directions of the helix. This results in six obstacles on one pitch of the helix, with a total of nine pitches. For RIB-1 and RIB-2, Reynolds numbers of 24,400 and 21,100 have been investigated in the simulation. The stereoscopicv particle image velocimetry (S-PIV) images are taken between the seventh and eighth pitch. Data are only available in the area between the ribs. Liquid Crystals Thermography (LCT) is used to measure the stationary heat transfer. To reduce the angular influence on the measurement inaccuracy, a lately developed calibration technique for the narrow-band LCT was successfully applied. Since the simulations are computationally expensive and RIB-1 has already been examined in detail by Campet et al. [19] and Cauwenberg et al. [18] with an LES, in this article, RIB-2 has been investigated with the use of LES.

**Figure 1.** Schematics of the continuous helicoidal turbulator RIB-1 (**left**) and RIB-2 (**right**) from Virgillio et al. [20].

#### **4. Numerical Methodology**

The accurate calculation of heat transfer in turbulent pipe flow requires a fully developed turbulent flow inside the pipe. Limitations of computational resources did not allow simulations of a long pipe to ensure a fully developed flow. By simulating a small section of a pipe with cyclic boundary conditions at the inlet and outlet, a fully developed turbulent flow could be achieved, if a sufficient number of flow cycles were carried out. Table 1 lists the boundary conditions used, and the schematic illustration is shown in Figure 2. For the calculation, it is necessary to insert a source term for momentum and the energy equation due to the cyclic boundary conditions. This setup is also applied in the studies by

Campet et al. [19], Kügele et al. [25] and Akermann et al. [16]. Second-order methods are used for all discretisations. A Courant number of 0.3 is used for the computation, and, after a quasi-steady state of the flow has set in, the results are averaged over seven cycles as in the study by Campet et al. [19].

**Figure 2.** Schematic representation of the boundary conditions used.

The length of the calculation area is 4 × D. For the cyclical boundary conditions, it must be ensured that inlet and outlet are exactly identical. The mesh without the boundary layers is created with cfMesh; snappyHexMesh is then used to generate the final mesh. The maximum cell size within the geometry is 0.002 mm. Near the wall, the grid resolution is reduced to about 0.0005 mm to be able to better represent the structure of the ribs and to keep the transition between layers and cells small. The number of cells adds up to 23.33 million, with 67% of the cells forming the layers. The total number of layers used is ten, the smallest layer has a height of 0.03116 mm, and the growth rate of the layers is set to 1.2. The influence of the refinement on the wall and the addition of layers can be seen on the inlet and on the ribs in Figure 3. With these techniques, a *y*+ value of less than 0.2 can be achieved. The values for *x*+ and *z*+ correspond to 7, which is sufficient for LES as shown in Akermann et al. [16].

**Figure 3.** Display of the grid with layers at the inlet (**left**) and along the center (**right**) of the rib in RIB-2 geometry.

To ensure a sufficient grid resolution for the LES, the LSR (Length Scale Resolution) parameter is investigated. It corresponds to the ratio between the actually resolved energy level and the corresponding lower limit of the inertial subrange and is defined as:

$$LSR = \frac{\Delta}{60 \cdot \eta\_{\text{kol}}} \tag{6}$$

where Δ corresponds to the grid width. The Kolmogorov length scale is calculated with:

$$
\eta\_{kol} = (\frac{\nu^3}{\epsilon})^{1/4} \tag{7}
$$

$$
\epsilon = \frac{k^{3/2}}{D/6} \tag{8}
$$

and the turbulent kinetic energy *k* is determined using the simulation results. If the value is equal to 1, the turbulent scales are resolved up to the dissipation range. Therefore, a link between resolved energy levels and the local filter sizes can be created [26]. The evaluation in Figure 4 shows that the value is below 1 in all ranges. This ensures that the grid resolution is high enough.

**Figure 4.** Display of the grid with layers at the inlet of the RIB-2 geometry.


**Chapter 16 279**

The Increasing Importance of Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) Investing in Combating Climate Change *by Percy Jinga*

Preface

Environmental management is a term that is very broad in scope and has many definitions. This volume regards management (recognition, analysis, assessments, and actions) taken in response to adverse circumstances with consequences for humans and the things we value. The environmental manager may be any layperson who is negatively affected by environmental degradation or disturbance, or may be the professional scientist, decisionmaker, or agent tasked with solving environmental problems for communities or societies at large. The geographical scale of environmental problems and their management may range from local to regional to global. The temporal nature of the problems may be immediate or long term, or they may be matters that will be of great importance in the future (as are the projected consequences of global warming, such as changing climates; rising seas; reorganized terrestrial, oceanic, and atmospheric circulations; disturbed, degraded, and dying ecosystems; and new patterns of hazards). So, broadly speaking, everyone is an environmental manager at some point in their lives and environmental management is usually an intentional action motivated by self-preservation or

The chapters in this book cover an array of contemporary environmental issues. They have been organized in somewhat general categories based on the foci of the issues: pollution, habitat, ecology, and sustainability. The chapters in the "Pollution" section regard studies and discussions of air pollution monitoring and assessment, groundwater pollution caused by sanitation problems with sewage and landfills, and ocean contamination due to mismanagement of plastic waste. The three chapters included in the "Habitat" section concern challenges posed to habitats of several types of organisms: people (housing comfort based on atmospheric conditions), viruses (mutation in response to habitat stresses), and monkeys (habitat loss due to hunting and deforestation). The chapters grouped under "Ecology" apply ecological analyses to several challenges: sustainable management in a national park, restoration of mining-degraded landscapes, discernment and mapping of soil types, and the economics of cultural ecosystem services. The "Sustainability" section includes chapters that pose questions about sustainability and, ultimately, survival in the contexts of complex landscapes, social systems, and extensive regions: water management for wetlands, flood mitigation, and agriculture in an arable catchment; improvement of the sustainability of water supplies by resurrecting traditional approaches; the implications of plantation agriculture on ecosystem sustainability; and recognition of the roles of environment, society, and governance in the need for countering global warming

and investing in mitigation of climate change impacts.

While the chapters contained in this volume touch on only a few of the pressing matters that are important to environmental managers, they individually provide interesting insights into the problems experienced in diverse settings. From tropical to temperate regions, forests to deserts, wilderness to urbanized landscapes,

personal and collective gains.


