**Author details**

a mechanism that involves selective block of N‐type calcium channels. This action inhibits the discharge of pronociceptive neurochemicals such as glutamate, calcitonin gene‐con‐ nected peptide, and material P in the brain and spinal cord, ensuing in pain relief. It has been approved for the treatment of severe chronic pain in patients only when administered by the intrathecal route. Importantly, prolonged administration of ziconotide does not lead to the

Salvinorin A is the main active psychotropic molecule in *Salvia divinorum*, a Mexican plant that has a long history of use as an entheogen by indigenous Mazatec shamans. Salvinorin A is considered a dissociative. It can produce psychoactive experiences in humans with a typi‐ cal duration of action being several minutes to an hour [54, 55]. Furthermore, Salvinorin is a *trans*‐neoclerodane diterpenoid, which acts as a κ‐opioid receptor agonist. The mechanism of action of Salvinorin A on ileal tissue has been described as prejunctional, as it was able to adjust electrically made contraction, but not those of exogenous acetylcholine. A pharmaco‐ logically important feature of the contraction‐reducing properties of ingested Salvinorin A on gut tissue is that it is only pharmacologically active on inflamed and not normal tissue, thus reducing possible side effects. Salvinorin produce a conditioned place aversion and decreases

Pawhuskin A is a bioactive naturally occurring stilbene reported from *Dalea purpurea*. Pawhuskin A has recognized to function as an opioid receptor antagonist, with special bind‐ ing to the k receptor. Pawhuskin A is the most active natural compound making a small group

This chapter has focused on information and relevant literature pertaining to analgesic plants and their explored chemical constituents. Furthermore, unexplored medicinal plants reported to be used in folk medicine have been highlighted. This chapter also provides references to research carried out on analgesic drugs. Additionally, this chapter describes the main mecha‐

The authors are grateful to the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan and the University

of nonnitrogenous compounds with effect on the opiate receptor system [56].

nisms of action of natural products poisoning presenting analgesic properties.

development of addiction or tolerance [53].

346 Pain Relief - From Analgesics to Alternative Therapies

locomotors. It is able to modify dopaminergic pathway [55].

*2.7.4. Salvinorin*

*2.7.5. Pawhuskin A*

**3. Conclusions**

**Acknowledgements**

of Swabi, KPK, for financial support.

Abdur Rauf1 \*, Noor Jehan2 , Zarka Ahmad3 and Mohammad S. Mubarak4

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>


*3.2. Cell Culture*

Human colorectal carcinoma HT-29 (ATCC® no. HTB-38™) and HCT 116 (ATCC® CCL-247™) were cultured in McCoy's 5A medium, supplemented with 10% FBS and 1% penicillin-streptomycin solution; breast cancer MCF-7 (ATCC® no. HTB-22™) or melanoma SK-MEL-28 (ATCC® no. HTB-72™) cells were maintained in MEM medium with 10% FBS and 1% penicillin-streptomycin solution. The cell cultures were maintained at 37 ◦C in humidified atmosphere containing 5% CO2. Every 3–4 days, the cells were detached with 0.25% trypsin/0.05 M EDTA for 1–3 min and 10–20% of the harvested cells were transferred to a new flask containing fresh complete culture media.


**Abstract**

In this chapter, we present an extension of the rigorous analysis of the propagation of electromagnetic waves in magnetic transverse (TM) and transverse electric (TE) modes in a metallic circular waveguide partially filled with anisotropic metamaterial. In our analysis, the design of waveguide filters with uniaxial discontinuities is based on the determination of the higher-order modes, which have been analyzed and exploited. Below the cutoff frequency, the back backward waves can propagate in an anisotropic material. The numerical results with our MATLAB code for TM and TE modes were compared to theoretical predictions. Good agreements have been obtained. We analyzed a waveguide filters filled with partially anisotropic metamaterial using the mode matching (MM) technique based on the Scattering Matrix Approach (SMA), which, from the decomposition of the modal fields (TE and TM modes), are used to determine the dispersion matrix and thus the characterization of a discontinuity in waveguide. We extended the application of MM technique to the anisotropic material. By using modal analysis, our approach has considerably reduced the computation time compared to High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) software.

