**10. Conclusion**

Nail psoriasis is frequent in psoriatic subjects with about 50% of psoriasis patients presenting with nail changes at any time and a life-time prevalence of up to 90%. Nail psoriasis has a strong genetic background and a frequent association with psoriatic arthritis. The most frequent signs of nail matrix involvement are pitting, leukonychia, crumbling and red spots in the lunula, whereas salmon or oil spots, subungual hyperkeratosis, onycholysis and splinter haemorrages represent changes of nail bed involvement. Understanding the mechanism of psoriatic nail sign development requires some basic knowledge of the nail organ, its specific reaction patterns and of nail histopathology. Nail psoriasis has a serious impact on the quality of life interfering particularly with manual work but also being cosmetically embarrassing. Treatment of nail psoriasis is difficult as the matrix pathology is hidden by the proximal nail fold and the nail bed changes are protected against treatment by the overlying nail plate and nail bed hyperkeratosis. Progress has been made with the new biologic drugs, which are however, usually only administered for skin plus nail involvement.

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[122] Sfikakis PP, Iliopoulos A, Elezoglou A, Kittas C, Stratigos A. Psoriasis induced by anti-

[123] Smolen JS, Emery P. Infliximab: 12 years of experience. Arthritis Res Ther 2011;13

[124] Stern DK, Creasey AA, Quijije J, Lebwohl MG. UV-A and UV-B penetration of normal

[125] Taibjee SM, Cheung ST, Laube S, Lanigan SW. Controlled study of excimer and pulsed dye lasers in the treatment of psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 2005; 153:960-966

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psoriasis: a double-blind, randomized, vehicle-controlled study. Cutis 2001;68:355-

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**10**

 *Iran*

**Psoriasis and Stress – Psoriasis Aspect of**

Nowadays stress is a normal part of everyday living and the physiological and behavioral consequences of exposure to stressful situations have been extensively studied for decades. The neuroendocrine stress response is a necessary mechanism but disrupts homeostatic process and it is subserved by a complex system located in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the periphery. Stressor-induced activation of the hypothalamus–pituitary– adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) results in a series of neural and endocrine adaptations known as the "stress response" or "stress cascade." The stress cascade is responsible for allowing the body to make the necessary physiological and metabolic changes required to cope with the demands of a homeostatic challenge. In recent years, evidence has suggested that stress responses are not only under control of the CNS but are influenced by peripheral tissue, outside of the classical HPA axis. Corticotrophinreleasing hormone (CRH) is a central component of the HPA axis and is an important coordinator of the systemic stress response with subsequent modulation of the inflammatory response. In peripheral sites, cutaneous CRH and CRH-receptor1 (CRH-R1) is believed to regulate various functions of the skin that are important for local homeostasis. Common inflammatory skin disorders such as atopic dermatitis and psoriasis exhibit decreased barrier function and recent studies suggest that the complex response of epidermal cells to barrier disruption may aggravate, maintain, or even initiate such

The concept of stress is as old as medical history itself, dating back at least to the time of Hippocrates who referred both to the suffering associated with disease (pathos) and to the toil (ponos) — the fight of the body to restore itself to normalcy (Hippocrates, 1923) . In more recent history, both Walter Cannon (Cannon, 1939) and Claude Bernard (Bernard, 1949) described the ability of all organisms to maintain a constancy of their internal milieu or homeostasis. 70 years ago Hans Selye, the pioneer of contemporary stress research, first described the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) as a chronological development of the

**1. Introduction**

conditions.

**2.1 Historical context**

**2. Overview of the stress system**

**Psychoneuroendocrinology**

F.Z. Zangeneh, A. Fazeli and F.S. Shooshtary *Vali-e-Asr, Reproductive Health Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran,*

from the literature including a series of 6 new cases. Am J Clin Dermatol 2008;9:1- 14


**2. Current treatments and prognosis**

Eating disorders are serious mental health problems which require appropriate diagnosis and specialized treatment interventions. Eating disorders are essentially "cognitive disorders," in that they share a distinctive "core psychopathology," the over evaluation of shape and weight and their control that is cognitive in nature (Fairburn, 2008). The leading treatment for Bulimia Nervosa is cognitive-behavioral therapy in the general population. It is currently the most researched, best established treatment for Bulimia Nervosa (Wilson, Grilo, & Vitousek, 2007). Other treatments with promise are interpersonal therapy, dialectical behavioral therapy and behavioral weight loss therapy for treating bulimia. Interpersonal therapy is the only psychological treatment for Bulimia Nervosa that has demonstrated long-term outcomes that are comparable to those of cognitive-behavioral therapy (Wilson & Shafran, 2005).

