*4.5. Gene Structure Analysis*

To analyze gene structure, the exon, and intron structures of *SlUGlcAE* and *AtUGlcAE* genes were generated using the Gene Structure Display Server 2.0 (available online: http://gsds.cbi.pku.edu. cn) [48] by aligning the CDS sequences with the corresponding genomic DNA sequences from the SGN (available online: http://solgenomics.net/) [37].


*Article* **ARSD: An Adaptive Region Selection Object Detection Framework for UAV Images**

**Yuzhuang Wan 1 , Yi Zhong 1 , Yan Huang 2 , Yi Han 1,\* , Yongqiang Cui 3 , Qi Yang 4 , Zhuo Li 5 , Zhenhui Yuan 6 and Qing Li 7**

**Abstract:** Due to the rapid development of deep learning, the performance of object detection has greatly improved. However, object detection in high-resolution Unmanned Aerial Vehicles images remains a challenging problem for three main reasons: (1) the objects in aerial images have different scales and are usually small; (2) the images are high-resolution but state-of-the-art object detection networks are of a fixed size; (3) the objects are not evenly distributed in aerial images. To this end, we propose a two-stage Adaptive Region Selection Detection framework in this paper. An Overall Region Detection Network is first applied to coarsely localize the object. A fixed points density-based targets clustering algorithm and an adaptive selection algorithm are then designed to select object-dense sub-regions. The object-dense sub-regions are sent to a Key Regions Detection Network where results are fused with the results at the first stage. Extensive experiments and comprehensive evaluations on the VisDrone2021-DET benchmark datasets demonstrate the effectiveness and adaptiveness of the proposed framework. Experimental results show that the proposed framework outperforms, in terms of mean average precision (mAP), the existing baseline methods by 2.1% without additional time consumption.

**Keywords:** UAV; object detection; deep learning; adaptive cluster


**1. Introduction**

Citrus is a genus of evergreen tree or shrub that belongs to the family of Rutaceae and a native to the subtropical and tropical region of Asia [1]. There are several species of the genus citrus which include sweet orange (*Citrus sinensis*), mandarins (*C. reticulata, C. clementina, C. deliciosa, C. unshiu* and others), lemon (*C. limon*), limes (*C. aurantifolia, C. latifolia, C. limettioides, C. limetta* and others), grapefruit (*C. paradisi*), sour orange (*C. aurantium*) and shaddocks (*C. grandis*) [2, 3]. Citrus fruit is a very popular and important fruit that is cherished all over the world in the form of fruit salad, mixed salad, fruit juice, drink, and condiment in several kinds of preparations [4]. One-third of total citrus fruit production comes from orange juice production and this account for 80% of citrus fruit processing. The world production of oranges was estimated to be 76 million metric tons in 2019–2020, the largest producers were led by Brazil, China, India, the USA, Mexico, Spain, and Egypt [5].

Global citrus production reaches to 144 million metric tons in 2020. China ranking as the biggest producer of citrus followed by Brazil, India, Mexico, Spain, Egypt, Iran, and South Africa [5].

Mineral nutrients are essential for plant growth and development. They are the major class of food components necessary for the maintenance of physiological conditions that are essential for life [6, 7]. These essential nutrients are found in many different types of plant and animal-based foods. Mineral nutrients are classified into macro-minerals and trace elements. Macro-mineral is required in greater amounts and include calcium, potassium, sodium, phosphorus, magnesium, chloride, and sulfur whereas trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts, which may include iron, zinc, selenium, manganese, copper, iodine, cobalt, and fluoride. Both types of minerals support building, and maintaining healthy bones and teeth and also help to keep the muscles, heart, and brain working properly [8, 9]. Plants are the major sources of mineral elements in our diets; these substances are not synthesized in plants but are absorbed from the soil and the atmosphere. Therefore, the amount of minerals absorbed by the plants depends largely on the nutrient content and compositions of the soil where they were grown among other environmental factors [7, 10]. Additionally, nutrients play a significant role in soil fertility and make it more productive for plant growth [11]. Mineral nutrients required by citrus trees are in large quantities in order to attain adequate growth and yield, and the requirements for some of the nutrients vary with soil fertility and type.

Trace elements in fruit may be influenced by the amount of mineral composition of the soil, irrigation water, weather conditions, and the types and amounts of fertilizers used. There is a significant impact of fruit variety on mineral content [12, 13]. Trace metals in fruits are selectively accumulated and pineapple, for example, accumulated a high level of manganese as compared to other fruits studied [14]. The citrus pulp is recognized as providing some mineral elements such as potassium, calcium, phosphorus, or magnesium for human nutrition but there are other parts of the fruit that also contain these elements. The peels of orange, lime, and mandarin are not recognized in nutrition because they are non-edible components. But these peels of the fruits (orange, lime, and mandarin) like in their pulps are promising sources of mineral elements which can be used for their health properties in food products [15]. These properties can also be applied to food as a source of functional compounds [15].


**4. Study methodology**

#### **4.1. Methodology and implementation of the pilot study**

Study design RCT: Interventional, experimental, prospective, randomized, controlled, parallel, with a follow-up (6–12 months).

Study group (SG): Hospice patients (with caregivers, women, and men, aged >18, with preserved cognitive skills, diagnosed with advanced cancer, with life expectancy <6 months), receiving palliative care at the stationary or home hospice setting, plus DT. Control group (CG) (similar in size to the SG), hospice patients (as in SG), receiving standard palliative care at the stationary or home hospice setting.

#### *4.1.1. Study intervention*

Calendarium Vitae (CV), as a form of DT, involves patients and caregivers (as teams) asking the patients questions about their most important achievements, roles, and other important aspects of life. Simultaneously, CV invites the caregivers to contributing to the creation of the DT final document (CV album).

