*4.1. Distinctive Metabolic Profiles of CBP*

As a mixture of flower pollen and honeybee saliva, bee pollen from different botanical origins shows differing chemical composition and functional properties [2,29]. Our metabolomics analysis confirmed the presence of different metabolic profiles of bee pollen samples according to botanical origins. Remarkably, one of our key findings was the distinctive metabolic profile of CBP samples compared with others. It has been reported that tea plants synthesize unique metabolites and transport quality-related components to their organs, including tea flowers [30], which could account for our observed special metabolic profile of CBP. Indeed, our study revealed four characteristic compounds (L-theanine, ECG, kaempferol, and GA) which were found to be specific to the CBP samples and 12 other differential compounds between CBP and non-CBP samples.

A wide diversity of bioactive functions has been reported for our identified differential compounds. Among them, L-theanine, a non-protein amino acid, is reported to naturally occur mainly in tea plants and shows a wide range of beneficial effects, such as antioxidant, anti-cancer, and immune-modulating activities [31,32]. ECG, a highly abundant catechin in green tea, has been demonstrated to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor effects [33]. Other polyphenolic compounds, such as kaempferol, GA, and rutin, show similar biological activities [34,35]. Collectively, these bioactive compounds account for at least some of the superior functional activities of CBP which have been reported in previous studies [9–11].


• **Management of bladder and urethral duplication**

Sagittal urethral duplication (side-by-side) is associated with bladder duplication and is specific for CDS. The two bladders can be completely separate or have a sagittal septum (most commonly two asymmetric sides) each with a ureter from the ipsilateral kidney and its own urethra. Urologic management in the first year of life is almost always conservative. Anatomic evaluation should be complemented with bladder function assessment especially in symptomatic patients. The goal is to avoid recurrent urinary infections, to ensure there is efficient emptying of both bladders and urinary continence. In most female patients, unilateral removal of the urethra is not necessary if asymptomatic. In males, the urethra will be excised when the decision for cosmetical penectomy is made [13], and it can be postponed until adolescence to let the patient decide, to assess penile growth and erectile function.

Assessment of continence potential is important in the development of any anorectal and urinary reconstruction plan. The type and severity of spinal cord and sacrum malformation have a direct role in predicting the fecal and urinary continence [14,15]. This can be assessed very early on and will influence the choice of surgical procedures as for example the decision to remove the bladder septum creating a bigger capacity bladder with bladder neck ligation and ipsilateral urethral removal or to keep the one or two appendices for antegrade continent enema (ACE)and/or appendicovesicostomy [16].


*4.1. Sodium/Salt Content in Foods*

To our knowledge, this is the first paper published in a scientific journal studying the sodium/salt content of diverse foods sold in the Spanish market. However, a previous report by the Spanish Government in 2012 showed similar results for meat, sauces, bread, cereal sweet derivatives, precooked and ready-to-eat food [35]. Our results produced higher sodium content for snacks, canned fish/seafood and cheese, while lower for canned vegetables [35].

A work on sodium content in bread in Spain was previously published in 2018 [47]. They obtained a much higher mean in bread purchased in bakeries (see Table S5) [47]. One important reason for the discrepancy may be that no bakery bread is included in the present study, but industrial bread and other similar products. In addition, the Spanish Government issued a regulation in 2019 to limit the sodium content in bread [48].

As it can be observed in Table S5, the present results are in line with preceding works [49–54]. The sodium/salt content of foods has been studied in the last five years in a number of countries (Table S5). Meat is the food group with the highest mean/median sodium content in all the countries (except for sauces in some of them) (Table S5). The values for most food groups do not vary greatly among studies (including the present one), except for sauces. Still, the discrepancies may be due to the diverse definition of the food categories (see comments in Table S5). In fact, unlike the present work, most of the publications do not describe the food groups.

## *4.2. Classification of Foods According to Their Sodium/Salt Content*

To our knowledge, this is the first paper using the entire set of nutrient claims for salt/sodium defined by the European Commission (EC) and the Codex Alimentarius to classify foods [39,40]. However, the definition for low in sodium was previously used in a Brazilian study and it rendered 7% of the 1416 foods analysed [55]. With the same threshold, we found higher numbers (48.2%).

Our results show a great proportion of foods as high in sodium. By applying the same NPMs, a study in Honduras with 1009 foods obtained higher values: 55.8% according to PAHO-NPM (47.2% in the present work) and 68.6% when using the Chile-NPM (31.9% here) [45]. The differences could be due to the type of foods used in both studies. The work in Honduras only analysed processed and ultra-processed foods as defined by the NOVA classification [45]. However, in the present work, the NPMs were applied to all foods regardless of their level of processing.

