**Figure 1.** Tensions and uncertainties in English teachers' language beliefs and reported practices in the Norwegian multilingual context. **Figure 1.** Tensions and uncertainties in English teachers' language beliefs and reported practices in the Norwegian multilingual context.

#### *Complex Multifaceted Ecologies*

With its ecological perspective (Bronfenbrenner 1979), the multifaceted nature of the language learning and teaching framework helps tease apart the complexity of language teaching, and learning. We use this framework to consider the influences on the teachers' language beliefs within a larger structure (Douglas Fir Group 2016; De Costa and Norton 2017). Language teacher beliefs are rooted in and intertwined with the social experiences teachers have as learners, educators, and members of various groups in society (Borg

2019; Kroskrity 2010). There are many influences on teachers' beliefs, some more salient than others, that we attempted to identify from our data, results, and discussion and sort according to the levels of the language learning and teaching framework. Figure 2 presents an overview of the mutually dependent contextual levels (macro, meso, and micro) that may influence language teachers' beliefs and practices. It also includes time in reference to the historical context, or teachers' past experiences. Kroskrity 2010). There are many influences on teachers' beliefs, some more salient than others, that we attempted to identify from our data, results, and discussion and sort according to the levels of the language learning and teaching framework. Figure 2 presents an overview of the mutually dependent contextual levels (macro, meso, and micro) that may influence language teachers' beliefs and practices. It also includes time in reference to the historical context, or teachers' past experiences.

With its ecological perspective (Bronfenbrenner 1979), the multifaceted nature of the language learning and teaching framework helps tease apart the complexity of language teaching, and learning. We use this framework to consider the influences on the teachers' language beliefs within a larger structure (Douglas Fir Group 2016; De Costa and Norton 2017). Language teacher beliefs are rooted in and intertwined with the social experiences teachers have as learners, educators, and members of various groups in society (Borg 2019;

*Languages* **2022**, *7*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22

*Complex Multifaceted Ecologies*

**Figure 2.** Contextual levels that impact teachers' language beliefs. **Figure 2.** Contextual levels that impact teachers' language beliefs.

The macro level of ideological structures considers global and regional influences with widespread impact, including the language ideologies found in society at large and the shifting perspectives of the language of instruction, such as English as an expansively used multilingua franca. Further influences are global and national educational policies and guidelines, such as the CEFR and national curriculum; paradigms of language teaching and learning, such as English-only pedagogy and communicative language teaching; teacher education programs; and standardized assessments and teaching materials, such as high-stakes tests and published textbooks. The macro level highlights a multitude of diverse and evolving ideologies that influence teachers, who must navigate them in real The macro level of ideological structures considers global and regional influences with widespread impact, including the language ideologies found in society at large and the shifting perspectives of the language of instruction, such as English as an expansively used multilingua franca. Further influences are global and national educational policies and guidelines, such as the CEFR and national curriculum; paradigms of language teaching and learning, such as English-only pedagogy and communicative language teaching; teacher education programs; and standardized assessments and teaching materials, such as highstakes tests and published textbooks. The macro level highlights a multitude of diverse and evolving ideologies that influence teachers, who must navigate them in real time to the best of their ability, according to the resources available. Our results suggest English teachers in Norway are influenced by various ideological structures to varying degrees, similar to findings presented by others (Haukås and Mercer 2021; Chvala 2020; De Korne 2012; Kroskrity 2010). Markedly, the teachers reported that they were unable or unwilling to escape the influence of monolingual language ideologies in their teaching practices. These ideologies seem to be rooted in teachers' core beliefs on account of their long-standing dominance in both society and language education paradigms. They are further reflected in policies, teacher education programs, assessments, and teaching materials (Leung and

Valdes 2019; Douglas Fir Group 2016; Canagarajah 2006; Galloway and Numajiri 2020; Galloway 2018; Callies et al. 2022). Newer and less established multilingual ideologies seem to be peripheral beliefs, more easily overlooked or canceled out by steadfast core beliefs during teaching practices. Another consideration on a regional level is linked to teacher education and qualifications, particularly the lack of teachers who hold professional qualifications to teach English in Norway. Such teachers tend to be less confident users and teachers of English and depend more on textbooks, which may adhere to monolingual language ideologies (Galloway 2018), to guide their teaching (Lund and Tishakov 2017).

The meso level considers the influence of sociocultural institutions and communities, including social identities and groups, such as the school district, school, department, or educational level within which teachers work, as well as their social identity as general or subject teachers. Likewise, the teaching resources available at a school or in a school district may affect beliefs and practices. According to our results, the teachers of grades 5 and over were more likely to hold pro-multilingual beliefs of English, which may point to differences in the focus and organization of teaching at the different levels of schooling and the teachers' identities and qualifications. In the beginning grades, Norwegian schools are characterized by a strong focus on the development of basic numeracy, literacy in Norwegian, and social skills (Norges Offentlige Utredninger 2003; Hoff-Jenssen et al. 2020). Teachers at this level are commonly generalists who teach core subjects, including English, to one class or parallel classes. Individual teachers often instruct a few hours of English per week, and a substantial percentage do not hold the required qualifications to teach English, as noted in the section *Research Context*. In the middle grades, the focus of schooling shifts towards the use of literacy skills to learn various subjects. The number of hours of English instruction per week increases, and more teachers with the required qualifications teach the subject. Additionally, more identify as semi-specialist subject teachers, such as teachers of English, math, and science. Influences on teachers at various levels of schooling and their identity/qualifications as teachers at these levels may be salient in these results.

The micro level of social activity is the classroom, where teachers have the most direct impact on pedagogical and linguistic practices. At this level, the teachers' beliefs are enacted in practice. This includes what languages are used or excluded in accordance with their beliefs about language and language learning and any constraints present, such as time pressure, teaching resources, learning outcomes, and assessment requirements. The linguistic repertoire of the teachers and learners is another available resource to draw upon, but it is often overlooked in Norway (Flognfeldt 2018; Christison et al. 2021). The participants reported allowing languages other than English in the classroom *sometimes* or *often*; however, research has found that in practice, this refers almost solely to Norwegian (Brevik and Rindal 2020). The native language of the teacher (Norwegian/non-Norwegian) was considered as a factor but was not found to be significant. These results are in agreement with the findings of Bernstein et al. (2021). Still, other research results have determined that the native language of a teacher is significant to their language beliefs (Ricklefs 2021). Additionally, researchers have identified other related factors are significant for pro-multilingual beliefs, including experience learning another language (Bernstein et al. 2021) and the number of languages instructed by a teacher (Calafato 2020, 2021). Such varying results highlight the complexity of language beliefs and the need for more research about how the richness of teachers' linguistic repertoires and various types of experiences with learning and teaching languages may influence their language beliefs.

Lastly, the historical context considers influences across time, including the lived experiences of teachers as language learners and teacher students, generally agreed to have significant influence on language teacher cognition (Borg 2006; Li 2020). The historical context provides insight into our findings that younger teachers are more likely to favor multilingual ideologies, similar to Bernstein et al. (2021), who specified that age and years of experience are significant. Younger generations of teachers have grown up in an expanding multilingual context in Norway with vastly different experiences and opportunities to use and learn English. This is due to the expanding global use of English in recent decades and

the inclusion of English as an obligatory subject in Norwegian schools from grade 1 since 1997. Furthermore, teacher education programs evolve over time, socializing generations of teachers into the profession in varying ways as epistemological changes take hold (Johnson 2009). For example, multilingualism and multilingual pedagogy have been included as topics in English teacher education in some programs in Norway since 2013. Younger generations of teachers prefer more multilingual language ideologies and seem to have a different trajectory than that of past generations.