**Keywords:** anisotropic metamaterials, forward and backward waves, MM, modal analysis, waveguides discontinuity


**4. Conclusion**

**Gene 1**

1

210 Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

16

3

1

3

2

2

Cinnamoyl-CoAreductase (*AhCCR*)

Cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (*AhCAD*)

Caffeoyl CoA 3-Omethyltransferase (*AhCCoAOMT*)

4-Coumaroyl shikimate 3-hydroxylase/ pcoumarate 3-hydroxylase

Ferulic acid hydroxylase

Hydroxycinnamoyl CoA:

hydroxycinnamoyl transferase (*AhHCT*).

(*AhC3H*)

(*AhF5H*)

shikimate

1

Caffeic acid Omethyltransferase (*AhCOMT*)

**No. Seq. Function in stress Reference(s)**

[189,190]

[189,191,192]

[193–195]

[196]

[193,197]

[198–201]

[202]

In wheat, this gene is involved in pathogen defense signaling. In tomato and other plants, the repression of this gene produced severe development-related phenotypes.

The silencing *CAD* led to changes in the lignin structure, fiber

This gene can be highly induced by drought and cold stress, suggesting a possible role in plant abiotic stress resistance. In maize and wheat, *CCoAOMT* is involved in the mechanism of resistance/susceptibility against fusariosis and powdery

C3H downregulation led to a dramatic accumulation of several glucosides of *p*-coumaric acid, including phenylglucosides (populoside, grandidentatin, and trichocarposide). This modification may be an acceptable strategy to increase the secondary metabolite diversity against pathogens.

In wheat, silencing of this gene is linked to increased susceptibility to fungal pathogens, such as *Blumeria graminis*.

*F5H* transcripts accumulated in the leaves in response to mechanical wounding or the application of related elicitors, such as ethylene, ABA, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). *f5h* mutants were unable to develop normally under UV light, probably because of a lack of UV-radiation protective synapate esters. This gene is essential for expression of anthocyanin biosynthesis-associated genes and anthocyanin accumulation

Downregulation of the HCT gene in alfalfa plants exhibited constitutive activation of defense responses, triggered by release of bioactive cell wall fragments and production of hydrogen peroxide generated as a result of impaired secondary

Conversely, it led to an augmented resistance to *Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis* in Arabidopsis.

under photo-oxidative stress.

cell wall integrity.

Number of genes detected in the grain amaranth transcriptome [14].

**Table 5.** Lignin biosynthetic pathway genes identified in grain amaranth

quality, and/or improved digestibility. It also led to development related phenotypes during vegetative and reproductive stages. Pathogen resistance was also modified. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the *AhCAD2* gene could be

involved in stress tolerance responses.

mildew, respectively.

The several hypotheses raised by the discovery of the numerous stress-related phenylpropa‐ noid genes in grain amaranth represents a strong incentive for the initiation and subsequent deepening of secondary metabolite studies in *Amaranthus* plants, which may yield promising results in various areas of interest, including food science and nutrition, medicine and stress plant physiology, among others.


*Edited by Igor I. Katkov*

Almost a decade has passed since the last textbook on the science of cryobiology, Life in the Frozen State, was published. Recently, there have been some serious tectonic shifts in cryobiology which were perhaps not seen on the surface but will have a profound effect on both the future of cryobiology and the development of new cryopreservation methods. We feel that it is time to revise the previous paradigms and dogmas, discuss the conceptually new cryobiological ideas, and introduce the recently emerged practical protocols for cryopreservation. The present books, "Current Frontiers in Cryobiology" and "Current Frontiers in Cryopreservation" will serve the purpose. This is a global effort by scientists from 27 countries from all continents and we hope it will be interesting to a wide audience.