Developmental stages and life transitions are important in determining timing for the onset of eating disorders (Mussell, Binford, & Fulkerson, 2000). Eating disorders are more likely to develop when individuals are having difficulty adjusting and adapting to developmental challenges (Smolak & Levine, 1996). Bulimia has a high relapse rate; it is also recognized as an unstable eating disorder that can acquire additional disordered eating behaviors over time. Additionally, Bulimia has a slightly later age of onset than anorexia, typically in late adolescence or early adulthood (Fairburn, 2008). The transition to college may be a particularly threatening time for some individuals and serve as a catalyst for eating pathology (Smith & Petrie, 2008). For instance, dieting at the beginning of the freshman year may be the best predictor of bulimic behavior at the end of the first year of college (Krahn, Kurth, Bohn, Olson, Gomberg, & Drewnowski, 1995). Age is considered as a factor in treatment effectiveness rather than just symptom duration. Current treatments have been utilized with populations in accordance with the identified affected groups; however they are being evaluated for use with special populations, such as ethnic minority groups, athletes, and males all which have been underrepresented in the prevalence data. Collegiate student athletes are a subset of the athlete population that possesses unique characteristics particularly related to Bulimia.

#### **2.1 Treatment strategies with collegiate student athletes**

With regard to the treatment of eating disorders, adolescents seem to benefit the most from cognitive-behavioral therapy, conjoint family therapy (specifically for anorexia), and interpersonal therapy. In treating Bulimia, it is important to consider the onset of disordered eating symptoms, the duration of the symptoms, and the age of the client. All of these factors are problematic for identifying disordered eating symptoms for collegiate student athletes. Moore and colleagues (2007) established that it is clear from the empirical literature that for Bulimia Nervosa, there are treatments that are efficacious and those that have no empirical foundation for their use with this disorder. Thus, the practitioner should be utilizing empirically supported interventions specifically useful with the athletic population. Considering the uniqueness of the sport environment, collegiate student athletes present with unique challenges regarding treatment for Bulimia Nervosa. In addition to the same

clinicians/professionals with a deeper understanding of current treatments strategies tailored to collegiate athletes. It should be emphasized that this approach is a team approach that integrates a multi-dimensional approach by the dietitian, physician, athletic trainer,

Eating disorders are serious mental health problems which require appropriate diagnosis and specialized treatment interventions. Eating disorders are essentially "cognitive disorders," in that they share a distinctive "core psychopathology," the over evaluation of shape and weight and their control that is cognitive in nature (Fairburn, 2008). The leading treatment for Bulimia Nervosa is cognitive-behavioral therapy in the general population. It is currently the most researched, best established treatment for Bulimia Nervosa (Wilson, Grilo, & Vitousek, 2007). Other treatments with promise are interpersonal therapy, dialectical behavioral therapy and behavioral weight loss therapy for treating bulimia. Interpersonal therapy is the only psychological treatment for Bulimia Nervosa that has demonstrated long-term outcomes that are comparable to those of cognitive-behavioral

Developmental stages and life transitions are important in determining timing for the onset of eating disorders (Mussell, Binford, & Fulkerson, 2000). Eating disorders are more likely to develop when individuals are having difficulty adjusting and adapting to developmental challenges (Smolak & Levine, 1996). Bulimia has a high relapse rate; it is also recognized as an unstable eating disorder that can acquire additional disordered eating behaviors over time. Additionally, Bulimia has a slightly later age of onset than anorexia, typically in late adolescence or early adulthood (Fairburn, 2008). The transition to college may be a particularly threatening time for some individuals and serve as a catalyst for eating pathology (Smith & Petrie, 2008). For instance, dieting at the beginning of the freshman year may be the best predictor of bulimic behavior at the end of the first year of college (Krahn, Kurth, Bohn, Olson, Gomberg, & Drewnowski, 1995). Age is considered as a factor in treatment effectiveness rather than just symptom duration. Current treatments have been utilized with populations in accordance with the identified affected groups; however they are being evaluated for use with special populations, such as ethnic minority groups, athletes, and males all which have been underrepresented in the prevalence data. Collegiate student athletes are a subset of the athlete

population that possesses unique characteristics particularly related to Bulimia.