Teachers are part of a complex, evolving multilingual ecology that has many ideological structures permeating various sociocultural institutions and communities. In this space and time, both multilingual and monolingual language ideologies diffuse into English language teachers' beliefs and practices. Within the beliefs of individual teachers and groups of teachers, the degree of monolingual and/or multilingual language ideologies varies. Language ideologies do not neatly transfer into the cognition of individual teachers as whole set entities. Rather, teachers are influenced by various ideological structures and beliefs and all the interrelated contextual levels, and they form their own dynamic belief system that guides their classroom practices.

#### **5. Conclusions**

Our communities and schools are rich in linguistic resources, and schoolteachers are pivotal in promoting multilingualism as a resource, as called for in educational policies and by researchers. In this study, we investigated Norwegian English teachers' beliefs about the English language and its use, and we identify factors which influence them. We found a complexity in which contradictory beliefs about language remain adjacent in the teachers' dynamic belief sets, with a gray zone of uncertainty regarding some matters. We found teacher age, learner age group, and teacher gender to be significant factors for some beliefs. Finally, we used the multifaceted nature of the language learning and teaching framework to reflect on the mutually dependent contextual levels that influence teachers' language beliefs. Our results suggest that teachers' trajectories are in transition, with the language beliefs of some groups of teachers indicating pro-multilingual ideals.

While the methodology used in this study allowed for a large sample size from across Norway and statistical analysis of the results, it has some limitations. First, calls for participation were sent out by the local project team, all members of the same teacher education program, and may have resulted in many alumni responding rather than other participants. Further, we did not address meso- and micro-level contextual factors and the teachers' reasoning behind their beliefs and practices. We also did not observe the teachers' actual classroom practices. Finally, our analysis did not consider if proficiency in multiple languages was a factor in teachers' beliefs. We recommend further qualitative investigation to contextualize English teachers' language beliefs and practices at the macro, meso, and micro levels. They may investigate why different groups of teachers are more likely to favor multilingual language ideologies and can further study actual teaching practices in schools and classrooms.

As the makeup of learners diversifies, schools and educational authorities must mindfully avoid assumptions of a shared linguistic and cultural background among learners and their families. They must not overlook or downplay the richness of the semiotic and cultural resources all learners bring with them, especially those with multilingual backgrounds. As uniting spaces, schools are a key platform for the promotion of multilingualism as a resource in learning and across society and must work to stop the reproduction of standard monolingual ideologies. Considering the calls to rethink the standing of English and how language is theorized, our results may indicate such a transition has begun, if ever so gradually, among some groups of teachers. Nevertheless, continued opportunities for English teachers are needed that allow for reflection on concepts surrounding multilingualism and ELF and to try multilingual pedagogical practices in local teaching environments. Two especially relevant resources that may be used in pre- and in-service teacher education and development programs to aid in this effort include *English as a Lingua Franca for EFL Con-* *texts*, an edited edition by Sifakis and Tsantila (2019) that provides empirical perspectives about ELF of particular importance to EFL teachers and stakeholders. Further, the ENRICH Course (see http://enrichproject.eu/) provides an open-access, asynchronous, continuing professional development course for EFL teachers and stakeholders. This includes short lectures and activities to guide teachers toward an understanding of English within an ELF-aware, multilingual perspective.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, D.T. and T.T.; methodology, D.T.; formal analysis, T.T. and D.T.; writing—original draft preparation, T.T.; writing—review and editing, T.T. and D.T.; visualization, T.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Ethical review and approval were waived for this study, after consultation with the Norwegian Centre for Research Data due to anonymous data collection which did not include sensitive or identifying personal data.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

**Data Availability Statement:** Data supporting the reported results is securely stored.

**Acknowledgments:** The study presented was linked to an Erasmus+ project, titled *ENRICH: English as a Lingua Franca Practices for Inclusive Multilingual Classrooms* (EU funded, grant: 2018-1-EL01- KA201-047894). The project was coordinated by the Hellenic Open University and included partners at: Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway; Bogazici University, Turkey; Roma Tre University, Italy; University of Lisbon, Portugal; Computer and Technology Institute, Greece. We acknowledge the project consortium members for the development of the survey and OsloMet's project team for the collection of data in Norway.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Appendix A. Survey Items and Themes**

Q32 I am comfortable with my own accent.

Q33 My learners prefer being taught by native English speakers.

Q36 It is important that I integrate examples of English used by non-native speakers in my teaching.

Q39 The current status of English as a global language implies that non-native uses of English are as valid as native uses of English.

**Teacher Beliefs and Practices about English Use in Assessment**

Q23 In my teaching, I incorporate methods of alternative assessment (e.g., self assessment and peer assessment).

Q34 My role as a teacher of English is to correct my learners' incorrect uses of English.

Q37 English language standard tests should also include interactions involving non-native speakers.

Q38 When assessing their own learners' spoken and written production and interactions, teachers should mainly focus on what is intelligible.

**Teachers' Reported Teaching Practices for English Use**

Q14 In my class I give learners several opportunities to interact in English.

Q18 I expose my learners to uses of English similar to those they may be exposed to outside the classroom.

Q20 I teach standard (British or American) English pronunciation to my learners.

Q24 During my English classes I allow my learners to also use languages other than English.

**Teachers' Reported Practices for English Use in Teaching Materials and Resources**

Q12 The coursebook(s) which I use in my class(es) focus/es on the way native English speakers (e.g., British, American, Australian) use the language.

Q13 Cultures relevant to my learners, including those of migrant backgrounds, are included in the coursebook(s) which I use in my class(es).

Q16 The coursebook(s) which I use in my class(es) include/s topics related to English-speaking-countries traditions, cultures, art, history, and values.

Q19 I develop my own additional teaching materials to address the needs and wants of my multilingual learners.

Q21 In my teaching, I use authentic materials (TV series, films, songs, etc.) involving predominantly native speakers of English.

Q22 In my teaching, I use authentic materials (TV series, films, songs, etc.) involving predominantly non-native speakers of English.

Q25 In my experience, my learners are exposed to communication involving non-native speakers of English through teaching materials used in the classroom.

Q35 Teachers should use authentic materials in teaching.

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## *Article* **Visual and Artefactual Approaches in Engaging Teachers with Multilingualism: Creating DLCs in Pre-Service Teacher Education**

**Nayr Correia Ibrahim**

Faculty of Education and Arts, Nord University, 8026 Bodø, Norway<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Tel.: +47-91-119-276

**Abstract:** This paper reports on a study of teachers' engagement with their own multilingualism in a pre-service teacher education context. As linguistic diversity in society and schools around the globe is increasing, teachers are required to meet the challenges of teaching children who live with multiple languages. However, teachers are seldom required to reflect on and engage with their own multilingualism, which forms the basis of a subjective and experiential approach to educating teachers multilingually. Embedded in an arts-based visual methodology, this study used the concept of Dominant Language Constellations (DLCs) as both a theoretical underpinning and a creative qualitative tool for collecting data. It included fourteen DLC artefacts created by future teachers of English in Grades 1–7 and Grades 5–10 in northern Norway, supported by oral and written narratives. Plurisemiotic analysis of teachers' DLC artefacts indicates that teachers 'saw' or perceived themselves as plurilingual individuals for the first time. Furthermore, they reflected on the classroom implications of including multilingual practices in a context of increasing linguistic diversity in Norway, through capitalizing on their own and potentially their learners' multilingual identities.

