**Meet the editor**

Dr Sime Curkovic is a Professor of Supply Chain Management at Western Michigan University. He received his undergraduate degree in Management Systems from Kettering University and his Ph.D. degree from Michigan State University. His research interests include environmentally responsible manufacturing, green purchasing, total quality management, supply chain

management, supply chain risk management, and integrated global strategic sourcing. Dr Curkovic's publications have appeared in the Journal of Supply Chain Management, the IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, the Decision Sciences Journal, the International Journal of Operations and Production Management, the International Journal of Production Research, the Journal of Quality Management, the Journal of Operations Management, and the International Journal of Production Economics. His dissertation on the relationship between Total Quality Management and Environmentally Responsible Manufacturing has been given the following awards: 1) The APICS Educational Foundation Edward & Marion Plossl Fellowship; 2) The Richard J. Lewis Quality of Excellence Award; and 3) The National Decision Sciences Institute Buffa Doctoral Dissertation.

Contents

**Preface IX**

Chapter 1 **Oil Exploration and Climate Change:**

H. Uthman and J.O. Odigure

and Jesús San-Miguel-Ayanz

**Marine Environmental Law 29**

Chapter 4 **GIS for Environmental Problem Solving 83**

Chapter 5 **Environmental Management in Businesses:**

Chapter 6 **A Bottom Up Approach to Modeling Habitat**

Paulo Morgado, Marina Toger, Patricia Abrantes and Jérémy Fiegel

Chapter 7 **Electronic Waste Management in Ghana – Issues and Practices 149**

Chapter 8 **Remote Sensing Based Crop Coefficients**

Jorge Rocha, António Perdigão, Raquel Melo and Cristina Henriques

**for Water Management in Agriculture 167**

Martin Oteng-Ababio

Maria J. Masanet-Llodra

Chapter 2 **Oil Pollution and International**

Ekaterina Anyanova

**A Case Study of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 1**  A.S. Abdulkareem, A.S. Afolabi, J. Abdulfatai,

Chapter 3 **Use of Remote Sensing in Wildfire Management 55**  Brigitte Leblon, Laura Bourgeau-Chavez

Koushen Douglas Loh and Sasathorn Tapaneeyakul

**Does It Make Money? An Accounting Perspective 105**

**Connectivity Dynamics Through Networks Analysis 131**

## Contents

#### **Preface XIII**

X Contents

Contents VII

Chapter 19 **Evaluation of Soil Quality Parameters**

Chapter 20 **The Compost of Olive Mill Pomace:**

Danica Fazekašová

Chapter 21 **Social-Ecological Resilience**

**Development in Terms of Sustainable Land Use 435**

**From a Waste to a Resource – Environmental Benefits of Its Application in Olive Oil Groves 459**

**and Maize Farming in Chiapas, Mexico 485**  Nils Max McCune, Francisco Guevara-Hernández,

Benigno Ruiz-Sesma and Leopoldo Medina-Sanson

Chapter 22 **Methodology for the Regional Landfill Site Selection 513**

**Environmental Management Implications in the Drylands of Central Tanzania 539**

Jose Nahed-Toral, Paula Mendoza-Nazar, Jesus Ovando-Cruz,

Stella Kyvelou, Maria Sinou, Isabelle Baer and Toni Papadopoulos

Beatriz Gómez-Muñoz, David J. Hatch, Roland Bol and Roberto García-Ruiz

Boško Josimović and Igor Marić

Richard Y.M. Kangalawe

Chapter 23 **Land Degradation, Community Perceptions and**

Chapter 24 **Developing a South-European Eco-Quarter Design and Assessment Tool Based on**

**the Concept of Territorial Capital 561**

Chapter 19 **Evaluation of Soil Quality Parameters Development in Terms of Sustainable Land Use 435**  Danica Fazekašová

VI Contents

Chapter 9 **Certification and Integration of Environment with**

Chapter 10 **Uncovering the Relation Between Environmental Damage and the Rate of Rainfall Received Through a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Study on Potable Water Production in Malaysia 219**  Amir Hamzah Sharaai, Noor Zalina Mahmood

**Around a Large Chemical Platform 237**

Chapter 12 **Knowledge-Based Development in Small Communities –**

Cristian Teodorescu, Lucian Constantin,

and Abdul Halim Sulaiman

Chapter 11 **Integrated Water Management**

**Quality and Safety – A Path to Sustained Success 193**  Gilberto Santos, Manuel Rebelo, Síria Barros and Martinha Pereira

Cristian Teodorescu, Margareta Nicolau, Adriana Cuciureanu, Marinela Petrescu, Doina Guta, Ciprian Tetiu and Rodica Baciu

**Efficient Management Based on Local Expertize 263**

**with the Environmental Management at Cluster Level 311** Francesco Testa, Tiberio Daddi, Fabio Iraldo and Marco Frey

Ray-Yeng Yang, Ying-Chih Wu and Hwung-Hweng Hwung

**A Sound Alternative for Reducing the Environmental**

Margareta Nicolau, Aurelia Ballo and Cristiana Cosma

Chapter 13 **Industrial Clusters and Environmental Management 291**  Massimo Battaglia, Tiberio Daddi and Francesco Testa

Chapter 14 **Overview of Past and Ongoing Experiences Dealing**

Chapter 15 **Beach Erosion Management with the Application of Soft Countermeasure in Taiwan 349**

> **Impact of Swine Production 371**  Antonio Zanin and Fabiano Marcos Bagatini

Chapter 17 **Overview of Environmental Management**

and Seyed Reza Shadizadeh

Chapter 16 **The Economic and Financial Feasibility of a Biodigester:**

**by Drill Cutting Re-Injection Through Hydraulic Fracturing in Upstream Oil and Gas Industry 389**

Chapter 18 **A Geologic and Geomorphologic Analysis of the Zacatecas**

Jorge Bluhm-Gutiérrez and Alicia Esparza-Martínez

**Zones Associated with the Erosion Processes 411** Felipe de Jesús Escalona-Alcázar, Bianney Escobedo-Arellano, Brenda Castillo-Félix, Perla García-Sandoval, Luz Leticia Gurrola-Menchaca, Carlos Carrillo-Castillo, Ernesto-Patricio Núñez-Peña,

**and Guadalupe Quadrangles in Order to Define Hazardous**

Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor, Ariffin Samsuri

Preface

Welcome to the Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Sustainable Development. The practice of sustainable development is becoming widespread in all industries around the globe today, and both small and large firms are realizing the benefits provided by sustainability. The World Commission on Environment and Development defines sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Sustainability implies efforts directed towards preserving the environment, doing more with less (cost savings, profit increasing), reducing dependence on foreign resources such as oil, using alternate forms of energy, etc. The critical issues in sustainable development are energy consumption, air pollution, and climate change to name just a few. Confronted with the prospect of non-availability of fossil fuels within the foreseeable future, scarcity of natural resources, an increasing frequency of natural calamities and the worst economic downturn in nearly a century,

the sustainability landscape has changed drastically in the last five years.

students, administrators, communities, and industries).

described throughout the book.

Researchers are trying to meet the challenge posed by the rapidly evolving landscape of sustainability. All in all, a lot has been done but a lot more needs to be done on the part of researchers to meet the pace of the sustainability movement. In order to address the sustainability deficit in education and research*, InTech* has invited submissions of manuscripts for publication in its focused issue on sustainability. All chapters are high-quality, high-impact manuscripts addressing integration of sustainability efforts with clear lessons and insights for the stake holders (faculty,

We think this book is unique in that it uses a novel and logical approach to present discussions of this topic from three general perspectives: scientific, social, and economic, and the integration within these important areas. We think this book is somewhat different than other environmental management books since we offer a more balanced view of the topic – many of the books available today concentrate primarily on just one of these three perspectives. A primary objective of this book is to help readers think about how sustainable development impacts all areas and processes of the firm and the society that it functions within, and to show how managers, researchers, and policy makers can improve their position by employing the practices

## Preface

Welcome to the Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Sustainable Development. The practice of sustainable development is becoming widespread in all industries around the globe today, and both small and large firms are realizing the benefits provided by sustainability. The World Commission on Environment and Development defines sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Sustainability implies efforts directed towards preserving the environment, doing more with less (cost savings, profit increasing), reducing dependence on foreign resources such as oil, using alternate forms of energy, etc. The critical issues in sustainable development are energy consumption, air pollution, and climate change to name just a few. Confronted with the prospect of non-availability of fossil fuels within the foreseeable future, scarcity of natural resources, an increasing frequency of natural calamities and the worst economic downturn in nearly a century, the sustainability landscape has changed drastically in the last five years.

Researchers are trying to meet the challenge posed by the rapidly evolving landscape of sustainability. All in all, a lot has been done but a lot more needs to be done on the part of researchers to meet the pace of the sustainability movement. In order to address the sustainability deficit in education and research*, InTech* has invited submissions of manuscripts for publication in its focused issue on sustainability. All chapters are high-quality, high-impact manuscripts addressing integration of sustainability efforts with clear lessons and insights for the stake holders (faculty, students, administrators, communities, and industries).

We think this book is unique in that it uses a novel and logical approach to present discussions of this topic from three general perspectives: scientific, social, and economic, and the integration within these important areas. We think this book is somewhat different than other environmental management books since we offer a more balanced view of the topic – many of the books available today concentrate primarily on just one of these three perspectives. A primary objective of this book is to help readers think about how sustainable development impacts all areas and processes of the firm and the society that it functions within, and to show how managers, researchers, and policy makers can improve their position by employing the practices described throughout the book.

#### XIV Preface

This book addresses the strongly related environmental issues (e.g., energy production, pollution, climate change, etc.) by considering them in an integrated manner and linking them to economic, social, and technical issues and environmental policies. These chapters collectively can help transform the values and principles that will directly influence the development of future sustainability strategies and our lifestyle. Likewise, this book will help decision makers consider both the economic, social, and technical issues with environmental concerns, at which point sustainable development becomes more logical and ultimately sustainable.

> **Sime Curkovic** Western Michigan University, Haworth College of Business, Department of Management, Kalamazoo, Michigan, USA

## **Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria**

A.S. Abdulkareem, A.S. Afolabi, J. Abdulfatai, H. Uthman and J.O. Odigure

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/47730

## **1. Introduction**

Nigeria like most other developing countries in the early part of the 70s was engaged in intensive natural resource exploitation as a way of stimulating economic growth (Ajayi, 1999; Abdulkareem et al, 2009). As at 1976, about 10 years from the start of oil exploration in the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria, figures available from the office of federal statistics stated that the oil has come to account for about 14% of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP) of Nigeria, 95% of the total export and over 80% of government's annual revenue (Olukoga, 2002; Tolulope, 2004; Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2006). Also total export peaked at 2 millions barrels per day of crude oil with price range of 18-22US dollars per barrel (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2006). It is worth of mentioning that the current price per barrel of oil is now in the range of 80-110 US dollars (Ufarana, 2004; Akpan, 2009). This has created more opportunities for the development of new fields and increase granting of mining licenses and intensive exploration of oil mineral resources in the country (Ajayi, 1999; Abenege, 2004). The crude oil comes from reservoir containing gas, which is produced along with the oil. This associated natural gas is separated from the oil at a flow station. However in Nigeria, about 75% of the associated gas is flared due to the underdeveloped local market for gas in the country. The gas currently flared is estimated at two billion cubic feet per day (scf/d) or 56,600 m3, the highest in any member nation of OPEC (Ageh et al, 2009; Ajayi, 2009). The quantity of gas flared in Nigeria is equivalent to the total annual power generation in the sub-Saharan Africa 'according to World Bank'(Odigure, 2001; UNDP/World bank report, 2004; Akpan, 2009). Nigeria is said to have natural gas reserves of 100 trillion standard cubic feet (about 2.832 trillion cubic meters), with about 45 trillion standard cubic reserves in the Niger-Delta Area of Nigeria (Ufarana, 2004; Tolulope, 2004). In energy terms, the quantity of natural gas in Nigeria is said to be more than twice the

