*2.2. Methods*

The aim of this study was to investigate manure collection and management in cattle farms in the Aydın region of Turkey and determine the energy potential of the waste generated on farms.

In this study, a survey was conducted by interviewing the owners of 87 farms located in 17 districts of Aydın province and each farm was photographically documented.

The survey included general topics presented below:

In addition, the energy parameters of manure waste as a potential substrate for the biogas production were also examined. The tests were carried out in accordance with the following standards:

Based on the data obtained from 87 farms livestock size in the study region, potential of biogas and electricity production were calculated using equation 1 and 2 below:

Biogas production (BP) [33]:

$$\text{BP} = \text{N}\_{\text{c}} \times \text{C}\_{\text{s}} \tag{1}$$

where: Nc—the number of cattle, C—production of manure per day/cattle (on the basis of an assumption of 0.4 m3/day/cattle [34].

Electricity production (EP) [21]:

$$\text{LEP} = \text{BP} \times<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
where: %CH4—methane content in the biogas (on the basis of an assumption it is 62%), LHVCH4—low heating value of methane (21 MJ/m3)—1.7 kWh in cogeneration process: 1.7 kWh electricity and 2 kWh heat) [34].

#### **3. Results and Discussion**

In Aydın province, many of farms are located in the districts: Efeler (18 farms), Cine and Kuyucak (12 farms) and Söke (10 farms). Table 2 presents number of cattle in districtes of Aydın.

**Table 2.** Total amount of cattle in Aydın's districts [35].

Farms in Aydın province usually have more than 100 cattle and the number of animals in the 89.6% of the farms range between 100 and 200 heads.

The study shows that 69.55% of the farmers are under age 50. The ages of the youngest and oldest farmers are 28 and 74, respectively. The percentage of owners who have a university degree was 14.9%, whereas most of the owners have an elementary school degree (43.7%). Only farmers with higher education showed an interest in application of new technologies.

Manure storage type is of importance in terms of impacts on gaseous emissions and the flexibility it offers for land application and hence the potential for nutrient losses to ground and surface waters.

Generally, owners of farms have noticed the problem of disposal of manure, the facility must minimize the impact on water quality, especially on groundwater and surface water. It is indicated that the manure storage facility should be located at least 100 m away from the water resources [36].

In the Aydın region, the distance between open-air manure storage and water resources, as well as source of drinking water supplies, is 96 m on average. Çayır and Atılgan [37] examined about 74 farms in Burdur province and determined the distances to be 1–10 m in 39 farms, 11–20 m in 20 farms and 21–30 m in 10 farms, and 31 m or more in 5 of 74 farms. According to Mutlu [38], Jacopson et al. [39] and Nizam et al. [40], this distance should be much longer.

In the study area, manure storage facilities are located in the open area. The most common type of manure storage is midden (60%), and 30% and 10.3% of farms store the manure on flat ground and on leak-proof pits, respectively. Figure 3 presents the types of manure storage used in Aydın region. Manure stored on flat ground is shown in Figure 4.

**Figure 3.** Types of storage used in Aydın region.

**Figure 4.** Manure storage on flat ground.

Study shows that 66.6% of farms do not have manure storage pits on protected ground (concrete floor). Therefore, there is a danger of contamination of ground water with nitrogen compounds.

For example, according to the survey by Smith et al. [6], manure is stored in concrete floor compounds (40%) and temporary field heaps (60%) in England. Loyon [41] stated that 23% of facilities for storing manure are covered in France.

Manure is usually stored for many months, and during its decomposition, manure emits unpleasant gases such as ammonia and hydrogen sulphide and impacts the health and comfort of surrounding people. Another problem is to minimize odour from manure storage locations as well as from open barns, which depends on the size of the intensive livestock operation, the type of livestock or manure management system and storage time.

The results of this study show that 48.2% of farms have closed-wall barns, 41.4% semi-open barns and rest of them have open sheltered barns. Semi-open barns are shown in Figure 5.