#### *4.1.2. Eligibility criteria*

Inclusion criteria for patients (Pts):

Exclusion criteria for patients (Pts):

Inclusion criteria for caregivers:

The therapy will be guided by therapists (working in teams with postgraduate students). CV consists of three tape-recorded + one final sessions. The main goal of the CV intervention is to invite patients to reflect on their most important accomplishments, roles in their lives, or other things that they would most want to be remembered. Upon completion of the intervention, the recorded sessions will be transcribed and edited to provide a clear narrative CV document (album) that can be given to a person selected by the patient (e.g., family member, friend), or donated to hospice (as an option). The proposed CV intervention, in addition to the original DT model, introduces a patient-caregiver "team" approach in which both the patient and the caregiver (usually a close family member) actively participate in creation of the final DT document (CV album) (e.g., the patient is mostly involved with the 1st, "conceptual" part, and the caregiver is helping with the 2nd "executive" part, by "gathering evidence" (such as photos,

Study design RCT: Interventional, experimental, prospective, randomized, controlled, paral-

Study group (SG): Hospice patients (with caregivers, women, and men, aged >18, with preserved cognitive skills, diagnosed with advanced cancer, with life expectancy <6 months), receiving palliative care at the stationary or home hospice setting, plus DT. Control group (CG) (similar in size to the SG), hospice patients (as in SG), receiving standard palliative care

Calendarium Vitae (CV), as a form of DT, involves patients and caregivers (as teams) asking the patients questions about their most important achievements, roles, and other important aspects of life. Simultaneously, CV invites the caregivers to contributing to the creation of the

for the CV album).

**4. Study methodology**

114 Clinical Trials in Vulnerable Populations

*4.1.1. Study intervention*

*4.1.2. Eligibility criteria*

• ≥18 years of age

• Preserved cognitive skills

DT final document (CV album).

Inclusion criteria for patients (Pts): • Signed informed consent form

• Diagnosis of advanced cancer, with life expectancy < 6 months

• Receiving palliative care at the hospice (stationary or home)

lel, with a follow-up (6–12 months).

at the stationary or home hospice setting.

**4.1. Methodology and implementation of the pilot study**

• A desire to alleviate suffering and distress of the terminally ill relative, beyond standard care

Exclusion criteria for caregivers:

• Physical or mental illness precluding participation in the study

*4.1.3. Study outcome measures (OM) and tools*

Outcome measures for hospice patients (Pts):

(Time frame: Pre-postintervention (when the final study document = CV album is received by the patient, and again 2 weeks later)

Outcome measures for caregivers:

(Time frame: 1, pre-postintervention, and again 2 weeks later; 2, with the last evaluation)

The main study procedures:

Orientation meeting for the study therapists, investigators, coordinators, hospice staff, and caregivers. CV intervention includes four sessions:

(each session could be extended to 2 hours, depending on the patient's condition)

All sessions will be conducted by a team, including a therapist (e.g., a psychologist, or a physician) and a student (a graduate student preparing MS thesis, or a specially trained hospice volunteer (optional))

advertisements in local newspapers, and via the Internet. Interested patients (and their caregivers) will receive detailed information regarding the DT course and will be screened (with the HADS). First-inclusion and exclusion criteria will be checked in a standardized interview, and then the patients (and the caregivers) will have a brief introduction conducted by the

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It is estimated that the number of participants screened for the study should be approximately 100, in order to enroll into the study about 10–20 patients with terminal cancer, for the study group (SG), and about 10–20 patients, for the control group (CG). Eligible candidates will sign an ICF (after explanations about the study principles and voluntary participation in it) and

In 2017, about 100 adult patients, who suffer from terminal cancer (diagnosed at least 3 months prior to entering of the pilot study) will be randomized to a study group or control

The study group (SG) (*N* = 10–20) will be composed of women and men with terminal cancer, with <6 months prognosis, aged >18 years, treated with a standard palliative care will receive

The control group (CG) (similar in size, age, diagnosis, and prognosis to the SG) will be com-

Duration of the study DT intervention equals to 2 weeks, and includes: 2-week DT process,

The patients in the CG will be receiving PC only, and filling out research questionnaires.

The pilot study participants in both groups will continue their regular, standard PC.

*4.2.6. Management of randomized controlled trial (RCT) examining DT intervention among*

After completing of the pilot study, a subsequent step of recruitment of the volunteersparticipants for the RCT (DT in hospice patients) will be conducted according to the same design, by therapists-investigators in the year 2017, and continued for the consecutive

As in the pilot study, during the above-mentioned recruitment periods, the therapistsinvestigators will invite to take part in this trial, a larger number of patients with terminal cancer admitted to hospice care facility. Adult men and women (>18 years of age) with

posed of hospice patients and will receive a standard palliative care (PC) only.

with 4 bi-weekly sessions (the study intervention = Calendarium Vitae, CV).

will be enrolled into the study, which will be commenced in the year 2017.

study investigator or coordinator.

*4.2.5. Study groups*

DT intervention.

*hospice patients.*

steps of the project.

The patients in the SG will be obligated to:

• participation in the DT sessions; and

• filling out research questionnaires.

group.

All therapy sessions will be tape-recorded, transcribed, edited by the team and returned to the patient and the caregiver.

Construction and editing of the CV album requires a brief training session for the team members (to assure quality of care and to avoid bias)

Total duration of pilot study: 2 weeks (intervention) + 3 months follow-up.

Total duration of RCT: 2 weeks (intervention) + 6, 12 months follow-up.

Statistical analysis: descriptive statistics.

Equipment: laptops, dictaphones, paper, pens, pencils, graphic, and printing services.

#### **4.2. Detailed description of the study operationalization: logistics of the study**

#### *4.2.1. Setting*

This study will be conducted in Eastern and Central European hospice setting. Therapists (such as psychologists or physicians in collaboration with MS students, forming teams) who are interested and eligible to participate in the study and who are professionally involved with palliative care (PC) hospice settings will be invited to participate. It is estimated that the number of therapist-investigators should be approximately 2–4.

#### *4.2.2. Investigators*

Before initiation of the program, each team will receive an individual training with regard to the study design, procedures, and methodology, as described in the study protocol. In addition, every therapist-investigator will be trained in DT, in order to conduct the DT intervention.

#### *4.2.3. Participants*

Adult patients with terminal stage of cancer (<6 months prognosis) who are referred by their attending physicians (oncologists or family physicians) for palliative care (PC) hospice service and who express their interest in participation in the study will be invited as candidates, shortly after admission to hospice within the study recruitment period. The participants will be recruited from adult oncology patients, discharged from the University Hospitals or Oncology Centers.