With regard to the treatment of eating disorders, adolescents seem to benefit the most from cognitive-behavioral therapy, conjoint family therapy (specifically for anorexia), and interpersonal therapy. In treating Bulimia, it is important to consider the onset of disordered eating symptoms, the duration of the symptoms, and the age of the client. All of these factors are problematic for identifying disordered eating symptoms for collegiate student athletes. Moore and colleagues (2007) established that it is clear from the empirical literature that for Bulimia Nervosa, there are treatments that are efficacious and those that have no empirical foundation for their use with this disorder. Thus, the practitioner should be utilizing empirically supported interventions specifically useful with the athletic population. Considering the uniqueness of the sport environment, collegiate student athletes present with unique challenges regarding treatment for Bulimia Nervosa. In addition to the same

**2.1 Treatment strategies with collegiate student athletes**

psychologist, coach and other health professionals as needed.

**2. Current treatments and prognosis**

therapy (Wilson & Shafran, 2005).

sociological and psychological issues related to disordered eating in the general population, athletes experience issues such as evaluation criteria, sport-specific weight restrictions, peer comparison, peer and coach pressure, and athletic performance demands (Moore et al., 2007). Also due to sport pressures, athletes are probably less likely to personally seek treatment for Bulimia Nervosa. If athletes are slow to seek treatment, that extends the potential success of intervention applied for treatment.

The collegiate student athlete experiences life transitional issues similar to other college students, such as independence, responsibility, coping strategies, and building new relationships. In addition to these experiences, collegiate student athletes have transitional issues related to their sport, such as adjusting to a new team structure (i.e., coaches, teammates, trainers, etc.), balancing sport and academics, and the pressures of being a student-athlete (i.e., peers, expectations, media). The practitioner needs to be thoroughly knowledgeable about the complexities of eating disorders in athletes, for example, knowing the physical warning signs, general psychosocial functioning, emotion regulation, parental and coaching pressures, weight restrictions for competition, perceptions about body size and shape, perceived environmental control, self-worth, and any other factors that may place an athlete at risk for developing an eating disorder (Moore et al., 2007). Thus, interventions developed for athletes need to address general and sport-specific factors regarding the presence of Bulimia and disordered eating behaviors (Smith & Petrie, 2008).

#### **2.2 Cognitive behavioral theory**

The cognitive-behavioral theory for treatment of eating disorders such as Bulimia Nervosa, stresses that central to the maintenance of Bulimia is clients' dysfunctional scheme for selfevaluation. This self-evaluation is largely or even exclusively, in terms of their shape and weight and their ability to control them (Fairburn & Cooper, 2010). Cognitive behavioral theory can also be used to identify dysfunctional thought patterns (e.g., "I am a bad person") that trigger eating disordered behaviors (Stien et al., 2001), and reestablishing those thought patterns to reduce behaviors. This dysfunction is observed throughout all facets of their life, including dietary intake and restraint, perceived body image, and methods related to weight control. If the dysfunctional scheme is central to the maintenance of bulimic symptoms and is considered the core psychopathology, this criterion is especially problematic when working with collegiate student athletes. Collegiate student athletes with Bulimia Nervosa or disordered eating symptoms potentially experience the dysfunctional scheme for self-evaluation significantly differently from their nonathlete peers. They tend to internalize the pressures of their sport and physical appearance and it is not clear that their self-evaluation regarding their athletic potential as related to their physical appearance is always considered dysfunctional.