**Cochlear Implants in Children: A Review**

Julia Sarant *The University of Melbourne Australia*

#### **1. Introduction**

In 1980, the first child in the world was implanted with the single-channel House cochlear implant device (Eisenberg & House, 1982). Children who initially received cochlear implants during this first paediatric clinical trial were quite old compared to current ages (the average age in the first House clinical trial was 8 years, whereas children are now being implanted as young as 6 months of age), and the majority communicated using sign language (Eisenberg & Johnson, 2008). It is now known that implanting older children who do not communicate orally gives little chance of speech perception or spoken language development. In 1985, the first children received a multichannel cochlear implant in Australia (Clark et al., 1987). This clinical trial selected children who had a higher potential for success, including shorter duration of deafness and a commitment to oral communication both at home and in their educational programs. At this time, it was unknown whether the speech processing schemes used with adults who had lost their hearing after developing language (ie. post-lingually deafened) would be appropriate for facilitating the speech perception and language development of young children with immature auditory systems. It is important also to note that the desired outcomes for adults and children differed; while the goal for adults was to improve auditory skills and communication using previously acquired cognitive, spoken language, and social skills, the goal for children was to develop these skills using the auditory information provided by the cochlear implant, having had no useful auditory experience (and therefore presumably no neural development of their auditory system) until they received their cochlear implant. The implantation of children was also highly controversial. For many years, cochlear implantation in children was opposed by the Deaf Community, on the grounds that deafness in children should be considered as a cultural and linguistic difference rather than as a disability that could be remediated by a cochlear implant. Over time, this view has changed such that in 2000, a position paper of the National Association of the Deaf in the U.S. stated that "cochlear implantation is a technology that represents a tool to be used in some forms of communication, and not a cure for deafness" (National Association of the Deaf, 2000).

It is now well documented that children with severe-profound hearing loss receive significant benefits from cochlear implants in terms of speech perception and language development (Blamey et al., 2006; Geers et al., 2008; Moog, 2002; Nicholas & Geers 2007). Cochlear implants are becoming the standard of care for children with severe-profound hearing loss, with increasing uptake of simultaneous bilateral implants over recent years. There is a large variation in implementation of cochlear implant technology around the

Cochlear Implants in Children: A Review 333

speech perception scores for children with cochlear implants who are matched according to language ability (Blamey & Sarant, 2002). While this approach is helpful for older children with some language ability, it is not suitable for use with very young children whose speech perception, production and language skills are undeveloped, independent of their degree of hearing loss, and for whom, due to behavioural and cognitive developmental issues, it is

Since the 1990's, several researchers have proposed alternate methods of determining suitability for a cochlear implant in children. Osberger et al. (1991) classified children using hearing aids into 'gold', 'silver' and 'bronze' categories, based on their unaided pure tone thresholds (PTA) averaged across 0.5, 1, and 2 kHz. Initially, it was predicted that only children in the 'bronze' category (mean >110dbHL and >110dbHL at two of the three frequencies) were suitable candidates for a cochlear implant. These categories were revised when it became apparent that children with cochlear implants were outperforming not only hearing aid users in the bronze, but also in the silver (mean = 104dbHL and 101-110 dbHL at two of the three frequencies) and gold (mean = 94dbHL and 90-100 dbHL in two of the three frequencies) categories. A further methodology that compared speech perception results for children using hearing aids and cochlear implants in order to determine criteria for suitability used the concept of 'equivalent hearing loss' (EHL). Boothroyd and Eran (1994) compared the abilities of children using hearing aids with those using a cochlear implant on an imitative test of phonetic (speech sound) contrasts, and derived EHL by plotting speech perception results against the three-frequency unaided PTA for each ear. Linear regression statistical analysis was used to transform the speech perception scores of the children into EHL values. Although the EHL for the children using cochlear implants suggested that their potential for speech perception was similar to that of children with a severe hearing loss using hearing aids, there were still children using cochlear implants whose speech perception skills were no better than those of children with a profound hearing loss using hearing aids. In 1997, Boothroyd reported that children with cochlear implants who were educated mostly in oral communicative environments achieved speech perception scores equivalent to those of children using hearing aids with a hearing loss in the 70-89 dbHL (severe) range (Boothroyd, 1997). Similar results have been reported more recently

Throughout the current decade, several studies of large numbers of children with cochlear implants have reported speech perception results that are comparable to those achieved by post-lingually deafened adults using cochlear implants, and even to those achieved by children with a moderate hearing loss using hearing aids (Geers et al., 2003; Svirsky et al., 2004; Tajudeen et al. 2010; Wie et al. 2007). In response to these achievements, the criteria for suitability have again changed such that even very young children with a severe to severeprofound hearing loss are now deemed suitable recipients for cochlear implants, and children with significant, or useable, residual hearing are currently being implanted in centers not under the jurisdiction of the United States FDA (Geers & Moog, 1994; Leigh et al., 2011; Svirsky & Meyer, 1999; Zwolan et al., 1997). Currently, the more conservative FDA guidelines approve cochlear implantation in children aged 12-23 months with bilateral profound sensorineural hearing loss (>90dbHL) and in children aged 2 years and older with severe-profound hearing loss (greater than or equal to 90dBHL in the better

very difficult to assess speech perception ability.

(Davidson, 2006; Eisenberg et al., 2004).

hearing ear).

world, and also within regions in some countries. Bilateral implantation is becoming the standard of care for children in developed countries, such as Germany, England and the United States, while in developing countries it is very infrequent. In less developed countries, many children are still receiving unilateral single-channel cochlear implants, which are cheaper to manufacture, and many are not able to access the technology at all due to high cost. For example, of the estimated 1 million children with profound hearing loss in India, only approximately 5000 are reported to have cochlear implants. It is difficult to estimate how many children worldwide have received cochlear implants to date, as reports vary widely. However, in December 2010, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reported that approximately 219,000 people worldwide had received implants (National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders, 2011). Despite variations in estimates, it is generally accepted that approximately half of the number of cochlear implant recipients are children.

#### **2. Suitability for a cochlear implant**

#### **2.1 Criteria for candidature**

In the early days of cochlear implantation in children, children were only considered as suitable recipients for a cochlear implant when they had no useable aided hearing, and therefore had nothing to lose if the outcome were not good, as cochlear implantation damages the inner ear such that acoustic hearing is not usually possible post-operatively. As technological improvements in electrode design, speech processing strategies, receiver/stimulator design and programming have gradually facilitated improving outcomes with cochlear implants, the clinical perspective has changed.