**Keywords:** multilingualism; DLC (dominant language constellation); language repertoires; teacher education; ELT (English language teaching); visual arts-based methodologies

### **1. Introduction**

This paper reports on a study conducted in a pre-service teacher education English programme as part of a five-year Master's in primary (Grades 1–7) and secondary (Grades 5–10) education in Norway. Based on the theoretical perspective of multilingualism as 'lived or subjectively experienced' (Kalaja and Pitkänen-Huhta 2018, p. 15) and embedded in the 'visual turn' (Kalaja and Melo-Pfeifer 2019, p. 4), this study investigated pre-service teachers' engagement with their own multilingual repertoires via visual and creative methods. Aronin's (2006, 2019b) construct of the Dominant Language Constellation (DLC) as a theoretical and research approach underlies the methodological choice of an artefactual, hence concrete, visualization of the student teachers' languages. The study included fourteen DLC artefacts from three groups of student teachers, two in the first year of English Grades 1–7 and one in the fourth year of Grades 5–10. Consequently, this study heeds the call for pedagogical applications of DLC research and constitutes an innovative approach to engaging and describing individuals' complex repertoires of languages, linguistic competences, and identities.

#### *1.1. Multilingualism in Education*

Multilingualism is neither an exception nor a new phenomenon. Edwards (1994, p. 1) described it as 'a normal and unremarkable necessity' for individuals and societies. More recently, Aronin and Singleton (2008, 2012) and Aronin (2019a, pp. 26–27) have called for 'a new linguistic dispensation' based on 'an unparalleled spread of the use of English as an international language [and] a remarkable diversification of the languages in use', where

**Citation:** Ibrahim, Nayr Correia. 2022. Visual and Artefactual Approaches in Engaging Teachers with Multilingualism: Creating DLCs in Pre-Service Teacher Education. *Languages* 7: 152. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/languages7020152

Academic Editors: Anna Krulatz, Georgios Neokleous and Eliane Lorenz

Received: 5 September 2021 Accepted: 7 June 2022 Published: 17 June 2022

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2022 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

flexible language practices include 'monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual arrangements'. This increase in linguistic diversity is evident in the Norwegian context, which has been described by Lanza (2020, p. 131) as a 'linguistic paradise' as a result of a certain tolerance of linguistic diversity that is evident in policy, curriculum renewal processes, and attitudes towards multilingualism. Not only have Norwegian schools become more culturally and linguistically diverse because of immigration to the country and an increase in the number of children born in Norway to immigrant parents (18.5% according to Statistics Norway 2021), but Norwegian society has recently become more open to accommodating a mosaic of languages. The indigenous languages Sami, Kven, Romani, and Romanes have official status as national minority languages, as does Norwegian Sign Language; there are two written forms of Norwegian, Bokmål and Nynorsk, and a multitude of spoken dialects across the country (Vikøy and Haukås 2021).

Globally, national curricula are increasingly integrating references to linguistic diversity, as exemplified by two northern European countries. The Finnish and Norwegian curricula both refer explicitly to linguistic diversity, and the term 'multilingual' or 'multilingualism' appears in both. The Finnish National Agency for Education emphasises an 'Awareness of languages in general and appreciation of multilingualism and multiculturalism' (Finnish National Agency for Education 2014; Kalaja and Pitkänen-Huhta 2020, p. 6), while the Norwegian Directorate of Education and Training (2020), English curriculum (Læreplan i engelsk) states, 'Pupils should be given a basis for seeing their own and the identity of others in a multilingual and multicultural context' (p. 3). However, Kalaja and Pitkänen-Huhta (2020, p. 7), when analysing the Finnish curriculum, lament the fact that references to multilingualism remain 'at the level of buzzwords and lack any concrete applications', as curricula do not come with how-to manuals. Although references to multilingualism and linguistic diversity are much-needed and welcome additions to national curricula and educational policy, there is a scarcity of concrete guidelines for teacher training with elements of plurilingual pedagogy (Otwinowska 2014, p. 307).

Several studies in Norway have highlighted the positive attitudes of teachers towards the phenomenon of multilingualism (Haukås 2016). However, there is little evidence of teachers integrating plurilingual practices in their teaching. For example, Pran and Holst (2015) revealed that only three out of ten teachers in Grades 1–10 have at some point carried out activities on the topic of multilingualism with their classes. A survey carried out among 176 teachers of English showed that only 5% believed they were very well qualified to teach in multilingual classrooms (Krulatz and Dahl 2016). Despite a high level of qualifications and well-intentioned attitudes towards multilingualism and L1 activation, the teachers in Burner and Carlsen's (2019) study, working in a school for newly arrived students, struggled to implement multilingual teaching practices. Instead, they prioritised the learning of Norwegian over the L3 (English) for integration purposes, even though English is a compulsory subject in the Norwegian curriculum. Similarly, the teachers in a longitudinal study by Lorenz et al. (2021) supported the idea of integrating multilingual practices, but they did not implement such practices systematically. Hence, recent research into teachers' perceptions and practices in Norway has confirmed that there is still a need to educate teachers who understand and can knowledgeably use multiple languages and multilingual teaching practices in their classrooms in general and in the English classroom in particular.

In calling for a greater focus on multilingualism and plurilingual practices in teacher education, researchers and educators in different contexts have also been considering what teachers need to learn about the phenomenon. Firstly, as no one language fulfils an individual's full communicative, cognitive, or emotional requirements, it is imperative for teachers to understand multilingualism as a complex, dynamic, shifting, and multidimensional phenomenon (Ibrahim 2022; Jessner 2013; Cenoz and Gorter 2011, 2015). According to Otwinowska (2014, 2017), teachers should develop an awareness of crosslinguistic, metalinguistic, and psycholinguistic knowledge concerning multiple language acquisition. García and Kleyn's (2019) three-strand approach includes knowledge of the children and their

families, knowledge of bi/multilingualism, and knowledge of appropriate plurilingual pedagogies. However, not only do individuals seldom identify as multilingual as a result of monolingualizing processes that have penetrated and structured education systems and ideologies, but they are rarely encouraged to explore their personal engagement with multilingualism. A focus on multilingual practices in teacher education can contribute to positive attitudes towards multilingualism (Portolés and Martí 2020; Haukås 2016), but identity-based approaches, where teachers actively go through a process of identification as multilingual, are also proving to be effective (Krulatz and Xu 2021). Ibrahim (forthcoming) argues that teachers need to develop an understanding of multilingualism as subjectively lived or experienced, 'involving positive and negative emotions, attitudes, beliefs, visions and identities' (Kalaja and Melo-Pfeifer 2019, p. 1). This personal and subjective approach constitutes key first steps in 'raising the critical awareness amongst teachers and teacher trainers of their own multilingual background, their own learning trajectories and their own attitudes toward plurilingualism and plurilingual practices' (Wei 2020, p. 274).

#### *1.2. Arts-Based Approaches in Teacher Education*

Even though researchers have employed a variety of traditional tools, such as interviews, narratives, and discourse analysis, there has been a strong 'lingualism' (Block 2014) bias in investigating the multilingual phenomenon. The more recent focus on visual and multimodal/artefactual methods affords research into teacher education and multilingualism interesting new avenues. Whitelaw (2019, p. 7), developing the concept of critical aesthetic practice, foregrounds the role of the arts in developing an awareness and understanding through sensory experiences that allow for thinking, seeing, feeling, and perceiving differently. Arts-based practices open up a safe, creative space for engaging with linguistic repertoires and exploring teachers' and students' identity connections with their linguistic histories and biographies (Busch 2018; Blommaert and Backus 2013; Barkhuizen and Strauss 2020). They bring to the classroom different ways of being, which disrupt the verbocentric status quo (Kendrick and McKay 2002, 2009) and provide a transformative lens through which to re-envision language education. Arts-based approaches personalise the learning process and provide more opportunities for inclusive practices, as they allow for a 'certain freedom and spontaneity' (Lähteelä et al. 2021, p. 21) in appropriating the tools for self-expression related to experience, action, and emotion.