Applying both NPMs resulted in some important differences in the present work. More foods were classified as high in sodium with the PAHO-NPM than with the Chile-NPM. The study in Honduras obtained opposite results, which may be due to the same reasons explained in the previous paragraph [45]. In addition, individual groups presented

even greater discrepancies, which was also the case in the work in Honduras. This may be because, on one hand, the criteria for the PAHO-NPM is based on sodium per kcal regardless of the type of food [41]. On the other hand, the thresholds for Chile-NPM only consider the sodium content and they differ for solids and liquids [42]. Divergences are not exclusive of these two NPMs [44,45].

Recently, WHO released global sodium benchmarks for more than 50 food subcategories. Table S2 shows the thresholds for some of the food types analysed in this work. Except for breakfast cereals and salads, the median values of the rest of food types surpassed the benchmarks set by WHO [25].


**2. Related Work**

The concept of digital twins can be applied in many areas. For example, for wind power plants, cloud-based technology integrates technological and commercial data into a single digital twin through augmented reality (AR) and applies to multiple wind power plants to realize real-time monitoring of power plants [3]. In manufacturing, Schleich et al. [2] propose a conceptual integrated reference model for design and manufacturing that provides the first theoretical framework for digital twins in industrial applications [2]. In addition, digital twins are also used for product prediction and health management. This method effectively utilizes the interaction mechanism and fusion data of digital twins [8].

In the field of agriculture, more and more farmers are committed to the establishment of intelligent farms. The concept of intelligent agriculture mainly includes sensors, tracking systems, innovative digital technologies, data analysis and so on. The application of modern digital technology to farms can improve the efficiency of farm management [9,10]. More specifically, Yang et al. [7] come up with a digital farm management system that can effectively track production. In particular, this system uses smartphones to collect data, this is an efficient solution for precise vegetable farm management [7]

However, digital twins are rarely used on farms, there are only a few isolated cases. Digital twins are already being used in innovative internet-based applications, and digital twins can influence farm management [4]. A digital disease management system for dairy

cows has been established, which realizes the digital management of dairy cows, systematic management of basic information of dairy cows, health assessment, electronic medical records and disease prevention. This system can effectively manage the disease of cows on the dairy farm [23]. In [13], Wagner et al. [13] use machine learning to detect the health of cows and predict when they would behave. They use different algorithms in machine learning to predict the activity duration of cows, including the K-neighborhood algorithm, the LSTM algorithm, the H-24 algorithm, and so on. The K-nearest neighbour algorithm performs the best after analysis and comparison. However, their study needs to be based on a much larger data set and needs to take into account the circadian nature of activity rhythms.

In addition, the application of an LSTM neural network to the establishment of the digital twin model used on a farm is also rare, but it's been used in many other ways and has been very successful. Hu et al. [18] propose a hybrid time series prediction model based on global empirical mode decomposition, LSTM neural network and Bayesian optimization, and apply it to the establishment of the digital twin model. They use their digital twin models to predict wind speeds in wind turbines and wave heights in ocean structures. The results show that the proposed model can obtain accurate time series prediction [18]

Although the application of digital twins in farm management is still in the early stage of development, it is not impossible to establish digital twins for each cow on this bovine disease digital management system. With the establishment of digital twins, the cattle farm can become an autonomous, adaptive system in which intelligent digital twins can operate, decide and even learn without human on-site or remote intervention [4].

#### **3. Data Mining and Analysing**

This section primarily discusses the processing method of the data sets, i.e., the original data measured by sensors of the farm's IoT system. This data set is systematically treated in preparation for future use of the modelling. Particularly, the data sets of the cattle's states are analysed, and a digital twin model of the cattle is produced using these data sets. A vast amount of data may be used to evaluate the model's correctness, and the state of the cattle can then be predicted.


**4. Design thinking in instrument design**

Computer-based instrument design requires a design thinking mindset. Generally, design thinking is defined as an analytic and creative process to engage users in opportunities to experiment, create and prototype models, gather feedback, and redesign [12]. According to the Interaction Design Foundation group, there are five-stage in the design thinking model [13]. They are as follows: empathise, define (the problem), ideate, prototype, and test (**Figure 2**). The first stage is to gain an empathic understanding of the design problem. It includes consulting the experts to collect information more on the concerning issue through observing and engaging with the users. In the defining stage, the designer put together the gathered information. This is where the designer will analyse the observations and synthesise them to define the core problems. In this stage, the designer has to define the problem in a human-centred manner. In the third stage, the designer starts to generate ideas, as the users' initial understanding and need have been analysed in the earlier stages. A new innovative solution can be attained through "think outside the box" strategies with a solid background of expert designers. Then, the steps of prototyping, where the designer test the developed instrument by himself or within a team. This is an experimental phase, and the aim is to identify the best possible solution for each of the problems identified during the first three stages. This stage helps get a better idea of the constraints inherent with the instrument and gives a clever view of how real users would behave, think, and feel when interacting with the instrument. Finally, the designer rigorously tests the complete product using the best solutions identified during the prototyping phase. It is an iterative process. The results regenerated during the testing phases are often used to redefine the problems and inform the understanding of the users.

