*3.3. Rheological Properties of Pastes*

Table 8 and Figure 7 present the results of the rheological properties of pastes after 10 and 60 min. The standard deviation of the yield stress test results was equal to 0.354 N·mm for the measurements after 10 min and 0.514 N·mm for the measurements after 60 min, whereas the standard deviation of the plastic viscosity test results was equal to 0.052 N·mm·s for measurements after 10 min and 0.233 N·mm·s for the measurements after 60 min. When analyzing the above test results, it can be seen that the yield stress and plastic viscosity of the reference paste were the smallest. With an increase in the amount and viscosity of cellulose ether, both parameters increased after 10 and 60 min. Paste C50L-3.12MV

with 50% hydrated lime content, cellulose ether content 3.12%, and viscosity 25,000 mPa·s had the biggest yield stress and plastic viscosity. The test results obtained for C50L-1.82HV, C50L-3.12MV, C25L-3.12HV, and C25L-1.82MV pastes, which translated into large values of rheological parameters, were associated with a higher percentage of cellulose ether and a high viscosity, in combination with the replacement of a part of the cement binder with hydrated lime binder. Information in addition to the measurement results of rheological parameters was also provided by the observations of the paste samples during the research. It is known that hydrated lime and cellulose ether affect the workability and plasticity of the material, as well as its cohesion, which was confirmed during the rheological tests. The appearance of C0 and C-0.52MV pastes after 60 min differed from that of the other samples, as shown in Figure 8a,b. In particular, visible differences were observed for the C0 paste. In the case of this sample (C0 paste), a clear separation of water from the rest of the ingredients could be noticed. The separation of water in the C-0.52MV paste was also visible, but to a smaller extent. Both samples (C0 and C-0.52MV) were characterized by the sedimentation of ingredients and a lack of homogeneity through the mass, confirming the successful modification of the pastes and mortars. Despite the fact that the C-0.52MV paste was modified with an admixture, the amount of cellulose ether seemed to be insufficient to prevent segregation of the ingredients of the paste. Comparing samples with the same amount and viscosity of cellulose ether, but differing in the type of binder (C-0.52MV and C50L-0.52MV), a beneficial effect of hydrated lime was observed. In sample C50L-0.52MV, there was no visible sedimentation of the components, while the leaven was coherent and homogeneous throughout the mass.

**Figure 7.** Correlation between yield stress and plastic viscosity of pastes.

**Figure 8.** Photos showing sedimentation of pastes: (**a**) paste C0; (**b**) paste C-0.52MV.

A correlation between plastic viscosity and yield stress was established, as shown in Figure 7. The trend showed an increase in yield stress with the increase in plastic viscosity, which is consistent with the action of hydrated lime and cellulose ether. According to [50], there is a high correlation and significant interdependence of the examined parameters.

Figure 9 presents the response surface of the influence of X1, X2, and X3 factors on the plastic viscosity after 10 min (Y2). The fit factor of the *R*2 model in this case was 0.902. As can be seen from Equations (5)–(7), the most important factor influencing the plastic viscosity was the amount of cellulose ether (X2 factor). Statistically, the amount of hydrated lime and cellulose ether viscosity had a lesser effect on the parameter tested. As the amount of admixture in the mortars increased, the plastic viscosity increased (similar to the statistical evaluation of the WRV).

$$\text{Y}\_2 = -7.031 + 0.226 \text{X}\_1 - 0.002 \text{X}\_1^2 + 7.641 \text{X}\_2 - 0.898 \text{X}\_2^2 \tag{5}$$

$$\text{Y}\_2 = -7.031 + 0.226 \text{X}\_1 - 0.002 \text{X}\_1^2 + 0.0003 \text{X}\_3 \tag{6}$$

$$\mathbf{Y}\_2 = -7.031 + 7.641\mathbf{X}\_2 - 0.898\mathbf{X}\_2^\circ + 0.0003\mathbf{X}\_3.\tag{7}$$

**Figure 9.** Utility function for the plastic viscosity after 10 min of pastes: (**a**) correlation between cellulose ether amount and hydrated lime amount; (**b**) correlation between cellulose ether viscosity and hydrated lime amount; (**c**) correlation between cellulose ether viscosity and cellulose ether amount.