Current Frontiers in Cryobiology

Current Frontiers in

Cryobiology

*Edited by Igor I. Katkov*

Photo by Tianika / iStock


2.1.3. Changes in sCyst-C after Longer Exercise than a Marathon

Serum cystatin C was also measured after very long exercise—a 120 km "Infernal trail" race. Surprisingly, there was no change in sCyst-C (0.8 vs. 0.8 mg/L) and eGFR Cyst-C value even increased after the race—from 113.5 to 118.5 mL/min (*p* = 0.04). This could be due to the very low intensity of physical activity. The exercise was very long—a 120 km race with 5700 m positive elevation. The speed was very low (5.2 km/h) and the median time was 23.1 h [27].


**7. Silicon-germanium RTGs**

482 Radioisotopes – Applications in Physical Sciences

Fig. 7. Apollo 12 astronaut Alan L. Bean removing the SNAP-27 fuel-cask assembly from the Lunar Module. The SNAP-27 converter is shown in front of Bean ready to receive the fuel-

Fig. 8. Artist's concept of a Voyager spacecraft flying by Jupiter and Saturn. The three MHW-RTGs are shown on the boom above the spacecraft. The average power of each MHW-RTG was 158 We. The overall diameter was 39.73 cm and the length was 58.31 cm.

The average flight mass for a Voyager MHW-RTG was 37.69 kg.

(Image credit: NASA/JPL/Caltech)

cask assembly. (NASA)

With NASA developing the higher-powered Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft (see Figure 8) as the next generation of outer planet explorers the bar was raised for RTG performance. To meet this demand, the AEC funded GE (now part of Lockheed-Martin) to develop the Multi-Hundred Watt Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MHW-RTG), which was based on the use of a silicon-germanium alloy. Silicon-germanium, as noted earlier, can be operated at higher temperatures (~1300 K) than the telluride-based thermoelectrics (~800-900 K). Higher temperatures mean higher heat rejection temperatures, which mean smaller radiators hence lower unit masses. Combining the higher temperature with multifoil insulation (instead of bulk insulation) and vacuum operation (instead of using a cover gas) can yield a specific power that is 40% to over 70% higher than that of a telluride-based RTG (Bennett, et al., 1984). The basic layout of a silicon-germanium RTG is shown in Figure 9.

Fig. 9. Cutaway of the General-Purpose Heat Source Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (GPHS-RTG).

The GPHS-RTG can produce over 300 We at initial fueling. The overall diameter is 42.2 cm and the length is 114 cm. The mass is 55.9 kg (Image credit: DOE).

U.S. Space Radioisotope Power Systems and Applications: Past, Present and Future 485

Fig. 10. Progress in RTG development. (Rockwell, 1992)

Provisioning Strategy Team, 2001).

late fall of 2011 to arrive at Mars in August 2012.

**8. Multi-mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG)**

Following the successes of such flagship missions as Galileo and Cassini, NASA turned its attention to providing smaller "faster, better, cheaper" science spacecraft. In looking for an RPS which would satisfy that mandate along with being able to operate both in space and on the surface of a planetary body (e.g., Mars), a joint NASA/DOE team recommended development of the Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) along with the development of the higher efficiency Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator (ASRG) (see Section 10) (unpublished Report of the RPS

The MMRTG, built by Rocketdyne and Teledyne, is based on the telluride thermoelectric technology used in the SNAP-19 RTG program which had shown that it could work in space (Nimbus III, Pioneers 10/11) and on a planetary surface (Viking Landers 1 and 2). The first mission to employ the MMRTG will be the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), whose rover has been named "Curiosity" (see Figure 11). The 900-kg MSL is scheduled to be launched in the

#### **7.1 MHW-RTG**

The MHW-RTG objective was to provide at least 125 We after five years in space. It was designed to produce at least 150 We at BOM, making it the highest-powered RTG at the time (1970s). Once the program was under way, the U.S. Air Force requested four MHW-RTGs for its communications satellites Lincoln Experimental Satellites 8 and 9 (LES-8/9) (Bennett, et al., 1984). As it turned out, LES-8/9 were launched prior to the Voyager launches (1976 versus 1977). Each LES carried two MHW-RTGs. The MHW-RTGs performed so well that the two communications satellites were used for years, including in the first Gulf War and to relay e-mail messages from stations in Antarctica.