Researchers and practitioners have been engaging with the visual turn in teacher education in innovative ways. Kalaja and Melo-Pfeifer (2019) gathered thirteen studies using a variety of visual methods (drawings, photos, objects, artefacts) across different contexts, including teacher education. For example, the four case studies in Part 3: Multilingual Teacher Education (pp. 197–274) used drawings to explore the participants' future selves as teachers of English in linguistically diverse contexts. Even though these studies did not engage directly with the teachers' perceptions of themselves as multilingual individuals, Pinto (2019, p. 229) did highlight the 'discovery of their own 'plurilinguality', or their ability to think, be(come), and act plurilingually as teachers of EFL. Hirsu et al. (2021) described a project in which researchers, teachers, and artists worked together to operationalise translingual practices in the classroom by side-lining the complex definition of translanguaging. They adopted a creative arts-based approach, in which students used their full range of semiotic resources, highlighting the 'creative and critical dimension' (Wei 2018, p. 13) of multilingualism. Teachers' conversations around those visuals, both individually and collaboratively, also proved to be meaningful in deepening discussions around teacher identity construction (Orland-Barak and Maskit 2017, p. 28).

Aronin and Ó Laoire (2013, p. 225) call for a greater focus on 'the material culture of multilingualism' and argue that 'a deliberate focus on the study of materialities (artefacts, objects, and spaces) can contribute significantly to the investigation of multilingualism'. Ibrahim (2019, 2021) combined visual and artefactual elements in exploring children's identity, where the multimodal text goes beyond the 'predominantly verbal' and 'accommodates the interplay of different semiotic modes and recognises the complexity of multimodal

narrative meaning' (Page 2010, p. 115). Using drawings and selected objects to represent their languages, children described multiple and erratic language trajectories, where repertoires become 'biographically organised complexes of resources [that] follow the rhythms of human lives' (Blommaert and Backus 2011, p. 9). Barkhuizen et al. (2014) privileged the term multimodal narratives (such as drawings, photographs, videos, digital stories, etc.) to highlight the multidimensionality of this representation resource. In this study, student teachers created a concrete visual artefact of their language repertoires and DLCs, constituting a 'powerful tool for delving into participants' feelings, attitudes and perceptions about the self' (Ibrahim 2019, p. 48). The current study heeds the call for pedagogical applications of DLC research by embedding DLCs in artefactual, multimodal practices in researching teacher education.

#### *1.3. Dominant Language Constellations (DLCs) as a Research and Pedagogical Approach*

The concept of the DLC (Aronin 2006, 2016; Lo Bianco and Aronin 2020; Aronin and Vetter 2021) was developed in an attempt to capture the complexity, multidimensionality, and unpredictability of contemporary multilingual communication. The DLC bridges the hypothetical monolingual perspective, where individuals only need one language to function on a daily basis, and the multilingual perspective, where a full language repertoire consists of a 'long list of skills in many languages accumulated with the help of mobility, new media and technologies' (Aronin 2019b, p. 20). Aronin (2019b, p. 21) defines an individual's DLC as 'the group of a person's most expedient languages, functioning as an entire unit and enabling an individual to meet all his/her needs in a multilingual environment'. While a language repertoire refers to 'the totality of linguistic skills in all the languages possessed by an individual or by a community and may include several languages, a Dominant Language Constellation captures only a subset of them (typically but not always three languages) that are deemed to be of prime importance' (Aronin and Moccozet 2021, p. 2). However, as argued by Coetzee-Van Rooy (2018), 'a single dominant language constellation' (p. 25) is unrealistic in certain contexts, and the division between language repertoires and DLCs may be more porous than first identified. Hence, it makes more sense to consider the 'co-existence of several 'dominant language constellations' in the "language repertoires" of people' (p. 24), where the apparently lesser-used languages in a repertoire gain importance, visibility, and functionality in different domains; for example, different languages contribute to a family DLC, a professional DLC, or a leisure DLC. This highlights the nature of DLCs as unstable, evolving, and fluctuating as a result of political changes, group and individual migration, and new life circumstances (Krulatz and Dahl 2021).

Even though the DLC emerged as a theoretical concept, it is now being operationalised in various contexts. For example, Nightingale's (2020) study focused on an individual's language use and 'how his most expedient languages are reconfigured according to the multilingual environment and how they relate to his emotions, language attitudes, and identity construct' (2020, p. 232). This study captured not only the functional aspects of the individual's DLC but also his affective and emotional ties to the various languages.

More recently, the concept of the DLC has been employed in education and teacher training. Coetzee-Van Rooy (2018) investigated the DLCs of urban South African youth to create and contribute to more effective multilingual language-in-education policies and practices. Björklund and Björklund (2021) used individual and institutional DLCs within the teaching practicum as part of the teacher education programmes at Åbo Akademi University in Finland as a tool to uncover the multiple layers of DLCs in organizations. Krulatz and Dahl (2021) and Vetter (2021) both took a language policy perspective: the former compared 'the actual and imagined DLCs of refugees to Norway with the majority communal DLC in Norway and the imagined DLCs that are envisioned for refugees by the government, educational institutions, and communities of settlement' (p. 115), while the latter analysed school language education policy in urban secondary schools. Yoel (2021) investigated the evolution of the DLCs of immigrant (Russian) teacher trainees of English in Israel. Although they used English as a 'pivot language' (p. 158) that allowed

them to negotiate initial access to Israeli society, the objective was to learn Hebrew in order to integrate. As a result, their individual and community DLCs underwent a process of transition and reconfiguration, as Hebrew occupied a more prominent position and English became their professional language. negotiate initial access to Israeli society, the objective was to learn Hebrew in order to integrate. As a result, their individual and community DLCs underwent a process of transition and reconfiguration, as Hebrew occupied a more prominent position and English became their professional language.

government, educational institutions, and communities of settlement' (p. 115), while the latter analysed school language education policy in urban secondary schools. Yoel (2021) investigated the evolution of the DLCs of immigrant (Russian) teacher trainees of English in Israel. Although they used English as a 'pivot language' (p. 158) that allowed them to

#### *1.4. DLC Maps and Modelling: Visual and Concrete Representations of Subjectively Lived Multilingualism 1.4. DLC Maps and Modelling: Visual and Concrete Representations of Subjectively Lived Multilingualism*

*Languages* **2022**, *7*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 22

The original visual representation of DLC maps reflected a constellation in the night sky, with stars representing the different languages (Aronin 2019b; Lo Bianco and Aronin 2020; Aronin and Vetter 2021). At the XIth International Conference on Third Language Acquisition and Multilingualism in Lisbon (Aronin 2018), the author of this article discovered 3D DLC modelling with plasticine and sticks (Figure 1), an activity that provided physical, tactile, and creative engagement with her DLC. As Aronin and Moccozet (2021) stated, external concrete representations 'boost cognition by shortcutting analytic processes, saving internal memory, creating persistent referents and providing structures that can serve as a shareable object of thought' (pp. 5–6). Hence, a '3D plasticine model of a personal DLC serves as both a cognitive extension and a material symbol of one's own sociolinguistic existence and the language skills that ensure this existence' (Aronin and Moccozet 2021, p. 7). This approach to exploring DLCs affords individuals deeper, more personal connections with their language repertoires and DLCs, thus enhancing self-awareness of multilingualism as a concept and of themselves as multilingual individuals. The plasticine models, in different colours and sizes, uncover the relationships, map the journeys, and reveal the identities that individuals ascribe to their languages. The original visual representation of DLC maps reflected a constellation in the night sky, with stars representing the different languages (Aronin 2019b; Lo Bianco and Aronin 2020; Aronin and Vetter 2021). At the XIth International Conference on Third Language Acquisition and Multilingualism in Lisbon (Aronin 2018), the author of this article discovered 3D DLC modelling with plasticine and sticks (Figure 1), an activity that provided physical, tactile, and creative engagement with her DLC. As Aronin and Moccozet (2021) stated, external concrete representations 'boost cognition by shortcutting analytic processes, saving internal memory, creating persistent referents and providing structures that can serve as a shareable object of thought' (pp. 5–6). Hence, a '3D plasticine model of a personal DLC serves as both a cognitive extension and a material symbol of one's own sociolinguistic existence and the language skills that ensure this existence' (Aronin and Moccozet 2021, p. 7). This approach to exploring DLCs affords individuals deeper, more personal connections with their language repertoires and DLCs, thus enhancing selfawareness of multilingualism as a concept and of themselves as multilingual individuals. The plasticine models, in different colours and sizes, uncover the relationships, map the journeys, and reveal the identities that individuals ascribe to their languages.