**1. Introduction**

The current global energy supply is, to a large extent, based on fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) of which the reserves are finite. As a result of industrialization, population growth, and urbanization, there has been a rapid increase in global energy demand and consumption. The necessity for long-term alternative energy sources is obvious due to the increasing energy consumption, high prices and limited reserves of fossil fuels and evidence of global warming, environmental pollution, and climate change. As a result, there is renewed interest in producing and using renewable energy resources, such as biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and tidal. Bioenergy is a sustainable form of energy derived from biomass sources [1–4]. Recently, bioenergy is getting more attention because of its potential advantages, including renewable fuel for boilers, engines, turbines, power generation and industrial processes; inexpensive and CO2 neutral; utilization of nonfood and waste second-generation biomass feedstocks; easy to store and transport as liquid fuels; high-energy density compared to atmospheric biomass gasification fuel gases [2, 5, 6]. Biomass is a promising eco-friendly alternative source of renewable bioenergy because of its abundant availability, relatively lower price, and zero greenhouse gas emissions in the context of current energy scenarios. However, the only renewable energy resource that can be used to produce transport fuels is biomass [2, 4].

Biomass is plant or animal-based organic matter that is living or was living in the recent past. Various biomass components, such as sugars, starches, and lignocellulosic (non-starch fibrous part of the plant) materials, can be converted to liquid transport fuels, reducing the use of fossil fuels. A promising alternative to reduce environmental issues related to waste disposal and management is converting biomass residues and wastes (such as crop residues, food wastes, animal manure, and municipal solid wastes) into useful bioenergy. Some of the advantages of converting biomass residues and wastes into bioenergy include (a) reducing the burden on waste management, (b) converting waste into valuable energy reduces the dependence on fossil fuels, (c) reducing decomposing waste and associated issues such as water contamination, greenhouse gas emissions, pests and insects breeding, and foul odor. [4, 7–10].

The biomass feedstocks can be transformed into biofuels through biochemical and thermal conversion processes. The thermal conversion approach, such as pyrolysis, gasification, and torrefaction, are applicable for a wide range of biomass types using different temperatures to breakdown the bonds of organic matter in a relatively short period of time, unlike the biochemical processes [2, 5, 6]. Lignocellulosic biomass, such as agricultural crop residues, wood and forestry residues, are readily available, inexpensive, and promising resources for biofuels. Biomass can be considered one of the best options for sustaining future energy demand. The more efficient biomass production and conversion processes are essential for the efficient utilization of biomass resources [11]. Biomass is a valuable fuel source that is considered renewable as it can be produced year after year. Compared to fossil fuels, biomass has the potential to reduce combustion emissions, such as CO2, SOX, and NOX [12, 13].

### **2. Biomass**

A commonly used biomass classification is based on the origin of biomass, such as agricultural crop residues, forestry and wood processing residues, purposely grown dedicated energy crops, aquatic biomass, animal, food, industrial and municipal waste, sewage sludge, digestate, and industrial crops. Various types of wastes, such as wastepaper, sewage sludge, cow manure, poultry litter, municipal, and many industrial wastes, are treated as biomass because these are a mixture of organic (and nonorganic) compounds. Biomass is also classified based on its chemical composition as carbohydrates, lignin, essential oils, vegetable oils, animal fats, natural resins (gums), etc. Lignocellulosic biomass is the most abundant biomass on the earth and it represents a major carbon source for bioenergy, biofuels, and chemical compounds [2, 4].

#### **2.1 Sources of biomass**

Agricultural crop biomasses are natural products of agriculture, including food-based and nonfood-based portions of crops. The food-based portion comprises

#### *Advances in Bioenergy Production Using Fast Pyrolysis and Hydrothermal Processing DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105185*

simple carbohydrates and oils from crops, such as corn, sugarcane, sugar beet, rapeseed, soybean, and sunflower. The nonfood-based portion is commonly discarded, which comprises complex carbohydrates of crops that are not harvested for commercial use or byproducts from harvesting or processing, such as corn stover, sugarcane bagasse, straw residues, waste from food processing, horticulture, and food crops [4, 7, 14]. Forestry and wood processing residues include trees that are not valuable as timber and not harvested during logging, crowns and branches from fully-grown trees that are removed during logging in commercial forests, waste from forest and wood processing (such as wood pellets, woodchips, leaves, lumps, barks, and sawdust) as well as materials removed during forest management operations. Most of the biomass used today are derived from agricultural crop, forestry, and wood biomass [7, 15].