#### *4.2.4. Recruitment*

Information about the study, together with an invitation to participate in it, will be conveyed to potential candidates, during routine hospice visits via flyers, posters, and also through advertisements in local newspapers, and via the Internet. Interested patients (and their caregivers) will receive detailed information regarding the DT course and will be screened (with the HADS). First-inclusion and exclusion criteria will be checked in a standardized interview, and then the patients (and the caregivers) will have a brief introduction conducted by the study investigator or coordinator.

It is estimated that the number of participants screened for the study should be approximately 100, in order to enroll into the study about 10–20 patients with terminal cancer, for the study group (SG), and about 10–20 patients, for the control group (CG). Eligible candidates will sign an ICF (after explanations about the study principles and voluntary participation in it) and will be enrolled into the study, which will be commenced in the year 2017.

#### *4.2.5. Study groups*

(each session could be extended to 2 hours, depending on the patient's condition)

Total duration of pilot study: 2 weeks (intervention) + 3 months follow-up.

Total duration of RCT: 2 weeks (intervention) + 6, 12 months follow-up.

number of therapist-investigators should be approximately 2–4.

volunteer (optional))

116 Clinical Trials in Vulnerable Populations

*4.2.1. Setting*

*4.2.2. Investigators*

*4.2.3. Participants*

Oncology Centers.

*4.2.4. Recruitment*

the patient and the caregiver.

bers (to assure quality of care and to avoid bias)

Statistical analysis: descriptive statistics.

All sessions will be conducted by a team, including a therapist (e.g., a psychologist, or a physician) and a student (a graduate student preparing MS thesis, or a specially trained hospice

All therapy sessions will be tape-recorded, transcribed, edited by the team and returned to

Construction and editing of the CV album requires a brief training session for the team mem-

Equipment: laptops, dictaphones, paper, pens, pencils, graphic, and printing services.

This study will be conducted in Eastern and Central European hospice setting. Therapists (such as psychologists or physicians in collaboration with MS students, forming teams) who are interested and eligible to participate in the study and who are professionally involved with palliative care (PC) hospice settings will be invited to participate. It is estimated that the

Before initiation of the program, each team will receive an individual training with regard to the study design, procedures, and methodology, as described in the study protocol. In addition, every therapist-investigator will be trained in DT, in order to conduct the DT intervention.

Adult patients with terminal stage of cancer (<6 months prognosis) who are referred by their attending physicians (oncologists or family physicians) for palliative care (PC) hospice service and who express their interest in participation in the study will be invited as candidates, shortly after admission to hospice within the study recruitment period. The participants will be recruited from adult oncology patients, discharged from the University Hospitals or

Information about the study, together with an invitation to participate in it, will be conveyed to potential candidates, during routine hospice visits via flyers, posters, and also through

**4.2. Detailed description of the study operationalization: logistics of the study**

In 2017, about 100 adult patients, who suffer from terminal cancer (diagnosed at least 3 months prior to entering of the pilot study) will be randomized to a study group or control group.

The study group (SG) (*N* = 10–20) will be composed of women and men with terminal cancer, with <6 months prognosis, aged >18 years, treated with a standard palliative care will receive DT intervention.

The control group (CG) (similar in size, age, diagnosis, and prognosis to the SG) will be composed of hospice patients and will receive a standard palliative care (PC) only.

Duration of the study DT intervention equals to 2 weeks, and includes: 2-week DT process, with 4 bi-weekly sessions (the study intervention = Calendarium Vitae, CV).

The patients in the SG will be obligated to:

The patients in the CG will be receiving PC only, and filling out research questionnaires.

The pilot study participants in both groups will continue their regular, standard PC.

#### *4.2.6. Management of randomized controlled trial (RCT) examining DT intervention among hospice patients.*

After completing of the pilot study, a subsequent step of recruitment of the volunteersparticipants for the RCT (DT in hospice patients) will be conducted according to the same design, by therapists-investigators in the year 2017, and continued for the consecutive steps of the project.

As in the pilot study, during the above-mentioned recruitment periods, the therapistsinvestigators will invite to take part in this trial, a larger number of patients with terminal cancer admitted to hospice care facility. Adult men and women (>18 years of age) with terminal cancer and <6 months prognosis, who are interested in participation in the trial will be given information about the study, upon admission to hospice, within the trial recruitment phase.

**8.** State of health prior to a diagnosis of cancer

tion of items 6–9) will be used as follows:

**5.** Place of residence (country, town)

ables in statistical analyses;

the study.

**2.** Date of birth (age)

**3.** Gender

**9.** Presence of serious/chronic diseases—what kind?

**4.** Education (higher, medium, or elementary level)

**6.** Type of the cancer of the relative admitted to hospice care

**9.** Presence of preexisting serious/chronic diseases—what kind?

from the statistical analyses will be made in the case of:

metric measurements obtained during the study visits.

**1.** lack of the complete answers in the questionnaire form;

**1.** The caregiver's identification number (for confidentiality purposes)

With regard to caregivers of the study patients, the analogical questionnaire (with modifica-

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119

**7.** Duration of to taking care of the relative with terminal cancer—how many years?

**8.** State of health prior to taking care of a relative with terminal cancer, admitted to hospice

The electronic database will be created using software program, and analyses of variables will be performed, utilizing the statistical program. Decisions regarding exclusion of the records

**2.** illegible or ambiguous record in the questionnaire, precluding proper evaluation of vari-

**4.** documented information of the therapist-investigator regarding further participation in

Psychometric measurements will be taken on the day of initial survey completion, and then post-DT intervention, and again, one 2 weeks after it. The study teams will collect the data using the study clinical report forms (CRF), based on the patients' questionnaires and psycho-

DT intervention (described in detail in another section) will be offered in one hospice center and will consists of a 1–2 hour sessions, 2 times per week (for 2 weeks), during which, the participants will complete the DT final document = CV album (including "life reflection interview" that will be transcribed and revised, before final edition of the CV album). The primary focus of the DT is to have a positive reflection on life, leading to decreased psychophysical distress and suffering that should translate into better QoL. Similarly, for the caregivers, the

**3.** lack of written signature of the study/trial participant (informed consent form); and

In the process of recruiting the hospice patients-volunteers to RCT (including distribution of the trial information and pre-screening via the standardized interview and HADS), the same methodology as in the pilot study will be used.