Determining suitability in children is a more complicated process than it is for post-lingually deafened adults, whose speech production and language skills are fully developed. Whereas for adults it can be assumed that the ability to perceive speech is limited by hearing ability alone, for children, speech perception is limited by language knowledge and speech production skills as well as by residual hearing quality and quantity (DesJardin et al., 2009; Sarant et al., 1997). Unsurprisingly, speech perception scores (obtained from measuring the number of sounds, words, or sentences perceived correctly on a test) in children are more highly correlated with spoken language abilities than with any other factor (Blamey et al., 2001a), and are also influenced by speech production skills (Paatsch et al., 2004). Therefore, basing decisions about cochlear implant candidature for children on speech perception scores alone could risk implanting some children who have sufficient aided hearing to develop spoken language through hearing aids, but who are limited in their speech perception ability by their undeveloped spoken language skills. This risk has increased over time as the age at which children receive cochlear implants has decreased. Further, as speech perception results with cochlear implants have improved, the amount of hearing being risked in order to achieve the potential benefits of a cochlear implant has increased. Given this increasing risk, accurate prediction of a particular child's potential to benefit from a cochlear implant has become even more important.

Blamey and Sarant (2002) proposed a method of combining speech perception and language assessment scores to calculate an objective criterion for cochlear implant suitability, so that a child's pre-operative aided speech perception performance is compared to a distribution of

world, and also within regions in some countries. Bilateral implantation is becoming the standard of care for children in developed countries, such as Germany, England and the United States, while in developing countries it is very infrequent. In less developed countries, many children are still receiving unilateral single-channel cochlear implants, which are cheaper to manufacture, and many are not able to access the technology at all due to high cost. For example, of the estimated 1 million children with profound hearing loss in India, only approximately 5000 are reported to have cochlear implants. It is difficult to estimate how many children worldwide have received cochlear implants to date, as reports vary widely. However, in December 2010, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reported that approximately 219,000 people worldwide had received implants (National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders, 2011). Despite variations in estimates, it is generally accepted that approximately half of the number of cochlear implant

In the early days of cochlear implantation in children, children were only considered as suitable recipients for a cochlear implant when they had no useable aided hearing, and therefore had nothing to lose if the outcome were not good, as cochlear implantation damages the inner ear such that acoustic hearing is not usually possible post-operatively. As technological improvements in electrode design, speech processing strategies, receiver/stimulator design and programming have gradually facilitated improving

Determining suitability in children is a more complicated process than it is for post-lingually deafened adults, whose speech production and language skills are fully developed. Whereas for adults it can be assumed that the ability to perceive speech is limited by hearing ability alone, for children, speech perception is limited by language knowledge and speech production skills as well as by residual hearing quality and quantity (DesJardin et al., 2009; Sarant et al., 1997). Unsurprisingly, speech perception scores (obtained from measuring the number of sounds, words, or sentences perceived correctly on a test) in children are more highly correlated with spoken language abilities than with any other factor (Blamey et al., 2001a), and are also influenced by speech production skills (Paatsch et al., 2004). Therefore, basing decisions about cochlear implant candidature for children on speech perception scores alone could risk implanting some children who have sufficient aided hearing to develop spoken language through hearing aids, but who are limited in their speech perception ability by their undeveloped spoken language skills. This risk has increased over time as the age at which children receive cochlear implants has decreased. Further, as speech perception results with cochlear implants have improved, the amount of hearing being risked in order to achieve the potential benefits of a cochlear implant has increased. Given this increasing risk, accurate prediction of a particular child's potential to benefit from

Blamey and Sarant (2002) proposed a method of combining speech perception and language assessment scores to calculate an objective criterion for cochlear implant suitability, so that a child's pre-operative aided speech perception performance is compared to a distribution of

outcomes with cochlear implants, the clinical perspective has changed.

a cochlear implant has become even more important.

recipients are children.

**2.1 Criteria for candidature**

**2. Suitability for a cochlear implant**

speech perception scores for children with cochlear implants who are matched according to language ability (Blamey & Sarant, 2002). While this approach is helpful for older children with some language ability, it is not suitable for use with very young children whose speech perception, production and language skills are undeveloped, independent of their degree of hearing loss, and for whom, due to behavioural and cognitive developmental issues, it is very difficult to assess speech perception ability.

Since the 1990's, several researchers have proposed alternate methods of determining suitability for a cochlear implant in children. Osberger et al. (1991) classified children using hearing aids into 'gold', 'silver' and 'bronze' categories, based on their unaided pure tone thresholds (PTA) averaged across 0.5, 1, and 2 kHz. Initially, it was predicted that only children in the 'bronze' category (mean >110dbHL and >110dbHL at two of the three frequencies) were suitable candidates for a cochlear implant. These categories were revised when it became apparent that children with cochlear implants were outperforming not only hearing aid users in the bronze, but also in the silver (mean = 104dbHL and 101-110 dbHL at two of the three frequencies) and gold (mean = 94dbHL and 90-100 dbHL in two of the three frequencies) categories. A further methodology that compared speech perception results for children using hearing aids and cochlear implants in order to determine criteria for suitability used the concept of 'equivalent hearing loss' (EHL). Boothroyd and Eran (1994) compared the abilities of children using hearing aids with those using a cochlear implant on an imitative test of phonetic (speech sound) contrasts, and derived EHL by plotting speech perception results against the three-frequency unaided PTA for each ear. Linear regression statistical analysis was used to transform the speech perception scores of the children into EHL values. Although the EHL for the children using cochlear implants suggested that their potential for speech perception was similar to that of children with a severe hearing loss using hearing aids, there were still children using cochlear implants whose speech perception skills were no better than those of children with a profound hearing loss using hearing aids. In 1997, Boothroyd reported that children with cochlear implants who were educated mostly in oral communicative environments achieved speech perception scores equivalent to those of children using hearing aids with a hearing loss in the 70-89 dbHL (severe) range (Boothroyd, 1997). Similar results have been reported more recently (Davidson, 2006; Eisenberg et al., 2004).