**Figure 1.** Author's DLC model created at the XIth International Conference on Third Language Acquisition Multilingualism in Lisbon (Aronin 2018) and reproduced in Aronin (2021). **Figure 1.** Author's DLC model created at the XIth International Conference on Third Language Acquisition Multilingualism in Lisbon (Aronin 2018) and reproduced in Aronin (2021).

Visualization methods, such as DLC maps, plasticine models, and computer-assisted modelling (Aronin and Moccozet 2021), offer teacher educators a promising tool for exploring student teachers' relationships with their languages and their individual perceptions of the role of these languages in their lives, and for reflecting on the impact this may Visualization methods, such as DLC maps, plasticine models, and computer-assisted modelling (Aronin and Moccozet 2021), offer teacher educators a promising tool for exploring student teachers' relationships with their languages and their individual perceptions of the role of these languages in their lives, and for reflecting on the impact this may have on their future practice. The present study employed an innovative approach, in which the student teachers (henceforth STs) created artefactual representations of their full linguistic repertoires and naturally occurring DLCs in a free and spontaneous activity.

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

#### *2.1. Aim of the Study*

The aim of the study was to investigate STs' perceptions of multilingualism and engagement with their linguistic repertoires by creating an artefact that encapsulated all of their languages and highlighted their DLCs and by reflecting thereon. Heeding the call for pedagogical applications of DLCs and via an innovative and agentic approach, this paper investigated the creative process of engaging with STs' full linguistic repertoires and their DLCs as they emerged in the process of creative self-reporting.

The study explored the following questions:

#### *2.2. Context and Participants*

This study comprised fourteen DLC artefacts created by three groups of STs enrolled in a Master's Program in Primary and Secondary Education at a university in northern Norway. Two groups of STs (n = 18) were in the first year of their Master's in Grades 1–7 and had chosen English as an elective. These STs had 30 credits of English in a two-year integrated, interdisciplinary course, after which they could teach English in primary school. The third group was in the fourth year of the five-year Master's in Grades 5–10 (n = 10) and had also elected to teach English. They had completed a compulsory 60 credits before choosing to write their thesis in English. The learning and research context was the respective university courses, where the STs were encouraged to explore their language learning experiences and multilingualism. The Grade 1–7 STs experienced plurilingual practices throughout the year, such as translanguaging, tangled translations, comparing languages, and working with bilingual picturebooks (Ibrahim and Prilutskaya 2021). The Grade 5–10 STs took a module on Multilingualism and Plurilingual Practices as part of the 15-credit course Literacy, Diversity, and Intercultural Citizenship in the English Language Classroom, which included the following four sections: Understanding multilingualism: Terminology, definitions, context, and historical background; Understanding multilingualism: A complex, multidimensional phenomenon; Engaging and visualising multilingualism; and Teaching multilingually. The DLC artefact activity was conducted at the beginning of the course as a way to engage STs with their multilingual selves and to prepare them for plurilingual practices. The DLC artefact creation was complemented by a reflective written narrative, in which they were required to address the following questions:

#### *2.3. Data Collection*

The STs were introduced to the concept of language repertoires and DLCs at the beginning of the course. They were provided with an example of the educator's DLC in the form of word cards set out on a table (Ibrahim 2022) and definitions of the terms. They were shown some examples of previous DLC artefacts and were given two weeks to create an artefact that reflected their full language repertoire, within which they highlighted their DLCs. The STs were free to choose any materials, shapes, and colours and were encouraged to create a 2D or 3D manual artefact. The STs then presented their own artefacts to the class, where they revealed their languages and offered explanations for their choices. After this, they answered the reflective questions in a piece of writing, which they returned by email. The STs were free to create the artefact that best described their relationship with their languages, thus allowing agency in how they self-reported on their multilingualism. Fourteen STs gave consent for the use of their artefacts for research purposes, and ultimately, fourteen original artefacts were collected, as described in Table 1.

**Table 1.** Description of artefacts created by STs.

#### **Table 1.** *Cont*.

#### *2.4. Quantifying DLCs within Language Repertoires*

Eighteen languages constituted the overall linguistic repertoire of the participants in this study (Table 2), which can be categorised into the following groups: a common Norwegian–English DLC; other Scandinavian languages that are mutually intelligible; foreign languages as offered in Norwegian secondary education; future language learning; other languages learnt as a result of personal choices or circumstances.

**Table 2.** Number and frequency of languages identified.

#### 2.4.1. Norwegian–English DLC

Norwegian and English appeared as a stable and context-dependent two-language DLC in this Norwegian context. Not only was Norwegian the first language or mother tongue of 70% of the participants, but it was also the language of schooling and the additional language of the STs who had linguistic connections to other contexts, these being Latvian, Polish, Swedish, and Ukrainian, thereby increasing their DLCs to three. Even though English is an elective in the Master's degree, it is a compulsory subject in Norwegian schools from Grade 1. It is ubiquitous in society in general, with easy access to English on television, a very positive attitude towards English, and good levels of the language, as 'English levels in Norway are consistently found to be among the highest in the world' (Krulatz and Dahl 2021, p. 114). These STs, having chosen to teach English, inevitably had this language in their DLCs.

As this was a small sample of participants, it is difficult to generalise how this study contributes to understanding and quantifying DLCs within language repertoires in northern Norway. However, some conclusions can be drawn from the participants' self-reports, as Norwegian and English constituted a stable DLC in all participants.

#### 2.4.2. Scandinavian Languages

The next major group consisted of the Scandinavian languages, Swedish (n = 9) and Danish (n = 9). These were languages to which the participants had easy access as a result of similarities and intercomprehension with Norwegian. Apart from one ST who had family connections in Sweden and had learnt to read and write Swedish as a result, these languages did not appear as part of the STs' DLCs.

#### 2.4.3. Foreign Languages

The third group constituted the foreign languages learnt at school, German (n = 9), Spanish (n = 4), and French (n = 3). The STs generally reported low proficiency levels in these languages and revealed mixed relationships with them, some finding the learning experience positive and others not.

#### 2.4.4. Future Language Learning

The STs also looked to the future and envisaged expanding their linguistic repertoires with further language learning. Two STs mentioned a desire to learn Italian, Icelandic and Sami, or Korean; two simply mentioned their desire to learn more languages, with comments such as 'to be continued' and 'but I want to learn more languages in the future'.

#### 2.4.5. Personal Choice or Circumstances

The fifth group constituted an eclectic collection of languages, mostly appearing in one single ST's artefact, denoting a personal interest in the culture or language (Chinese) or opportunities to study abroad (Dutch). Only one ST mentioned Sami as an 'interesting' language, without any reference to the important place Sami occupies in the Norwegian context.

#### *2.5. Data Analysis*

Data were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The quantitative analysis consisted of highlighting the number of languages mentioned across the three groups of STs, the average number of languages in the STs' repertoires and self-report on DLCs, and the groups of languages identified. The qualitative analysis was employed to examine the STs' artefacts and reflections.