It is estimated that the number of participants screened for the RCT should be approximately 500, in order to enroll into the trial about 50–100 patients with terminal cancer for the study group (SG) and 50–100 patients with terminal cancer for the control group (CG).

Eligible candidates, who meet the Inclusion/exclusion criteria, will sign an ICF (after explanations about the trial principles, and voluntary participation in it), and will be enrolled into the trial, which will start in the year 2018. The trial will use the same procedures (including randomization), eligibility criteria, psychometric measurements, and outcome measures, as the pilot study. In 2019, a follow-up of this trial will be conducted using the same outcome measures as the ones used in the pilot study.

#### *4.2.7. Inclusion/exclusion criteria: (pilot study and trial (RCT))*

**Eligibility criteria:** Inclusion/exclusion for participants (as previously listed)

Based on:

patients who meet qualification criteria will be enrolled into the pilot study/RCT.

The data derived from the study participants will be summarized and then utilized in statistical analyses. Pilot study parameters, which will be analyzed, according to the questionnaire, prepared for the purpose of this study, will contain the following variables:

With regard to caregivers of the study patients, the analogical questionnaire (with modification of items 6–9) will be used as follows:

terminal cancer and <6 months prognosis, who are interested in participation in the trial will be given information about the study, upon admission to hospice, within the trial

In the process of recruiting the hospice patients-volunteers to RCT (including distribution of the trial information and pre-screening via the standardized interview and HADS), the same

It is estimated that the number of participants screened for the RCT should be approximately 500, in order to enroll into the trial about 50–100 patients with terminal cancer for the study

Eligible candidates, who meet the Inclusion/exclusion criteria, will sign an ICF (after explanations about the trial principles, and voluntary participation in it), and will be enrolled into the trial, which will start in the year 2018. The trial will use the same procedures (including randomization), eligibility criteria, psychometric measurements, and outcome measures, as the pilot study. In 2019, a follow-up of this trial will be conducted using the same outcome

group (SG) and 50–100 patients with terminal cancer for the control group (CG).

**Eligibility criteria:** Inclusion/exclusion for participants (as previously listed)

patients who meet qualification criteria will be enrolled into the pilot study/RCT.

prepared for the purpose of this study, will contain the following variables:

**1.** The participant's identification number (for confidentiality purposes)

The data derived from the study participants will be summarized and then utilized in statistical analyses. Pilot study parameters, which will be analyzed, according to the questionnaire,

recruitment phase.

118 Clinical Trials in Vulnerable Populations

Based on:

• screening interview,

**2.** Date of birth (age)

**6.** Type of the cancer

**3.** Gender

methodology as in the pilot study will be used.

measures as the ones used in the pilot study.

*4.2.7. Inclusion/exclusion criteria: (pilot study and trial (RCT))*

• meeting of the inclusion criteria (all the responses are Yes),

• signing a voluntary informed consent form (ICF),

**4.** Education (higher, medium, or elementary level)

**7.** Duration of the oncological therapy—how many years?

**5.** Place of residence (country, town)

• meeting of the exclusion criteria (all the responses are No), and

The electronic database will be created using software program, and analyses of variables will be performed, utilizing the statistical program. Decisions regarding exclusion of the records from the statistical analyses will be made in the case of:

Psychometric measurements will be taken on the day of initial survey completion, and then post-DT intervention, and again, one 2 weeks after it. The study teams will collect the data using the study clinical report forms (CRF), based on the patients' questionnaires and psychometric measurements obtained during the study visits.

DT intervention (described in detail in another section) will be offered in one hospice center and will consists of a 1–2 hour sessions, 2 times per week (for 2 weeks), during which, the participants will complete the DT final document = CV album (including "life reflection interview" that will be transcribed and revised, before final edition of the CV album). The primary focus of the DT is to have a positive reflection on life, leading to decreased psychophysical distress and suffering that should translate into better QoL. Similarly, for the caregivers, the main focus of the DT is to be able to better cope with stress and suffering, related to terminal disease of the relative.

Study discontinuation: The participants may withdraw from the study due to any reason,

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Limitations of the study: The interpretation of the results might be limited due to a small

In summary, dignity therapy (DT) (based on research evidence from international studies, published in scientific literature) represents a feasible, safe, and effective, patient-friendly approach, targeting end-of-life psychological problems. DT has a unique potential to help patients with terminal stages of cancer. In particular, DT can fulfill some unmet psychological and spiritual needs, help preserve psychophysical integrity, and distress, as well as support caregivers, during the bereavement period [3, 6, 11, 13]. Since DT is unknown in Eastern and Central Europe, the proposed pilot study, followed by RCT, will be the first step on the way

Department of Family Practice, Medical University of Silesia (SUM), Katowice-Zabrze, Poland

[1] Chochinov HM. Health care, health caring, and the culture of medicine. Current Onco-

[2] Chochinov HM. The secret is out: Patients are people with feelings that matter. Palliative

[3] Corn BW, Chochinov HM, Vachon M. Integrating spiritual care into the practice of

[4] Sinclair S, Norris JM, McConnell SJ, Chochinov HM, Hack TF, Hagen NA, et al. Compassion: A scoping review of the healthcare literature. BMC Palliative Care. January 19,

[5] Sinclair S, McClement S, Raffin-Bouchal S, Hack TF, Hagen NA, McConnell S, Chochinov HM. Compassion in Health Care: An empirical model. Journal of Pain and Symptom

oncology. Current Opinion in Supportive and Palliative Care. 2012;**6**:226-227

to explore the DT intervention in research among hospice patients in this area.

without any consequences, and they will continue palliative care.

Conflict of interests: There is no conflict of interests.

Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
sample size.

**5. Conclusion**

**Author details**

Katarzyna Rygiel

**References**

logy. 2014 Oct;**21**(5):e668-9

Supportive Care. 2013;**11**:287-288

Management. 2016;**51**:193-203

2016;**15**:6. DOI: 10.1186/s12904-016-0080-0

#### *4.2.8. Study timeline*

Schedule of the research visits.

V# 1—Orientation/introduction (0 week),

V# 2—Intake/interview (1 week),

V# 3—Revision/edition (2 weeks),

V# 4—Final (3 weeks).

Abbreviations used in the schedule: V—visit.