**Figure 2.** *Five-steps of design thinking [13].*

*Design Thinking for Computer-Aided Co-Design in Architecture and Urban Design DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98938*


**5. Conclusion**

Wide use of chlorinated pesticides such as chlordecone has led to severe contamination of the environment in the French West Indies. Chlordecone is an organochlorine insecticide that was regularly applied to banana crops more than 20 years ago and is now on the list of POPs prohibited by the Stockholm Convention. Chlordecone is a hydrophobic, non-biode‐ gradable pesticide that is strongly bound to the organic soil matrix which is why soils are still contaminated today. The level of soil pollution and the fate of the pollutant in the eco‐ systems depend on two main determinants at two different scales: agricultural practices and the soil physical properties, i.e. the clay microstructure.

Obviously, the history of agricultural practices (land-use changes and the intensity of pesti‐ cide use) partly explains soil contamination. The stocks of pesticide still present in soil are important indicators, which calls for the reinforcement of databases on agricultural practi‐ ces, especially on pesticide use. However, soil type mainly explains the concentration of pol‐ lutant in the soil. Our experimental data showed that clay microstructure controls the accumulation of pollutants in the soil and their release into the environment. In the case of andosols, this study revealed the importance of the fractal microstructure and the associated tortuous porosity in trapping the pollutant. Moreover, as chlordecone tends to bind with soil organic matter, the high organic content of tropical volcanic soils also favors its reten‐ tion.

More generally, it is worth noting that since pesticide retention depends on soil type, the concentration of pesticide in the soil cannot provide reliable information about the actual risk of contamination from the soil to the ecosystem. This makes mapping contamination hazards problematic because there is no univocal relation between soil pollution and its ca‐ pacity to contaminate crops. Additional studies are thus necessary to characterize the behav‐ ior of pesticides in soils and to identify the link with plant absorption. This will increase the relevance of mapping pesticide contamination and availability

Concerning possible soil decontamination procedures, the efficiency of chemical or biologi‐ cal species able to degrade the pesticide will be controlled by the microstructure of the clays. Future research into pesticide degrading microorganisms and other remediation tools that could be used to clean up polluted soils should take the accessibility of the pesticide in the soil microstructure into account.


**4. Pre- harvest strategies**

These include;

mushroom) is known to promote health effects in animals and human and have ability to inhibit aflatoxin biosynthesis by stimulating the antioxidant defence of the toxigenic fungus. Oxidative stress induced using paraquatenhanced the expression of β-glucan synthase gene and stimulated effect of β-glucans production that leads to a higher afla‐ toxin inhibiting capacity. Efficient inhibition could be due to higher content of β-glu‐ cans [60]. Utilization of microorganisms or their enzymatic metabolites to detoxify mycotoxins in food and feed has advantages such as mild reaction conditions, target specificity, efficiency and environmental friendly.


**Relation to an absorption problem**

Let the reflection amplitude at time *n* be *γ*˜*n*(*z*) := *L*|Φ*n*(−1) with *z* = *eiξ* . We can see that *γ*˜*n*(*z*) is rewritten by using *U* as follows:

$$\begin{split} z^{-1}\tilde{\gamma}\_{n+1}(z) &= \langle \delta\_{(-1;\mathbb{L})}, \mathcal{U}^{\ell}\delta\_{(0;\mathbb{R})}\rangle + \langle \delta\_{(-1;\mathbb{L})}, \mathcal{U}^{\ell^2}\delta\_{(0;\mathbb{R})}\rangle z \\ &+ \langle \delta\_{(-1;\mathbb{L})}, \mathcal{U}^{\ell^3}\delta\_{(0;\mathbb{R})}\rangle z^2 + \dots + \langle \delta\_{(-1;\mathbb{L})}, \mathcal{U}^{\prime n+1}\delta\_{(0;\mathbb{R})}\rangle z^n \end{split}$$

The first term is the amplitude that the inflow at time *n* cannot penetrate into Γ*M*; the *m*-th term is the amplitude that the inflow at time *n* − (*m* − 1) penetrates into Γ*M* and escapes Γ*M* from 0 side at time *n*. Therefore, each term corresponds to the "absorption" amplitude to −1 with the absorption walls −1 and *M* with the initial state *δ*(0;*R*). Then