The conventional method of handling manure has been to use sufficient bedding to keep the manure relatively dry and then to move it out of the confinement area and deposit it into a manure pile [42].

In large production units, manure is handled both mechanically and hydraulically. Mechanical removal of the wastes is normally done with tractors, manure spreaders or scrapers with permanently installed equipment, such as shuttle conveyors, floor augers or pumps.

The information collected from the dairy farms assessed in this study showed that 67.8% of the farms used tractor shovels for the collection of manure produced in barns. The percentage of manual collection was 14.9%, and there were only 9 farms (10.4% of the farms evaluated) in which the manure was collected with scrapers equipped with chain. 89.7% of the farms do not have any impermeable manure pits.

**Figure 5.** Semi-open barns.

The most common waste management strategy on farms is to apply the manure to the land. Atılgan et al. [43] divided it according to content of solids, i.e., above 25% solid fertilizer; 10–20% semi-solid and 0–10% content of soils is called liquid manure. All produced manure in the studied farms is used in agriculture as fertilizer, mostly for their own purposes, and only 12.6% of farms sell it. The studied farms utilize only the solid manure, which provides minimum benefit because of the loss of organic nitrogen content during long storage, while it can also cause serious environmental pollution.

It is stated that the main source of nitrate contamination in groundwater is agricultural fertilizers.

In the Aydın region the high level of nitrite (0–124 mg/L) [44] in groundwater used for the irrigation was noted. The average level of nitrite in the surface water is in the range of 0.01–0.7 mg/L, nitrate 1.20–3.70 mg/L, ammonia 004–5.20 mg/L [45]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) [46], the standard nitrate level in drinking water is 50 mg/L. Groundwater is used as irrigation (from 8–32 m deep) and drinking (>32 m deep). Elevated nitrate concentrations in groundwater can cause public health problems. Now Turkey has updated regulations aiming to combat agricultural nitrate pollution in rivers and soil. The revised rules include procedures and principles for determining, reducing and eliminating nitrate pollution [47].

Due to the increase in the Turkish population, and therefore the increase in demand from the animal sector, contamination from pollutants may also cumulatively increase in the next years. Regulations are required in order to control manure management, especially the localization of manure storage and type of floor construction for its temporary storage, as well as the limits for the use of manure as fertilizer.

Baytekin [33] claims that, under normal conditions, a healthy cow produces 40–45 kg of manure per day. According to this value, the total manure amount obtained from the research area is as presented in Table 3.

\* calculated from obtained data.

The production of biogas from manure, in particular, is one of the alternative utilization methods of organic wastes that can be implemented in this region. This study also attempts to identify the biogas potential of the Aydın region basing on obtained data of animal manure production.

As a first step for this application, the energy parameters of manure, as a potential feedstock for the biogas production were tested. Obtained energy parameters of manure is presented in Table 4.

**Table 4.** Energy properties of manure.

wt—weight percentage; dm—dry mass; HHV—High Heating Value; \*—calculated on the basis of the obtained difference.

One of the key parameters in terms of the efficiency of biogas production is associated with the high content of organic matter in wastes, and this determines the course of the fermentation process and the volume of the biogas [21]. The tested samples have a high content of organic matter (74.62%), which is comparable with data obtained by Zue et al. [48], it may range from 68% to 76%. For methane fermentation, especially for the growth of microorganisms, one of the important factors is the ratio of C:N (optimum 20–30:1) [49]. The ratio of C:N in the waste (24:1) is adequate in this respect.

For the Aydın province, based on the amount of produced waste, it is possible to obtain about 160,438 m3 biogas/day, assuming 0.5 m3/day biogas per cattle. Table 5 contains total amount of produced biogas in Aydın and LPG equivalent.

**Table 5.** Total amount of produced waste and biogas in Aydın and its LPG equivalent.

\* calculated from obtained data.