Another expanding and potentially larger source of biomass is dedicated energy crops that are grown specifically for their fuel value on marginal land unsuitable for agriculture. These are high-yield and low-maintenance crops that produce maximum energy yield. There are two types of energy crops, herbaceous and short-rotation woody crops. Herbaceous energy crops include perennial grasses, such as switchgrass, miscanthus, bluestem, elephant grass, bamboo, and wheatgrass, that are harvested annually after maturity. In 2–3 years, herbaceous energy crops reach complete production and do not require replanting for 15 years or more. The drawback of most nonwoody energy crops is that their chemical properties (high ash and salt content) make them less suitable for combustion. Woody crops are grown on short rotations, generally with more intensive management than timber plantations. These fast-growing hardwood trees include poplar, willow, maple, cottonwood, black walnut, and sweetgum. The woody crops are harvested within 5–8 years of planting [4, 14–17].

Aquatic biomass includes different types of algae, plants, and microbes found in water, such as aquatic plants, water hyacinth, seaweed, kelp, macroalgae, and microalgae [18]. Another primary biomass source is municipal, industrial, food, and animal waste. Municipal solid waste includes waste from commercial, industrial, and residential sectors containing a significant amount of biomass with energy content. The industrial waste includes waste from textile and food processing industries and waste from various industrial and manufacturing processes, such as sugar cane residues and paper sludge. Food waste includes postconsumer waste, animal fat, used cooking oil, residues from food and drink manufacturing, preparation and processing, etc. Animal and human waste includes cooked or uncooked food, fruits, paper, manure of different animals, and waste from farm and processing operations. The problem of disposing of waste is reduced to a certain extent when waste materials are treated and converted to useful energy products. Primarily, animal and human waste are free of harmful materials. In contrast, industrial waste may contain different harmful additives and toxic chemicals [4, 14, 15, 19].

Plant biomass has a carbon-to-oxygen (C/O) ratio of almost one. Because of the high level of oxygen, the energy density of biomass is relatively lower than fossil fuels, which means that issues associated with land use must be considered. The potential benefit of biomass can be reduced by environmental damage due to the expansion of land use for biomass production, leading to a high potential for deforestation, emissions, erosion, nutrient runoff, etc. When sufficient land areas are available, large-scale cultivation of energy crops for bioenergy is feasible. The agricultural lands must be used to grow food crops. Land for energy crops needs to be selected carefully to avoid food versus energy conflict. Identifying lands with minimal disturbance to food production is critical for technically and economically feasible biomass

production. To achieve sustainable large-scale biomass production, infertile/marginal or abandoned agricultural land with little fertilizer or pesticides and potentially needing minimal water has been widely considered important. Energy crops are adaptive to infertile/marginal or abandoned agricultural land. Energy crops, such as switchgrass and miscanthus, generally require much less water to grow and are suitable to replace dryland crops partially. Energy crops should not be grown at the expense of biodiversity. Beyond the vast land areas needed to grow energy crops, the long-term impact of soil quality due to repeated removal of biomass and water usage are major concerns [4, 20, 21].

Plants absorb atmospheric CO2 and produce carbohydrates in photosynthesis that form the building blocks of biomass. Water and sunlight are the other two key ingredients of photosynthesis. The burning of biomass does not add to the total CO2 inventory of the earth as it releases CO2 back into the atmosphere that the plants have absorbed recently in photosynthesis producing biomass. Therefore, biomass is considered the most important carbon-neutral or green carbon fuel source. But the overall biomass chain needs to be considered for true carbon neutrality of biomass. Significant cost, energy needs, and CO2 emissions account for biomass harvesting, drying, handling, transportation, processing, and storage, which need to be considered in life-cycle analysis for sustainability. Biomass plays an integral part in the overall sustainable energy solution. Biochar facilitates the conversion of marginal lands to lands suitable for agriculture by improving soil quality. The impacts of adding biochar to soils may include reduced land area required for food production as a result of increased productivity and making marginal lands economically productive [4, 12, 20, 22].