Another essential feature of Bulimia Nervosa is binge eating episodes. The cognitivebehavioral theory proposes that binge eating is largely a product of the clients' distinctive form of dietary restraint, which then maintains the core psychopathology by intensifying concerns about their ability to control their eating and weight (Cooper & Fairburn, 2010). Athletes are trained to pay attention to their dietary intake particularly as it relates to the interaction of their physique and athletic performance. It is inherently expected that athletes exhibit some form of dietary restraint which can inadvertently lead to the disordered eating cycle of dietary slips and binges. Purging and compensatory behaviors could be viewed as shortcuts to those slips and binges. However, they do not realize that vomiting, for example, only retrieves part of what has been eaten and that laxative misuse has little or no effect on

Treatment Strategies for Eating Disorders in Collegiate Athletics 41

widely been used for depression; however, IPT has garnered some empirical support as a treatment modality for Bulimia. IPT takes longer for symptom relief; however, it should be considered an alternative to cognitive-behavioral therapy. IPT is designed to improve interpersonal functioning and self-esteem, reduce negative affect, and in turn, decrease

With the bulimic client, interpersonal psychotherapy seeks to help them identify and modify current interpersonal problems that are hypothesized to be maintaining the eating disorder (Wilson, Grilo, & Vitousek, 2007). Interpersonal theory identifies relationships and social roles as critical components of psychological adjustment and well-being. In the case of Bulimia, interpersonal theory suggests that it occurs in the social and interpersonal context, and that the onset, response to treatment, and outcomes are influenced by the interpersonal relationship between the client and significant others (Tanofsky-Kraff & Wilfley, 2010). Collegiate student-athletes have a unique context which inadvertently supports Bulimia symptomatology, body image issues, ideal vs. real sport weight, peer comparisons, and coach/judges' evaluations. Interactions with coaches, teammates, parents, and other athletic personnel (e.g., athletic trainers) could be the focus of the IPT in addressing the influence of

Dialectical behavior therapy was originally developed by Marsha Linehan to treat borderline personality disorder or the "difficult-to-treat clients". It is based on a dialectical worldview that stresses the fundamental interrelatedness or wholeness of reality and connects the immediate to the larger contexts of behavior (Safer, Telch, & Chen, 2009). It is based in cognitive-behavioral therapy with an emphasis on emotion regulation. The primary dialectical strategy is to focus on what is the balance between acceptance and change (Safer, Telch, & Chen, 2009). Implementing validation and problem-solving strategies allows the individual to be challenged and supported regarding their current situational context. DBT has shown promising results with eating disorders, particularly Bulimia and binge eating disorder. Learning to control one's emotions could directly impact the incidence of binges

Biosocial theory is the underlying theoretical construct for dialectical behavior therapy. It emphasizes affect regulation, highlighting that when applied to eating disorders, intense affect is a frequent precursor to binge eating, which may provide a means, albeit maladaptive, of regulating emotions (Chen & Safer, 2010). When considering the collegiate student athlete, it is conceivable that disordered eating behaviors may become negatively reinforced (i.e., as escape behaviors) or result in secondary emotions such as shame or guilt, which then may signal further disordered eating behaviors (Chen & Safer, 2010). Biosocial theory postulates that an invalidating environment and an emotionally vulnerable individual may inadvertently provide intermittent reinforcement of emotional escalation over time (Chen & Safer, 2010). For collegiate athletes an invalidating environment could include weight-related teasing or over concern with weight by peers, coaches, and family (Chen & Safer, 2010). DBT is useful with comorbid disorders such as, depression

symptomatology, particularly suicidal ideation, and borderline personality disorder.

Eating disorders at times should involve psychotropic medication (e.g., medications used to treat psychological disorders such as antidepressants) and monitoring by a psychiatrist or physician with specialized experience. It is critical to understand that these medications should

eating disorder symptoms (Tanofsky-Kraff & Wilfley, 2010).

the social environment on the bulimic symptoms.

and the loss of control experienced during the binge episode.

**2.3.3 Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)**

**2.3.4 Medication management**

energy absorption (Fairburn, 1995). Athletes often have the impression that their weight control and maintenance should have immediate effects. Binge eating could be especially problematic as the athlete may try to utilize extreme measures to control their weight when it is necessary to maintain appropriate caloric intake due to their level of energy expenditure. In addition, weight loss may interfere with athletes' ability to train and compete, decreasing their performances rather than producing the desired or expected effects of improvement (Smith & Petrie, 2008).

Cooper and Fairburn (2010) outline that cognitive-behavioral theory of the maintenance of Bulimia Nervosa has clear implications for treatment due to attempts to change binge eating and purging behaviors. Treatment must address dietary habits, self-evaluation of weight, and external events that may be influencing disordered eating behaviors. Athletes could benefit from the systematic nature of cognitive-behavioral treatment. Interventions for athletes, however, should consider the influence of the sport context when challenging the thoughts maintaining the disordered eating patterns.