It gives production of electricity on level 99,552 MWh annually. In Aydın in 2012 electricity consumption was 1,860,667 MWh. In the case of the use of biogas, which can be substituted for conventional fuels, 5.4% of electricity can be covered by biogas.

There is only one biogas power plant—Efeler BGEPP—in the Aydin region, with a max installed power of 4.8 MWe. Because of the distributed allocation of small-capacity livestock farms in the region, and also due to the low interest of farmers in installing their own small biogas installations, it is proposed to build centralized facilities.

Considering the use of only half of the manure generated in the region, it is possible to install 7 biogas power plants with a capacity 4.8 MWe in different locations. Because of the topography and the distances between farm locations, the Aydın region can be divided into four districts, in which 3-4 biogas power plants can be installed with capacities similar to the Efeler BGEPP facility.

There are some funds that support investments in renewable energy sources in Turkey such as: *Renewable Energy Resources Support Mechanism (YEKDEM)*, coordinated by the Energy and Natural Resources Ministry, the regional scale *Agriculture and Rural Development Support Institution (TKDK)*, supported by the Agriculture and Forestry Ministry, and also local development agencies subordinate to teh Ministry of Development, for example, the South Aegean Development Agency (GEKA) serving, i.a., the Aydın region.

According to the Turkish National Energy and Mining Strategy, it is a top priority for Turkey to generate 30% of its electricity from local and renewable resources by 2023. The costs of achieving this target by 2023 are estimated to require investment in renewable energy generation of around 21 billion USD (1,5 billion USD/year) [50]. In the case of Turkey, which is a net energy importer, 73% of its energy needs come from foreign suppliers, and investments in a local and secure energy supply is main pillar of the energy sector.

Biogas, biomass, and geothermal energy resources are expected to comprise a considerable part of RES with the rapid growth in utilization of these resources in the market [51].

Biogas can be used for heating and electricity production, providing local autonomy for the region in the face of the increasing cost of fossil fuels.

Manure storage facilities on farms should be considered to be a temporary solution, and farmers should have knowledge about the negative influence on the environment caused by improper treatment of manure. Education and financial support in changing the approach to animal waste management can be a key factor.

The conversion of animal waste to biogas through anaerobic digestion processes can provide added value to manure as an energy resource and reduce the environmental problems associated with animal waste. It is worth mentioning that dairy cattle manure is endowed with considerable biogas production, offering numerous benefits with respect to environmental, agricultural and socio-economic standards.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, E.Y.; methodology, E.Y. formal analysis, E.Y.; investigation, G.S.; resources, G.S.; writing—original draft preparation, G.S.; writing—review and editing, E.Y.; supervision, E.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This study was funded by Scientific Research Fund of Adnan Menderes University (Project No: ZRF12049).

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**MATLAB Code:**

The code algorithm of phase-plane diagram and Poincare' map are added at the end of this chapter. The code is done using MATLAB software and as in below:

```
clear; clc; close all
SignalName = '100rpm.dat';
signal = load(SignalName);
signal = signal - min(signal);
% Poincare map
% original D=signal; % Read data
[x1max,t1max] = findpeaks(D(:,1));
```
*Nonlinear Dynamics Phenomenon in a Polydyne Cam with an Offset Flat Faced Follower… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106179*

**Figure 10.** *Follower displacement against time when the follower offsets to the right (O = 50 mm) at various cam speeds.*

## **Figure 11.**

*Follower displacement against time when the follower offsets to the left (O = 40 mm) at various cam speeds.*

```
Nmax = length(x1max); figure(1)
   subplot(1,2,1)
   for i=1:Nmax-1 plot(x1max(i),x1max(i+1),'ko','MarkerSize',5,'MarkerFa-
ceColor','k')
   hold on
   axis square
   xlabel('x_{max} '),ylabel('next x_{max}')
   grid on
   end
   %title('n = 100 rpm c = 1.5 mm') SignalName = '100rpmc2.dat';
   signal = load(SignalName);
   D = signal; % Read data
```

```
[x1max,t1max] = findpeaks(D(:,1));
   Nmax = length(x1max); subplot(1,2,2)
   for i=1:Nmax-1 plot(x1max(i),x1max(i+1),'ko','MarkerSize',5,'MarkerFa-
ceColor','k')
   hold on
   axis square
   xlabel('x_{max} '),ylabel('next x_{max}')
   grid on
   end
   %title('n = 100 rpm c = 2 mm') figure(2)
   aa = load('100rpm.dat');
   aa = aa - min(aa);
   plot(aa, gradient(aa));
```