From a practical point of view, the pilot study and RCT will analyze the measured psychological parameters, which characterize daily distress and health-related quality of life (QoL). Similarly, for the caregivers, the parameters that characterize psychophysical health will be analyzed. These measurements are easily available and can be promptly and safely conducted in the hospice setting. In addition, the caregivers will complete a survey related to the DT intervention benefits or possible concerns.

#### *4.2.9. Statistical analysis*

SG and CG will be compared using chi-square analysis for discrete data and independent *t*-tests for continuous data on demographics and baseline variables. For each outcome measure (except the caregivers' survey), the results of the DT intervention will be compared by analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) taking the postintervention measurement as dependent values. Respective baseline value of the outcome (V1) will served as a covariate. Within the statistical model, the group variable will serve as between-subject factor, and the postintervention measures as dependent factors. Statistical significance is set at the 0.05 level. The intention-to-treat principle will be used in this study. The CV transcript will be analyzed for content. All the statistical analyses will be conducted using the statistical program.

#### *4.2.10. Reference therapy*

Usual palliative care in patients with terminal cancer includes medically indicated nonpharmacological therapy, combined with pharmacological comfort care (e.g., pain control) and holistic care, focusing on management of psychophysical and spiritual needs and personal care (e.g., skin care). Despite that many hospice patients suffer on a daily basis from loss of personal autonomy, dignity, as well as mental distress, depression, and anxiety, in addition to physical discomfort.

Safety, potential risk of the study: No risk/adverse effects to participants have been documented with regard to the DT intervention.

Study discontinuation: The participants may withdraw from the study due to any reason, without any consequences, and they will continue palliative care.

Limitations of the study: The interpretation of the results might be limited due to a small sample size.

Conflict of interests: There is no conflict of interests.


Meet the editor

Florina Gisela Gaina, PhD, currently works at "Victor Babes" National Institute of Pathology, Bucharest, Romania. She received her PhD in Biology from the University of Bucharest, Romania, in 2009 with a thesis project based on the study of the proteins involved in muscular dystrophies. She is a research scientist working in the field of skeletal muscle. The primary focus of her research activities is on skeletal muscle regeneration. She

has been involved in a number of research projects funded by regional, national, and international public agencies. She is an author and/or co-author of more than twenty scientific papers and conference abstracts and three book chapters.

Contents

and Present Perspectives

*by Robin Warner*

*and Amelia Aranega*

Dystrophy

Dystrophies

*and Jonathan Dando*

**Preface XI**

**Chapter 1 1**

**Chapter 2 17**

**Chapter 3 27**

**Chapter 4 51**

**Chapter 5 63**

**Chapter 6 81**

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) Treatment: Past

Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy: Genetics and Trials

*by Francisco Hernandez-Torres, Lara Rodriguez-Outeiriño, Lidia Matias-Valiente, Estefania Lozano-Velasco, Diego Franco*

Role of Growth Factors and Apoptosis Proteins in Cognitive Disorder Development in Patients with Duchenne Muscular

Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Regenerative Medicine for

*by Ahmed Elhussieny, Ken'ichiro Nogami, Fusako Sakai-Takemura, Yusuke Maruyama, AbdElraouf Omar Abdelbakey, Wael Abou El-kheir,*

The Impact of Payer and Reimbursement Authorities Evidence Requirements on Healthcare Solution Design for Muscular

*by Maximilian Lebmeier, Fleur Chandler, Josie Godfrey*

*by Nahla O. Mousa, Ahmed Osman, Nagia Fahmy,*

*Ahmed Abdellatif and Waheed K. Zahra*

miRNAs and Muscle Stem Cells

*by Mariia Georgievna Sokolova and Ekaterina Valentinovna Lopatina*

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

*Shin'ichi Takeda and Yuko Miyagoe-Suzuki*

## Contents

Preface

Muscular dystrophies are a group of genetic disorders characterized by progressive weakness and loss of muscle mass. Although more than 30 years have passed since the discovery of the first protein involved in a type of muscular dystrophy, there is still no cure for these conditions. In the last decades, with the improvement of existing molecular biology techniques and the development of new approaches, many efforts have been made to accelerate the disease diagnostic process, to better understand the molecular defects and mechanisms underlying the molecular

Consequently, the development of different effective therapeutic strategies that slow down the course of the disease and improve patient quality of life and mortal-

This book provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in the area of muscle diseases covering clinical manifestations, current diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, clinical trials, and their specific issues. In addition, this book updates the knowledge on mesenchymal stem/progenitor cells and miRNA, and discusses their therapeutic potential in regenerative medicine in a clear and concise manner.

We are very pleased to have had the opportunity to write this book on muscular dystrophy for IntechOpen, and we hope that this book will offer inspiration for young and experienced researchers to answer the many questions muscle pathology

I would like to thank Author Service Manager Romina Rovan for her patience and

**Florina Gisela Gaina**

Bucharest, Romania

Victor Babes National Institute of Pathology,

valuable advice throughout the preparation of this book.

pathogenesis involved in dystrophy conditions.

ity continues to be a priority for researchers.

raises.


**2.7 Cucurbitacin D (7′)**

CuD was evaluated in the chondrosarcoma SW 1353 cancer cell line. Its IC50 values against SW 1353 cells after 6, 12, and 24 h of treatment were 16.48, 13.03, and 13.14 μM, respectively [22].

 The effects of CuD purified from *E. elaterium* fruit on the expression of the BAX, caspase-3, LC3, VEGF, and c-MYC genes in the AGS cell line were investigated. The sub-G1 accumulation of AGS cells treated with CuD was increased compared to that of untreated cells. Moreover, the treatment of AGS cells with CuD induced cell death. Additionally, the effects of cucurbitacin D on the mRNA expression levels of the LC3, VEGF, BAX, caspase-3, and c-MYC genes were evaluated using qRT-PCR. LC3 mRNA levels were increased approximately 23-fold after treatment with CuD at a concentration of 0.3 μg/mL for 24 h. However, the BAX, caspase-3, and c-MYC mRNA levels were not considerably changed after treatment. Regarding the effects of CuD and CuE on LC3 mRNA expression, CuD's effect was significantly greater than that of CuE [23].