Each Voyager spacecraft carried three MHW-RTGs (see Figure 8). The MHW-RTGs performed so well that Voyager 2 was retargeted after its flyby of Saturn (1981) to fly by Uranus and Neptune giving the human race its first close-up views of those distant worlds. Both Voyagers are still operating, almost 34 years after launch.

#### **7.2 General-purpose Heat Source Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (GPHS-RTG)**

For the Galileo and Ulysses missions the U.S. Department of Energy funded GE (now Lockheed Martin) to develop the General-Purpose Heat Source Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (GPHS-RTG), a power source essentially equivalent to two MHW-RTGs (see Figure 9). Where the MHW-RTG produced at least 150 We at BOM, the GPHS-RTG was capable of producing 300 We at BOM. Where each MHW-RTG had 312 silicon-germanium thermoelectric elements (called "unicouples"), each GPHS-RTG had 572 unicouples (Bennett, et al., 1984, Bennett, et al., 2006).

NASA's Galileo Orbiter carried two GPHS-RTGs to power its successful exploration of the Jovian system. The Ulysses spacecraft, which was built by the European Space Agency (ESA), carried one GPHS-RTG for its exploration of the polar regions of the Sun (Bennett, et al., 2006).

In 1997, NASA again used the GPHS-RTG, this time three of them to power the Cassini spacecraft that is still in orbit around Saturn. The GPHS-RTGs have performed so well that the mission has been extended several times (Bennett, et al., 2006). Figure 10 illustrates the progress that has been made in RTG performance – *in the span of a little over 30 years the power produced by a space RTG has increased over one-hundredfold!*

The most recent launch of the GPHS-RTG was in 2006 on the New Horizons spacecraft, which is traveling to Pluto. Because of the unavailability of a full complement of fresh Pu-238 fuel, the GPHS-RTG for New Horizons utilized some existing fuel that had decayed for 21 years since its production, yielding 245.7 We of power at BOM instead of the possible 300 We. Still, it is expected that the GPHS-RTG will provide sufficient power (~200 We) at the time of Pluto encounter to meet all of the mission's scientific and operational requirements. Once Pluto and its principal satellite Charon have been visited, New Horizons is designed to continue beyond to explore Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs) (Bennett, et al., 2006).

Changes have been made in the general-purpose heat source (GPHS) that is the heart of the GPHS-RTG. For New Horizons, additional aeroshell material was added which increased the mass of the RTG. Additional material increases are planned for the GPHS modules to be used to power the MMRTG for MSL. While these changes have the effect of increasing the mass of the GPHS-RTG over the Galileo/Ulysses GPHS-RTGs there are design improvements, which could recreate the high specific power of the GPHS-RTG (Vining and Bennett, 2010).

The MHW-RTG objective was to provide at least 125 We after five years in space. It was designed to produce at least 150 We at BOM, making it the highest-powered RTG at the time (1970s). Once the program was under way, the U.S. Air Force requested four MHW-RTGs for its communications satellites Lincoln Experimental Satellites 8 and 9 (LES-8/9) (Bennett, et al., 1984). As it turned out, LES-8/9 were launched prior to the Voyager launches (1976 versus 1977). Each LES carried two MHW-RTGs. The MHW-RTGs performed so well that the two communications satellites were used for years, including in

Each Voyager spacecraft carried three MHW-RTGs (see Figure 8). The MHW-RTGs performed so well that Voyager 2 was retargeted after its flyby of Saturn (1981) to fly by Uranus and Neptune giving the human race its first close-up views of those distant worlds.