*passage.* **Table 1.**

*Pneumothorax*

**2. Incidence**

[4, 8–10, 19, 22–29].

The mean age of onset is reported to be 32–35 years [3, 4, 12, 14–17]. CPX may also develop as late as at 39 years of age [18, 19]. CPX occurs most often (85–95%) unilaterally, usually occurring on the right side of the chest, but there are cases on

CPX is generally considered to be a rare entity, and there is an incidence less than 3–6% among women who suffer from spontaneous pneumothorax. Such a low incidence rate may be a result of decreased disease awareness and underdiagnosis

In a recent study [24, 29, 30], 156 premenopausal women who underwent surgery for spontaneous pneumothorax were reviewed retrospectively, and 31.4%

Yet, the incidence of catamenial pneumothorax was much higher among women at reproductive age who were referred for surgical treatment because of recurrent

In a retrospective study, Alifano et al. reported thoracic endometriosis in 13 out of 35 (37%) patients who underwent reoperation for recurrent spontaneous pneumothorax [29]. Catamenial pneumothorax was the initial diagnosis in eight cases and idiopathic pneumothorax in four cases [29]. Under/misdiagnosis of thoracic endometriosis can be referred to several causes, including decreased disease awareness, incomplete scanning for the lesions, variations in the size, appearance, and

The etiopathology of catamenial pneumothorax remains unclear, but there are some theories explaining the etiopathogenesis of catamenial pneumothorax. These theories include physiological, migrational, microembolic-metastatic, and the

According to the physiologic hypothesis, high levels of circulating prostaglandin F2 during menstrual cycle cause vasoconstriction and this induces alveolar rupture and pneumothorax. Pulmonary bullae blebs may be more sensitive to ruptures during hormonal changes. There are no pathognomonic lesions in such cases and this

In metastatic or lymphovascular microembolization theory, endometrial tissue spread through the venous and/or the lymphatic system to the lungs, and subsequent catamenial necrosis of endometrial parenchymal site adjacent to visceral pleura causes pneumothorax. If parenchymal endometrial focus is located centrally, hemoptysis may be present as a symptom [3, 4, 7, 8, 22, 24, 30–32]. Endometrial tissue can be detected in the lung parenchyma, at knee, in the brain, and in the eye.

According to the transgenital-transdiaphragmatic passage of air theory, absence of cervical mucus during menstruation provides air passage from the vagina to the uterus, through the cervix. Then, air enters the peritoneal cavity straight through the fallopian tubes and reaches to the pleural space by diaphragmatic defects [4, 7, 8, 22, 24, 31]. This passage is facilitated by the difference in atmospheric pressures between pleural space and peritoneal space since the atmospheric pressure in the

which pneumothorax also occurs on the left side or bilaterally [11, 15–21].

spontaneous pneumothorax, ranging between 18 and 33% [9–12, 22].

(49/156) of the patients were classified as CPX.

diaphragmatic theory of air passage [17] (**Table 1**).

issue supports the physiologic theory [4, 7, 8, 24, 31].

pleural cavity is less than the pressure in the peritoneal cavity.

This supports the metastatic theory [12].

number of the lesions [24, 30].