*Article* **Time-Fractional Heat Conduction in a Plane with Two External Half-Infinite Line Slits under Heat Flux Loading**

### **Yuriy Povstenko 1,\* and Tamara Kyrylych 2**

Received: 22 April 2019; Accepted: 15 May 2019; Published: 18 May 2019

**Abstract:** The time-fractional heat conduction equation follows from the law of conservation of energy and the corresponding time-nonlocal extension of the Fourier law with the "long-tail" power kernel. The time-fractional heat conduction equation with the Caputo derivative is solved for an infinite plane with two external half-infinite slits with the prescribed heat flux across their surfaces. The integral transform technique is used. The solution is obtained in the form of integrals with integrand being the Mittag–Leffler function. A graphical representation of numerical results is given.

**Keywords:** fractional calculus; Caputo derivative; generalized Fourier law; Laplace transform; Fourier transform; Mittag–Leffler function


**6. Conclusions**

Bindy Johal's life is a remarkable story with plot twists and salacious details more fitting of a Hollywood movie than real life. Johal reached a level of regional notoriety and fame that typically eludes working-class Punjabi boys, and is likely why his legacy resonates with some to this date. As a polarizing figure, Johal is viewed by some as a clear villain and corrupting force, while others may be more empathetic towards him and recognize why he may be a source of admiration among youth. On the surface, Bindy Johal acutely fulfills the 'folk devil' role, and can be easily blamed for the community's gang problem. Yet, any analysis must be cognizant on how such moral panics manifest themselves today, especially since there is no clear consensus on social problems. On one hand, alarmists believe Punjabi youth are being led down the same gang-ridden lifestyle as Johal, while others make counter-claims recognizing his appeal among boys who relate to his struggles. Additionally, as a contemporary moral panic, the fear over Johal's influence on youth is not generated by erratic and volatile bursts of panic that would require immediate action, but instead is a fear that remains a part of the community's conscious and general anxiety over gangs for a more sustained and prolonged period of time.

This analysis reveals several important details of the Bindy Johal story. On the one hand, Johal is deemed a corrupting force, influencing young Punjabi men to join gangs. This includes reluctance to name the devil, share stories of loved ones who may have fallen under his grasp, and amplify his deviance by connecting him to the Khalistani movement, despite a lack of evidence. Nevertheless, a counter-narrative has emerged that is more sympathetic to Johal, and understands his appeal. This outlook on Johal's legacy salvages some of "the good" he may have done for the Punjabi community. Specifically, Johal was able to break Western stereotypes and prevailing challenges faced by racialized, working-class boys and young men. This was achieved through hyper-masculinity and gang involvement.

These narratives point to a distinct regional story that has emerged in British Columbia, and is a part of the Sikh diaspora. Mainly, a fear centered on a particular warrior-type mentality young, Punjabi Sikh men are adopting, which fuels the community's anxieties over terrorism and gangs. Future research would benefit from a richer analysis of the Khalistani movement, and how it might connect to the issue of gangs. This would require broadening the scope of the study to include a more general look at moral panics involving the Sikh community in British Columbia.

Finally, as Hier (2008) suggests, a more substantive moral panic analysis must examine the responses or reactions elicited when such folk devils arise. During the course of this study, it has become apparent that counter-programming exists that aims to delegitimize Johal's appeal to youth. A Punjabi languages course and mentorship program operating in one BC school district, which serves to provide youth with positive Sikh role-models and mentor figures that stand in contrast to what Johal has to o ffer. These figures include current and historical Sikh-Canadians in the areas of the military, politics, sports, journalism, and the media. Future research may want to examine how the reaction to Johal has influenced the governing of others, particularly youth who are perceived to be susceptible to gangs, through an analysis of such programming.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Conflicts of Interest:** I declare no conflict of interest as author of this article.


**3. Organic modification of TiO2**

Modifying TiO2 by organic agents is realized by coating them with organic substances such as surfactants, coupling agents and polymers. It can improve the affinity of TiO2 particles with organic matrices, resulting in better dispersion of TiO2. Thus, the pigmentary properties of TiO2, such as tint-reducing power, hiding power, and whiteness, are shown.

In the modification, there are two mechanisms: physical adsorption of organic agents on the surface of TiO2 and chemical bonding between TiO2 and organic agents [30]. The principle of physical adsorption is that the hydrophilic group of the organic coating agent is adsorbed on the surface of TiO2 particles. In contrast, the oleophilic group is outwardly affinity to the surrounding polymer matrix. Therefore, the polymer chains can penetrate the TiO2 aggregates and separate the TiO2 particles, finally improving the dispersion of TiO2. For chemical bonding, the hydroxyl groups on the surface of TiO2 particles act as active sites, which will react with organic coating agents and form covalent bonds. As a result, the TiO2 particles change from hydrophilic to hydrophobic. Several kinds of organic agents can be used for the surface modification of TiO2, including surfactants, coupling agents and polymers.

### **3.1 Surfactants**

Surfactants can be divided into cationic, anionic, and nonionic surfactants. One can use surfactants singly or together to modify TiO2 particles to evaluate the performance of TiO2. Li et al. [31] chose anionic sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and nonionic nonylphenol ethoxylate (NPEO, Tergitol NP-9) to study the effect of surfactants on the behaviors of TiO2 in aqueous solution. The results showed that both surfactants could be adsorbed onto the surface of nano-TiO2 but that only SDS can significantly decrease the zeta potential of TiO2. Both surfactants reduced the aggregation of TiO2 and retarded the aggregate sedimentation at surfactant concentrations ≥0.015% (w:v). In addition, SDS exerted a more substantial reductive effect than NP-9.

Wei et al. [32] used different surfactants, such as cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS), and diethanolamine (DEA), to modify TiO2 particles. The crystal type of TiO2 has no noticeable change with the addition of different surfactants, but the morphology, size, and dispersion of the TiO2 particles have changed to some extent. Among the three surfactants, CTAB is beneficial in reducing TiO2 particle size and improving TiO2 dispersion and agglomeration. And this CTAB-coated TiO2 had the greatest photostability in methyl orange degradation.

Wittmar et al. [33] prepared modified TiO2 particles by adding a cationic imidazolium salt solution. It was found that an increase in the alkyl chain length was beneficial, leading to a narrowing of the particle size distribution and a decrease of the agglomerate size in dispersion. The smallest average nanoparticle sizes in dispersion were around 30 nm.