© 2012 Abdulkareem et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 Abdulkareem et al., licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 3

into the air (FEPA Report, 1998; UNDP/World Bank report, 2004). Flared gas also releases hazardous substances into the environment that heighten the problem of the depletion of the ozone layer (Chimaroke, 2004). The attendant "green house effect" is one of the most frightening environmental problems of our time. Ozone layers that serve as blanket for regulating the earth's temperature are stripped as a resulting of gas flaring thereby causing global warming (Ikelegbe, 1993). In spite of advances in technology and the potential to convert the flared gas into a source of enormous nation revenue, the practices has continued in Nigeria, ostensibly underscoring the problems of our national development (Oyekunle, 1999; Akpan, 2009). Combustion of associated gas during gas flaring also releases heat into the environment. The heat radiation from gas flaring greatly affects the surrounding environment and particular crops planted within the vicinity of gas flare stations (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002). It also has a devastating effect on microorganisms and aquatic life. Heat radiation from gas flaring also causes an increase in heat waves hence there is the possibility that habitants of Niger-Delta Area, where the gas flaring stations are located will suffer heart stroke, heart attacks and other ailments aggravated by the heat (Odigure et al., 2003). For instance, it has been reported that heat wave killed more than 700 people in Chicago area alone and if this is happening already from heat, what would occur in the future with global warming (Aduku, 1997; Olukoga, 2002; Abenege, 2004) . Heat radiation from gas flaring also contributed to the increment in the soil temperature, which destroys the plant thereby affecting the ecosystem since plants absorb CO2 in the atmosphere (Kearns et al., 2000; Tolulope, 2004; Tzimas et al., 2007). The world health organisation advised the Nigerian government to address the problem of gas flaring by paying close attention to the activities of companies engaged in gas flaring and the environmental problems associated with their exploratory methods and to invite experts from developed countries to work with Nigerian professionals and environmentalists to proffer remedy (Global gas reduction initiative, 2002; UNDP/World bank report, 2004; Ufarana, 2004). Critics of the flares in the Niger-Delta have said that the Nigerian government puts profit ahead of the environmental safety and the welfare of its citizens. The harmful effects of gas flaring and inability of the oil companies and government to quantify the resultants effects of gas flaring on the environment has led to strain relationship between the oil producing companies and the people of Niger-Delta Area of Nigeria. To control the activities of oil companies in the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria, there is the need to concentrate on environment management as a tool of liberation in improving the quality of life and to make the environment friendly for human beings. This however brings about models and simulation, which is now applied generally to look into the inter-relationship between the parameters and its resultant effects on the environments (Abdulkareem et al., 2011). In this work, mathematical modelling that can be used to predict the quantity of heat radiation from gas flaring station will be developed. The developed model will be simulated and find interaction between various parameters such as distance, volume of gas flared, flared stack efficiency that influence the rate of heat radiation from gas flaring station. Mathematical modeling is a simplified image of processes taking place in a system. These could include heat propagation, concentration of dispersion of gases from combustion and generation of heat and propagation e.t.c. Models retain the most essential properties of the

quantity of crude oil (Agbalino and Eyinal, 1997; Ajayi, 1999; Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2006) .It is estimated that the country's reserve-production ratio is about 125 years compared to that of crude oil of less than 30 years (Akpan, 2009). Consequently, petroleum experts often describe Nigeria as a natural gas province with some oil in it; this put the country in the ten top nations in the world in terms of natural gas reserves (Abowei et al., 1997, Abdulkareem, 1999; Oni, 2011). Though, there is no proper record of natural gas production per year in Nigeria, however the total Nigeria natural gas production is put in the range of 22-25 billion cubic meters per year (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2006). Around 18 billion cubic meters of the total gas produced is associated gas, most of which is flared , with small amount re-injected into the sandstone sponge while the remaining is sold to electricity generating stations and industries (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2010). It has been reported that about 3 billion cubic meters per year of non associated gas is currently trapped for industrial consumptions, this is an indication that the level of gas utilization on Nigeria is very low (Akpan, 2009; Abdulkareem et al., 2010). Gas utilization is for now limited to some small quantities being used as fuel for petroleum operations for enhancement of oil recovery project, for pressure maintenance in some industrial processes on a relatively modest scale and for power generation (Reymond, 2007; Udetal et al., 2007). Gas flaring is therefore not only wastes valuable resources, but is also a major cause of environment pollution in the Niger-Delta, where most of Nigeria's oil output is produced (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002; Odigure et al., 2003; Ufarana, 2004).

The Niger-Delta oil fields of Nigeria covers about 70,000 square kilometer and is one of the world's largest wetlands, which houses Nigeria's proven gas reserves, estimated to be 120 trillion cubic feet (Abdulkareem, 1999; Uyigue and Agho, 2005; Onyiah, 2005). However, while the exploitation and exploration of oil has created some fortunes and contributed positively to the economic and technological advancement of Nigeria as a whole, the accompanying socio-economic and ecological fallout remain problematic (Alakpodia, 1980; Akpan, 2009). The public considers the oil-producing companies operating in the Niger-Delta oil fields responsible for polluting the environment by way or relentless flaring and venting of gas in to the environment, heat radiation, noise radiation, oil spillage, water pollution, site clearing, deforestation and destruction of the flora and fauna and consequences disturbances of the ecosystem in the 70,000 square kilometers Niger-Delta wetland (Ifeanyichukwu, 2002; Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2002; Abdulkareem et al., 2011). The situation that led to growing anger among the local peoples on the damages caused to their health and ecosystem by oil exploration activities, especially gas flaring and crude oil spillage (Oyekunle, 1995; Onosode, 1996; Abdulkareem et al., 2011). It has also been noted that there are currently 100 gas flaring sites, some of which have been burning ceaselessly for 40 years. Each one of these bonfires as shown in Fig 1 has an adverse effect on the inhabitants and the natural environment (Ifeanyichukwu, 2002; Oyekunle, 1995). The extent of human damage attributable to gas flaring is unclear, but doctors have found an unusual high incidence of asthma, bronchitis, skin and breathing problems in communities in oil producing areas (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2006). Moreover, flaring is a global source of green house gas emissions, contributing to global warming. The World Bank estimates that gas flaring in the Niger-Delta releases some 35 million tonnes of carbon dioxide annually into the air (FEPA Report, 1998; UNDP/World Bank report, 2004). Flared gas also releases hazardous substances into the environment that heighten the problem of the depletion of the ozone layer (Chimaroke, 2004). The attendant "green house effect" is one of the most frightening environmental problems of our time. Ozone layers that serve as blanket for regulating the earth's temperature are stripped as a resulting of gas flaring thereby causing global warming (Ikelegbe, 1993). In spite of advances in technology and the potential to convert the flared gas into a source of enormous nation revenue, the practices has continued in Nigeria, ostensibly underscoring the problems of our national development (Oyekunle, 1999; Akpan, 2009). Combustion of associated gas during gas flaring also releases heat into the environment. The heat radiation from gas flaring greatly affects the surrounding environment and particular crops planted within the vicinity of gas flare stations (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002). It also has a devastating effect on microorganisms and aquatic life. Heat radiation from gas flaring also causes an increase in heat waves hence there is the possibility that habitants of Niger-Delta Area, where the gas flaring stations are located will suffer heart stroke, heart attacks and other ailments aggravated by the heat (Odigure et al., 2003). For instance, it has been reported that heat wave killed more than 700 people in Chicago area alone and if this is happening already from heat, what would occur in the future with global warming (Aduku, 1997; Olukoga, 2002; Abenege, 2004) . Heat radiation from gas flaring also contributed to the increment in the soil temperature, which destroys the plant thereby affecting the ecosystem since plants absorb CO2 in the atmosphere (Kearns et al., 2000; Tolulope, 2004; Tzimas et al., 2007). The world health organisation advised the Nigerian government to address the problem of gas flaring by paying close attention to the activities of companies engaged in gas flaring and the environmental problems associated with their exploratory methods and to invite experts from developed countries to work with Nigerian professionals and environmentalists to proffer remedy (Global gas reduction initiative, 2002; UNDP/World bank report, 2004; Ufarana, 2004). Critics of the flares in the Niger-Delta have said that the Nigerian government puts profit ahead of the environmental safety and the welfare of its citizens. The harmful effects of gas flaring and inability of the oil companies and government to quantify the resultants effects of gas flaring on the environment has led to strain relationship between the oil producing companies and the people of Niger-Delta Area of Nigeria. To control the activities of oil companies in the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria, there is the need to concentrate on environment management as a tool of liberation in improving the quality of life and to make the environment friendly for human beings. This however brings about models and simulation, which is now applied generally to look into the inter-relationship between the parameters and its resultant effects on the environments (Abdulkareem et al., 2011). In this work, mathematical modelling that can be used to predict the quantity of heat radiation from gas flaring station will be developed. The developed model will be simulated and find interaction between various parameters such as distance, volume of gas flared, flared stack efficiency that influence the rate of heat radiation from gas flaring station. Mathematical modeling is a simplified image of processes taking place in a system. These could include heat propagation, concentration of dispersion of gases from combustion and generation of heat and propagation e.t.c. Models retain the most essential properties of the

2 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

2002; Odigure et al., 2003; Ufarana, 2004).

quantity of crude oil (Agbalino and Eyinal, 1997; Ajayi, 1999; Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2006) .It is estimated that the country's reserve-production ratio is about 125 years compared to that of crude oil of less than 30 years (Akpan, 2009). Consequently, petroleum experts often describe Nigeria as a natural gas province with some oil in it; this put the country in the ten top nations in the world in terms of natural gas reserves (Abowei et al., 1997, Abdulkareem, 1999; Oni, 2011). Though, there is no proper record of natural gas production per year in Nigeria, however the total Nigeria natural gas production is put in the range of 22-25 billion cubic meters per year (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2006). Around 18 billion cubic meters of the total gas produced is associated gas, most of which is flared , with small amount re-injected into the sandstone sponge while the remaining is sold to electricity generating stations and industries (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2010). It has been reported that about 3 billion cubic meters per year of non associated gas is currently trapped for industrial consumptions, this is an indication that the level of gas utilization on Nigeria is very low (Akpan, 2009; Abdulkareem et al., 2010). Gas utilization is for now limited to some small quantities being used as fuel for petroleum operations for enhancement of oil recovery project, for pressure maintenance in some industrial processes on a relatively modest scale and for power generation (Reymond, 2007; Udetal et al., 2007). Gas flaring is therefore not only wastes valuable resources, but is also a major cause of environment pollution in the Niger-Delta, where most of Nigeria's oil output is produced (Abdulkareem and Odigure,

The Niger-Delta oil fields of Nigeria covers about 70,000 square kilometer and is one of the world's largest wetlands, which houses Nigeria's proven gas reserves, estimated to be 120 trillion cubic feet (Abdulkareem, 1999; Uyigue and Agho, 2005; Onyiah, 2005). However, while the exploitation and exploration of oil has created some fortunes and contributed positively to the economic and technological advancement of Nigeria as a whole, the accompanying socio-economic and ecological fallout remain problematic (Alakpodia, 1980; Akpan, 2009). The public considers the oil-producing companies operating in the Niger-Delta oil fields responsible for polluting the environment by way or relentless flaring and venting of gas in to the environment, heat radiation, noise radiation, oil spillage, water pollution, site clearing, deforestation and destruction of the flora and fauna and consequences disturbances of the ecosystem in the 70,000 square kilometers Niger-Delta wetland (Ifeanyichukwu, 2002; Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2002; Abdulkareem et al., 2011). The situation that led to growing anger among the local peoples on the damages caused to their health and ecosystem by oil exploration activities, especially gas flaring and crude oil spillage (Oyekunle, 1995; Onosode, 1996; Abdulkareem et al., 2011). It has also been noted that there are currently 100 gas flaring sites, some of which have been burning ceaselessly for 40 years. Each one of these bonfires as shown in Fig 1 has an adverse effect on the inhabitants and the natural environment (Ifeanyichukwu, 2002; Oyekunle, 1995). The extent of human damage attributable to gas flaring is unclear, but doctors have found an unusual high incidence of asthma, bronchitis, skin and breathing problems in communities in oil producing areas (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2006). Moreover, flaring is a global source of green house gas emissions, contributing to global warming. The World Bank estimates that gas flaring in the Niger-Delta releases some 35 million tonnes of carbon dioxide annually

actual process but presents them in mathematical forms. According to Luyben (1995)." Mathematical modeling is very much an art. It takes experience, practice and brain power to be good mathematical modelers". Mathematical model of a system must be sufficiently simple, easy to grasp and give a clear idea about all the qualitative aspects of the phenomenon of interest. On the other hand, it must be sufficiently accurate in bringing the quantitative aspects of the process. Simulation represent the application of modelling techniques to real system, thus enabling information on plant characteristics to be gained without either constructing or operating the full scale plant or system under consideration. Simulation methods come in two type viz. Digital simulation and Analogue simulation of these two types, Digital simulation which involve the use of codes and programme are more in use since they can be implemented on modern computer with exceptional speed (William, 1995)

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 5

mass of unclear gases and other airborne particles produced as by- products in process industries (Odigure, 1998). The degree of the increase of process industries is increasing drastically, this improvement has changed man's way of life remarkably, however the advantages derived have not being without a price which is basically the effect of pollution on the environment (Carvalho et al., 2005; Baroutian, 2006). Pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere as either gases or particles, and are eventually removed by natural self cleansing processes (Ajayi, 1999; Alameddine and El-Fadel, 2005). The waste mostly originates from the burning of fossil fuels and the processing of materials by industries (Abdulkareem et al., 2011). Other sources include waste from burning engines in cars, fuel use in domestic sectors, oil boom, gas flaring, agricultural processes, but of all these the process industries have been recognized as the major source of air pollutants. The self-cleansing ability of the atmosphere which involves dispersion and dilution, is used as a grant channel, is presently too small and cannot match up to the rate of introduction of pollutants into the atmosphere, this is due to meteorological influences (Held et al., 2005; Potocnik et al, 2007; Soylu, 2007). During the 20th century contamination of the environment as a result of human activities has risen drastically (Hussain et al., 2005; Abdulkareem et al, 2009). Pollution problem have risen in all industrialized areas as well as in various inland, coastal water and stretches of ocean (Appleby, 1992; Kinnee et al., 2004). The capacity of the biosphere to disperse, degrade and assimilate human waste is in serious question, waste due to human activities now overweigh natural forces of putting toxic elements into the atmosphere (Ufarana, 2004). From colloid chemistry atmospheric air belongs to the group of incoherent, coarse dispersal system. More specifically, it is a system of colloid particles dispersed in gas in which solid and liquid component can be found in a mixture of gases, with this knowledge the term "pure air" cannot be defined because that will depend on the content of the air expected. Stern (1962 – 1968) said the composition of the air found near the soil level (homosphere) composes of various amount of substances additional to its constant component, this additional component are the air pollutants, thereby making pure air never to be in existence (Ufarana, 2004, Onyiah, 2005). The activities of the oil companies in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria are the major sources of the environmental pollution in the country. The situation that makes the public to consider the oil producing companies operating in the Niger-Delta oil fields responsible for polluting the environment by way of relentless flaring and venting of gas in the environment. Gas flaring in Nigeria today has posses an environmental hazard to the nation at large. So much damage is being done to the environment through gas flaring, that if nothing is done in a few years from now, serious environmental and health problems such as premature death and diseases will emerge. With respect to gas flaring, its effect on vegetation, health and the micro-climate are equal searing. Apart from the noise produced from the fire at the flare sites, the thick smoke that bellows into the sky contains poisonous gases which give rise to acid rain and eventually poison streams, lakes, lagoons and rivers thereby destroying aquatic organism and making the water unhealthy for drinking. It has been proven that gas flaring generates heat which is felt over an average radius of 0.5 kilometres thereby causing thermal pollution (Ikelegbe, 1993). Gas flaring cause green house effect, thereby producing global warming and green house gases which include: water vapour, carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide; Ozone, Carbon

monoxide and Nitrogen oxide (Indriani, 2005; Nwaichi and Uzabona, 2011).