#### **2.3 Empirically supported treatments**

#### **2.3.1 Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and enhanced cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT-E)**

Cognitive-behavioral therapy was originally developed by Aaron T. Beck and colleagues and has become one of the most influential and well-validated models of psychotherapy available (Pike, Carter, & Olmsted, 2010). It has demonstrated efficacy for a broad range of psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse (Wilson, Grilo, & Vitousek, 2007). Cognitive behavioral therapy is also well-recognized as an empirically supported treatment for eating disorders. With regards to Bulimia, specifically it has shown effectiveness in reducing symptomatic behaviors, such as binge eating and purging episodes.

The foundation of cognitive-behavioral therapy maintains that symptoms of a psychiatric condition, such as an eating disorder are preserved by the interaction between cognitive and behavioral disturbances. In therapy, an individual is challenged about distorted beliefs, and subsequent behaviors that correspond to the maintenance of the beliefs. The goal is to modify the behaviors and ultimately change the beliefs to be more adaptive. Enhanced cognitivebehavioral therapy (CBT-E) is the latest version of the leading empirically supported treatment for eating disorders (Fairburn, 2008). It is treatment specifically for eating disorders, and it is equally suitable for males and females. It is individualized, and is generally time-limited. CBT-E focuses on working with the individual to the point where the primary maintaining mechanism, their "core psychopathology," has been disrupted and continued improvements are being experienced (Fairburn, 2008). It is understood that overcoming an eating problem is difficult but worthwhile and that treatment should be given priority (Fairburn, 2008). The core of CBT-E that differs from CBT is that the most powerful way of achieving cognitive change is by helping individuals change the way that they behave and then analyzing the effects and implications of those changes (Fairburn, 2008). Individuals are encouraged to observe themselves enacting their formulations live, and to become intrigued by the effects, and implications, of trying different ways of behaving (Fairburn, 2008).

#### **2.3.2 Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)**

Interpersonal psychotherapy is a brief and focused psychotherapy intervention that addresses the interpersonal issues in mental health disorders highlighting that one's psychological maladjustment is due to responses to the social environment. It has most

energy absorption (Fairburn, 1995). Athletes often have the impression that their weight control and maintenance should have immediate effects. Binge eating could be especially problematic as the athlete may try to utilize extreme measures to control their weight when it is necessary to maintain appropriate caloric intake due to their level of energy expenditure. In addition, weight loss may interfere with athletes' ability to train and compete, decreasing their performances rather than producing the desired or expected

Cooper and Fairburn (2010) outline that cognitive-behavioral theory of the maintenance of Bulimia Nervosa has clear implications for treatment due to attempts to change binge eating and purging behaviors. Treatment must address dietary habits, self-evaluation of weight, and external events that may be influencing disordered eating behaviors. Athletes could benefit from the systematic nature of cognitive-behavioral treatment. Interventions for athletes, however, should consider the influence of the sport context when challenging the

**2.3.1 Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and enhanced cognitive-behavioral therapy**

Cognitive-behavioral therapy was originally developed by Aaron T. Beck and colleagues and has become one of the most influential and well-validated models of psychotherapy available (Pike, Carter, & Olmsted, 2010). It has demonstrated efficacy for a broad range of psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse (Wilson, Grilo, & Vitousek, 2007). Cognitive behavioral therapy is also well-recognized as an empirically supported treatment for eating disorders. With regards to Bulimia, specifically it has shown effectiveness in reducing symptomatic behaviors, such as binge eating and purging episodes. The foundation of cognitive-behavioral therapy maintains that symptoms of a psychiatric condition, such as an eating disorder are preserved by the interaction between cognitive and behavioral disturbances. In therapy, an individual is challenged about distorted beliefs, and subsequent behaviors that correspond to the maintenance of the beliefs. The goal is to modify the behaviors and ultimately change the beliefs to be more adaptive. Enhanced cognitivebehavioral therapy (CBT-E) is the latest version of the leading empirically supported treatment for eating disorders (Fairburn, 2008). It is treatment specifically for eating disorders, and it is equally suitable for males and females. It is individualized, and is generally time-limited. CBT-E focuses on working with the individual to the point where the primary maintaining mechanism, their "core psychopathology," has been disrupted and continued improvements are being experienced (Fairburn, 2008). It is understood that overcoming an eating problem is difficult but worthwhile and that treatment should be given priority (Fairburn, 2008). The core of CBT-E that differs from CBT is that the most powerful way of achieving cognitive change is by helping individuals change the way that they behave and then analyzing the effects and implications of those changes (Fairburn, 2008). Individuals are encouraged to observe themselves enacting their formulations live, and to become intrigued by the effects, and