Zhang et al. [34] discussed the influence of different surfactants on the thermal stability, weather fastness, and pigmentary properties of TiO2 particles. The results are collected in **Table 3**. Compared with neopentyl glycol (NPG),

**Table 3.** *Routine index of TiO2 [34].*

polyethylene glycol (PEG) and trimethylolethane (TME), trimethylolpropane (TMP) can bring the highest whiteness (97.64 of *L*) to TiO2 particles only in the content of 0.3 wt%.


*1.6. COVID-19 and Skills*

The Food and Beverages Manufacturing SETA's core mandate is skills development specific to the Food and Beverages Manufacturing sector. This research focuses on COVID-19 mitigation specifically via skills development for sustainability. The shape of skills training has changed globally especially with the onset of COVID-19. Various training mechanisms have to be addressed.

The introduction of asynchronous (students learn the same content at different times) learning is a consideration, as not all learners need to be in the same classroom at the same time. Digital content distribution makes asynchronous learning a reality [37].

Latchem [38] highlights various tools that can be successfully used for skills development for post school learning; the book focuses on Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). The following methods are discussed in detail: Virtual Reality; Mobile Learning; Simulations, Games and Role Plays; Augmented Reality; 3D Printing; Digital Repositories. The book provides insights into the work done in various countries globally. The use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) is highlighted as a driver to improve throughput with cost reductions and improved access. Latchem [38] also highlights the need to understand that a different approach is required for ICT-based learning, including:

Latchem [38] identifies mixed time investment for learners as working well; this includes a 40% allocation by the companies employing the learners and 60% of learner's own time. Timely response mechanisms must be put in place, including verbal communication with learners. Verawardina [39] reinforces the need for structure in the learning cycle with roles and responsibilities as an additional highlight.


**Chapter 4**

Adduct in Different Binder Systems. Vol. 10. Cairo, Egypt: Department of Polymers and Pigments, National Research Center; 2008. pp. 67-77

*Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy*

corrosion and inhibitor adsorption processes in mild steel/1-methyl-4[40 (�X)-styryl] pyridinium iodides/ hydrochloric acid systems. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2008;**110**

[25] Sayyah SM, Abd El-Rehim MM, Mohamed SM. Corrosion inhibition of Aluminium with a series of aniline monomeric surfactant and their analogues polymers in 0.5 M HCl solution. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry.

[26] Maqsood AM, Ali H, Firdosa N, Shaeel A, Zaheer K. Anti-corrosion ability of surfactants. International Journal of Electrochemical Science.

[27] Abd El-Rahim SS, Refaey SAM, Taha F, Saleh MB, Ahmed RAJ. Novel cationic surfactants from fatty acids and their corrosion inhibition efficiency for carbon steel pipelines in 1 M HCl. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry.

[28] Abd El-Rehim SS, Hassan HH, Amin MA. Corrosion inhibition of aluminum in hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) using potassium iodate inhibitor. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2001;**70**

[29] Bilgic S, Caliskan N. Inhibition of steel corrosion in hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) by chamomile extract. Applied Surface Science. 1999;**152**

[30] Tsuru T, Haruyama S, Gijutsu B. Corrosion monitor based on impedance method; construction and its application to homogeneous corrosion. Japan Society of Corrosion Engineering. 1978;**27**

2012;**55**(6):583-602

2011;**6**:1927-1948

2001;**31**

[17] Abdel Hamid Z. Clarification of the corrosion inhibition of mild steel in hydrochloric acid solutions via Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide inhibitor. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry. 2014;**57**(5):353-371

[18] Shukla SK, Quraishi MA. The effects of pharmaceutically active compound doxycycline on the corrosion of mild steel in hydrochloric acid solution (HCl). Corrosion Science. 2010;**52**:314

[19] Yurt A, Balaban A, Kandemir SU, Bereket G, Erk B. Adsorption and corrosion inhibition characteristics of some nicotinamide derivatives on mild steel in hydrochloric acid solution (HCl). Materials Chemistry and Physics.

[20] Hui Cang W. Study of Stevia rebaudiana Leaves as Green Corrosion Inhibitor for Mild Steel in Sulphuric Acid by Electrochemical Techniques. College of chemical engineering and biological, Yancheng institute of technology; 2012. pp. 3726-3736

[21] Abd EI-Rehim S, Ibrahim MAM, Khaled KF. 4-Aminoantipyrine as an inhibitor of mild steel corrosion in HCl

solution. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 1999;**29**

[22] Ch W-M, Post F, Joshua L, Sazzadur R, Anjali T. Sub-Surface Corrosion Research on Rock Bolt System, Perforated SS Sheets and Steel Sets for the Yucca Mountain Repository.

[23] Bentiss F, Bouanis M, Mernari B, Traisnel M, Vezin H, Lagrenee M. Applied Surface Science. 2007;**253**

[24] Noor EA, Al-Moubaraki AH. Thermodynamic study of metal

Vol. 302004

**68**

2004;**85**


**2. The problem and contribution of the chapter**

There are reports of the discharge of raw palm oil mill wastewater into the environment [15, 16]. The Master Plan study on the Palm Oil Industry in Ghana revealed that the activities of small-scale palm oil processers do not comply with environmental regulations [11]. The limited data on the characteristics of wastewater produced by small-scale mills in Ghana casts shadow on the level of environmental damage caused by this important subsector of the economy. This, in turn, obscures the possible technical and policy interventions that may be proffered to mitigate the environmental impacts of the industry. The informal and wide-spread nature and high contribution of small-scale mills to Ghana's palm oil production warrant attention and research.

This chapter describes the small-scale palm oil production operations in Ghana to highlight the associated environmental problems arising from the disposal of wastewater and other waste by-products. The chapter further discusses the effluent discharge permitting arrangements and possible modifications to the production practices and policy interventions that could improve their environmental compliance and encourage resource recovery.


*2.1. Philosophical Underpinnings*

The fields of science and philosophy consider ontology and epistemology in terms of What is the nature of reality? and How is human knowledge constructed? The ascendant ideologies of positivism and interpretivism can be applied in support of these philosophical di fferences [34–37]. Hirschheim [38] puts forward the aim of positivism to, "seek to explain and predict what happens in the social world by searching for irregularities and causal relationships between its constituent elements". In contrast to this stance, Schwandt [39] suggests the aim of interpretivism is to gain understanding. Interpretive research seeks to develop a richer understanding of the complex world of lived experience from the point of view of those who live in it. "*This goal is variously spoken of as an abiding concern for the life world, for the emic point of view, for understanding meaning, for grasping the actor's definition of a situation, for verstehen"* [39] (p.118).