**7.2 General-purpose Heat Source Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (GPHS-**

For the Galileo and Ulysses missions the U.S. Department of Energy funded GE (now Lockheed Martin) to develop the General-Purpose Heat Source Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (GPHS-RTG), a power source essentially equivalent to two MHW-RTGs (see Figure 9). Where the MHW-RTG produced at least 150 We at BOM, the GPHS-RTG was capable of producing 300 We at BOM. Where each MHW-RTG had 312 silicon-germanium thermoelectric elements (called "unicouples"), each GPHS-RTG had 572 unicouples

NASA's Galileo Orbiter carried two GPHS-RTGs to power its successful exploration of the Jovian system. The Ulysses spacecraft, which was built by the European Space Agency (ESA), carried one GPHS-RTG for its exploration of the polar regions of the Sun (Bennett, et al., 2006). In 1997, NASA again used the GPHS-RTG, this time three of them to power the Cassini spacecraft that is still in orbit around Saturn. The GPHS-RTGs have performed so well that the mission has been extended several times (Bennett, et al., 2006). Figure 10 illustrates the progress that has been made in RTG performance – *in the span of a little over 30 years the power*

The most recent launch of the GPHS-RTG was in 2006 on the New Horizons spacecraft, which is traveling to Pluto. Because of the unavailability of a full complement of fresh Pu-238 fuel, the GPHS-RTG for New Horizons utilized some existing fuel that had decayed for 21 years since its production, yielding 245.7 We of power at BOM instead of the possible 300 We. Still, it is expected that the GPHS-RTG will provide sufficient power (~200 We) at the time of Pluto encounter to meet all of the mission's scientific and operational requirements. Once Pluto and its principal satellite Charon have been visited, New Horizons is designed to continue beyond to explore

Changes have been made in the general-purpose heat source (GPHS) that is the heart of the GPHS-RTG. For New Horizons, additional aeroshell material was added which increased the mass of the RTG. Additional material increases are planned for the GPHS modules to be used to power the MMRTG for MSL. While these changes have the effect of increasing the mass of the GPHS-RTG over the Galileo/Ulysses GPHS-RTGs there are design improvements, which

could recreate the high specific power of the GPHS-RTG (Vining and Bennett, 2010).

the first Gulf War and to relay e-mail messages from stations in Antarctica.

Both Voyagers are still operating, almost 34 years after launch.

(Bennett, et al., 1984, Bennett, et al., 2006).

*produced by a space RTG has increased over one-hundredfold!*

Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs) (Bennett, et al., 2006).

**7.1 MHW-RTG**

**RTG)**

Fig. 10. Progress in RTG development. (Rockwell, 1992)


Soybean Cultivation Technology Innovation and Environmentally Friendly Pest Control in Paddy Fields in South Sulawesi, Indonesia

*Abdul Fattah, Elisa Winanda, Salim, Sri Wahyuni Manwan, Idaryani, Wanti Dewayani, Warda, Ayyub Arrahman, Herniwati, Nurjanani, M. Yasin, Sahardi Mulia, M. Basir Nappu, Abdi Negara, Asni Ardjanhar, M. Sudjak Saenong, Amiruddin Syam, Muh Taufik, Sunanto, Andi Yulyani Fadwiwati, Muslimin and Sitti Nuraeni*


**Conflict of interest**

Alexander Martinez None Joseph Pizzimenti None Drake W. Lem none. Dr. Pinakin Gunvant Davey none.

*Health Promotion for AMD and the Role of Nutrition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.103835*


*5.6. Neutral Red Viability Assay*

The neutral red uptake assay was used to analyze the HGEC cell viability as previously described [28]. In summary, HGEC cells were grown with a complete medium, until confluence, in 96-well plates. After 72 h of treatments, freshly diluted neutral red (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) was added to cells to a final concentration of 10 mg/mL, followed by an additional incubation of 1 h at 37 ◦C in 5% CO2. Then, cells were washed and fixed with 1% CaCl2/1% formaldehyde, followed by lysis with 1% acetic acid in 50% ethanol. Absorbance at 540 nm was measured in an automated plate spectrophotometer. Results were expressed as viability percentage, in which 100% represents cells incubated under identical conditions but without treatment. The 100% of HGEC viability protection was considered when Stx2 cytotoxic effects were totally reversed.


**5. Discussion**

#### *5.1. Effect of Sky Conditions on Albedo Estimation*

We conducted the spectrometer experiment under both clear sky and overcast sky conditions for the two drone field sites. The sky conditions had some effect on the regression statistics. The *R*2 values for Brooksvale Park were higher if the ground measurements were made under overcast sky conditions (Figure 4), the same conditions as when the UAV mission took place, than if the measurements were made under clear sky conditions. In contrast, *R*2 values for the Yale Playground were higher under clear sky conditions than under overcast sky conditions (Figure 5), keeping in mind that the UAV mission was conducted there under mostly clear sky conditions. These results indicate that the spectrometer calibration experiment should be conducted under the sky conditions that match those of the UAV experiment.