### **2.2 Composition of biomass**

The chemical composition of biomass is different from fossil fuels. Lignocellulosic biomass is a complex mixture of biopolymers consisting of three key elements, carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H). The percentages in dry matter of C, O, and H are 42–47%, 40–44%, and 6%, respectively, whose total content reaches typically above 95%. In addition, depending on the plant species and environment, plant biomass also contains various macronutrients, micronutrients, trace elements, and other heavy metals [4, 18]. The non-starch fibrous part of the plant (lignocellulosic) material is the major component of plant biomass. Three major constituents of lignocellulosic biomass comprising the cell wall of plants are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose, the main component of the plant cell wall, provides structural support. The second most abundant polymer in lignocellulosic biomass is hemicellulose. The third most abundant polymer in lignocellulosic biomass is lignin. Usually, cellulose is the major component in wooden biomasses, whereas hemicellulose is the key component in leaves and grasses and lignin in shells. Hemicellulose is thermally less stable than cellulose. Lignin is the most stable of all three. Knowledge of biomass composition in terms of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin can be helpful in controlling the product chemistry [2, 4, 23, 24].

The other compounds present in biomass include inorganic compounds and organic extractives. These nonstructural components include fats, waxes, proteins, terpenes, simple sugars, gums, resins, starches, and essential oils that do not constitute the cell walls or cell layers. Often these compounds are responsible for the smell, color, flavor, and natural resistance to decaying of some species. The inorganic compounds constitute less than 10% by weight of biomass, forming ash in the pyrolysis

#### *Advances in Bioenergy Production Using Fast Pyrolysis and Hydrothermal Processing DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105185*

process. Depending on the type of biomass, the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin content fall in the range of 40–60%, 15–30%, and 10–25%, respectively. Fermentable sugars produced by hydrolyzing carbohydrates (cellulose and hemicellulose) can be converted into fuels and chemicals. The content of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in wood biomass is high (~90%), while more extractives and ash are present in agricultural and herbaceous biomass [2, 4, 24].

Analysis of biomass feedstock is an essential part of understanding the behavior of biomass in energy use. The proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, and higher heating value (HHV) of biomass feedstock can provide a clear understanding of its thermochemical conversion characteristics. The proximate analysis gives information on biomass composition in terms of volatile matter (VM), fixed carbon (FC), ash content, and moisture (M) content. VM is the condensable and non-condensable vapors/ gases released from biomass during heating. The amount of VM depends on the heating rate and the final biomass temperature. FC is the solid carbon (nonvolatile) that remains in the char after devolatilization. FC and VM indicate the percentage of biomass burned in solid and gaseous states, respectively. Ash is the noncombustible solid residue remaining after biomass is completely burned. These are of fundamental importance for bioenergy use. These data provide the essential information for the furnace design, including sizing and location of primary and secondary air supplies, refractory, ash removal, and exhaust handling equipment. [4, 25, 26].

The ash contains mostly inorganic residues and its composition depends on the biomass type. The inorganics in ash include silica, calcium, iron, aluminum, and small amounts of potassium, sodium, magnesium, and titanium. The content of ash in biomass is generally small. But if biomass contains alkali metals or halides, ash may play a significant role in biomass combustion or gasification. Agricultural residues, grasses, and straw generally contain potassium compounds and chlorides are particularly susceptible to this problem and can cause severe corrosion, fouling, and agglomeration in boilers or gasifiers. Burning biomass at lower temperatures mitigates the problems of corrosion and slagging. The ash produced during biomass conversion does not necessarily come from biomass itself but also from other sources like contamination as well. Biomass can pick up dirt, soil, rock, and other impurities during collection and handling, partly contributing to ash content [4, 14, 25].

The relationship between FC and char yield in biomass is positive, while VM and ash relate negatively to char yield. The greater biomass VM is expected to lead to greater gas production instead of the solid phase. Moisture content has a significant impact on the biomass conversion process. High moisture content is a major concern in biomass conversion. Thermochemical conversion processes generally require biomass with low moisture content. However, biochemical conversion processes can use biomass with high moisture content. Some moisture is required in the gasification process to produce hydrogen and with increasing moisture content, the amount of hydrogen increases. The moisture content can be very high (>90%) in some wet biomass (such as water hyacinth). As the energy used in the evaporation of moisture is not recovered, moisture drains much of the deliverable energy during conversion [4, 25–27].