The intent of this qualitative study was to understand how various situations impact on learning from incidents in the aircraft maintenance and continuing airworthiness management domain by interacting with the participants on a social plane. Thus, in order to gain an empathetic understanding of the participants and their actions, the pursuit of "verstehen" considers adopting an interpretive paragon as an approach. This approach is not initiated with the aid of a hypothesis intended for testing but rather using a lodestar that guides the researcher to a point of discovery supported with an inductive modus operandi. The study is unwavering in its support for the view that (individual and combined) qualitative and quantitative approaches possess equal value in terms of their investigative potential in this area of focus. In summary, the project employs a qualitative research methodology in an e ffort to generate "rich" findings in support of gaining a good understanding of the learning environment in the featured domain. According to Maykut and Morehouse [26], the purpose of qualitative research is to discover the inner world of perceptions and meaning-making in order to gain an understanding to describe and explain certain social phenomenon from participants' perspectives. In order to accomplish this, focus group activity was managed concurrently with the literature review. These activities cumulatively generated five themes which were used as the basis for a semi-structured interview template. The project employed a qualitative research methodology in an e ffort to generate "rich" findings in support of gaining a good understanding of the learning environment in the featured domain. The outcome of a qualitative research initiative was contextual findings as opposed to broad generalizations.


*3.3. Hardness Distribution*

From the hardness evolution depending on the distance from the welding axis, it is possible to acquire information on the temperature profiles reached in the HAZ. The Al alloys, as objects of study, can be approximated to a pseudo binary Al-Mg2Si system. For this class of alloys, the hardening metastable phase is subjected to a precipitation process that is generally reported in the following steps: β" (hardening metastable phase), β' (intermediate metastable phase), and β (equilibrium phase Mg2Si). On the basis of previous work [56,57], the maximum hardness value was reached with the metastable phase β" having a needle-like structure. The hardness contribution of phase β', which had a rod morphology, was moderate, while that of the β equilibrium phase was almost negligible.

The allotropic transformations of Mg2Si correlate to their transformation temperatures, identifiable in about 240 ◦C as the upper limit for β" and approximatively 380◦ C for β' (see Figure 11 scheme). Considering that the local temperature peaks reached during the welding process decrease as distance from the fusion line increases, the following HAZ subzones can be identified:

**Figure 11.** Evolution of the micro-hardness HV (hardness Vickers) in the E-E sub-frame combination as a function of the position along a transverse section of the weld (MIG joint).


**4.5 Earnings dimension**

employees number, so that she excluded Profit per Employee (PPE) and replaced with Market Price, however it did not use before in previous reviewed studied as

**Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate** 1 .289a .083 .078 4.86709490

**Table 14** shows the model Summary which indicates that share market price plus constant interpret 28% of Z score changes (**Table 15**). And **Table 16** shows excluded variables (ratios) from the model between Z score and management

**Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.** 1 Regression 358.058 1 358.058 15.115 .000b

**Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta** 1 (Constant) 1.355 .683 1.985 .049 Share Market Price 1.051 .270 .289 3.888 .000

**Model Beta In t Sig. Partial Correlation Collinearity Statistics**

1 Finance Cost /Total Assets -.025b �.338 .736 �.026 .999 Return on Equities .061b .820 .413 .064 .997 Total Cost /Total Income .086b 1.122 .264 .087 .941 Earnings Per Share -.082b �1.093 .276 �.085 .976

*Excluded Variablesa from the model between Z score and management efficiency Dimension.*

**Tolerance**

According to **Table 16**: Z score = 1.36 + 1.05 share market price.

Residual 3932.310 166 23.689

Total 4290.368 167

*ANOVA.a test between Z score and management efficiency Dimension.*

*Model Summaryb between Z score and management efficiency Dimension.*

*Linear and Non-Linear Financial Econometrics - Theory and Practice*

efficient management indicator.

*Source researcher from data analysis.*

*Dependent Variable: Z Score*

*Predictors: (Constant), share Market Price*

*a*

*b*

*a*

*b*

*a*

*a*

*b*

**314**

**Table 17.**

**Table 16.** *Coefficientsa*

**Table 15.**

**Table 14.**

efficiency Dimension (**Table 17**).

*Source researcher from data analysis.*

*Predictors: (Constant), Market Price*

*Source researcher from data analysis.*

*Source researcher from data analysis.*

*Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Market Price*

*Dependent Variable: Z Score*

*Dependent Variable: Z Score*

*.*

*Dependent Variable: Z Score*

Three ratios are used return on Equity (ROE), return on Assets (ROA), Earning Per share (EPS). **Table 22** shows the variables tested as indicators of Earning Dimension in Camel model, **Table 23** shows the model between Earning Dimension and Z score, and **Table 24** shows significant of the model between Z score and

*Source researcher from data analysis.*

*a Predictors: Net Loan/Total Assets*

*b For regression through the origin (the no-intercept model), R Square measures the proportion of the variability in the dependent variable about the origin explained by regression. This CANNOT be compared to R Square for models which include an intercept.*

#### **Table 18.**

*Model summary between Z score and Liquidity Dimension.*

*Source researcher from data analysis.*

*Table 19 shows significance of the test. a*

*Dependent Variable: Z Score*

*b Linear Regression through the Origin*

*c Predictors: Net Loan/Total Assets*

*d This total sum of squares is not corrected for the constant because the constant is zero for regression through the origin.*

### **Table 19.**

*ANOVAa,b.*

*Source researcher from analysis.*

*Table 20 shows significant individual variable (net loan to Total assets ratio) effect on Z score. a*

*Dependent Variable: Z Score*

*b Linear Regression through the Origin*

#### **Table 20.**

*Coefficientsa,b of the test between Z score and Liquidity Dimension.*


2.2.6. Abrasive Wear

Abrasive wear was determined for granite and for ASPU, according to the NBR 12042 [24] standard, using MAQTEST Amsler equipment. Two specimens with 70 × 70 × 40 mm had their thicknesses measured before and after undergoing 500 and 1000 m track.