Throughout the current decade, several studies of large numbers of children with cochlear implants have reported speech perception results that are comparable to those achieved by post-lingually deafened adults using cochlear implants, and even to those achieved by children with a moderate hearing loss using hearing aids (Geers et al., 2003; Svirsky et al., 2004; Tajudeen et al. 2010; Wie et al. 2007). In response to these achievements, the criteria for suitability have again changed such that even very young children with a severe to severeprofound hearing loss are now deemed suitable recipients for cochlear implants, and children with significant, or useable, residual hearing are currently being implanted in centers not under the jurisdiction of the United States FDA (Geers & Moog, 1994; Leigh et al., 2011; Svirsky & Meyer, 1999; Zwolan et al., 1997). Currently, the more conservative FDA guidelines approve cochlear implantation in children aged 12-23 months with bilateral profound sensorineural hearing loss (>90dbHL) and in children aged 2 years and older with severe-profound hearing loss (greater than or equal to 90dBHL in the better hearing ear).

Cochlear Implants in Children: A Review 335

aspects of each disability and its impact on communication development after implantation

The few studies of children with cochlear implants and additional disabilities have generally reported poorer performance on speech perception, production and language assessments, particularly when higher level speech processing abilities are required. For example, in one of the first studies of these children, (Pyman et al., 2000) found that although 90% of 75 children with motor and/or cognitive delays could discriminate consonants and vowels after four years of cochlear implant use, only around 60% of the children were able to use this information to perceive open-set sentences (those presented with no context), compared to over 80% of children without additional disabilities. Similarly, a further study of children with a variety of disabilities, such as attention-deficit disorder, cerebral palsy, central auditory processing disorder, dyspraxia and autism, showed some speech perception skill development at a slower rate than for the general population (Waltzman et al., 2000). Children whose additional disability is mild can derive significant benefit from cochlear implants, whereas children with more severe disabilities have much less favourable outcomes, with some showing almost no progress (Edwards, Frost & Witham, 2006; Filipo et al., 2004; Hamzavi et al., 2000; Holt & Kirk, 2005; Meinzen-Derr et al., 2011; Vlahovic & Sindija, 2004). Most studies have highlighted that children with additional disabilities require longer periods of implant use before demonstrating any benefit, and as for children in the general cochlear implant population, variation in outcomes is wide for children with additional disabilities (Hamzavi et al., 2000; Waltzman et al., 2000). It was reported for some children that the assessment tasks were too difficult to complete (Donaldson et al., 2004; Waltzman et al., 2000), which is a factor that has added to the difficulty of determining

Children with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) have historically been considered poor cochlear implant candidates, but as the age at which children are being implanted has decreased, there are now a number of children who have been implanted before their diagnosis of ASD. The single published study of progress in a group of children with ASD reported that smaller gains on tests of speech perception and language had been made in comparison to those reported for the cochlear implant general population, but that parent reports suggested positive improvements in their children's functioning and responsiveness

In summary, although the degree of benefit obtained from cochlear implants is often lower for children with additional disabilities, many children still receive measurable benefit from their devices, and this benefit adds to their quality of life. Some of the observed benefits cannot be quantified on standardised tests, and have been instead reported anecdotally, with observations of improvements in social interaction and responsiveness to the environment, behaviour, vocalization, self-help skills, motor skills and the ability to follow instructions (Donaldson et al., 2004; Filipo et al., 2004; Fukuda et al., 2003; Waltzman et al., 2000; Wiley et al., 2005). There is still a need to determine the impact of additional disabilities on post-operative benefit with cochlear implants, and to define more clearly what benefits might reasonably be expected for children with different additional disabilities. The point at which a cochlear implant will not be beneficial also needs to be determined with regard to the degree of severity of additional disabilities, and the definition of benefit should be carefully explored, with improved psychological well-being, children's

has been difficult.

outcomes for this population.

(Donaldson et al., 2004).

The introduction of neonatal hearing screening programs in developed countries over the past decade has meant that hearing loss is now identified in babies as young as a few days or months old, and there is earlier referral and diagnosis than ever before (Dalzell, 2000; White & Maxon, 1995; Yoshinaga-Itano, 2003a). Very young infants and toddlers now represent the majority of paediatric cochlear implant candidates in these countries, and for these children, decisions about candidacy must currently be based solely or primarily on audiometric information if cochlear implants are to be given early, as there are limited tools available to measure speech perception or language abilities in this age group. The audiometric information is usually objective data obtained from the transient evoked auditory brainstem response (ABR) used in hearing screening, otoacoustic emissions, or auditory steady state responses (ASSR). These results may be combined with behavioural data derived from testing conducted by audiologists, depending on the protocol of individual cochlear implant programs. Most recently, an "equivalent PTA" model was derived to be applied to audiometric data for very young children from a comparison of the open-set speech perception scores of preschool and elementary school-aged children using cochlear implants and hearing aids. The model gives equivalent PTA for a 75% through to 95% chance of improvement in speech perception outcomes in 5% steps. Using a less conservative 75% chance of improvement criterion (as opposed to the 95% criterion that has until now been applied), the model recommends that children with bilateral profound hearing loss through to children with unaided pure tone average thresholds of 75 to 90 dBHL are suitable recipients for cochlear implants, while children with lesser hearing loss than 75dbHL are encouraged to continue with hearing aid use (Leigh et al., 2011).

#### **2.2 Children with additional disabilities: Implications for candidacy**

It is well established that 30-40% of children with severe-profound hearing loss also have an additional physical and/or cognitive disability, such as visual impairment, cognitive impairment, learning disabilities, autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) or developmental delay (Archbold & O'Donoghue, 2009; Edwards, 2007; Holt et al., 2005). Often, the additional disability is related to the cause of deafness, and is part of a syndrome or other grouping of disabilities. Children with additional disabilities present a further challenge with regard to determining suitability for cochlear implants, because the degree of benefit derived by the 'average' child with hearing loss is unlikely to be experienced by these children due to the effects of their additional disabilities. For this reason, children with additional disabilities were not considered suitable cochlear implant candidates for many years. Although excluded from FDA clinical trials in the past (Holt et al., 2005), small numbers of children with additional disabilities have received cochlear implants. Little is known about the degree of benefit children with hearing loss and additional disabilities derive from cochlear implants with regard to speech perception and spoken language development, for several reasons. Firstly, much of the research effort around cochlear implants has been directed at identifying outcomes and predictive factors for the majority of children with cochlear implants who do not have additional disabilities. Secondly, due to the fact that there are smaller numbers of children with additional disabilities, and many are unable to complete standardised assessment procedures, quantitative analysis of outcomes has been difficult. A further challenge is that there are a large number of additional disabilities spread across a relatively small population of children, therefore obtaining sufficient numbers to define the