**Figure 1.** Gas flaring station in the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria

### **1.1. Oil exploitation and climate change**

Pollution is a term that defines any environmental state or manifestation which is harmful or unpleasant to life, it can also be defined as the introduction of natural and artificial particulate contaminants into the atmosphere (Cemak, 1985; Odigure, 1998). This can be caused due to man's failure to achieve control over the chemical, physical or biological consequence or side effects of his scientific industrial and social habit (Drake and Hubacek, 2007). Industrial source of pollution is as a result of release of hazardous waste and huge mass of unclear gases and other airborne particles produced as by- products in process industries (Odigure, 1998). The degree of the increase of process industries is increasing drastically, this improvement has changed man's way of life remarkably, however the advantages derived have not being without a price which is basically the effect of pollution on the environment (Carvalho et al., 2005; Baroutian, 2006). Pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere as either gases or particles, and are eventually removed by natural self cleansing processes (Ajayi, 1999; Alameddine and El-Fadel, 2005). The waste mostly originates from the burning of fossil fuels and the processing of materials by industries (Abdulkareem et al., 2011). Other sources include waste from burning engines in cars, fuel use in domestic sectors, oil boom, gas flaring, agricultural processes, but of all these the process industries have been recognized as the major source of air pollutants. The self-cleansing ability of the atmosphere which involves dispersion and dilution, is used as a grant channel, is presently too small and cannot match up to the rate of introduction of pollutants into the atmosphere, this is due to meteorological influences (Held et al., 2005; Potocnik et al, 2007; Soylu, 2007). During the 20th century contamination of the environment as a result of human activities has risen drastically (Hussain et al., 2005; Abdulkareem et al, 2009). Pollution problem have risen in all industrialized areas as well as in various inland, coastal water and stretches of ocean (Appleby, 1992; Kinnee et al., 2004). The capacity of the biosphere to disperse, degrade and assimilate human waste is in serious question, waste due to human activities now overweigh natural forces of putting toxic elements into the atmosphere (Ufarana, 2004). From colloid chemistry atmospheric air belongs to the group of incoherent, coarse dispersal system. More specifically, it is a system of colloid particles dispersed in gas in which solid and liquid component can be found in a mixture of gases, with this knowledge the term "pure air" cannot be defined because that will depend on the content of the air expected. Stern (1962 – 1968) said the composition of the air found near the soil level (homosphere) composes of various amount of substances additional to its constant component, this additional component are the air pollutants, thereby making pure air never to be in existence (Ufarana, 2004, Onyiah, 2005). The activities of the oil companies in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria are the major sources of the environmental pollution in the country. The situation that makes the public to consider the oil producing companies operating in the Niger-Delta oil fields responsible for polluting the environment by way of relentless flaring and venting of gas in the environment. Gas flaring in Nigeria today has posses an environmental hazard to the nation at large. So much damage is being done to the environment through gas flaring, that if nothing is done in a few years from now, serious environmental and health problems such as premature death and diseases will emerge. With respect to gas flaring, its effect on vegetation, health and the micro-climate are equal searing. Apart from the noise produced from the fire at the flare sites, the thick smoke that bellows into the sky contains poisonous gases which give rise to acid rain and eventually poison streams, lakes, lagoons and rivers thereby destroying aquatic organism and making the water unhealthy for drinking. It has been proven that gas flaring generates heat which is felt over an average radius of 0.5 kilometres thereby causing thermal pollution (Ikelegbe, 1993). Gas flaring cause green house effect, thereby producing global warming and green house gases which include: water vapour, carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide; Ozone, Carbon monoxide and Nitrogen oxide (Indriani, 2005; Nwaichi and Uzabona, 2011).

4 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

(William, 1995)

**Figure 1.** Gas flaring station in the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria

Pollution is a term that defines any environmental state or manifestation which is harmful or unpleasant to life, it can also be defined as the introduction of natural and artificial particulate contaminants into the atmosphere (Cemak, 1985; Odigure, 1998). This can be caused due to man's failure to achieve control over the chemical, physical or biological consequence or side effects of his scientific industrial and social habit (Drake and Hubacek, 2007). Industrial source of pollution is as a result of release of hazardous waste and huge

**1.1. Oil exploitation and climate change**

actual process but presents them in mathematical forms. According to Luyben (1995)." Mathematical modeling is very much an art. It takes experience, practice and brain power to be good mathematical modelers". Mathematical model of a system must be sufficiently simple, easy to grasp and give a clear idea about all the qualitative aspects of the phenomenon of interest. On the other hand, it must be sufficiently accurate in bringing the quantitative aspects of the process. Simulation represent the application of modelling techniques to real system, thus enabling information on plant characteristics to be gained without either constructing or operating the full scale plant or system under consideration. Simulation methods come in two type viz. Digital simulation and Analogue simulation of these two types, Digital simulation which involve the use of codes and programme are more in use since they can be implemented on modern computer with exceptional speed

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 7

CO g H O l H CO aq 2 2 2 3 (1)

SO g H O l H SO aq 3 2 2 4 (2)

and realized that the amount of carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere was increasing. He further believed that carbon dioxide concentrations will continue to increase as the world's consumption of fossil fuel particularly coal and fossil fuel increased even more rapidly. His understanding of the role of carbon dioxide in heating the earth led him to predict that if the atmospheric carbon dioxide is doubled, earth would become several

Acid rain is commonly used to describe the deposition of acidic components in rain, snow, fog, dew or dry particles .(Ufarana, 2004). The primary sources are sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and oxide of oxides of nitrogen (Uyigue and Agho, 2007). A variety of industrial processes, such as the production of iron and steel, utility factories, oil producing companies are responsible for the emissions of obnoxious gases that resulted into acid rain. This report focused on the contribution of oil exploration and exploitation in the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria to the formation of acid rain. It has been reported that acid rain is one of the most discussed modes of environmental pollution in recent years (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2001). This is caused by the considerable quantities of Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxide released into the atmosphere as fossil fuel is burnt (SPDC Report, 1981). These pollutants combine with water vapour contained in the air to form dilute solution of sulphuric acid, which are subsequently washed out of the atmosphere by rain or other type of precipitation such as fog and snow (Thompson, 1991). The carbon (iv) oxide (CO2) gas released during gas flaring also dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), the concentration of the gas in water depends on the extent of dissolution of gas in water (Abenege, 2004). Although, acid rain usually consists of relatively mild acids, they are sufficiently caustic to do great harm over time to certain natural ecosystems. Already there is much evidence that deposition of acid leads to lakes and stream acidification, stunted growth of flora while acid sensitive crops will die in affected areas (Abdulkareem, 2000). In cities, the corrosions of buildings and monuments are both exacerbated and accelerated (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2001). To some extent acid rain has always been present in certain humid environment, originating from natural events as volcanic eruption, forest fires and even the bacterial decomposition of dead organism (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2001). However, as the worldwide industrial revolution spread globally, the destructive capabilities of natural acid rain have been enhanced by human actions. The phenomenon of acid rain due to the dissolution of these acid gases in the atmospheric water in the sky so that it becomes acidic thereby leading to formation of rain with pH below 5.0 as shown in Equations 1-3 (Abdulkareem, 2000). Its effect is usually by its corrosion of rooftops, discoloration of paints on building, premature rusting of metallic object, damage to flora and fauna (Plant

degrees warmer (Ufarana, 2004).

*1.1.2. Acid rain formation*

productive parts).

#### *1.1.1. Global warming and green house effect*

Man's expanding activity has reached a level at which their effects are global in nature. The natural system i.e. the atmosphere, land and sea as well as life's and plants therein are clearly being disturbed (Cermak, 1985; Odigure, 1998) .It is obvious that some trace of CO2, N2O, CH4 and O3 gases have increased during the last century (Nigeria natural gas stategy, 2002; Nwaichi and Uzabona, 2011). In addition, other gases are being emitted that are not naturally part of the global eco-system, notably Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCS) (Odjugo, 2010; Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2010). These trace gases absorb and emit radiation and are thus able to influence the earth's climate. They are refereed to collectively as green house gases. The green house effect is described as a warming of the earth's surface and lower atmosphere that tends to intensify with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The atmosphere allows a large percentage of the rays of visible light from the sun to reach the earth's surface and heat it (Nyong, 2004; Odjugo, 2010). A part of this energy is radiated by the earth's surface in the form of long wave infrared radiation, much of which is absorbed by molecules of carbon dioxide and water vapour in the atmosphere and which is reflected back to the surface as heat (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002). This is roughly analogous to the effect produced by glass panes of a green house, which transmit sunlight in the visible range but hold heat. The trapping of this infrared radiation causes earth's surface and lower atmospheric layers to warm to a higher temperature than would otherwise be the case. Without this green house heating, the earth's average temperature would be only -73oC, even the ocean would be frozen under such conditions (Odjugo, 2010). Owing to the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide caused by the modern industrial societies, widespread combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), the green house effect on earth may be intensified. An increase in concentration of the atmospheric concentrations of other trace gases such as Chlorofluorocarbons (freons), nitrous oxide and methane due human activity may also aggravated greenhouse condition (Nwaichi and Uzabona, 2011).

The realization that climate might change, as a result of emission of CO2 into the atmosphere is not new. Arrhenius (1896) pointed out that burning of fossil fuel might cause an increase of atmospheric CO2 and thereby changing the heat balance of the earth. Calendar (1938) convincingly showed that the atmospheric CO2 concentration was increasing. The observation which began in 1958 has clearly shown that the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased from about 315ppm to about343ppm in 1984 (Nyong, 2007). We know today that approximately, the amounts of CO2 that have been emitted into the atmosphere by fossil fuel combustion and changing land use (deforestation and expanding agriculture) can related to the observed increase of atmospheric CO2 to these human activities. Since a continued increase of atmospheric CO2 concentration might lead to changes of global climate, it is essential to be able to project the likely future concentration that may occur due to various possible rate of CO2 emissions .As far as the expected climatic change is concerned, it can be prognoses that a doubling of the CO2 concentration would lead to an increase of the globally averaged temperature by 1.5-4.5 oC (Ufarana, 2004). The prediction that climate change due to human activities began with a prediction made by the Swedish Chemist, Svant Arrhenius, in 1896. Arrhenius took note of the industrial revolution and realized that the amount of carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere was increasing. He further believed that carbon dioxide concentrations will continue to increase as the world's consumption of fossil fuel particularly coal and fossil fuel increased even more rapidly. His understanding of the role of carbon dioxide in heating the earth led him to predict that if the atmospheric carbon dioxide is doubled, earth would become several degrees warmer (Ufarana, 2004).

#### *1.1.2. Acid rain formation*

6 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

may also aggravated greenhouse condition (Nwaichi and Uzabona, 2011).