Interpersonal psychotherapy is a brief and focused psychotherapy intervention that addresses the interpersonal issues in mental health disorders highlighting that one's psychological maladjustment is due to responses to the social environment. It has most

effects of improvement (Smith & Petrie, 2008).

thoughts maintaining the disordered eating patterns.

implications, of trying different ways of behaving (Fairburn, 2008).

**2.3.2 Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)**

**2.3 Empirically supported treatments**

**(CBT-E)**

widely been used for depression; however, IPT has garnered some empirical support as a treatment modality for Bulimia. IPT takes longer for symptom relief; however, it should be considered an alternative to cognitive-behavioral therapy. IPT is designed to improve interpersonal functioning and self-esteem, reduce negative affect, and in turn, decrease eating disorder symptoms (Tanofsky-Kraff & Wilfley, 2010).

With the bulimic client, interpersonal psychotherapy seeks to help them identify and modify current interpersonal problems that are hypothesized to be maintaining the eating disorder (Wilson, Grilo, & Vitousek, 2007). Interpersonal theory identifies relationships and social roles as critical components of psychological adjustment and well-being. In the case of Bulimia, interpersonal theory suggests that it occurs in the social and interpersonal context, and that the onset, response to treatment, and outcomes are influenced by the interpersonal relationship between the client and significant others (Tanofsky-Kraff & Wilfley, 2010).

Collegiate student-athletes have a unique context which inadvertently supports Bulimia symptomatology, body image issues, ideal vs. real sport weight, peer comparisons, and coach/judges' evaluations. Interactions with coaches, teammates, parents, and other athletic personnel (e.g., athletic trainers) could be the focus of the IPT in addressing the influence of the social environment on the bulimic symptoms.

#### **2.3.3 Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)**

Dialectical behavior therapy was originally developed by Marsha Linehan to treat borderline personality disorder or the "difficult-to-treat clients". It is based on a dialectical worldview that stresses the fundamental interrelatedness or wholeness of reality and connects the immediate to the larger contexts of behavior (Safer, Telch, & Chen, 2009). It is based in cognitive-behavioral therapy with an emphasis on emotion regulation. The primary dialectical strategy is to focus on what is the balance between acceptance and change (Safer, Telch, & Chen, 2009). Implementing validation and problem-solving strategies allows the individual to be challenged and supported regarding their current situational context. DBT has shown promising results with eating disorders, particularly Bulimia and binge eating disorder. Learning to control one's emotions could directly impact the incidence of binges and the loss of control experienced during the binge episode.

Biosocial theory is the underlying theoretical construct for dialectical behavior therapy. It emphasizes affect regulation, highlighting that when applied to eating disorders, intense affect is a frequent precursor to binge eating, which may provide a means, albeit maladaptive, of regulating emotions (Chen & Safer, 2010). When considering the collegiate student athlete, it is conceivable that disordered eating behaviors may become negatively reinforced (i.e., as escape behaviors) or result in secondary emotions such as shame or guilt, which then may signal further disordered eating behaviors (Chen & Safer, 2010). Biosocial theory postulates that an invalidating environment and an emotionally vulnerable individual may inadvertently provide intermittent reinforcement of emotional escalation over time (Chen & Safer, 2010). For collegiate athletes an invalidating environment could include weight-related teasing or over concern with weight by peers, coaches, and family (Chen & Safer, 2010). DBT is useful with comorbid disorders such as, depression symptomatology, particularly suicidal ideation, and borderline personality disorder.