The introduction of neonatal hearing screening programs in developed countries over the past decade has meant that hearing loss is now identified in babies as young as a few days or months old, and there is earlier referral and diagnosis than ever before (Dalzell, 2000; White & Maxon, 1995; Yoshinaga-Itano, 2003a). Very young infants and toddlers now represent the majority of paediatric cochlear implant candidates in these countries, and for these children, decisions about candidacy must currently be based solely or primarily on audiometric information if cochlear implants are to be given early, as there are limited tools available to measure speech perception or language abilities in this age group. The audiometric information is usually objective data obtained from the transient evoked auditory brainstem response (ABR) used in hearing screening, otoacoustic emissions, or auditory steady state responses (ASSR). These results may be combined with behavioural data derived from testing conducted by audiologists, depending on the protocol of individual cochlear implant programs. Most recently, an "equivalent PTA" model was derived to be applied to audiometric data for very young children from a comparison of the open-set speech perception scores of preschool and elementary school-aged children using cochlear implants and hearing aids. The model gives equivalent PTA for a 75% through to 95% chance of improvement in speech perception outcomes in 5% steps. Using a less conservative 75% chance of improvement criterion (as opposed to the 95% criterion that has until now been applied), the model recommends that children with bilateral profound hearing loss through to children with unaided pure tone average thresholds of 75 to 90 dBHL are suitable recipients for cochlear implants, while children with lesser hearing loss

than 75dbHL are encouraged to continue with hearing aid use (Leigh et al., 2011).

It is well established that 30-40% of children with severe-profound hearing loss also have an additional physical and/or cognitive disability, such as visual impairment, cognitive impairment, learning disabilities, autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) or developmental delay (Archbold & O'Donoghue, 2009; Edwards, 2007; Holt et al., 2005). Often, the additional disability is related to the cause of deafness, and is part of a syndrome or other grouping of disabilities. Children with additional disabilities present a further challenge with regard to determining suitability for cochlear implants, because the degree of benefit derived by the 'average' child with hearing loss is unlikely to be experienced by these children due to the effects of their additional disabilities. For this reason, children with additional disabilities were not considered suitable cochlear implant candidates for many years. Although excluded from FDA clinical trials in the past (Holt et al., 2005), small numbers of children with additional disabilities have received cochlear implants. Little is known about the degree of benefit children with hearing loss and additional disabilities derive from cochlear implants with regard to speech perception and spoken language development, for several reasons. Firstly, much of the research effort around cochlear implants has been directed at identifying outcomes and predictive factors for the majority of children with cochlear implants who do not have additional disabilities. Secondly, due to the fact that there are smaller numbers of children with additional disabilities, and many are unable to complete standardised assessment procedures, quantitative analysis of outcomes has been difficult. A further challenge is that there are a large number of additional disabilities spread across a relatively small population of children, therefore obtaining sufficient numbers to define the

**2.2 Children with additional disabilities: Implications for candidacy**

aspects of each disability and its impact on communication development after implantation has been difficult.

The few studies of children with cochlear implants and additional disabilities have generally reported poorer performance on speech perception, production and language assessments, particularly when higher level speech processing abilities are required. For example, in one of the first studies of these children, (Pyman et al., 2000) found that although 90% of 75 children with motor and/or cognitive delays could discriminate consonants and vowels after four years of cochlear implant use, only around 60% of the children were able to use this information to perceive open-set sentences (those presented with no context), compared to over 80% of children without additional disabilities. Similarly, a further study of children with a variety of disabilities, such as attention-deficit disorder, cerebral palsy, central auditory processing disorder, dyspraxia and autism, showed some speech perception skill development at a slower rate than for the general population (Waltzman et al., 2000). Children whose additional disability is mild can derive significant benefit from cochlear implants, whereas children with more severe disabilities have much less favourable outcomes, with some showing almost no progress (Edwards, Frost & Witham, 2006; Filipo et al., 2004; Hamzavi et al., 2000; Holt & Kirk, 2005; Meinzen-Derr et al., 2011; Vlahovic & Sindija, 2004). Most studies have highlighted that children with additional disabilities require longer periods of implant use before demonstrating any benefit, and as for children in the general cochlear implant population, variation in outcomes is wide for children with additional disabilities (Hamzavi et al., 2000; Waltzman et al., 2000). It was reported for some children that the assessment tasks were too difficult to complete (Donaldson et al., 2004; Waltzman et al., 2000), which is a factor that has added to the difficulty of determining outcomes for this population.

Children with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) have historically been considered poor cochlear implant candidates, but as the age at which children are being implanted has decreased, there are now a number of children who have been implanted before their diagnosis of ASD. The single published study of progress in a group of children with ASD reported that smaller gains on tests of speech perception and language had been made in comparison to those reported for the cochlear implant general population, but that parent reports suggested positive improvements in their children's functioning and responsiveness (Donaldson et al., 2004).

In summary, although the degree of benefit obtained from cochlear implants is often lower for children with additional disabilities, many children still receive measurable benefit from their devices, and this benefit adds to their quality of life. Some of the observed benefits cannot be quantified on standardised tests, and have been instead reported anecdotally, with observations of improvements in social interaction and responsiveness to the environment, behaviour, vocalization, self-help skills, motor skills and the ability to follow instructions (Donaldson et al., 2004; Filipo et al., 2004; Fukuda et al., 2003; Waltzman et al., 2000; Wiley et al., 2005). There is still a need to determine the impact of additional disabilities on post-operative benefit with cochlear implants, and to define more clearly what benefits might reasonably be expected for children with different additional disabilities. The point at which a cochlear implant will not be beneficial also needs to be determined with regard to the degree of severity of additional disabilities, and the definition of benefit should be carefully explored, with improved psychological well-being, children's

Cochlear Implants in Children: A Review 337

connecting and communicating with the world, so it is very important that these children are diagnosed and receive their cochlear implants early in order to establish communication through audition prior to the loss of vision. Usher syndrome is one of the 20% of causes of deafness that involve abnormalities in cochlea-vestibular anatomy. These abnormalities increase the potential for surgical difficulties and complications, such as damage to the facial nerve and incomplete insertion of the implant electrode array in the cochlea (Bauer et al.,