The realization that climate might change, as a result of emission of CO2 into the atmosphere is not new. Arrhenius (1896) pointed out that burning of fossil fuel might cause an increase of atmospheric CO2 and thereby changing the heat balance of the earth. Calendar (1938) convincingly showed that the atmospheric CO2 concentration was increasing. The observation which began in 1958 has clearly shown that the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased from about 315ppm to about343ppm in 1984 (Nyong, 2007). We know today that approximately, the amounts of CO2 that have been emitted into the atmosphere by fossil fuel combustion and changing land use (deforestation and expanding agriculture) can related to the observed increase of atmospheric CO2 to these human activities. Since a continued increase of atmospheric CO2 concentration might lead to changes of global climate, it is essential to be able to project the likely future concentration that may occur due to various possible rate of CO2 emissions .As far as the expected climatic change is concerned, it can be prognoses that a doubling of the CO2 concentration would lead to an increase of the globally averaged temperature by 1.5-4.5 oC (Ufarana, 2004). The prediction that climate change due to human activities began with a prediction made by the Swedish Chemist, Svant Arrhenius, in 1896. Arrhenius took note of the industrial revolution

Man's expanding activity has reached a level at which their effects are global in nature. The natural system i.e. the atmosphere, land and sea as well as life's and plants therein are clearly being disturbed (Cermak, 1985; Odigure, 1998) .It is obvious that some trace of CO2, N2O, CH4 and O3 gases have increased during the last century (Nigeria natural gas stategy, 2002; Nwaichi and Uzabona, 2011). In addition, other gases are being emitted that are not naturally part of the global eco-system, notably Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCS) (Odjugo, 2010; Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2010). These trace gases absorb and emit radiation and are thus able to influence the earth's climate. They are refereed to collectively as green house gases. The green house effect is described as a warming of the earth's surface and lower atmosphere that tends to intensify with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The atmosphere allows a large percentage of the rays of visible light from the sun to reach the earth's surface and heat it (Nyong, 2004; Odjugo, 2010). A part of this energy is radiated by the earth's surface in the form of long wave infrared radiation, much of which is absorbed by molecules of carbon dioxide and water vapour in the atmosphere and which is reflected back to the surface as heat (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002). This is roughly analogous to the effect produced by glass panes of a green house, which transmit sunlight in the visible range but hold heat. The trapping of this infrared radiation causes earth's surface and lower atmospheric layers to warm to a higher temperature than would otherwise be the case. Without this green house heating, the earth's average temperature would be only -73oC, even the ocean would be frozen under such conditions (Odjugo, 2010). Owing to the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide caused by the modern industrial societies, widespread combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), the green house effect on earth may be intensified. An increase in concentration of the atmospheric concentrations of other trace gases such as Chlorofluorocarbons (freons), nitrous oxide and methane due human activity

*1.1.1. Global warming and green house effect*

Acid rain is commonly used to describe the deposition of acidic components in rain, snow, fog, dew or dry particles .(Ufarana, 2004). The primary sources are sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and oxide of oxides of nitrogen (Uyigue and Agho, 2007). A variety of industrial processes, such as the production of iron and steel, utility factories, oil producing companies are responsible for the emissions of obnoxious gases that resulted into acid rain. This report focused on the contribution of oil exploration and exploitation in the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria to the formation of acid rain. It has been reported that acid rain is one of the most discussed modes of environmental pollution in recent years (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2001). This is caused by the considerable quantities of Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxide released into the atmosphere as fossil fuel is burnt (SPDC Report, 1981). These pollutants combine with water vapour contained in the air to form dilute solution of sulphuric acid, which are subsequently washed out of the atmosphere by rain or other type of precipitation such as fog and snow (Thompson, 1991). The carbon (iv) oxide (CO2) gas released during gas flaring also dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), the concentration of the gas in water depends on the extent of dissolution of gas in water (Abenege, 2004). Although, acid rain usually consists of relatively mild acids, they are sufficiently caustic to do great harm over time to certain natural ecosystems. Already there is much evidence that deposition of acid leads to lakes and stream acidification, stunted growth of flora while acid sensitive crops will die in affected areas (Abdulkareem, 2000). In cities, the corrosions of buildings and monuments are both exacerbated and accelerated (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2001). To some extent acid rain has always been present in certain humid environment, originating from natural events as volcanic eruption, forest fires and even the bacterial decomposition of dead organism (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2001). However, as the worldwide industrial revolution spread globally, the destructive capabilities of natural acid rain have been enhanced by human actions. The phenomenon of acid rain due to the dissolution of these acid gases in the atmospheric water in the sky so that it becomes acidic thereby leading to formation of rain with pH below 5.0 as shown in Equations 1-3 (Abdulkareem, 2000). Its effect is usually by its corrosion of rooftops, discoloration of paints on building, premature rusting of metallic object, damage to flora and fauna (Plant productive parts).

$$\text{CO}\_2\text{(g)} + \text{H}\_2\text{O} \text{(l)} \xrightarrow{\text{--}} \text{H}\_2\text{CO}\_3\text{(aq)}\tag{1}$$

$$\text{SO}\_3\text{(g)} + \text{H}\_2\text{O} \text{(l)} \xrightarrow{\text{e}} \text{H}\_2\text{SO}\_4\text{(aq)}\tag{2}$$

$$\text{HNO}\_2\text{(g)} + \text{H}\_2\text{O} \text{(l)} \xrightarrow{\text{HNO}\_2\text{(aq)}} \text{HNO}\_2\text{(aq)}\tag{3}$$

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 9

suffering the negative environment consequences of oil development, these negative impacts precipitated by the introduction of its own unwanted by-products into the environment may be catastrophic if allowed to build-up and unattended to (Nyong et al., 2007). The growth of the country's oil industry, combined with a population explosion and a lack of environmental regulation has led to substantial damage to Nigeria's environment predominantly the Niger-Delta region, the centre of the country's oil industry (Odjugo, 2010). For example, the rampant flaring of natural gas in the Niger Delta during oil production is the main culprit making natural gas the main source of carbon emissions in Nigeria (Abdulkareem et al., 2009). The people in most oil communities have to live with gas stacks that flare gas 24 hours a day at a temperature of 13 – 14,000oC. In 1994, these gases flared according to World Bank Report produced 35 million tons of CO2 and 12 million tons of methane more than the rest of the world (UNDP/World Bank, 2004). This makes the oil industry in Nigeria the single biggest source of global warming in the world. Therefore the impact of gas flaring in Nigeria is of local and global concern (Uyigue and Agho, 2007). Even in the immediate environment of these flares; amidst conflicting claims, field evidence seems to support the widespread postulation that flaring apart from human impacts has a direct relationship with heat radiation and elevation of temperature (Odigure et al, 2003). Typical gas flare in the Nigerian oil field are located at the ground level as shown in Fig 1 and surrounded by thick vegetation, farmland and villages huts 20-30m from the flare station (Odigure et al., 2003). The heat radiation from the flare station is a function of the flare temperature, gas flow rate and the geometrical design of flare stack (Odigure et al.,

The combustion of gaseous hydrocarbons contained in the natural gas is an exothermic process, which result in the evolution of heat to the atmosphere (Abdulkareem et al., 2009). This endangers both the plant and animal life around the vicinity gas flaring stations. Although the mechanism of radiant energy transfer is not completely understood, however the associated phenomenon is explained in terms of dualistic theory (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002). This theory deals separately with the emission and reception of radiation and with its transmission, radiation is emitted and received in discrete particle called photon. The geometric relationships between emitting and receiving surfaces have been kept very simple by arranging that emitting surface sees only the receiving surfaces. In practice it is not possible for heat radiated to strike the receiver completely. This necessitated the introduction of geometrical factor to relate the radiant energy striking a surface to the total radiant energy emitted (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002). While the concept of heat as a pollutant may seem impossible on a cold winter day, it is important to note that at any time of the year, an increase in water temperature has effect on aquatic life (Odigure et al., 2003). Heat pollution is a consequence of the rising in energy demand by man's activities. For instance the power plants burns fossil fuel or nuclei fuel to provide the energy needed for industrial consumptions, they released considerable amounts of heat (Abdulkareem, 2000). The power plants that release these huge amounts of energy are located near bodies of water, which the plant used for heat dissipation purposes. Living things especially cold blooded animal i.e. fish are very sensitive to small change in the average temperature. It has

2003).

#### *1.1.3. Ozone layer depletion*

Increasing concentration of the synthetic chemicals known as Hallon (Bromine fluoro carbons) and Chlorine Fluoro Carbons (CFC'S) are known to enhance the breaking down of the ozone layer, allowing more of the ultraviolet rays to penetrate to the earth surface (Ifeanyichukwu, 2002, Abenege, 2004; Ufarana, 2004). Ultraviolet rays can break apart important biological molecules including Deoxyribonuclectic acid (DNA). Increased ultraviolet radiation can lead to greater incidence of skin cancer and immune deficiencies as well as decreased crop yield and reduced population of certain fish larvae Pluto Plankton and Zooplankton that are vital to the food chain. Increased ultraviolet radiation can also lead to smog and reduced the useful life of paints and plastics. Stratospheric ozone protects oxygen at lower altitude from being broken up by ultraviolet light and keeps most of those harmful rays from penetrating to the earth's surface (Abdulkareem, 2000) . Hallons are an industrial group of chemical that contains bromine, which reacts in a manner similar to chlorine by catalytically destroying ozone. Halons are used primarily in fire extinguishing foam. Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFC'S) are compounds that consist of chlorine, fluorine and carbon, first introduced in the late 1920s, these gases have been used as coolant for refrigeration and air conditioners, propellant for aerosol sprays, agents for producing plastic foam and cleaners for electrical parts (Abdulkareem, 2000; Odjugo, 2011). CFC'S do not degrade easily in the troposphere as a result they raise into the stratosphere where they are broken down by ultraviolet light. The chlorine when liberated reacts with ozone to produce two molecules of oxygen. In the upper atmosphere, ultraviolet light breaks off a chlorine atom from a CFC'S molecule. The chlorine radicals attack ozone molecules and breaking it into an ordinary oxygen molecule and a molecule of chlorine monoxide, while the free oxygen radicals breaks up the chlorine monoxide as shown in Equations 4-7 (Abdulkareem, 2000). The freed chlorine radical is again available to repeat the process. Chlorine acts as catalyst and is unchanged during the process. Each chlorine atom can destroy as many as 10,000-ozone molecules before it returned to the troposphere.

$$\text{CFCl} \rightarrow \text{FCl} + \text{Cl} + \text{C} \tag{4}$$

$$\text{Cl} + \text{O}\_2 \rightarrow \text{ClO} + \text{O}\_2 \tag{5}$$

$$\text{Or} \to \text{2O} \tag{6}$$

$$\text{ClO} + \text{O} \rightarrow \text{Cl} \downarrow + \text{O} \downarrow \tag{7}$$

#### **1.2. Effect of heat radiation from gas flaring**

There is no doubt that the Nigerian oil industry has affected the country in a variety of ways at the same time. It has fashioned a remarkable economic landscape for the country but on the other hand, ever since the discovery of oil in Nigeria in the 1950s, the country has been suffering the negative environment consequences of oil development, these negative impacts precipitated by the introduction of its own unwanted by-products into the environment may be catastrophic if allowed to build-up and unattended to (Nyong et al., 2007). The growth of the country's oil industry, combined with a population explosion and a lack of environmental regulation has led to substantial damage to Nigeria's environment predominantly the Niger-Delta region, the centre of the country's oil industry (Odjugo, 2010). For example, the rampant flaring of natural gas in the Niger Delta during oil production is the main culprit making natural gas the main source of carbon emissions in Nigeria (Abdulkareem et al., 2009). The people in most oil communities have to live with gas stacks that flare gas 24 hours a day at a temperature of 13 – 14,000oC. In 1994, these gases flared according to World Bank Report produced 35 million tons of CO2 and 12 million tons of methane more than the rest of the world (UNDP/World Bank, 2004). This makes the oil industry in Nigeria the single biggest source of global warming in the world. Therefore the impact of gas flaring in Nigeria is of local and global concern (Uyigue and Agho, 2007). Even in the immediate environment of these flares; amidst conflicting claims, field evidence seems to support the widespread postulation that flaring apart from human impacts has a direct relationship with heat radiation and elevation of temperature (Odigure et al, 2003). Typical gas flare in the Nigerian oil field are located at the ground level as shown in Fig 1 and surrounded by thick vegetation, farmland and villages huts 20-30m from the flare station (Odigure et al., 2003). The heat radiation from the flare station is a function of the flare temperature, gas flow rate and the geometrical design of flare stack (Odigure et al., 2003).

8 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

10,000-ozone molecules before it returned to the troposphere.

**1.2. Effect of heat radiation from gas flaring**

CFCl3 FCl2 + Cl + C (4)

O2 2O (6)

There is no doubt that the Nigerian oil industry has affected the country in a variety of ways at the same time. It has fashioned a remarkable economic landscape for the country but on the other hand, ever since the discovery of oil in Nigeria in the 1950s, the country has been

Cl + O3 ClO + O2 (5)

ClO + O Cl2 + O2 (7)

Increasing concentration of the synthetic chemicals known as Hallon (Bromine fluoro carbons) and Chlorine Fluoro Carbons (CFC'S) are known to enhance the breaking down of the ozone layer, allowing more of the ultraviolet rays to penetrate to the earth surface (Ifeanyichukwu, 2002, Abenege, 2004; Ufarana, 2004). Ultraviolet rays can break apart important biological molecules including Deoxyribonuclectic acid (DNA). Increased ultraviolet radiation can lead to greater incidence of skin cancer and immune deficiencies as well as decreased crop yield and reduced population of certain fish larvae Pluto Plankton and Zooplankton that are vital to the food chain. Increased ultraviolet radiation can also lead to smog and reduced the useful life of paints and plastics. Stratospheric ozone protects oxygen at lower altitude from being broken up by ultraviolet light and keeps most of those harmful rays from penetrating to the earth's surface (Abdulkareem, 2000) . Hallons are an industrial group of chemical that contains bromine, which reacts in a manner similar to chlorine by catalytically destroying ozone. Halons are used primarily in fire extinguishing foam. Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFC'S) are compounds that consist of chlorine, fluorine and carbon, first introduced in the late 1920s, these gases have been used as coolant for refrigeration and air conditioners, propellant for aerosol sprays, agents for producing plastic foam and cleaners for electrical parts (Abdulkareem, 2000; Odjugo, 2011). CFC'S do not degrade easily in the troposphere as a result they raise into the stratosphere where they are broken down by ultraviolet light. The chlorine when liberated reacts with ozone to produce two molecules of oxygen. In the upper atmosphere, ultraviolet light breaks off a chlorine atom from a CFC'S molecule. The chlorine radicals attack ozone molecules and breaking it into an ordinary oxygen molecule and a molecule of chlorine monoxide, while the free oxygen radicals breaks up the chlorine monoxide as shown in Equations 4-7 (Abdulkareem, 2000). The freed chlorine radical is again available to repeat the process. Chlorine acts as catalyst and is unchanged during the process. Each chlorine atom can destroy as many as

*1.1.3. Ozone layer depletion*

NO g H O l HNO aq HNO aq 2 2 2 3 (3)