**3. Etiology**

**42**

*The etiopathology of catamenial pneumothorax remains unclear, but there are some theories explaining the etiopathogenesis of catamenial pneumothorax.*

There are few reports in the literature regarding transgenital-transdiaphragmatic passage of air theory. There are rare cases reporting simultaneous [33, 34] or undulating episodes CPX and pneumoperitoneum [35], and also case reports defining radiologic findings of small diaphragmatic defects associated with ipsilateral CPX [21]. But repeated episodes of pneumothorax after hysterectomy, fallopian tube ligation, and diaphragmatic resection provide evidence that all the CPX cases can be explained by this theory [7, 24, 29, 36].

Migration theory is based on retrograde menstruation which causes in pelvic seeding of endometrial tissue and migration of this tissue to the subdiaphragmatic sites through the peritoneal fluid flow. Endometrial tissue is mostly implanted to the right hemidiaphragm because peritoneal circulation prefers a clockwise flow through the right paracolic gutter to right hemidiaphragm and the liver facilitates flow with its piston-like activity. Catamenial necrosis of this diaphragmatic endometrial implants results in diaphragmatic perforations. Endometrial tissue then passes through this diaphragmatic perforation and spreads into the thoracic cavity. Ectopic endometrial tissue implants to the visceral pleura and following catamenial necrosis of this tissue cause rupture of the underlying alveoli, and pneumothorax occurs [3, 4, 7, 8, 22, 24, 30, 31]. Endometrial diaphragmatic implants exist along with diaphragmatic perforations [37], and endometrial tissue can be seen at the edges of the diaphragmatic perforations in many cases of CPX [22]; these findings may support the migration theory in the etiopathology of catamenial pneumothorax.


*A.1.3. Li-Ion BESS*

The charging and discharging rate of the Li-ion BESS is limited by either the C-rate or the state of charge (SOC) as shown by Equations (A5) and (A6). In these equations, *SLi* is the rated size of the Li-ion BESS installation, *C* is the C-rate, and the min# *x*, *y* \$ function returns whichever is smaller among *x* or *y*. The negative sign indicates charging, as this will be relevant in the later equations. In Equation (A6), a maximum depth of discharge (DODmax) of 0.8 is implemented as too much discharge that will damage the BESS:

$$P\_c^{\text{max}}(t) = -\min \left\{ \begin{array}{ll} \text{S}\_{Li}\text{C}\_t & \text{S}\_{Li}(1 - \text{SOC}(t)) \end{array} \right\} \tag{A5}$$

$$P\_{dc}^{\text{max}}(t) = \min \left\{ \ S\_{Li} \mathbb{C}\_{\prime} \quad \mathcal{S}\_{Li}(\text{SOC} - (1 - \text{DOD}\_{\text{max}})) \right\} \tag{A6}$$

Next, the power entering one battery module *P*(*t*) is determined as shown in Equations (A7) and (A8) for charging and discharging, respectively. A charge *c* and discharge *dc* efficiency of 0.95 is applied, which results in a roundtrip efficiency of 0.90 when combined. *Snom* is the nominal size of one battery module (4.8 kWh).

$$P(t) = \frac{P\_{\varepsilon}(t)\varepsilon\_{\varepsilon}}{S\_{st}/S\_{\text{nom}}},\tag{A7}$$

$$P(t) = \frac{P\_{\rm dc}(t) / \varepsilon\_{\rm dc}}{S\_{\rm st} / S\_{\rm nonn}},\tag{A8}$$

The Li-ion battery chemistry is modeled using the Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in Figure A1. *P*(*t*) represents the power at the terminals. *R*1 (1.4 Ω) is the resistance due to the electrolyte, while *R*2 (0.5 Ω) and *C* (52 F) are resistances at the electrode interface [66].

**Figure A1.** Thevenin equivalent circuit for modelling Li-ion battery chemistry.

The current through the EMF element is determined and the SOC for the next timestep is given by Equation (A9). *V*0(*t*) is the open circuit voltage (OCV) of the battery module.

$$\text{SOC}(t+1) = \text{SOC}(t) - \frac{I(t)V\_0(t)}{S\_{\text{mm}}},\tag{A9}$$

The module OCV is given as a function of SOC by Figure A2.