Some other children with congenital deafness also have cochlear abnormalities, often due to a range of genetic causes, another of which is CHARGE syndrome. Children with this rare genetic syndrome have deafness, visual problems, and a variety of other physical abnormalities, including serious heart defects, colobomas (or holes) in one or both eyes, growth retardation, genital abnormalities and external and internal ear malformations. Anatomical abnormalities in the structure of the cochlea can also create difficulties for programming, with reduced dynamic ranges for children with more severe cochlear abnormalities (Papsin, 2005). For these reasons, malformation of the cochlea was considered a contra-indication to cochlear implant surgery in the early years of cochlear implantation in children, and it is still not possible to implant some of these children (Bamiou et al., 2001). Despite these difficulties, initial results for small numbers of children with cochlear anomalies have shown that implantation is possible, with some children achieving speech perception and language results similar to those without anatomical abnormalities (Chadha et al., 2009; Dettman et al., 2011). Children with a common cavity anomaly (a single cavity in the cochlea) and other more severe syndromic anomalies have achieved much poorer results (Bauer et al.,

2002; Chadha et al., 2009; Lanson et al., 2007; Loundon et al., 2003; Young et al., 1995).

Children with viral causes of deafness such as rubella, cytomegalovirus (CMV), toxoplasmosis and meningitis also require special consideration, as these viruses can cause developmental neurological deficits, including learning and cognitive difficulties (Edwards, 2007; Grimwood et al., 2000; Isaacson et al., 1996). A significant difference between children with deafness caused by meningitis and that caused by the other viruses is that while CMV, toxoplasmosis and rubella are contracted perinatally, children who have had meningitis will have experienced sound prior to infection and may have developed some spoken language skills. A further complication of meningitis is ossification (bone growth) within the cochlea, which is usually bilateral and can commence within four weeks of the illness (Durisin et al., 2010). This makes it imperative that children who have had meningitis are diagnosed with hearing loss and receive cochlear implants as soon as possible, before ossification limits both the potential for a full insertion and for benefit. Again, limited reports of post-operative benefit for children with these causes of deafness show a wide range of speech perception skills, intelligibility and language outcomes, with some children doing well (Francis et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2005) and others doing poorly (Isaacson et al., 1996; Ramirez Inscoe &

At the most basic level, cochlear implants provide children with an auditory awareness of their environment. Through their cochlear implant, children can hear many environmental

2002; Chadha et al., 2009).

Nikolopoulos, 2004; Wie et al., 2007).

**3.1 Environmental awareness**

**3. Benefits of unilateral cochlear implants**

maximum potential, and quality of life being taken into consideration in addition to quantitative outcomes on tests.

#### **2.3 Candidacy and selected aetiologies/pathologies of deafness**

A further group of children for whom candidacy issues are more complex are those with selected pathologies that not only cause severe-profound hearing loss but may also impact on outcomes with cochlear implants. Although there are many such pathologies, the most common of these will be discussed as examples of the impact aetiology, or cause of hearing loss, may have on post-implantation outcomes.

In the 1990's, auditory neuropathy (AN) was defined as a distinct type of hearing disorder that disrupts neural activity in the central and peripheral auditory pathways (Starr et al., 1996). Auditory neuropathy is characterised by normal outer hair cell function in the cochlea (which enables many babies to pass newborn hearing screening if otoacoustic emission testing is used), and a retro cochlear lesion (dysfunction in the inner hair cells or auditory [eighth] nerve), which manifests as an absent or abnormal response to auditory brainstem response (ABR) testing.  This pathology affects approximately 0.23% of at-risk children (Rance et al., 1999). Given the unusual pattern of perceptual deficits that characterises AN, much of the research in this area has focused on whether or not a cochlear implant can assist these children to understand speech through their hearing. The few published investigations on speech perception have varied widely, reporting no benefit (Miyamoto et al., 1999; Teagle et al., 2010) through to benefit comparable to that received by the general population of children with cochlear implants (Buss et al., 2002; Peterson et al., 2003; Rance & Barker, 2008; Trautwein et al., 2000). For the children who demonstrated significant benefit, it was noted that electrical stimulation via the cochlear implant elicited ABR responses, which suggests that the implant was able to enable greater neural synchrony and therefore to overcome the desynchronization thought to underlie AN. Studies of language and speech production outcomes for these children are again limited, and results are similar to those for speech perception, with wide variation in outcomes, but also with some children demonstrating the same level of development as the general population of children with cochlear implants (Jeong et al., 2007; Madden, 2002; Rance et al., 2007). For parents of children with this pathology, there is reasonable evidence to suggest that children may benefit from a cochlear implant, although expectations may need to be lower than for the general population of children with sensorineural hearing loss.

Usher syndrome is the most common condition that affects both hearing and vision, and its major symptoms are congenital or progressive deafness resulting in severe-profound hearing loss, and progressive loss of vision due to retinitis pigmentosa, an eye disorder which causes night blindness and a loss of peripheral vision. Many children with Usher syndrome also have significant balance problems, which can delay walking in very young children. Approximately 6-12% of children with hearing loss, or 4 in every 100,000 births in the United States (Boughman et al., 1983) and 6 per 100,000 births in England (Hope et al., 1997) have Usher Syndrome, which is a genetic condition. Once children have lost their vision, the auditory information provided by a cochlear implant is their only means of

maximum potential, and quality of life being taken into consideration in addition to

A further group of children for whom candidacy issues are more complex are those with selected pathologies that not only cause severe-profound hearing loss but may also impact on outcomes with cochlear implants. Although there are many such pathologies, the most common of these will be discussed as examples of the impact aetiology, or cause of hearing