The combustion of gaseous hydrocarbons contained in the natural gas is an exothermic process, which result in the evolution of heat to the atmosphere (Abdulkareem et al., 2009). This endangers both the plant and animal life around the vicinity gas flaring stations. Although the mechanism of radiant energy transfer is not completely understood, however the associated phenomenon is explained in terms of dualistic theory (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002). This theory deals separately with the emission and reception of radiation and with its transmission, radiation is emitted and received in discrete particle called photon. The geometric relationships between emitting and receiving surfaces have been kept very simple by arranging that emitting surface sees only the receiving surfaces. In practice it is not possible for heat radiated to strike the receiver completely. This necessitated the introduction of geometrical factor to relate the radiant energy striking a surface to the total radiant energy emitted (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002). While the concept of heat as a pollutant may seem impossible on a cold winter day, it is important to note that at any time of the year, an increase in water temperature has effect on aquatic life (Odigure et al., 2003). Heat pollution is a consequence of the rising in energy demand by man's activities. For instance the power plants burns fossil fuel or nuclei fuel to provide the energy needed for industrial consumptions, they released considerable amounts of heat (Abdulkareem, 2000). The power plants that release these huge amounts of energy are located near bodies of water, which the plant used for heat dissipation purposes. Living things especially cold blooded animal i.e. fish are very sensitive to small change in the average temperature. It has

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

Qfd

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 11

Qfa

Qf = Qfd + Qfa (8)

From assumption (iii) i.e. heat from flares are used in vaporizing water, retained by the soil

Qfa = Qs + Qv (9)

Qf = Qfd + Qs + Qv (10)

Qfd = Qf – Qs – Qv (11)

s ss

s

Q M C dT (12)

T

soil

T

Rearranging the variables to make Qfd the subject of the formula gives

Qf

**Figure 2.** Schematic of heat radiation from gas flared station

Heat balance

Where

Where

Where

Taking heat balance from Fig 2

and the remaining reflected i.e.

been reported that fish hatch its eggs before the hatching period due to change in water temperature. It may also prevent fish eggs from hatching at all (Abdulkareem, 2009; Odigure et al., 2003). In addition, a small rise in average temperature could produce a profound climatic change. Some experts' belief a small rise in temperature would cause the Greenland and Antarctic ice to melts, raising ocean levels and inundating large areas of land (Abdulkareem., 2009). The average worldwide temperature can be affected when the products of combustion such as carbon monoxide, water vapour and carbon dioxide are emitted in large quantities into the atmosphere (Tzimas et al., 2007). Although, solar energy on its way to the earth surface easily pass through the layers of carbon dioxide, some of the heat escaping through the earth will be absorbed by the increase amount of carbon emitted to the atmosphere by the process industries and releases back to the earth with negative impact on the soil (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002). For instace, the heat from gas flared falls on the soil thereby heating it up, increases in heat deposition on soil reduces diseases generally, it may not be suitable for some plants and crops to survive hence rendering such land unsuitable for cultivation (Aduku, 1997). There is therefore, a great physiological impact on crops planted in the vicinity of the gas flares station. It has been reported that there could be about 100% loss in yield of crops cultivated 200m away from the flares stations, 45% loss in yield of crops at 600m away and 10% loss in yield of crops cultivated 1000m away (Oyekunle, 199).

## **2. Development of mathematical modelling**

The burning process of natural gas also referred to as combustion is described as a rapid oxidation or burning of substances with simultaneous evolution of heat. In the case of common fuels, the process is one of the chemical combinations with atmospheric oxygen to produce as the principal product. Gas flaring of produced gas i.e the process of burning-off surplus combustible vapours from a well, either as a means of disposal or as a safety measure to relieve well pressure - is the most significant source of air emissions from offshore oil and gas installations. Hence gas flaring activity in the Niger- Delta area, and the pollutants released to the atmosphere is causing a lot of damage to the area. It is on this basis that a mathematical model that can quantify the quantity of heat discharged from gas flaring stations into the environment will be developed. The following assumptions were made in order to develop the mathematical model for the heat radiation from gas flaring:

Below is the schematic diagram of heat radiation in a flare station.

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 11

Heat balance

Taking heat balance from Fig 2

$$\mathbf{Q} \mathbf{i} = \mathbf{Q}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{i} + \mathbf{Q}\mathbf{j} \tag{8}$$

Where

10 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

1000m away (Oyekunle, 199).

radiation from gas flaring:

reflected back

iv. Combustion is incomplete in air v. The area is a tropical forest

**2. Development of mathematical modelling**

i. The area is assumed to be a bed of soil i.e. of constant heat capacity. ii. The intensity of the sun is uniform for a given area at a given time

Below is the schematic diagram of heat radiation in a flare station.

been reported that fish hatch its eggs before the hatching period due to change in water temperature. It may also prevent fish eggs from hatching at all (Abdulkareem, 2009; Odigure et al., 2003). In addition, a small rise in average temperature could produce a profound climatic change. Some experts' belief a small rise in temperature would cause the Greenland and Antarctic ice to melts, raising ocean levels and inundating large areas of land (Abdulkareem., 2009). The average worldwide temperature can be affected when the products of combustion such as carbon monoxide, water vapour and carbon dioxide are emitted in large quantities into the atmosphere (Tzimas et al., 2007). Although, solar energy on its way to the earth surface easily pass through the layers of carbon dioxide, some of the heat escaping through the earth will be absorbed by the increase amount of carbon emitted to the atmosphere by the process industries and releases back to the earth with negative impact on the soil (Abdulkareem and Odigure, 2002). For instace, the heat from gas flared falls on the soil thereby heating it up, increases in heat deposition on soil reduces diseases generally, it may not be suitable for some plants and crops to survive hence rendering such land unsuitable for cultivation (Aduku, 1997). There is therefore, a great physiological impact on crops planted in the vicinity of the gas flares station. It has been reported that there could be about 100% loss in yield of crops cultivated 200m away from the flares stations, 45% loss in yield of crops at 600m away and 10% loss in yield of crops cultivated

The burning process of natural gas also referred to as combustion is described as a rapid oxidation or burning of substances with simultaneous evolution of heat. In the case of common fuels, the process is one of the chemical combinations with atmospheric oxygen to produce as the principal product. Gas flaring of produced gas i.e the process of burning-off surplus combustible vapours from a well, either as a means of disposal or as a safety measure to relieve well pressure - is the most significant source of air emissions from offshore oil and gas installations. Hence gas flaring activity in the Niger- Delta area, and the pollutants released to the atmosphere is causing a lot of damage to the area. It is on this basis that a mathematical model that can quantify the quantity of heat discharged from gas flaring stations into the environment will be developed. The following assumptions were made in order to develop the mathematical model for the heat

iii. Heats from flares are used in vapourising water, retained by the soil and the remaining

From assumption (iii) i.e. heat from flares are used in vaporizing water, retained by the soil and the remaining reflected i.e.

$$\mathbf{Q}\mathbf{\dot{u}} = \mathbf{Q}\_{\mathbf{i}} + \mathbf{Q}\_{\mathbf{i}} \tag{9}$$

Where

Substituting equation (9) into (8) gives

$$\mathbf{Q} \coloneqq \mathbf{Q}\boldsymbol{\omega} + \mathbf{Q}\_i + \mathbf{Q}\_i \tag{10}$$

Rearranging the variables to make Qfd the subject of the formula gives

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{\rm id} = \mathbf{Q}\_{\rm l} - \mathbf{Q}\_{\rm l} - \mathbf{Q}\_{\rm l} \tag{11}$$

Where

$$\mathbf{Q}\_s = \mathbf{M}\_s \mathbf{C}\_s \prod\_{\mathbf{r}\_{sd}}^{\mathbf{r}\_s} \mathbf{d}\mathbf{T} \tag{12}$$

From equation (12)

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{i} = \mathbf{M}\_{i}\mathbf{C}\_{i}\mathbf{U}\_{i} - \mathbf{T}\_{\text{soil}}\mathbf{l} \tag{13}$$

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 13

*fv <sup>h</sup>* (22)

0.0042 L Q 0.478 0.707 (24)

L = 0.00594Qf 0.478 (25)

L = 0.8632Qf 0.4N' (26)

*r w a*

*rC T p a rC T NHV p a*

(27)

*NHV w*

0.4

hfv = L(sin 45o) = 0.707L (21)

0.707

The vertical height vector of the flare stack (hfv) can also be calculated from (Ufarana, 2004)

hfv = 0.0042Qf 0.478 (23)

f

0.4 N' a combustion parameter [( ) (1 )]

w combustion parameter ( )

r = stiochiometric air fuel ratio of flared gas, Ta = air temperature, a = ambient air density

0.00594Qf 0.478 = 0.8632Qf 0.4 N' (28)

Qf 0.078 = 145.32N' (29)

L

Where hfv is the vertical height vector of a flare stack

From Steward's correlating equation (Ufarana, 2004)

NHV = flared gas net heating value, Btu/lb

And L is the flame length

From Equations 22 and 23;

Where,

Where

= fuel density

From Equation (28)

Equating (25) and (26) gives

From Equation 21

Where

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{\rm v} = \mathbf{M}\_{\rm w} \mathbf{C}\_{\rm w} \iint\_{\rm sol} \mathbf{d} \mathbf{T} + \mathbf{M}\_{\rm w} \boldsymbol{\lambda}\_{\rm v} \tag{14}$$

From equation (14)

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{\text{V}} = \mathbf{M}\_{\text{lv}} \mathbf{C}\_{\text{v}} \mathbf{[T}\_{\text{s}} - \mathbf{T}\_{\text{soil}}] + \mathbf{M}\_{\text{RV}} \lambda\_{\text{lv}} \tag{15}$$

Where

Mw = mass of water, Cw = specific heat capacity of water, λv = latent heat of vapourisation of water

According to Albedo, a fraction of the heat radiated from the source strikes the receiving surface. (Andy, 2003). Therefore,

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{\ell} = \alpha \mathbf{Q} \mathbf{Q} (\mathbf{l} - \mathbf{a}) \tag{16}$$

Where

α = absorptive factor which varies with distance, a = Alhedo constant, Qc = fraction of the heat which strikes the receiving surface

Hence,

$$\alpha \mathbf{Q} \mathbf{\hat{q}} (\mathbf{l} - \mathbf{a}) = \mathbf{M}\_{\text{W}} \mathbf{C}\_{\text{w}} (\mathbf{T}\_{\text{s}} - \mathbf{T}\_{\text{soil}}) + \mathbf{M}\_{\text{W}} \boldsymbol{\lambda}\_{\text{V}} + \mathbf{M}\_{\text{S}} \mathbf{C}\_{\text{s}} [\mathbf{T}\_{\text{s}} - \mathbf{T}\_{\text{soil}}] \tag{17}$$

Substituting equations (13), (15) and (17) into equation (11) gives

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{\rm il} = \mathbf{Q} - \left[ \mathbf{M}\_{\rm l} \mathbf{C}\_{\rm l} \mathbf{T}\_{\rm s} - \mathbf{T}\_{\rm sol} \right] + \mathbf{M}\_{\rm lv} \mathbf{C}\_{\rm w} \left[ \mathbf{T}\_{\rm s} - \mathbf{T}\_{\rm sol} \right] + \mathbf{M}\_{\rm w} \lambda\_{\rm v} \tag{18}$$

Similarly, from Equations 11 and 16;

$$\mathbf{Q}\mathbf{\iota} = \mathbf{Q}\mathbf{\iota} - \alpha \mathbf{Q}\mathbf{\iota}(\mathbf{l} - \mathbf{a})\tag{19}$$

Rearrange Equation 19 to obtain

$$\mathbf{Q}\mathbf{\iota} = \mathbf{Q}(1 - \alpha(1 - \mathbf{a})) \tag{20}$$

Evaluation of Qf

Ufarana (2004) suggest that that the flame from is titled at 45o, hence

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 13

$$\mathbf{h}\_{\rm hf} = \mathbf{L} \text{(sin 45°)} = 0.707 \mathbf{L} \tag{21}$$

Where hfv is the vertical height vector of a flare stack

And L is the flame length

From Equation 21

12 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

Qs = MsCs[Ts – Tsoil] (13)

s

Q M C dT M (14)

T v ww w v T

soil

Qv = MwCw[Ts – Tsoil] + Mwλv (15)

Mw = mass of water, Cw = specific heat capacity of water, λv = latent heat of vapourisation of

According to Albedo, a fraction of the heat radiated from the source strikes the receiving

Qc = αQf(l – a) (16)

α = absorptive factor which varies with distance, a = Alhedo constant, Qc = fraction of the

Qfd = Qf – [MsCs[Ts – Tsoil] + MwCw[Ts – Tsoil] + Mwλv] (18)

Qfd = Qf – αQf(l – a) (19)

Qfd = Qf(1 - α(l – a)) (20)

αQf(l – a) = MwCw(Ts – Tsoil) + Mwλv + MsCs[Ts – Tsoil] (17)

From equation (12)

From equation (14)

surface. (Andy, 2003). Therefore,

heat which strikes the receiving surface

Similarly, from Equations 11 and 16;

Rearrange Equation 19 to obtain

Evaluation of Qf

Substituting equations (13), (15) and (17) into equation (11) gives

Ufarana (2004) suggest that that the flame from is titled at 45o, hence

Where

Where

water

Where

Hence,

$$\text{L. } = \frac{h\_{fv}}{0.707} \tag{22}$$

The vertical height vector of the flare stack (hfv) can also be calculated from (Ufarana, 2004)

$$\text{hv} = 0.0042 \text{QV}^{0.478} \tag{23}$$

From Equations 22 and 23;

$$\mathbf{L}\_{\circ} = \frac{0.0042}{0.707} \mathbf{Q}\_{t} \mathbf{0}.478 \tag{24}$$

$$\text{i.: L = 0.00594Qq}^{0.478} \tag{25}$$

From Steward's correlating equation (Ufarana, 2004)

$$\mathbf{L} = 0.8632 \mathbf{Q} \mathbf{\hat{r}}^{04} \mathbf{N}' \tag{26}$$

Where,

$$\mathbf{N'} = \text{a combustion parameter} = \frac{\left(\frac{r + w\rho\_a}{\rho}\right)^{0.4}}{\left[\left(NHV\right)^{0.4}\left(1 - w\right)\right]}\tag{27}$$

Where

$$\text{raw} = \text{combustion parameter} = \frac{r \text{C}\_p T\_a}{(r \text{C}\_p T\_a + NHV)}$$

NHV = flared gas net heating value, Btu/lb

r = stiochiometric air fuel ratio of flared gas, Ta = air temperature, a = ambient air density = fuel density

Equating (25) and (26) gives

$$0.00594 \text{Qf}^{0.478} = 0.8632 \text{Qf}^{0.4} \text{N}^\* \tag{28}$$

From Equation (28)

$$\mathbf{Q}^{\cdot \cdot 0.078} = 145.32 \mathbf{N}' \tag{29}$$

From Equation 27

$$NN = \frac{\left(r + \left(\frac{r\mathbf{C}\_p T\_a \mathbf{p}\_a}{r\mathbf{C}\_p T\_a + NHV}\right)\right)^{0.4}}{\rho}$$

$$NN = \frac{(NHV)^{0.4} \left(1 - \frac{r\mathbf{C}\_p T\_a}{r\mathbf{C}\_p T\_a + NHV}\right)}{(N\mathbf{C}\_p T\_a + NHV)}\tag{30}$$

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

0.6 0.4

(36)

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 15

*rC T mc x*

m = TVT (37)

*p a*

0.4

*mc*

145.32 ( ) ( )

( )

compositions of associated gas in crude oil at the flare stations (Table 1).