The artefacts and written reflections were analysed qualitatively as multimodal meaning-making, where the object, the image, and the written narrative interacted to create one message around subjectively lived multilingualism. Riessman (2007, p. 179) acknowledged that 'just as oral and written narratives cannot speak for themselves, neither can images'. Hence, creating, saying, and showing in an interactive process (Busch 2018) become the same thing. Artefactual, multimodal analysis is a holistic approach, which meshes the visual and the lingual. The blending of the two modes in this study enhanced their mutual communicative potential and simultaneously expanded the possibilities of exploring and presenting a multilingual identity. In addition, the materials, shapes, colours, and positionings of the DLC artefacts, constituting a metaphorical object, were chosen by the STs to represent their multilingualism from a biographical, educational, and relational perspective. Content analysis was used to identify the STs' connections with their languages, which was divided into the two categories discussed in the next section of this paper: (a) the object chosen and (b) the creative process.

#### **3. Results**

#### *3.1. Exploring the Artefact as Subjectively Lived Multilingualism*

This section explores, in detail, the structure of the DLCs and the choices the STs made in the creative process. The STs' subsequent explanations of these choices allow for a deeper understanding of the shift to perceiving themselves as multilingual, their relationships with their languages, and the impact on their future teacher identity.

#### 3.1.1. Personal and Symbolic Choices of DLC Artefacts: The Object Chosen *Languages* **2022**, *7*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22

First and foremost, the artefacts created by the STs were unique and reflected their likes and dislikes. For example, one ST chose to create a butterfly mobile because 'Butterflies are beautiful and I think languages are too' (ST4), while another chose an atom to reflect her interest in science (ST14) (Figure 2). 'Butterflies are beautiful and I think languages are too' (ST4), while another chose an atom to reflect her interest in science (ST14) (Figure 2).

The printed flags on the butterflies of ST8's artefact signify languages. The flag is a common symbolic representation of language, despite its monolingual, nation-state associations. It is interesting that of the fourteen STs studied, only four used flags to represent languages (ST8, ST6, ST12, ST13). The printed flags on the butterflies of ST8's artefact signify languages. The flag is a common symbolic representation of language, despite its monolingual, nation-state associations. It is interesting that of the fourteen STs studied, only four used flags to represent languages (ST8, ST6, ST12, ST13).

ST3 explained, 'because I think of Norwegian and English as my roots'. ST3 used the positioning of the leaves and different shades of green to describe her relationship with her languages: *'*Danish and Swedish, are in a paler shade of green as I do not have a strong relationship with these languages'. Similarly, ST1 placed Polish, her mother tongue, at the bottom of the tree trunk, slightly lower and in a different colour than English and Norwegian. The use of a striking, highly visible colour, such as red, gives Norwegian emphasis and importance, and the action of plunging the language deeper into the earth associates

Other representations were chosen specifically for their potential to describe the STs' visions and experiences of their language repertoires and DLCs. For example, ST1, ST2,

this language with her roots, her background, and the depth of emotion.

Other representations were chosen specifically for their potential to describe the STs' visions and experiences of their language repertoires and DLCs. For example, ST1, ST2, and ST3 (Figure 3) each chose a tree and used the roots and trunk to place their DLCs; as ST3 explained, 'because I think of Norwegian and English as my roots'. ST3 used the positioning of the leaves and different shades of green to describe her relationship with her languages: 'Danish and Swedish, are in a paler shade of green as I do not have a strong relationship with these languages'. Similarly, ST1 placed Polish, her mother tongue, at the bottom of the tree trunk, slightly lower and in a different colour than English and Norwegian. The use of a striking, highly visible colour, such as red, gives Norwegian emphasis and importance, and the action of plunging the language deeper into the earth associates this language with her roots, her background, and the depth of emotion. *Languages* **2022**, *7*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22

**Figure 3.** ST1's (**a**), ST2's (**b**), and ST3's (**c**) DLC artefacts. **Figure 3.** ST1's (**a**), ST2's (**b**), and ST3's (**c**) DLC artefacts.

ST8's artefact (Figure 4), a heart with paper garlands, symbolises how choices reflect the language learning journey, language connections, and contribution of language families, in this case, the Germanic languages, to developing the ST's language repertoire. Even though Latvian, pertaining to the heart (mother tongue), and Russian, both languages acquired in natural contexts, are separated from the three other languages learnt in educational contexts, the paper garlands are all attached to the heart, thus creating a holistic yet complex story of connection through experience and place. Furthermore, the colour choices and sequencing of the garlands are an analogy for language interdependence. German, English, and Norwegian, all identified as foreign languages, are purposely depicted in yellow, blue, and green, as 'German (yellow) and English (blue) were a base for learning Norwegian (green)' (ST8)*.* Even though this artefact seems to reveal the ST's DLC as Latvian–Russian, and the narrative focused on the learning experience, the sociocultural and geographical reality of place and profession reflects a Latvian–English–Norwegian DLC. Ironically, both English and Norwegian are described as foreign languages, yet they are languages the ST is obliged to use on a daily basis in their current living context. The artefact, narrative, and reality of the ST's professional context depict the ambiguity of multilingual living: language distance (Norwegian is furthest away from Latvian), based on chronology and the ST's life choices, is depicted in the artefact and the narrative yet does not mirror the ST's actual language use. The personal and creative expression of the intricacy and complexity of lived and subjective experience reveals life lived in the inter-ST8's artefact (Figure 4), a heart with paper garlands, symbolises how choices reflect the language learning journey, language connections, and contribution of language families, in this case, the Germanic languages, to developing the ST's language repertoire. Even though Latvian, pertaining to the heart (mother tongue), and Russian, both languages acquired in natural contexts, are separated from the three other languages learnt in educational contexts, the paper garlands are all attached to the heart, thus creating a holistic yet complex story of connection through experience and place. Furthermore, the colour choices and sequencing of the garlands are an analogy for language interdependence. German, English, and Norwegian, all identified as foreign languages, are purposely depicted in yellow, blue, and green, as 'German (yellow) and English (blue) were a base for learning Norwegian (green)' (ST8). Even though this artefact seems to reveal the ST's DLC as Latvian–Russian, and the narrative focused on the learning experience, the sociocultural and geographical reality of place and profession reflects a Latvian–English–Norwegian DLC. Ironically, both English and Norwegian are described as foreign languages, yet they are languages the ST is obliged to use on a daily basis in their current living context. The artefact, narrative, and reality of the ST's professional context depict the ambiguity of multilingual living: language distance (Norwegian is furthest away from Latvian), based on chronology and the ST's life choices, is depicted in the artefact and the narrative yet does not mirror the ST's actual language use. The personal and creative expression of the intricacy and complexity of lived and subjective experience reveals life lived in the interstices of languages, places, and identities.

stices of languages, places, and identities.