In the 1990's, auditory neuropathy (AN) was defined as a distinct type of hearing disorder that disrupts neural activity in the central and peripheral auditory pathways (Starr et al., 1996). Auditory neuropathy is characterised by normal outer hair cell function in the cochlea (which enables many babies to pass newborn hearing screening if otoacoustic emission testing is used), and a retro cochlear lesion (dysfunction in the inner hair cells or auditory [eighth] nerve), which manifests as an absent or abnormal response to auditory brainstem response (ABR) testing.  This pathology affects approximately 0.23% of at-risk children (Rance et al., 1999). Given the unusual pattern of perceptual deficits that characterises AN, much of the research in this area has focused on whether or not a cochlear implant can assist these children to understand speech through their hearing. The few published investigations on speech perception have varied widely, reporting no benefit (Miyamoto et al., 1999; Teagle et al., 2010) through to benefit comparable to that received by the general population of children with cochlear implants (Buss et al., 2002; Peterson et al., 2003; Rance & Barker, 2008; Trautwein et al., 2000). For the children who demonstrated significant benefit, it was noted that electrical stimulation via the cochlear implant elicited ABR responses, which suggests that the implant was able to enable greater neural synchrony and therefore to overcome the desynchronization thought to underlie AN. Studies of language and speech production outcomes for these children are again limited, and results are similar to those for speech perception, with wide variation in outcomes, but also with some children demonstrating the same level of development as the general population of children with cochlear implants (Jeong et al., 2007; Madden, 2002; Rance et al., 2007). For parents of children with this pathology, there is reasonable evidence to suggest that children may benefit from a cochlear implant, although expectations may need to be lower than for the general population of children with sensorineural hearing loss. Usher syndrome is the most common condition that affects both hearing and vision, and its major symptoms are congenital or progressive deafness resulting in severe-profound hearing loss, and progressive loss of vision due to retinitis pigmentosa, an eye disorder which causes night blindness and a loss of peripheral vision. Many children with Usher syndrome also have significant balance problems, which can delay walking in very young children. Approximately 6-12% of children with hearing loss, or 4 in every 100,000 births in the United States (Boughman et al., 1983) and 6 per 100,000 births in England (Hope et al., 1997) have Usher Syndrome, which is a genetic condition. Once children have lost their vision, the auditory information provided by a cochlear implant is their only means of

**2.3 Candidacy and selected aetiologies/pathologies of deafness**

quantitative outcomes on tests.

loss, may have on post-implantation outcomes.

connecting and communicating with the world, so it is very important that these children are diagnosed and receive their cochlear implants early in order to establish communication through audition prior to the loss of vision. Usher syndrome is one of the 20% of causes of deafness that involve abnormalities in cochlea-vestibular anatomy. These abnormalities increase the potential for surgical difficulties and complications, such as damage to the facial nerve and incomplete insertion of the implant electrode array in the cochlea (Bauer et al., 2002; Chadha et al., 2009).

Some other children with congenital deafness also have cochlear abnormalities, often due to a range of genetic causes, another of which is CHARGE syndrome. Children with this rare genetic syndrome have deafness, visual problems, and a variety of other physical abnormalities, including serious heart defects, colobomas (or holes) in one or both eyes, growth retardation, genital abnormalities and external and internal ear malformations. Anatomical abnormalities in the structure of the cochlea can also create difficulties for programming, with reduced dynamic ranges for children with more severe cochlear abnormalities (Papsin, 2005). For these reasons, malformation of the cochlea was considered a contra-indication to cochlear implant surgery in the early years of cochlear implantation in children, and it is still not possible to implant some of these children (Bamiou et al., 2001). Despite these difficulties, initial results for small numbers of children with cochlear anomalies have shown that implantation is possible, with some children achieving speech perception and language results similar to those without anatomical abnormalities (Chadha et al., 2009; Dettman et al., 2011). Children with a common cavity anomaly (a single cavity in the cochlea) and other more severe syndromic anomalies have achieved much poorer results (Bauer et al., 2002; Chadha et al., 2009; Lanson et al., 2007; Loundon et al., 2003; Young et al., 1995).

Children with viral causes of deafness such as rubella, cytomegalovirus (CMV), toxoplasmosis and meningitis also require special consideration, as these viruses can cause developmental neurological deficits, including learning and cognitive difficulties (Edwards, 2007; Grimwood et al., 2000; Isaacson et al., 1996). A significant difference between children with deafness caused by meningitis and that caused by the other viruses is that while CMV, toxoplasmosis and rubella are contracted perinatally, children who have had meningitis will have experienced sound prior to infection and may have developed some spoken language skills. A further complication of meningitis is ossification (bone growth) within the cochlea, which is usually bilateral and can commence within four weeks of the illness (Durisin et al., 2010). This makes it imperative that children who have had meningitis are diagnosed with hearing loss and receive cochlear implants as soon as possible, before ossification limits both the potential for a full insertion and for benefit. Again, limited reports of post-operative benefit for children with these causes of deafness show a wide range of speech perception skills, intelligibility and language outcomes, with some children doing well (Francis et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2005) and others doing poorly (Isaacson et al., 1996; Ramirez Inscoe & Nikolopoulos, 2004; Wie et al., 2007).


**5. Genetic variations of areca plants in Indonesia and resistance to pathogens**

Diseases of areca nut attack the vegetative and generative organs. Vegetative organs that are the target of disease-causing pathogens include roots, stems, and leaves. Meanwhile, generative organs such as seeds, fruits, and flowers cannot be separated from the attack of pathogenic infections (**Table 1**).

#### **Table 1.**

*Areca nut varieties in Indonesia.*

New varieties are obtained from studying genetic diversity. One way to determine the diversity of a betel nut species is based on differences in morphological characteristics (either qualitatively or quantitatively) which are directly related to fruit production. Genetic diversity can be obtained by crossing, introduction, mutation, and selection of genetic sources. Selection based on morphological characters is a method that is often done. The selection was made on the morphological characteristics of the areca nut that were directly related to fruit production, namely the number of bunches, the number of fruit marks, and the number of spikelets [22]. Some of the morphological characteristics of areca nut that are often observed in genetic diversity research include stem height, stem circumference, number of leaf marks, number of leaves, number of bunches, number of fruit per bunches, whole fruit weight, fruit polar length, fruit equatorial length, fruit kernel weight, kernel polar length and kernel equatorial length [23]. One of the Pinang varieties in Indonesia which is classified as a superior variety is Pinang Betara. This variety received a recommendation from the government in the Decree of the Minister of Agriculture No. 199/Kpts/SR.120/1/2013. The characteristics of Pinang Betara include 1) dry kernel production/tree/year 5.70 kg, stem height reaches 10 meters, has 131.35 fruit/bunch, whole fruit weight is 47.06 grams, dry seed weight is 8.68 grams, high 9.79% tannin, has a dry kernel potential of 7.81 tons/hectare (**Figure 11**) [24].