The volume of obnoxious gases produced such as CO, CO2, NO2, SO2 and THC when Vm3 of gas is flared was estimated on the assumption that combustion of the associated gas is incomplete in air as shown in Equations 38-44. The calculation was also based on the

> **Component of gas flared Percentage of Composition**  CH4 47 C2H4 18 C3H8 20 C4H10 5 C5H12 9 H2S 0.03 N2 0.022 Others 0.068

Evaluation of volume of gas flared was estimated on the assumption that combustion is incomplete in air with the following reactions take place during the process of combustion.

> 42 2 2 <sup>7</sup> 2CH O CO CO 4H O

5 12 2 2 2 <sup>13</sup> C H O 2CO 3CO 6H O

(38)

C H 3O CO CO 3H O 26 2 2 <sup>2</sup> (39)

C H 4O CO 2CO 4H O 38 2 2 <sup>2</sup> (40)

C H 5O CO 3CO 5H O 4 10 2 2 <sup>2</sup> (41)

(42)

2

2

*rC T x r mc*

*pa a*

0.078 0.4 1.4

Qfd

But

(1 ( ))

**Table 1.** Component of gas flared (Abdulkareem, 2000)

*l a*

Rearrange Equation 30 to obtain;

$$N' = \left(\frac{\left(r\mathbb{C}\_p T\_a \{r\mathfrak{p} + \mathfrak{p}\_a\} + r\mathfrak{p}NHV\right)^{0.4}}{\rho^{0.4} \{NHV\}^{1.4}}\right) \left(r\mathbb{C}\_p T\_a + NHV\right)^{0.6} \tag{31}$$

Substituting Equation 31 into Equation 29 gives

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{i}^{0.078} = 145.32 \left( \frac{\{r \mathbf{C}\_{p} T\_{a} (r\rho + \rho\_{a}) + r\eta NHV\}^{0.4}}{\rho^{0.4} \{NHV\}^{1.4}} \right) \{r \mathbf{C}\_{p} T\_{a} + NHV\}^{0.6} \tag{32}$$

From Equation (32)

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{\mathbf{f}} = \alpha rrs \sqrt{145.32} \left( \frac{(r\mathbf{C}\_p T\_a (r\mathbf{p} + \mathbf{p}\_a) + r\mathbf{p} NHV)^{0.4}}{\rho^{0.4} \text{(NHV)}^{1.4}} \right) \left(r\mathbf{C}\_p T\_a + NHV\right)^{0.6} \tag{33}$$

Substituting Equation 33 into Equation 20 gives

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{\rm fid} = \sqrt{\frac{\alpha \sigma \eta \sqrt{145.32 \left( \frac{(r\mathbf{C}\_p T\_a (r\mathbf{p} + \rho\_a) + r\eta NHVV)^{0.4}}{\rho^{0.4} \{NHV\}^{1.4}} \right) \left(r\mathbf{C}\_p T\_a + NHV\right)^{0.6}}} \times \tag{34}$$

Relationship between net heating value and distance from flare point is given as (Ufarana, 2004)

$$\text{NHV} = \frac{\text{mc}\,\theta}{\text{x}}\tag{35}$$

Wherem= mass of flared gas, c = heat capacity of flared gas, = temperature of flared gas, x = distance

Substituting Equation 35 into Equation 34 to obtain

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 15

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{\rm fid} = \left( \sqrt{\mathbf{1}45.32 \left( \frac{\left( r \mathbf{C}\_p T\_a \mathbf{x} (r\mathbf{p} + \rho\_a) + \rho m c \Theta \right)^{0.4}}{\rho^{0.4} (m c \Theta)^{1.4}} \right) \left( r \mathbf{C}\_p T\_a + m c \Theta \right)^{0.6} \mathbf{x}^{0.4}} \right) \tag{36}$$

$$(1 - a(l - a))$$

But

(30)

(31)

(32)

(33)

(34)

14 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

0.4

( )1

0.4 1.4 (( ) ) '

*pa a*

*pa a*

*pa a*

*rC T r r NHV*

*NHV*

Relationship between net heating value and distance from flare point is given as (Ufarana,

mc NHV

Wherem= mass of flared gas, c = heat capacity of flared gas, = temperature of flared gas,

x

*rC T r r NHV*

( ) ( )

0.078 0.6

(( ) ) Q 145.32 ( ) ( )

*NHV*

0.6 0.078 <sup>f</sup> 0.4 1.4 (( ) ) Q 145.32 ( ) ( )

0.6 0.078 0.4 1.4 (( ) ) 145.32 ( ) ( )

*NHV*

*rC T r r NHV*

*rC T r r NHV*

*N rC T NHV NHV*

*NHV*

*pa a*

f 0.4 1.4

*r*

'

*N*

0.4

*p a*

*p a*

0.4

0.4

0.4

*p a*

*p a*

*p a*

*rC T NHV*

(35)

*rC T NHV*

*rC T NHV*

0.6

*rC T*

*rC T NHV*

*p a*

0.4

*paa*

*rC T NHV*

*p a*

*rC T*

From Equation 27

Rearrange Equation 30 to obtain;

From Equation (32)

Qfd

2004)

x = distance

Substituting Equation 31 into Equation 29 gives

Substituting Equation 33 into Equation 20 gives

(1 ( ))

*l a*

Substituting Equation 35 into Equation 34 to obtain

$$\mathbf{m} = \mathbf{pr}\mathbf{V}\mathbf{r} \tag{37}$$

The volume of obnoxious gases produced such as CO, CO2, NO2, SO2 and THC when Vm3 of gas is flared was estimated on the assumption that combustion of the associated gas is incomplete in air as shown in Equations 38-44. The calculation was also based on the compositions of associated gas in crude oil at the flare stations (Table 1).

**Table 1.** Component of gas flared (Abdulkareem, 2000)

Evaluation of volume of gas flared was estimated on the assumption that combustion is incomplete in air with the following reactions take place during the process of combustion.

$$2\text{CH}\_4 + \frac{7}{2}\text{O}\_2 \rightarrow \text{CO}\_2 + \text{CO} + 4\text{H}\_2\text{O} \tag{38}$$

$$\rm C\_2H\_6 + 3O\_2 \rightarrow CO\_2 + CO + 3H\_2O \tag{39}$$

$$\rm C\_3H\_8 + 4O\_2 \rightarrow CO\_2 + 2CO + 4H\_2O \tag{40}$$

$$\rm C\_4H\_{10} + 5O\_2 \rightarrow CO\_2 + 3CO + 5H\_2O \tag{41}$$

$$\rm C\_5H\_{12} + \frac{13}{2}O\_2 \to 2CO\_2 + 3CO + 6H\_2O \tag{42}$$

$$\rm H\_2S + O\_2 \rightarrow SO\_2 + H\_2 \tag{43}$$

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 17

country can easily cross political boundaries. People are beginning to recognize that pollutants can affect not just a region but the entire planets. Modern industrial society creates far more carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) that what the planet vegetation can consume (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2001). As the excess CO2 rises into the atmosphere, it acts as absorptive body, which trap heat reflected from the earth surface. Scientists accept that green house effect from increased level of CO2 and other heat trapping gases eventually will cause an increase in global temperature. Some predicted that the temperature will rise significantly within the next century and that global pattern could be drastically disrupted. Air pollution is not restricted to outdoor air, although relatively little attention is given to the hazards of many substances found in indoor air most especially in the developing nations where there is no proper regulation in place to combat air pollution. But it is however well established that people may spend as much as 80-90% of their time indoor. The sources of indoor pollution are different for developing and industrialized country (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2001). In developing countries, indoor pollution comes mainly from using biomass fuels (Wood, agricultural waste, dung etc.) for cooking and heating. The majority of the world's population depends on biomass for most of their energy supply. It is estimated that as many as 400-500 million people mainly in the rural area of developing countries and primarily women and children may be adversely affected by indoor pollution (FEPA Report, 1998). The fuel is burnt inefficiently in rooms that poorly ventilated. Biomass smoke contains numerous substances, the most hazardous of which include suspended particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide (Gwendolyn et al, 1993). It also releases a number of aldehyde. While the key indoor pollutants in an industrialized countries are nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, radon (from building material), formaldehyde (from insulator, asbestos, mercury, manmade fibers etc. Also polluting the environment is the heat radiated as result of these indoor activities and process industries. The released may be harmful to plant and animal. In Nigerian context, gas flaring from the oil exploitation and exploration in the Niger-Delta area of the country has been considered as the major sources of environmental pollution. Every day in southern Nigeria, almost 2million cubic feet of natural gas is burnt (flared) during crude oil production, more than is flared anywhere else in the world (Oni and Oyewo, 2011). Hence, gas flaring is not only wastes of valuable resources, but is also a major cause of environment pollution in the Niger-Delta, where most of Nigeria's oil output is produced. Nigeria has a population of over 170million people and an abundance of natural resources especially hydrocarbons. The Nigerian economy is largely dependent on its oil sector which supplies 95% of its foreign earnings. While the exploitation and exploration of oil has created some fortunes and contributed positively to the economic and technological advancement of Nigeria as a country, the accompanying socio-economic and ecological fallouts remain problematic. The public considers the oil producing companies operating in the Niger-Delta oil fields responsible as major environmental pollutants by way of relentless flaring and venting of gas in the environment, oil spillages, site clearing, deforestation and destruction of flora and fauna, and disturbances of the ecosystem in the 70,000 square kilometres Niger-Delta wetland (Oguejifor, 1993). Gas flaring in Nigeria today has posses an environmental hazard to the nation at large. So much damage is being done to the environment through gas flaring, that if nothing is done

$$\text{N}\_2 + \text{2O}\_2 \rightarrow \text{2NO}\_2\tag{44}$$

Basis: 1m3 of flared gas

Let SE = stack energy

The total volume of gas produced by flaring 1m3 of gas = volume of CO2 + volume of CO + volume of NO2 + volume of SO2 + volume of THC

$$\begin{aligned} &= 0.00845 \text{S\"s} + 0.1235 \text{S\"s} + 0.000003 \text{S\"s} + 0.00004 \text{S\"s} + 0.99 - 0.00990 \text{S\"s} = \\ &= (0.99 + 0.0109074 \text{S\"s}) \text{m}^3 = \text{Vr} \end{aligned} \tag{45}$$

Equation (45) represents the total volume of gas produced by flaring 1m3 of gas. But when Vm3 of gas is flared equation (45) becomes

$$(0.99 + 0.0109074 \text{S} \mathbb{A}) \text{V} \text{m}^3 = \text{V} \tau \tag{46}$$

From Equation 37 i.e. m = TVT

Substituting Equation (46) into Equation (37) gives

$$\mathbf{m} = \text{pr}(0.99 + 0.0109074 \mathbf{S} \mathbf{e}) \mathbf{V} \tag{47}$$

Substituting Equation 47 into Equation 36 gives

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{\rm id} = 0.078 \begin{pmatrix} \left( \mathbf{r} \mathbf{C}\_p T\_a \mathbf{x} (r \mathbf{p} + \mathbf{p}\_a) + \mathbf{p} \mathbf{p}\_T (0.99 + 0.0109074 \mathbf{S}\_E) \mathbf{V} \mathbf{C} \mathbf{f} \right)^{0.4} \\ \mathbf{p}^{0.4} \left( \boldsymbol{\rho}\_T (0.99 + 0.0109074 \mathbf{S}\_E) \mathbf{V} \mathbf{C} \right)^{1.4} \\\\ \left( \mathbf{r} \mathbf{C}\_p T\_a + \boldsymbol{\rho}\_T (0.99 + 0.0109074 \mathbf{S}\_E) \mathbf{V} \mathbf{C} \mathbf{f} \right)^{0.6} \mathbf{x}^{0.4} \\\\ \left( 1 - \mathbf{a} (1 - \mathbf{a}) \right) \end{pmatrix} \tag{48}$$

Where = Ts – Ta

$$\rho = \frac{\rho\_\text{a} \mathbf{T}\_\text{a}}{\mathbf{T}\_\text{s}}$$

Equation (48) is the model equation for the heat reflected due to gas flaring.