**Figure 4.** ST8's DLC artefact. **Figure 4.** ST8's DLC artefact. **Figure 4.** ST8's DLC artefact.

ST12 chose to create a book that encapsulated his languages (Figure 5). For this ST, 'books are synonymous with knowledge and learning, which made a book feel like a natural fit for languages'*.* However, this ST 'wanted the inside to be very personal for my own language journey. I decided to draw things of great importance to me within each language'*.* The use of the word *'within'* gives the impression that languages carry ideas and feelings, and the DLC artefacts reveal these emotions and experiences. This is evident in ST12's meticulous choice of objects to express his relationship with, and experiences in, the languages. Norwegian is a house, *'*family home, as Norwegian really does feel like the language of home and one of the things that ties me to my family and local friends'. English is the language of 'fun' and entertainment, hence the drawings of consoles and gaming. Chinese, the language the ST is learning 'actively in my free time', is depicted by the Chinese apps used to learn the language and keep in touch with Chinese friends. German is connected to the ST's love of metal music, and for Dutch, the bicycle and beer reflect his experience as an exchange student in the Netherlands. ST12 chose to create a book that encapsulated his languages (Figure 5). For this ST, 'books are synonymous with knowledge and learning, which made a book feel like a natural fit for languages'. However, this ST 'wanted the inside to be very personal for my own language journey. I decided to draw things of great importance to me within each language'. The use of the word *'within'* gives the impression that languages carry ideas and feelings, and the DLC artefacts reveal these emotions and experiences. This is evident in ST12's meticulous choice of objects to express his relationship with, and experiences in, the languages. Norwegian is a house, 'family home, as Norwegian really does feel like the language of home and one of the things that ties me to my family and local friends'. English is the language of 'fun' and entertainment, hence the drawings of consoles and gaming. Chinese, the language the ST is learning 'actively in my free time', is depicted by the Chinese apps used to learn the language and keep in touch with Chinese friends. German is connected to the ST's love of metal music, and for Dutch, the bicycle and beer reflect his experience as an exchange student in the Netherlands. ST12 chose to create a book that encapsulated his languages (Figure 5). For this ST, 'books are synonymous with knowledge and learning, which made a book feel like a natural fit for languages'*.* However, this ST 'wanted the inside to be very personal for my own language journey. I decided to draw things of great importance to me within each language'*.* The use of the word *'within'* gives the impression that languages carry ideas and feelings, and the DLC artefacts reveal these emotions and experiences. This is evident in ST12's meticulous choice of objects to express his relationship with, and experiences in, the languages. Norwegian is a house, *'*family home, as Norwegian really does feel like the language of home and one of the things that ties me to my family and local friends'. English is the language of 'fun' and entertainment, hence the drawings of consoles and gaming. Chinese, the language the ST is learning 'actively in my free time', is depicted by the Chinese apps used to learn the language and keep in touch with Chinese friends. German is connected to the ST's love of metal music, and for Dutch, the bicycle and beer reflect his experience as an exchange student in the Netherlands.

#### **Figure 5.** ST12's DLC artefact. **Figure 5.** ST12's DLC artefact. **Figure 5.** ST12's DLC artefact.

3.1.2. Personal and Symbolic Choices in the Creative Process: Shapes, Sizes, Colours, Layout 3.1.2. Personal and Symbolic Choices in the Creative Process: Shapes, Sizes, Colours, Layout 3.1.2. Personal and Symbolic Choices in the Creative Process: Shapes, Sizes, Colours, Layout

The choice of materials for creating the DLCs was overwhelmingly coloured card, which the author was able to offer the STs. However, the personalization of the artefacts occurred through the creative process, in the deliberate choices of shapes, sizes, colours, layout, and arrangement/layering of the different elements that constituted the final The choice of materials for creating the DLCs was overwhelmingly coloured card, which the author was able to offer the STs. However, the personalization of the artefacts occurred through the creative process, in the deliberate choices of shapes, sizes, colours, The choice of materials for creating the DLCs was overwhelmingly coloured card, which the author was able to offer the STs. However, the personalization of the artefacts occurred through the creative process, in the deliberate choices of shapes, sizes, colours,

layout, and arrangement/layering of the different elements that constituted the final

layout, and arrangement/layering of the different elements that constituted the final artefacts. This process was described in the narrative as an intentional act of identifying the different roles languages play, and have played, in each ST's life trajectory. *Languages* **2022**, *7*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22

For example, ST6 and ST7 chose hearts (Figure 6) as a metaphor for their love of languages, yet the shapes, sizes, and colours selected portray each ST's personal relationships and journeys with these languages. ST6 arranged five hearts in three rows of 1 + 2 + 2 hearts, in decreasing size and in different colours per row. Each row illustrates a different language group and a different language relationship. This layering also increases the distance between the languages in terms of frequency of use, proficiency, and learning context. The symbolic choice of colour in this artefact is especially important, as colours are considered signifiers (Tabaro Soares et al. 2021), carrying 'a set of affordances from which sign-makers and interpreters select according to their communicative needs and interests in a given context' (Kress and van Leeuwen 2002, p. 355). Norwegian, the ST's mother tongue, is the biggest heart and is 'designed in a blue heart. Blue is my favorite color, and therefore I thought it would fit my first language'. The next row consists of slightly smaller hearts in orange. These represent English, which the ST studied in school ('I've learned it for 13 years now') and used 'in my everyday life, mostly through the internet and television', and Swedish, which she used with family members. The ST considered these languages to be her second languages ('I consider Swedish as my second language, just like English'), and hence, Norwegian, Swedish, and English constitute her DLC. The third row, in even smaller hearts and in green, captures the ST's two least-used languages, and those in which she had the lowest proficiency. The ST explained her use of green: 'green is a color I don't like that much, and therefore it is on the bottom with Danish and German–The languages I know the least'. artefacts. This process was described in the narrative as an intentional act of identifying the different roles languages play, and have played, in each ST's life trajectory. For example, ST6 and ST7 chose hearts (Figure 6) as a metaphor for their love of languages, yet the shapes, sizes, and colours selected portray each ST's personal relationships and journeys with these languages. ST6 arranged five hearts in three rows of 1 + 2 + 2 hearts, in decreasing size and in different colours per row. Each row illustrates a different language group and a different language relationship. This layering also increases the distance between the languages in terms of frequency of use, proficiency, and learning context. The symbolic choice of colour in this artefact is especially important, as colours are considered signifiers (Tabaro Soares et al. 2021), carrying 'a set of affordances from which sign-makers and interpreters select according to their communicative needs and interests in a given context' (Kress and van Leeuwen 2002, p. 355). Norwegian, the ST's mother tongue, is the biggest heart and is 'designed in a blue heart. Blue is my favorite color, and therefore I thought it would fit my first language'*.* The next row consists of slightly smaller hearts in orange. These represent English, which the ST studied in school ('I've learned it for 13 years now') and used 'in my everyday life, mostly through the internet and television', and Swedish, which she used with family members. The ST considered these languages to be her second languages ('I consider Swedish as my second language, just like English'*),* and hence, Norwegian, Swedish, and English constitute her DLC. The third row, in even smaller hearts and in green, captures the ST's two least-used languages, and those in which she had the lowest proficiency. The ST explained her use of green: 'green is a color I don't like that much, and therefore it is on the bottom with Danish and German–The languages I know the least'.

**Figure 6.** ST6's (**a**) and ST7's (**b**) DLC artefacts. **Figure 6.** ST6's (**a**) and ST7's (**b**) DLC artefacts.

ST7 created a similar structure, origami nested hearts, also in different colours and sizes in four rows, with English occupying the second row on its own. The other languages, Swedish and Danish (third row) and German (fourth row) represent languages that the ST may have understood but did not speak. In the ST's words, 'I wanted them to be in different sizes because of how well I know and understand the languages. The ST7 created a similar structure, origami nested hearts, also in different colours and sizes in four rows, with English occupying the second row on its own. The other languages, Swedish and Danish (third row) and German (fourth row) represent languages that the ST may have understood but did not speak. In the ST's words, 'I wanted them to be in different sizes because of how well I know and understand the languages. The different colours is the same as the sizes, and they are different except from Danish and Swedish

that are the same size and same colour because I know them and understand them the same amount'. different colours is the same as the sizes, and they are different except from Danish and Swedish that are the same size and same colour because I know them and understand them the same amount.'