The incidence of root rot can be caused by plant genetic factors so that the resistance response of each plant variety can be different [25]. Different genetic factors between plant varieties are derived from different inherited genes. Each variety has a different resistance to *S. rolfsii* fungus attack. The resistance properties found in each of these varieties are coded for resistance genes to fight pathogens. In other words, the resistance control genes possessed by each variety are different [26]. The Character of resistance to *Fusarium* sp. wilt disease. Judged by several things: 1) disease period value (day after inoculation), 2) disease incidence (%) and 3) endurance category (units/day). According to this study, a longer incubation period correlates with lower disease incidence and slower infection rates [27].

#### **Figure 11.**

*Several varieties of areca nut in Indonesia, from Sumatra Island: (A) Pinang Wangi, (B) Pinang lokal [23], (C) Pinang Betara [22], from Sulawesi island: (D) Pinang Duhia Da'a-Gorontalo, Tingkohubu, Huntu I, Huntu II, Huntu III [19].*

### **6. Conclusion**

Diseases in plants can be caused by an imbalance of environmental conditions, pathogens with high pathogenicity, and susceptible hosts. These three factors trigger disease severity in plants. This paper describes sixteen diseases in areca nut caused by the presence of pathogens, infection cycle and chain, plant defense response, as well as genetic variation affects plant resistance to pathogens.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The author would like to thank the head of the biology department, the Dean of the Faculty of Science and Technology, and The Rector of Universitas Islam Negeri Ar-Raniry Banda Aceh, Indonesia who has allowed the author to contribute to this chapter of the book.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Plant Diseases of Areca Nut DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107504*


**2. Golf injury incidence**

Increased participation, just short of a million people play golf twice a month in England for the past 5 years [6] has resulted in increased injury rates more

#### *Leading Wrist Injuries in a Golfing Population. Golf Swing Biomechanics a Significant Cause… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96979*

frequently in elite golfers. [7] Annual Injury incidences of between 2 and 4% are reported among golfers. Put more simply a golfer can expect to sustain an injury for every 100 hours of golf participation with an overall incidence rate of injury of 15.8 injuries per 100 golfers and with a range of 0.36 to 0.60 injuries per 1,000 hours per person. 46.2% of injuries are reportedly sustained during the golf swing, and injury is most likely to occur at the point of ball impact (23.7%) [8]. Golf carries a significant injury rate with levels exceeding other non- contact sports. Perhaps golf is in fact a contact sport, with contact being made with turf and ball through a metal implement, frequently in a ferocious and repetitive manner.

There is a significant variation in the incidence and type of injury suffered by amateur or recreational golfers in comparison to their professional counterparts. In a review of over a thousand amateur golfers, the survey confirmed that more than 60% of amateur golfers sustained one or more golf related injuries over the course of their playing career. The injury rate was higher in the over 50 year old amateur with a 65% injury rate in comparison to the under 50 group, which had an injury incidence of 58% [9]. There was a slightly higher incidence of injury at 67.5% among single figure handicappers rather than their double-digit colleagues. A typical injury resulted in the amateur golfer missing five weeks of playing time [5–7].

More than 80% of professional golfers report a golf-related injury at some point in their career. It is estimated that between 10% and 33% of professional golfers are actually playing while they are carrying an injury during their professional career. Most professional golfers will experience 2 significant golf-related injuries during their career. Over a career, 9 weeks for professional men and 3 weeks for professional women are lost due to injury. On returning from injury more than 50% of professional golfers are compromised by their injury and often play through pain [10–12].

Recent research has indicated that general exercise has an injury rate of 5.3 per 1,000 persons, golf having a similar injury rate to rugby at 1.5 per 1000 persons [13]. The injury rate is significant but the over-arching benefits of playing golf outweigh the risks, particularly to physical and mental well-being [2, 3].


*Article* **Hydroxymethylfurfural A** ff**ects Caged Honey Bees (***Apis mellifera carnica)*

#### **Aleš Gregorc 1,\*, Snežana Juriši´c 1 and Blair Sampson 2**

Received: 28 November 2019; Accepted: 28 December 2019; Published: 31 December 2019

**Abstract:** A high concentration of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) (e.g., 15 mg HMF per kg honey) indicates quality deterioration for a wide range of foods. In honey bee colonies, HMF in stored honey can negatively a ffect bee health and survival. Therefore, in the laboratory, we experimentally determined the e ffects of HMF on the longevity and midgut integrity of worker *Apis mellifera carnica* by feeding bees standard diets containing five concentrations of HMF (100, 500, 1000, and 1500 ppm). Simultaneously, we also examined HMF's e ffect on *Nosema ceranae* spore counts within infected honey bees. We performed an immunohistochemical analysis of the honey bee midgut to determine possible changes at the cellular level. No correlation was established between HMF concentration and *N. ceranae* spore counts. Negative e ffects of HMF on bees were not observed in the first 15 days of exposure. However, after 15 to 30 days of exposure, HMF caused midgut cells to die and an increased mortality of honey bee workers across treatment groups.

**Keywords:** hydroxymethylfurfural; honey bee; cell death; immunohistochemistry; *Nosema ceranae*


**Author details**

of metals in benthic organisms were subunitary, which indicated a slowly bioaccumulation process occurred in the studied aquatic ecosystems. This conclusion highlighted a bioaccumulation process that can increase the persistence of metals in the ecosystem, with a long‐term potential risk in trophic chain. The preliminary aquatic risk assessment calculated for *C. carpio* for the most detected metals both in water and in sediment (Ni, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, and Zn) revealed insignificant to moderate risk considering the metals measured environmental concentrations, acute and long‐term effects. The results highlighted a pessimistic view concerning the quality of aquatic ecosystem needed to support the carp survival. The concern is related to the constant presence of metal concentrations especially in sediments which is the principal food provider, leading to bioaccumulation processes and trophic chain transfer. Future studies have been initiated to understand the long‐term effects of metals in aquatic biota and to complete the aquatic risk assessment considering the abiotic

factors.

80 Water Quality

**Abbreviations:**

Cd cadmium As arsenium Cu copper Pb lead Ni nickel

Zr zirconium Ti titanium

Mn manganese Mg magnesium Cd cadmium

Co cobalt

Cr chromium

Se selenium Na sodium

P phosphorus

Mo molybdenum

Fe iron Zn zinc Stefania Gheorghe\* , Catalina Stoica, Gabriela Geanina Vasile, Mihai Nita‐Lazar, Elena Stanescu and Irina Eugenia Lucaciu

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
National Research and Development Institute for Industrial Ecology – ECOIND, Bucharest, Romania