The Yale Playground flight was conducted at 14:30 on 30 September 2015 when the solar elevation angle was rather low. The long shadows due to the low elevation angle were a source of uncertainty for the albedo estimation. Choosing an appropriate flight time so that the shadow effect is minimized is very important, especially in an urban environment where tall structures are prominent features of the landscape.

The difference between the Landsat- and drone-derived visibleband albedo of the Brooksvale Park were larger than those of the Yale Playground. The main factor contributing to this discrepancy is also the sky condition. The UAV measurement was conducted under overcast conditions at Brooksvale Park, whereas the Landsat measurement was used for clear sky conditions. Generally, surface albedo is higher under cloudy skies than under clear skies [38]. At the Yale Playground, the sky conditions of the UAV experiment matched those of the Landsat observation, resulting in a much better agreement between the two albedo estimates.

#### *5.2. Uncertainty in Landscape Shortwave Albedo*

Low-cost consumer-grade cameras usually do not contain near-infrared spectral information, and therefore this may cause problems for estimating shortwave band albedo. In this study, shortwave band albedo was determined in a relatively arbitrary way. Brest and Goward [39] assigned weight factors to Landsat visible, near-infrared, and mid-infrared band reflectance, and linearly combined them to estimate the shortwave band albedo for vegetation. Similar to their method, we used the average ratio between the shortwave and visible band albedos of non-vegetation and vegetation ground targets to retrieve the landscape shortwave band albedo. The ratio for clear skies were lower than that for overcast skies for vegetation targets, suggesting that plants preferably absorb more visible radiation under clear skies than under overcast skies. For non-vegetation targets, the ratio did not differ by much between the two different sky conditions. Vegetation ground targets had higher ratios than the non-vegetation targets, due to the high near-infrared spectral reflectance of plant cell structures. The result from Brest's [40] study may provide a useful reference here: They reported that urban downtown and high-density residential neighborhoods in Hartford, Connecticut, USA, had ratios of near-infrared to visible band reflectance between 1.29 and 1.38. Their ratio for evergreen and deciduous forests was between 2.53 and 3.63. From the shortwave and visible band albedos given in their study, we infer that their non-vegetation ratio of shortwave to visible band reflectance is 1.15 to 1.19, which is in good agreement with our non-vegetation ratios (1.18 to 1.24), and their vegetation (evergreen and deciduous trees) ratio is 1.77 to 2.32, which is much lower than our ratios (3.91 to 6.67). The main reason for the difference is that grass leaves (in this study the vegetation ground targets we chose was grass) have a higher spectral reflectance in the infrared waveband than tree leaves, which can increase shortwave albedo and therefore the ratio between shortwave and visible band reflectance [40].

Three modifications to our method can potentially improve the shortwave albedo accuracy. First, the addition of a light-weight NIRcamera can give a direct reflectance measurement to every ground pixel and therefore avoid the ratio method.

Second, in the current experiments, we were only able to perform a spectrometer measurement of the short grass targets. However, a large portion of the vegetation pixels are trees (Figure 2). Applying the NIR-to-visible band ratio obtained from the grass targets to these tree pixels will cause large errors. This is especially problematic for the Brooksvale Park where some trees started to become senescent (Figure 2a). Division of the vegetation pixels into three separate categories (grass, senescent tree leaf, and green tree leaf) and establishing the NIR to visible band for each category should improve the shortwave albedo accuracy.

Third, we deliberately selected the ground targets to cover a wide range of reflectivity to establish robust calibration curves, but we did not consider variations in BRDF signatures between grasses and trees, and between sands and tarmac. Currently only two training sets (vegetation versus non-vegetation) were used for conversions to shortwave albedo. Additional training sets accounting for BRDF variations may improve our results.