The ultimate analysis provides the composition of biomass on a gravimetric basis, including major elements (C, H, O, S, and N), moisture, and ash. The ultimate analysis is usually reported on a dry and ash-free basis. These are useful for performing mass balances on biomass conversion processes. Elemental chemical composition, volatiles, moisture, and ash are essential for thermochemical conversions of biomass. Additionally, information on the polymeric composition of biomass is required for

conversions, such as torrefaction, pyrolysis, and gasification. The ultimate analysis helps calculate the quantity of combustion air needed to sustain the combustion reactions. Usually, the sulfur and nitrogen content of biomass is very low and produces minimal pollutants SOX and NOX [25, 27].

### **3. Biomass conversion**

Biomass can be converted to end products (such as heat, biofuels, or chemicals) through chemical, biochemical, and thermochemical conversion processes. Selection of the conversion process depends on number of factors, such as the desired form of end products, biomass feedstock available, environmental standards, policy, economic conditions, and specific factors related to the project. In most situations, the selection of the conversion process is based on two factors, the desired form of end products and biomass feedstock available. The moisture content of biomass primarily determines the biomass conversion process. Dry biomasses (such as wood or straw) are required for thermochemical conversions, such as pyrolysis, gasification, or combustion. Low-energy density due to higher moisture content makes wet biomass unsuitable for these processes. Transportation and energy costs significantly increased due to the high moisture content. Hydrothermal and biochemical processing are wet conversion processes that have gained growing attention and are more suitable for processing high moisture content biomass, including aquatic biomass, sewage sludge, food waste, and manure. Compared with thermochemical conversion, biochemical conversion consumes less energy but requires more time. Consequently, cost-effective hydrothermal processing has been given more attention than thermochemical conversion (with drying). If moisture content lies between wet and dry regions, additional parameters (such as cost and feasibility of drying) need to be considered in selecting a suitable conversion process [1, 2, 4, 10, 28–30].

Thermochemical conversion processes usually offer many advantages over biochemical conversion processes, including better conversion efficiency, handling a wide variety of feedstocks, shorter reaction times, and high-energy efficiency. As a result, thermochemical conversion processes have recently received greater attention for biofuel production. Many thermochemical conversion processes are available to convert biomass into products (solid, liquid, and gaseous). Thermochemical conversion processes use high temperatures to breakdown the bonds of biomass organic matter. These are classified according to the oxygen content used in the process, including combustion (complete oxidation), gasification (partial oxidation), and pyrolysis (thermal degradation in the absence of oxygen). Torrefaction, a mild form of pyrolysis, is also performed in the absence of oxygen. Hydrothermal processing, a thermal degradation in the absence of oxygen, is an alternative route to process wet biomass. The typical products of the thermochemical conversion of biomass are biochar (carbon-rich solid residue), bio-oil (liquid fraction, condensable vapors), and non-condensable gases. The distribution of products (biochar, bio-oil, and gases) depends primarily on the conversion process [2, 4, 9].

### **4. Pyrolysis**

Pyrolysis is one of the thermal decomposition processes conducted in the absence of oxygen to convert biomass into three distinct product fractions—solid residue (biochar), condensable vapors resulting in liquid product fraction (bio-oil), and


**7. References**

γ-terpinene[Sonboli et al., 2005] were responsible of antioxidative and antiseptic activities of essential oils studied. However, caryophyllene oxide, E-nerolidol humulene epoxide-1,2 possessed antiinflammatory activity [Chavan et al., 2010; Yu-Tang et al., 2008; Wanjohi Mwangi et al., 2009] Possible synergistic and antagonistic effects compounds in *V. simplicifolia* essential oil should also be taken into consideration. These reports are

This study shows in *vivo* wound healing activity and in *vitro* bacteriostatic effect of *Vitex simplicifolia* essential oil. The oil demonstrates the strongest wound cicatrization activity than cicatryl and natural immunity. In addition the oil may help to prevent wound infections and others such diarrhoea, dysentery and skin diseases. These results indicate that the plant could be use as a natural potential remedy for healing wounds and antiseptic agent. Further investigations will be performed by determination of analgesic, antioxidant and anti inflammatory activities of the essential oil and to expand to other

1. Choice of rabbits: we have chosen rabbits because of they were available in the laboratory and cheaper. They were also very easy to be used in the cicatrization effect

2. The resolution of photographs depend of the quality of the apparatus, we deleted them because we have not a best quality. We are sorry for the bad quality of photos. Thank

Bassole, I.H.N., Ouattara, A.S., Nebié, R., Ouattara, C.A.T., Kaboré, Z.I., Traoré, S.A., 2003.