**Figure A2.** Open circuit voltage (OCV) as a function of SOC for a 48 V Li-ion battery module.


**4. Effect of environmental modification for dairy cows under tropical conditions**

Reducing heat stress in dairy cattle requires a multi-disciplinary approach. It involves breeding for improved heat tolerance, improved nutrition and improved reproductive management for the animals, and improved the structural design and the environmental control of their housing.

312 Milk Production – An Up-to-Date Overview of Animal Nutrition, Management and Health

which affects the reproductive function and embryonic development.

[36,37]. Heat stress delays follicle selection and lengthens the follicular wave having

Heat stress cause infertility and represented a major source of economic loss in dairy cows under tropical conditions. In recent study, the conception rate of dairy cows in Thailand decrease 20-30 % in hot season. The conception rate was lower in April and May when compared to other month, which lowest in summer and highest in winter (Figure 1). The effects of heat stress can be directly related to the increase in body temperature of dairy cow,

**Figure 1.** Conception rates of dairy cows in commercial farm located in the central part of Thailand.

**4. Effect of environmental modification for dairy cows under tropical**

Reducing heat stress in dairy cattle requires a multi-disciplinary approach. It involves breeding for improved heat tolerance, improved nutrition and improved reproductive

enhance pregnancy rates significantly [24,41].

**conditions**

The detrimental effects of heat stress on the reproductive performance of dairy cows have been well documented. These include a suppressed intensity of oestrus, a reduced preovulatory LH surge and decreased secretion of luteal progesterone [25], altered ovarian follicular development [33], decreased embryo development [38] and lower fertility [39]. In an attempt to minimize these effects, modifications to dairy cattle housing environments have been implemented to alleviate thermal stressors and improve cow comfort, through the use of shade, fans, sprinklers, and evaporative cooling [11,37,40]. These methods can

potentially adverse effects on oocytes quality [34] and follicular steroidogenesis [35].

Heat stress reduces milk production and reproductive efficiency. In an attempt to minimize these effects, modifications to dairy cattle housing environments have been implemented to alleviate thermal stressors and improve cow comfort [11,37,40,42]. The major objective of any cooling system is to keep the cow's body temperature as close to normal for as much of the day as possible. An acceptable range in rectal temperature is 38.5-39.3 C. There are two general approaches to cooling dairy cows. One is to modify the environment to prevent heat stress or to utilize methods that increase heat dissipation from the skin surface of cattle. The easiest and most obvious way to help heat-stressed cows is to provide shade. Direct sunlight adds a tremendous heat load to the cow and can be blocked by shades, but shade alone is inadequate to reduce the effect of heat stress. A more economical method to reduce the effect of heat stress is by evaporative cooling. Evaporative cooling can be accomplished by two approaches; 1) direct evaporation from the skin surface of the cows (fan and sprinkler combinations) and 2) indirect evaporation which involve cooling the micro-environment of the cows, with cooling pads and fans, in an enclosed barn. When water evaporates it absorbs heat, there by reducing the temperature and increasing heat dissipation from the skin of cattle. When water evaporates it also increases the relative humidity, due to the increased level of water vapor present. In hot and humid regions, evaporative cooling always requires the use of forced ventilation.

A number of studies have shown that housing systems in hot climates can be modified by the use of evaporative cooling to improve both milk production and reproductive efficiency of dairy cows [43-46]. There is a great potential to reduce temperature and THI. However, as relative humidity increases and or temperature decreases, the potential for evaporative cooling to modify the environment decreases. In hot and humid climates, high relative humidity reduces the potential of evaporative cooling. Therefore, there are questions regarding the effectiveness of evaporative systems in climates with high relative humidity. This chapter showed the impact of heat stress on postpartum cow performances and evaluated the effects of utilizing an evaporative cooling system for improved cow comfort and cow performance of early lactating dairy cows in a hot and humid climate.