#### **3. Results and discussion of results**

Environmental pollution has transcended natural boundaries; stratospheric ozone depletion, global warming, the green house effect, deforestation, acid train and mega disaster are some of the various environmental problems attributed to pollution. The potential effects of global pollution have necessitated global cooperation in other to secure and maintain a live able global environment (Odjugo, 2010). It has been reported that pollutants emitted from one country can easily cross political boundaries. People are beginning to recognize that pollutants can affect not just a region but the entire planets. Modern industrial society creates far more carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) that what the planet vegetation can consume (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2001). As the excess CO2 rises into the atmosphere, it acts as absorptive body, which trap heat reflected from the earth surface. Scientists accept that green house effect from increased level of CO2 and other heat trapping gases eventually will cause an increase in global temperature. Some predicted that the temperature will rise significantly within the next century and that global pattern could be drastically disrupted. Air pollution is not restricted to outdoor air, although relatively little attention is given to the hazards of many substances found in indoor air most especially in the developing nations where there is no proper regulation in place to combat air pollution. But it is however well established that people may spend as much as 80-90% of their time indoor. The sources of indoor pollution are different for developing and industrialized country (Odigure and Abdulkareem, 2001). In developing countries, indoor pollution comes mainly from using biomass fuels (Wood, agricultural waste, dung etc.) for cooking and heating. The majority of the world's population depends on biomass for most of their energy supply. It is estimated that as many as 400-500 million people mainly in the rural area of developing countries and primarily women and children may be adversely affected by indoor pollution (FEPA Report, 1998). The fuel is burnt inefficiently in rooms that poorly ventilated. Biomass smoke contains numerous substances, the most hazardous of which include suspended particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide (Gwendolyn et al, 1993). It also releases a number of aldehyde. While the key indoor pollutants in an industrialized countries are nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, radon (from building material), formaldehyde (from insulator, asbestos, mercury, manmade fibers etc. Also polluting the environment is the heat radiated as result of these indoor activities and process industries. The released may be harmful to plant and animal. In Nigerian context, gas flaring from the oil exploitation and exploration in the Niger-Delta area of the country has been considered as the major sources of environmental pollution. Every day in southern Nigeria, almost 2million cubic feet of natural gas is burnt (flared) during crude oil production, more than is flared anywhere else in the world (Oni and Oyewo, 2011). Hence, gas flaring is not only wastes of valuable resources, but is also a major cause of environment pollution in the Niger-Delta, where most of Nigeria's oil output is produced. Nigeria has a population of over 170million people and an abundance of natural resources especially hydrocarbons. The Nigerian economy is largely dependent on its oil sector which supplies 95% of its foreign earnings. While the exploitation and exploration of oil has created some fortunes and contributed positively to the economic and technological advancement of Nigeria as a country, the accompanying socio-economic and ecological fallouts remain problematic. The public considers the oil producing companies operating in the Niger-Delta oil fields responsible as major environmental pollutants by way of relentless flaring and venting of gas in the environment, oil spillages, site clearing, deforestation and destruction of flora and fauna, and disturbances of the ecosystem in the 70,000 square kilometres Niger-Delta wetland (Oguejifor, 1993). Gas flaring in Nigeria today has posses an environmental hazard to the nation at large. So much damage is being done to the environment through gas flaring, that if nothing is done

16 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

= 0.00845SE + 0.1235SE + 0.000003SE + 0.00004SE + 0.99 – 0.00990SE =

The total volume of gas produced by flaring 1m3 of gas = volume of CO2 + volume of CO +

Equation (45) represents the total volume of gas produced by flaring 1m3 of gas. But when

Basis: 1m3 of flared gas Let SE = stack energy

volume of NO2 + volume of SO2 + volume of THC

Substituting Equation (46) into Equation (37) gives

Substituting Equation 47 into Equation 36 gives

0.078 fd

**3. Results and discussion of results**

Where = Ts – Ta

Vm3 of gas is flared equation (45) becomes

From Equation 37 i.e. m = TVT

H S O SO H 2 2 22 (43)

N 2O 2NO 22 2 (44)

= (0.99 + 0.0109074SE)m3 = VT (45)

(0.99 + 0.0109074SE)Vm3 = VT (46)

m = T(0.99 + 0.0109074SE)V (47)

*S VC*

0.4

0.6 0.4

(1 (l a)) (48)

1.4 0.4

[ ( ) (0.99 0.0109074 ) ]

*rC T x r S VC*

*T E*

*pa a T E*

(0.99 0.0109074 )

*rxC T S VC x*

a a s T T

Environmental pollution has transcended natural boundaries; stratospheric ozone depletion, global warming, the green house effect, deforestation, acid train and mega disaster are some of the various environmental problems attributed to pollution. The potential effects of global pollution have necessitated global cooperation in other to secure and maintain a live able global environment (Odjugo, 2010). It has been reported that pollutants emitted from one

*pa T E*

Q 145.32 (0.99 0.0109074 )

Equation (48) is the model equation for the heat reflected due to gas flaring.

in a few years from now, serious environmental and health problems such as premature death and diseases will emerge. It is therefore, on this ground that a mathematical model that can quantify the amount of heat radiation from a flare stack is developed in this work. The model will assist in estimating the quantity of heat migration from gas flaring as a function of flare temperature, gas flow rate and geometric design (Efficiency) of the flare stack. Data gathered on the rate of flaring of gas and the measured quantities of heat radiation are presented in Tables 1 and 2. While the simulated results at different conditions for a period of one year for gas flare stations 1 and 2 are presented in Figs. 2-7

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 19

point and wind speed. However, the measured heat radiation to large extent conforms to

Months Jan Feb Mar April May June Sept Dec

Simulation of the model is the use of computer code to show the operation and behavior of the system. The model equation developed for the heat radiation from gas flaring was simulated using Q-basic programme. The results obtained are presented in Figs 3-8. The simulated results values are obtained at various distances ranging from 25m to 1500m for different volume of gas flared and at different stack efficiencies of 65%, 75% and 85%. The choice of these 3 stack is as favoured by the world bank report that flare stack efficiency in the flare station of Niger-Delta area of Nigeria is 75%. It can be seen from the simulation results presented that the heat radiation from gas flaring for different stations increases with increase in volume of gas flared and stack efficiency, while the quantity of heat radiated reduces with increase in distance from the flare point. For instance in the month of May at a distance of 100m the quantity of heat radiated is 0.00262287 kW/m2 while at a distance of 200m the quantity of heat radiated is 0.0023729 kW/m2 for station 1. Results as presented also indicate that at a stack efficiency of 64% in the month of May, the quantity of heat radiated at a distance of 100m is 0.00262287 kW/m2, while for that same month at the same distance in the same station when the stack efficiency is 74%, the quantity of heat radiated is 0.00279044 kW/m2. Simulation results presented also indicates that the highest quantities of heat is radiated in the month of June for station1 and this as a result of the fact that highest amount of gas flared in this station during this month. Results as presented in Figs for station2 indicates same pattern of results as obtained in station1. It could be observed from the experimental and simulated results that the habitants of the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria are exposed to serious environmental risk based on the quantities of heat released into the environment from the gas flare stations. Results obtained support the claims by the researchers that the fire form gas flaring stations generate constant heat, which in turn evaporate water produced around the flare point, thus increasing the salinity of the pool water. There is also an evidence including the observation by the local farmers that the flare is considerably diminishes the value of agriculture productivity. Other observation made in the Niger-Delta area as a negative consequence of heat radiation from gas flaring is that the

100 0.805 0.553 0.050 3.016 2.672 2.735 1.527 0.837 150 0.716 0.514 0.076 2.465 2.429 1.994 1.668 0.725 200 0.620 0.440 0.075 1.010 3.034 1.697 2.708 0.620 250 0.330 0.332 0.075 3.916 2.175 1.682 2.262 0.522 300 0.319 0373 0.094 0.312 1.675 1.520 1.929 0.457 500 0.558 0.237 0.091 0.979 1.262 1.519 1.849 0.305

Heat Radiation (kW/m2) ×10-3

the physical law of pollutant dispersion from the generating sources.

Distances (m)

**Table 3.** Heat radiation from gas flaring station 1

game animals were scared away by the fire.

Table 2 present the average volume of gas flared from two flare stations per month for a period of one year. Results as presented indicate non uniformity in the volume of gas flared by the flare station per months. For instance, the volume of gas flared in station 1 for the month of May was 2.03m3/sec while the volume of gas flared in the same station in the month of June was 1.65m3/sec. Results also reveal variation in the rate of gas flaring by the two stations investigated, with average rate of gas flaring by station 2 higher than that of station 1. The variation in the rate of gas flaring as presented can be attributing to the variation in the rate of production of crude by the two stations. The crude oil obtained from wells is a mixture of crude oil itself, water and natural gas. At the flow stations, the components are separated and the gas that not be contained is flared. Hence when the rate of crude oil produced increases, the quantity of gas flared will also increases.

Presesnted in Table 3 are the measured values of heat radiation per month by station 1 for a period of eight months. The measured values showed that 0.805×10-3 kW/m2 of heat was radiated at a distance of 100m for the month January, while 0.050×10-3kW/m2 of heat was radiated at the same distance for the month of February. Values of heat radiation presented in Table 3 do not show any distribution pattern with seasons. The un-pattern nature of heat radiation per season could be attributed to the volume of gas flared, distances from flared

point and wind speed. However, the measured heat radiation to large extent conforms to the physical law of pollutant dispersion from the generating sources.

**Table 3.** Heat radiation from gas flaring station 1

18 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

gas flare stations 1 and 2 are presented in Figs. 2-7

**Table 2.** Flow rate of gas flared per month

in a few years from now, serious environmental and health problems such as premature death and diseases will emerge. It is therefore, on this ground that a mathematical model that can quantify the amount of heat radiation from a flare stack is developed in this work. The model will assist in estimating the quantity of heat migration from gas flaring as a function of flare temperature, gas flow rate and geometric design (Efficiency) of the flare stack. Data gathered on the rate of flaring of gas and the measured quantities of heat radiation are presented in Tables 1 and 2. While the simulated results at different conditions for a period of one year for

Table 2 present the average volume of gas flared from two flare stations per month for a period of one year. Results as presented indicate non uniformity in the volume of gas flared by the flare station per months. For instance, the volume of gas flared in station 1 for the month of May was 2.03m3/sec while the volume of gas flared in the same station in the month of June was 1.65m3/sec. Results also reveal variation in the rate of gas flaring by the two stations investigated, with average rate of gas flaring by station 2 higher than that of station 1. The variation in the rate of gas flaring as presented can be attributing to the variation in the rate of production of crude by the two stations. The crude oil obtained from wells is a mixture of crude oil itself, water and natural gas. At the flow stations, the components are separated and the gas that not be contained is flared. Hence when the rate

> Volume of gas flare (m3/s) Months Station 1 Station 2 Jan 1.78 2.79 Feb 2.10 3.16 Mar 1.52 2.78 April 1.56 3.21 May 2.03 2.91 June 1.65 2.66 July 1.74 2.64 Aug 1.39 2.87 Sept 1.92 3.01 Oct 1.30 2.56 Nov 0.99 2.81 Dec 1.75 2.97

Presesnted in Table 3 are the measured values of heat radiation per month by station 1 for a period of eight months. The measured values showed that 0.805×10-3 kW/m2 of heat was radiated at a distance of 100m for the month January, while 0.050×10-3kW/m2 of heat was radiated at the same distance for the month of February. Values of heat radiation presented in Table 3 do not show any distribution pattern with seasons. The un-pattern nature of heat radiation per season could be attributed to the volume of gas flared, distances from flared

of crude oil produced increases, the quantity of gas flared will also increases.

Simulation of the model is the use of computer code to show the operation and behavior of the system. The model equation developed for the heat radiation from gas flaring was simulated using Q-basic programme. The results obtained are presented in Figs 3-8. The simulated results values are obtained at various distances ranging from 25m to 1500m for different volume of gas flared and at different stack efficiencies of 65%, 75% and 85%. The choice of these 3 stack is as favoured by the world bank report that flare stack efficiency in the flare station of Niger-Delta area of Nigeria is 75%. It can be seen from the simulation results presented that the heat radiation from gas flaring for different stations increases with increase in volume of gas flared and stack efficiency, while the quantity of heat radiated reduces with increase in distance from the flare point. For instance in the month of May at a distance of 100m the quantity of heat radiated is 0.00262287 kW/m2 while at a distance of 200m the quantity of heat radiated is 0.0023729 kW/m2 for station 1. Results as presented also indicate that at a stack efficiency of 64% in the month of May, the quantity of heat radiated at a distance of 100m is 0.00262287 kW/m2, while for that same month at the same distance in the same station when the stack efficiency is 74%, the quantity of heat radiated is 0.00279044 kW/m2. Simulation results presented also indicates that the highest quantities of heat is radiated in the month of June for station1 and this as a result of the fact that highest amount of gas flared in this station during this month. Results as presented in Figs for station2 indicates same pattern of results as obtained in station1. It could be observed from the experimental and simulated results that the habitants of the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria are exposed to serious environmental risk based on the quantities of heat released into the environment from the gas flare stations. Results obtained support the claims by the researchers that the fire form gas flaring stations generate constant heat, which in turn evaporate water produced around the flare point, thus increasing the salinity of the pool water. There is also an evidence including the observation by the local farmers that the flare is considerably diminishes the value of agriculture productivity. Other observation made in the Niger-Delta area as a negative consequence of heat radiation from gas flaring is that the game animals were scared away by the fire.