#### **2.3.4 Medication management**

Eating disorders at times should involve psychotropic medication (e.g., medications used to treat psychological disorders such as antidepressants) and monitoring by a psychiatrist or physician with specialized experience. It is critical to understand that these medications should

Treatment Strategies for Eating Disorders in Collegiate Athletics 43

One of the key symptoms of a major depressive episode is the presence of suicidal ideation. When one is considering suicide, it is the person's perception of a sense of helplessness and/or worthlessness. The decision to commit suicide is an act of desperation and highlights the individual's inability to see other options or less disastrous consequences. Collegiate athletes as a group are formulating their identity, self-image, and self-worth throughout their undergraduate career. They may be particularly susceptible to criticisms from numerous sources about their performance as well as their physical appearance. The loss of control during binge eating, the guilt and other emotions present, and concerns about image all suggest that suicidal ideation for athletes should be monitored more effectively. Hospitalization is clinically indicated if the eating disorder has comorbidity with depression

Anxiety disorders are related to how a person perceives threat in their environment and the way in which they cope with their emotions. They are the class of disorders that are characterized by worry, apprehension, and fearfulness, and are exhibited by physical manifestations, such as muscle tremors, nausea, or heart palpitations (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). In athletes, the presence of an anxiety disorder could hurt performance, and if the anxiety disorder is comorbid with an eating disorder, a complicated diagnostic picture as well as intervention plan is the result. When comorbid with Bulimia Nervosa, anxiety disorders seem to magnify and intensify the experience of the disordered eating behaviors. Anxiety features tend to be more characteristic of individuals who have high levels of dietary restraint (Fairburn, 2008). People with eating disorders set multiple demanding, and highly specific, dietary rules designed to limit the amount that they eat, and as a result of these rules their eating becomes restricted in nature and inflexible (Fairburn, 2008). They adjust their lives around their preoccupation with food and the presence of an anxiety disorder further exacerbates the impairment that develops. Concentration is affected and socializing with friends and family are problematic, the

and suicidal ideation. Close supervision is prudent upon discharge.

individual worries about the pressure to eat in the presence of others.

3. Panic Disorder (recurrent unexpected panic attacks)

The anxiety disorders frequently seen in the collegiate student athlete population include:

2. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (people have obsessions or compulsions that are severe enough to be time consuming or cause marked distress (American Psychiatric

As with mood disorders, anxiety disorders often implicate similar cognitive errors to those structuring eating disorders (Steiger & Israel, 2010). For example, a collegiate athlete with Bulimia Nervosa can experience general worry and anxiety regarding food intake and weight gain, obsessive preoccupations with body shape, compulsive reactions (such as the need to compensate after eating), or phobic elements (such as fear of weight gain; Steiger & Israel, 2010). Interventions need to categorize the symptoms of Bulimia Nervosa as well as the existence of an anxiety disorder, then applying strategies to control the persistence of

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (persistent and excessive anxiety and worry)

4. Phobias (such as social phobia which can include performance anxiety)

**3.3.1 Suicide**

**3.3.2 Anxiety disorders**

Association, 2000).

cognitive errors.

be used to treat symptoms of eating disorders (e.g., depression or anxiety), rather than solely treating the eating disorder alone. Previous research supports that antidepressants promoted a decrease in bulimic patients' preoccupation with food and weight; and a decrease in a patients' binging and vomiting episodes (Hudson, Pope, & Carter, 1999).

With collegiate athletes, the psychiatrist would have to keep in mind the sport context and types of psychotropic medications and the associated side effects in addition to the constraints of the drug testing policies and procedures in athletics. It is important to be aware of the side effects of antidepressants. The most common may cause diaphoresis (i.e., excessive sweating), gastrointestinal distress, nausea, drowsiness, and dizziness (Lacy et al., 2002), all of which may decrease or limit an athlete's performance. If an athlete reports any of these symptoms, the medication dosage may have to be altered or daily routine depending on the symptoms. For example, if an athlete is becoming drowsy, the timing of the medication should be changed. It is recommended that the athlete takes two smaller doses per day or takes the medication at night before bed and then gradually increase dosage if necessary (Joy et al., 1997; Zetin & Tate 1999). Another recommendation would be to increase fluid intake if the athletes has increased sweating. Alternative medications should also be considered. Lithium carbonate (a mood stabilizer) and clonidine (an appetite stimulant) have also been used to treat patients with Bulimia Nervosa (Hudson, Pope, & Carter, 1999; Kaye, 1999).