**Remark 1.** *The reflection amplitude L*|Φ ∞(−1) = lim*n*→ ∞ *γ*˜*n*(*z*) *coincides with the generating function of the absorption amplitude to* −1 *with respect to time n while the transmitting amplitude R*|Φ ∞(*M*) = lim*n*→ ∞ *τ*˜*n*(*z*) *coincides with the generating function of the absorption amplitude to M with respect to time n.*

Put *γn* := |*δ*(−1;*L*), *Un δ*(0;*R*)|2 and *τn* := |*δ*(*M*;*R*), *Un δ*(0;*R*)|2 which are the absorption/ first hitting probabilities at positions −1 and *M*, respectively, starting from (0 : *R*). From the above observation, for example, we can express the *m*-th moments of the absorption/hitting times to −1 and *M* as follows:

$$\sum\_{n\geq 1} n^m \gamma\_n = \int\_0^{2\pi} \overline{\langle L|\Phi\_{\infty}(-1)\rangle} \left(-i\frac{\partial}{\partial \xi}\right)^m \langle L|\Phi\_{\infty}(-1)\rangle \frac{d\xi}{2\pi'}\tag{3}$$

$$\sum\_{n\geq 1} n^m \tau\_n = \int\_0^{2\pi} \overline{\langle R | \Phi\_\infty(M) \rangle} \left( -i \frac{\partial}{\partial \overline{\xi}} \right)^m \langle R | \Phi\_\infty(M) \rangle \frac{d\overline{\xi}}{2\pi}.\tag{4}$$

### **Relation to Scattering of quantum walk**

The stationary state Φ ∞ is a generalized eigenfunction of *U* in ∞(Z; C2). The scattering matrix naturally appears in Φ ∞ (see [5]). In the time independent scattering theory, the inflow can be considered as the incident "plane wave", and the impurity causes the scattered wave by transmissions and reflections. Thus, we can see the transmission coefficient and the reflection coefficient in Φ ∞(*x*) for *x* ∈ Z \ Γ*M*. For studies of a general theory of scattering, we also mention the recent work by Tiedra de Aldecoa [12].


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**26**

**Rho GTPases and**

Xuejing Zhang and Daotai Nie

*Department of Medical Microbiology, Immunology, and Cell Biology*

The Rho GTPases is a subfamily of molecular switches that cycle between an inactive GDP-bound state and an active GTP-bound state within the Ras superfamily. In the past, members of the Rho subfamily were mainly thought to be involved in the regulation of cytoskeletal organization in response to extracellular growth factors. However, a number of studies over the past few years have revealed that the Rho GTPases play crucial roles in a wide spectrum of cellular functions related to cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix, cell morphology, cell cycle progression, malignant transformation, invasion and metastasis. Alterations of the expression levels to Rho GTPases have been detected in many types of human tumors and, in some cases, up-regulation and/or overexpression of Rho protein correlates with poor prognosis. This article reviews the evidence of aberrant Rho signaling and the cellular effects elicited by Rho GTPases signaling in human breast

Rho GTPases belong to the Ras superfamily of low molecular mass (~21 kDa) proteins that are widely expressed in mammalian cells (DerMardirossian and Bokoch 2001). In mammals, the Rho family of GTPases contains 22 members which can be classified into six groups: Rho (RhoA, RhoB, RhoC), Rac (Rac1, Rac2, Rac3, RhoG), Cdc42 (Cdc42, TC10, TCL, Chp, Wrch-1), Rnd (Rnd1, Rnd2, Rnd3/RhoE), RhoBTB (RhoBTB1, RhoBTB2) and Miro (Miro-1, Miro-2) (Wennerberg and Der 2004). RhoD, Rif and RhoH/TTF have not been grouped yet. RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42 are the best-characterized family members of Rho family GTPases. Each controls the formation of a distinct cytoskeletal element in mammalian cells. Activation of Rac induces Actin polymerization to form lamellipodia (Ridley, Paterson et al. 1992), whereas activation of CDC42 stimulates the polymerization of actin to filopodia or microspikes (Nobes and Hall 1995). In contrast, Rho regulates bundling of actin filaments into stress fibers and the formation of focal adhesion complexes (Keely, Westwick et al.

**1. Introduction**

tumors.

1997).

**2. Categorization**

*University School of Medicine and Simmons Cancer Institute*

**Breast Cancer**

*Southern Illinois*

*Springfield USA*

osteoclastogenesis. Leukemia : official journal of the Leukemia Society of America, Leukemia Research Fund, U.K 21(9):2025-34.