Comparison of experimental results with simulated results showed that there is variation between them. The variation between experimental and modeling simulation results could be attributed to the following factors.

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 21

**Figure 4.**  Heat radiation from gas flaring (Station 1) with a stack efficiency of 85%

Despite the variation between the experimental and simulated results, the dispersion pattern of the obtained values from experimental and simulation showed that the model and experimental results to a large extent conforms to the modified physical law proposed by (Gwendolyn, 1993).

**Figure 3.** Heat radiation from gas flaring (Station 1) with a stack efficiency of 65%

#### Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

0 200 400<PHONE_NUMBER> 1200 1400 1600

Distance (m)

**Figure 4.** Heat radiation from gas flaring (Station 1) with a stack efficiency of 75%

20 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

rains part of the accumulated heat pollutant will be washed away

**Figure 3.** Heat radiation from gas flaring (Station 1) with a stack efficiency of 65%

0 200 400<PHONE_NUMBER> 1200 1400 1600

Distance (m)

be attributed to the following factors.

during flaring at a given time.

atmospheric condition.

by (Gwendolyn, 1993).

0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02

Heat radiation (kW/m2)

Comparison of experimental results with simulated results showed that there is variation between them. The variation between experimental and modeling simulation results could

1. The un-patterned nature of the experimental data, which could be attributed to the fact that the weather conditions and rate of rainfall are not constant throughout the season. As a result, the heat will accumulate in the air during no rain period. However, when it

2. Experimental values are a measure of the extent of atmospheric pollution because of possibility of accumulation as stated above. While the simulation results are an instantaneous value i.e. it measured the possible amount of heat that could be released

3. Atmospheric conditions such as wind speed, humidity, temperature e.t.c affect the dispersion and dilution of heat radiation from flare stack as a function distance. 4. The variation in experimental and simulations values could also be attributed to some assumption made at the initial stage of the modeling, such as wind speed, weather condition, volume of gas flared e.t.c. These assumptions may not conform to prevailing

Despite the variation between the experimental and simulated results, the dispersion pattern of the obtained values from experimental and simulation showed that the model and experimental results to a large extent conforms to the modified physical law proposed

> Heat radiation (jan) Heat radiation (Feb) Heat radiation (March) Heat radiation (April) Heat radiation (May) Heat radiation (June) Heat radiation (July) Heat radiation (Aug) Heat radiation (Sept) Heat radiation (Oct) Heat radiation (Nov) Heat radiation (Dec)

**Figure 5.** Heat radiation from gas flaring (Station 1) with a stack efficiency of 85%

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 23

Heat ra diation (Jan) Heat radiation (Feb) Heat radiation (March) Heat radiation (April) Heat radiation (May) Heat radiation (june) Heat radiation (July) Heat radiation (Aug) Heat radiation (Sept) Heat radiation (Oct) Heat radiation (Nov) Heat radiation (Dec)

**Figure 8.** Heat radiation from gas flaring (Station 2) with a stack efficiency of 85%

Environmental pollution due to heat radiation from gas flaring stations in the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria has been identified as one of the major causes of strives, demonstration and sometimes-violent protest between the oil exploration companies and habitants of Niger-Delta area of Nigeria. Experimental analysis of heat radiation from gas flaring has been conducted. Attempt at modeling heat radiation from flare station using q basic program is hereby presented. It can be inferred from the simulation results of the developed model that volume of gas flared considerably affects the quantity of heat radiation from gas flaring in a direct proportionate manner. Also influence the heat radiation from gas is the distances of measurement from the point of flare, as the distance increases the quantity of heat radiated decreases. It can be inferred from the results that the effect of heat radiated will be felt mostly felt at distances of 25-100m within the point if flare. The result also clearly show that show that continuous gas flaring irrespective of the quality deposited in the immediate environment will in the long run lead to change in the physicochemical properties of environment due to the quantity of heat radiated. From this research, the following

0 200 400<PHONE_NUMBER> 1200 1400 1600

Distance (m)

**4. Conclusion**

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Heat radiation (kW/m2)

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

conclusions can be deduced:

**Figure 6.** Heat radiation from gas flaring (Station 2) with a stack efficiency of 65%

**Figure 7.** Heat radiation from gas flaring (Station 2) with a stack efficiency of 75%

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 23

**Figure 8.** Heat radiation from gas flaring (Station 2) with a stack efficiency of 85%

## **4. Conclusion**

22 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

Heat radiation (Jan) Heat radiation (Feb) Heat radiation (March) Heat radiation (April) Heat radiation (May) Heat radiation (June) Heat radiation (July) Heat radiation (Aug) Heat radiation (Sept) Heat radiation (Oct) Heat radiation (Nov) Heat radiation (Dec)

**Figure 6.**  Heat radiation from gas flaring (Station 2) with a stack efficiency of 75%

0 200 400<PHONE_NUMBER> 1200 1400 1600

**Distance (m)**

Environmental pollution due to heat radiation from gas flaring stations in the Niger-Delta area of Nigeria has been identified as one of the major causes of strives, demonstration and sometimes-violent protest between the oil exploration companies and habitants of Niger-Delta area of Nigeria. Experimental analysis of heat radiation from gas flaring has been conducted. Attempt at modeling heat radiation from flare station using q basic program is hereby presented. It can be inferred from the simulation results of the developed model that volume of gas flared considerably affects the quantity of heat radiation from gas flaring in a direct proportionate manner. Also influence the heat radiation from gas is the distances of measurement from the point of flare, as the distance increases the quantity of heat radiated decreases. It can be inferred from the results that the effect of heat radiated will be felt mostly felt at distances of 25-100m within the point if flare. The result also clearly show that show that continuous gas flaring irrespective of the quality deposited in the immediate environment will in the long run lead to change in the physicochemical properties of environment due to the quantity of heat radiated. From this research, the following conclusions can be deduced:

1. It was observed that the result of simulation of model developed based on the modified principles of pollutants dispersion agreed with the experimental results.

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 25

Abdulakreem, A. S. & Odigure, J.O. (2002). Radiative Heat Evaluation from Gas Flaring By Computer Simulation. Journal of Association for the advancement of Modelling and simulation in enterprises, Lyon France. Vol.71, No 2, pp 19 – 35, ISSN 0761 – 2516. Abdulkareem A.S. (2000). Mathematical modelling of pollutant migration from gas flaring in the Niger Delta Area. MsC thesis, Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal

Abdulkareem, A. S. (2005). Evaluation of ground level concentration of pollutant due to gas flaring by computer simulation: A case study of Niger – Delta area of Nigeria. Leonardo Electronic Journal of Practices and Technologies, Technical University of Cluj - Napoca

Abdulkareem, A. S.(2005). Urban Air Pollution Evaluation by Computer Simulation: A Case study of Petroleum Refining Company, Nigeria. Leonardo Journal of Science Technical

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Adeniyi, O.D.; Kovo, A.S.; Abdulkareem. A.S & Chukwudozie. C. (2007): Ethanol Fuel Production from Cassava as a Substitute for Gasoline. Journal of Dispersion and

Aghalino, S.O & Eyinal, B (2009). Oil exploitation and marine pollution: Evidence from

Ajayi, O.M (1999): Impact of gas flaring on the Niger-Delta Area: A case study of Port-Harcourt. B.Eng degree project, department of Chemical Enginnering, Federal

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Alakpodia, I.J (1980): The effect of gas flaring on the microclimate and adjacent vegetation in Isoko area. Master of Science thesis, University of Lagos, Nigeria (unpublished), 1-50.

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Biochemical Engineering, Croatia Q 20, No 2, pp 139 – 146, ISSN 0352 – 9568. Abdulkareem, A.S,; Odigure, J.O & Abenege, S (2010): Predictive model for pollutant dispersion from gas flaring: A case study of oil producing area in Nigeria. Journal of

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University of Technology, Minn. Nigeria (unpublished) 10-26.

**6. References**

5 Pp 106-114.

(Nigeria) ltd, Lagos, Nigeria.1-50.

$$\mathbf{Q}\_{\rm fd} = \left\{ \sqrt{\mathbf{1}45.32 \left( \frac{\left( r \mathbf{C}\_p T\_a \mathbf{x} (r\rho + \rho\_a) + \rho m c \Theta \right)^{0.4}}{\rho^{0.4} (m c \Theta)^{1.4}} \right) (r \mathbf{C}\_p T\_a + m c \Theta)^{0.6} \mathbf{x}^{0.4}} \right\} \times \mathbf{1}$$

## **Author details**

Abdulkareem A.S.

*Department of Chemical Engneering, School of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State Nigeria*

*Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, University of South Africa, Private Bag X6, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa*

## Afolabi A.S.

*Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, University of South Africa, Private Bag X6, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa*

Abdulfatai J.

*Department of Chemical Engneering, School of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State Nigeria*

Uthman H. *Department of Chemical Engneering, School of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State Nigeria*

*Membrane Research Unit (MRU), Block L-01, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), International Campus, Jalan Semarak, WP, Kuala Lampur Malaysia*

Odigure J.O. *Department of Chemical Engneering, School of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State Nigeria*

## **5. Acknowledgement**

We wish to acknowledge the support received from Federal University of Technology Minna, for successful completion of this research. National research foundation (NRF), South Africa and Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology University of South Africa are also appreciated for their support.

### **6. References**

24 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

principles of pollutants dispersion agreed with the experimental results.

3. Model equation that best represents pollutant dispersion pattern is:

0.078 0.4 1.4

volume of gas flared and stacks efficiency.

(1 ( ))

*l a*

*Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State Nigeria*

*Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State Nigeria*

*Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State Nigeria*

*Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State Nigeria*

*International Campus, Jalan Semarak, WP, Kuala Lampur Malaysia*

Qfd

**Author details**

Abdulkareem A.S.

Afolabi A.S.

Abdulfatai J.

Uthman H.

Odigure J.O.

**5. Acknowledgement**

are also appreciated for their support.

1. It was observed that the result of simulation of model developed based on the modified

2. The dispersion pattern of heat radiation based on the simulation results showed that the extent of spread heat from the flare point is dependent on nearness to source of flaring,

0.4

*mc*

145.32 ( ) ( )

( )

*Department of Chemical Engneering, School of Engineering and Engineering Technology,*

*University of South Africa, Private Bag X6, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa*

*University of South Africa, Private Bag X6, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa*

*Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering, College of Science, Engineering and Technology,*

*Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering, College of Science, Engineering and Technology,*

*Department of Chemical Engneering, School of Engineering and Engineering Technology,*

*Department of Chemical Engneering, School of Engineering and Engineering Technology,*

*Department of Chemical Engneering, School of Engineering and Engineering Technology,*

We wish to acknowledge the support received from Federal University of Technology Minna, for successful completion of this research. National research foundation (NRF), South Africa and Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology University of South Africa

*Membrane Research Unit (MRU), Block L-01, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM),*

*rC T x r mc*

*pa a*

0.6 0.4

*p a*

*rC T mc x*

	- Alameddine, I & El-Fadel, M (2005). Stack emission from desalination plant: A parametric senstivity analysis for exposure assessment. Journal of desalination, vol. 177, 15-29.

Oil Exploration and Climate Change: A Case Study

of Heat Radiation from Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria 27

Luyben, W.L (1999). Process modeling, simulation and control for chemical engineers. 2nd

Nigerian natural gas stratergy under supervison of teh world bank (2002). IPA Energy

Nwaichi, E.O & Uzazobona, M.A (2011). Estimation of CO2 level due to gas flaring in the Niger-Delta. Research journal of enviromental sciences, vol. 5(6), 565-572. ISSN 1819-

Nyelong, P.N (2004). Global warming and global water. Journal of energy and enviroment,

Nyong, A.; Adesina, F & Osman Elasha, B (2007). The value of indigeneous knowledge in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in the African Sahel. Journal of

Odigure, J. O & Abdulkareem, A. S. (2001). Modelling of Pollutant's migration from gas flaring: A case study of Niger – Delta area of Nigeria. Journal of Association for the advancement of Modelling and simulation in enterprises, Lyon France. Vol.62, No 3, p

Odigure, J. O.; Abdulkareem, A.S. & O.D Adeniyi, O.D (2003). Computer simulation of soil temperature due to heat radiation from gas flaring. Association for the advancement of Modelling and simulation in enterprises, Lyon France. Vol. 72, No 6, pp 1 – 10, ISSN

Odigure, J.O.; Abdulkareem, A.S& Adeniyi, O.D (2004): Mathematical modelling and computer simulation of noise radiation by generator. Assumption university journal of

Odjugo, A.O.P (2009). Quantfying the cost of climate change impact in Nigeria: Emphsis on

Odjugo, A.O.P (2010). Regional evidence of climate change in Nigeria. Journal of geography

Odjugo, A.O.P (2011). Climate change and global warming. The Nigeria perspective. Journal

Olukoga, E.A (2002). Natural gas as a vehicular fuel. Proceedings of Nigeria gas association,

Oni, I.S & Oyewo, A.M (2011). Gas flaring, transportation and susitanable energy development in the Niger-Delta, Nigeria. Journal of human ecology, vol. 33(1), 21-28. Onyiah, I.M (2005): Modificcation and verification of Milton equation for measuring gaseous pollutant concentration. Post graduate diploma thesis, Department of Chemical Engineering , Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria (unpublished), 1-63. Oyekunle, L.O (1999): Effect of gas flaring in Niger-Delta area. Proceddings of Nigerian