Bruneton, J., 1993. Pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, medicinal plants. 2nd Tech and Doc.

Chattopadhyay, D., Arunachalam, G., Mandal, A.B., Sur, T.K., Mandal ,S.C., Bahattacharya,

Chavan, M.J., Wakte, P.S., Shinde, D.B., 2010. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of

Draize, J.H., Woodward, G., Calvery, H.O., 1944. Methods for study of irritation and toxicity

peltatus leaf extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacognosy 82, 229-237

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and *Lippia multoflora*. Phytochemistry 62, 209-212

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S.K., 2002. Antimicrobial and anti inflammatory activity of folklore: Mellotus

Caryophyllene oxide from Annona squamosa L. bark. Phytomedicine international

of substances applied topically to the skin and mucous membranes*.* Journal of

compatible with our results in the present study.

**5. Conclusion**

*Vitex* species.

**6. Remarks**

**7. References**

than mice and rats

you for your understanding.

Lavoisier Paris p915

**7**

 *Brasil*

**Use of Associated Chromatographic**

 **of Bioactive Monoterpenoid Indole**

*2State University of Campinas, Chemistry Institute, Campinas-SP,*

**Techniques in Bio-Monitored Isolation**

**Alkaloids from** *Aspidosperma ramiflorum*

Talita Perez Cantuaria Chierrito1, Ananda de Castro Cunha1, Luzia Koike2, Regina Aparecida Correia Gonçalves1 and Arildo José Braz de Oliveira1 *1Department of Pharmacy, State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná State,*

The genus *Aspidosperma* (Apocynaceae) have been commonly used in folk medicine as potential antimalarial agents; in the treatment of leishmaniasis; uterus and ovary inflammations; as a contraceptive; in diabetes; stomach disorders; against cancer; fever and rheumatism (Oliveira et al, 2009). It commonly grows in tropical America, extracted from trees ranging 2 to 60 m in height. It is found in a variety of habitats from the dry fields of south-central Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina to the inundated river margins of the Amazon basin (Tanaka, 2006). The main constituents of the *Aspidosperma* genus are indole alkaloids, a class of substances with a wide range of pharmacological activities such as cholinesterase inhibitors, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, bactericidal, oestrogenic, stimulant

Several methods are available for the analysis and identification of known indole alkaloids. Analysis of complex mixtures is frequently done by means of Thyn Layer Chromatography (TLC), through comparison of Rf values obtained in different solvent systems, and also by comparison between specific color reactions of components of the mixture and reference compounds. TLC remains one of the preferred methods for qualitative analysis of known compounds since it requires neither sophisticated equipment nor extensive sample preparation. For quantitative analysis, High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) systems linked to a UV detector are commonly used. By coupling HPLC to a photodiode array UV detector makes it possible to combine the information over retention times and the UV spectrum of each compound, and in some cases, it also enables the quantification of overlapping peaks. Capillary Gas Chromatography (GC) analysis has been described for several classes of alkaloids. A major advantage of GC over the above-mentioned methods is its enhanced sensitivity and high resolution. Another advantage is its easy coupling to a

and depressant of the central nervous system (CNS) (Zocoler et al, 2005).

**1.1 Chromatographic systems in** *Aspidosperma* **genus**

**1. Introduction**

Yu-Tang Tung, Meng-Thong Chua, Sheng-Yang Wang, Shang-Tzen Chang, 2008. Antiinammation activities of essential oil and its constituents from indigenous *Cinnamon* (*Cinnamomum osmophloeum*) twig. Bioresource Technology 99, 3908- 3913


**5. Simulation Results**

In this section, the performance of the diesel engine and the the optimization scheme under different load and operational conditions are presented. The hybrid propulsion system model under study was developed using PLECS. The controllers for the electric drive and the grid side, as well as the optimization algorithm, were developed and implemented in C code.