*Languages* **2022**, *7*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

ST5's DLC mobile with circles and hearts (Figure 7) also reflects this layering of languages as constituent of language distance and a source from which the DLCs emerge. ST5's narrative was interesting, as it decentred the expected distance in the layering of the languages. For example, Norwegian and German are far apart, yet they are both represented by heart shapes, which expresses the ST's enjoyment of learning both languages, 'because Norwegian was my mother tongue and German was fun to learn'. Even though English, Swedish, and Danish are at the same level, just below Norwegian, they are all, together with French, at the bottom of the mobile and with the longest string, categorised as languages the ST had to learn at school. In this case, the ST did not identify proficiency but did separate English and Norwegian from the full linguistic repertoire 'because I speak them pretty much fluently', hence identifying a two-language DLC. ST5's DLC mobile with circles and hearts (Figure 7) also reflects this layering of languages as constituent of language distance and a source from which the DLCs emerge. ST5's narrative was interesting, as it decentred the expected distance in the layering of the languages. For example, Norwegian and German are far apart, yet they are both represented by heart shapes, which expresses the ST's enjoyment of learning both languages, 'because Norwegian was my mother tongue and German was fun to learn'*.* Even though English, Swedish, and Danish are at the same level, just below Norwegian, they are all, together with French, at the bottom of the mobile and with the longest string, categorised as languages the ST had to learn at school. In this case, the ST did not identify proficiency but did separate English and Norwegian from the full linguistic repertoire 'because I speak them pretty much fluently'*,* hence identifying a two-language DLC.

**Figure 7.** ST5's DLC artefact. **Figure 7.** ST5's DLC artefact.

ST13 (Figure 8) described the action of updating her DLC by adding colour and size to the representative drawing of German, which she had deliberately left in black and white as a symbol of a language to which she did not feel a strong connection. The ST explicitly stated that 'the language is a part of my language repertoire; however, I do not consider it as a part of my DLC'. Therefore, the drawing lacks colours. In contrast, the languages that appear in bright colours represent her emotional attachment to people, place, and experience (Ibrahim 2014, 2019), as the ST described, reproduced below: ST13 (Figure 8) described the action of updating her DLC by adding colour and size to the representative drawing of German, which she had deliberately left in black and white as a symbol of a language to which she did not feel a strong connection. The ST explicitly stated that 'the language is a part of my language repertoire; however, I do not consider it as a part of my DLC'. Therefore, the drawing lacks colours. In contrast, the languages that appear in bright colours represent her emotional attachment to people, place, and experience (Ibrahim 2014, 2019), as the ST described, reproduced below:

• People: Latvian–Since exchanging letters with my grandmother has always been in Latvian (and still is); Russian–Russian is associated with my father, who consciously encourages our written and spoken conversations to be in Russian; Polish–is represented as a heart because of the romantic connection I feel to the language, and the • People: Latvian–Since exchanging letters with my grandmother has always been in Latvian (and still is); Russian–Russian is associated with my father, who consciously encourages our written and spoken conversations to be in Russian; Polish–is represented as a heart because of the romantic connection I feel to the language, and

the colours are bright as it is a language I use the most at home. In addition, the heart shape has been chosen to illustrate the connection to the Polish relatives on my mother's side; colours are bright as it is a language I use the most at home. In addition, the heart shape has been chosen to illustrate the connection to the Polish relatives on my mother's side;

**Figure 8.** ST13's DLC artefact. **Figure 8.** ST13's DLC artefact.

#### *3.2. Engaging with the Multilingual Self and Implications for Classroom Practice 3.2. Engaging with the Multilingual Self and Implications for Classroom Practice*

One of the main results of this study was the STs' discovery of a multilingual self or perceiving themselves for the first time as multilingual. This is evident in comments, such as the following: One of the main results of this study was the STs' discovery of a multilingual self or perceiving themselves for the first time as multilingual. This is evident in comments, such as the following:

As a result of using DLCs as a pedagogical tool in an educational context, the STs envisioned a classroom scenario where other languages were welcome, and could be used As a result of using DLCs as a pedagogical tool in an educational context, the STs envisioned a classroom scenario where other languages were welcome, and could be

used as teaching and learning resources. The STs visualised a future imagined classroom community, which prioritised multilingual awareness, inclusion, and proactive visibilising of students' languages. Their comments below also intimate a reciprocal approach in creating a safe multilingual learning environment, as one ST even considered learning words from the students' languages to enhance the process of inclusion:

Creating DLC artefacts involved purposeful kinaesthetic activities, such as cutting and shaping card, drawing and colouring chosen objects, and sticking, attaching, and layering string and wooden ice-cream sticks. This physical interaction with STs' multiple languages not only uncovered their subjectively lived multilingualism but also initiated a transformative process in developing their future professional identities, which is further elaborated in the next section.

#### **4. Discussion**

This study explored STs' engagement with their DLCs and linguistic repertoires through an innovative creative approach to DLC modelling, that is, creating DLC artefacts. First and foremost, the STs engaged positively with this visual/artefactual activity, rendering their language repertoires and DLCs concrete, visible, and tangible. For example, they commented, 'Creating this constellation has been a great experience for me' (ST12) and 'It was fun to illustrate my languages and while I was doing it, I wanted to be able to add more languages' (ST2). The STs were able to engage with a wider group of languages and skills that went beyond, complemented, and interacted with their DLCs. This expansion of linguistic knowledge allowed for reflections on the characteristics of multilingualism as dynamic, porous, and dependent on individuals' shifting language biographies and life trajectories (Blommaert and Backus 2013), with differing competences and proficiencies across closed language systems and domains (Grosjean 2010). It decentred the notion of language proficiency, thus centre-staging plurilingual knowledge and mediation (Council of Europe 2020). ST10 (Figure 9), depicting the interconnectedness of the language repertoire and DLC through planets, appreciated his expanded language repertoire: 'Nice to see how big my language repertoire actually is, it's not limited to the languages that I actually can speak–it can include the languages that I'm not good at'.

As we can see from the results, a plurisemiotic analysis of the DLC artefacts highlights the following areas: the interrelatedness of the language repertoire and the DLCs; DLC artefacts as creative and discursive pedagogical tools for engaging with multilingualism in teacher education; the visibilising of the full language repertoire for exploring language connections, emotions, and identities; and the potential impact on and issues related to classroom practice of multilingualism and plurilingual practices.

**Figure 9.** ST10's DLC artefacts. **Figure 9.** ST10's DLC artefacts.

#### As we can see from the results, a plurisemiotic analysis of the DLC artefacts high-*4.1. The Interrelatedness of Language Repertoires and DLCs*

lights the following areas: the interrelatedness of the language repertoire and the DLCs; DLC artefacts as creative and discursive pedagogical tools for engaging with multilingualism in teacher education; the visibilising of the full language repertoire for exploring language connections, emotions, and identities; and the potential impact on and issues related to classroom practice of multilingualism and plurilingual practices. *4.1. The Interrelatedness of Language Repertoires and DLCs*  This study expanded the activity of DLC mapping and modelling (Aronin and Moccozet 2021), as it embedded DLCs in the language repertoires of the STs, thus extending their perceptions of themselves as multilingual. For the STs, the physical process of creating DLC artefacts began the process of identification as multilingual individuals and future teachers through reflecting on their experiences of lived and subjective engagement with languages. These artefacts allowed for the interplay between the full linguistic rep-This study expanded the activity of DLC mapping and modelling (Aronin and Moccozet 2021), as it embedded DLCs in the language repertoires of the STs, thus extending their perceptions of themselves as multilingual. For the STs, the physical process of creating DLC artefacts began the process of identification as multilingual individuals and future teachers through reflecting on their experiences of lived and subjective engagement with languages. These artefacts allowed for the interplay between the full linguistic repertoire and more context-specific DLCs. They revealed the evolution and unpredictability of DLCs as life circumstances change (ST13 and ST8), where 'it would appear that the DLC is constantly in flux, subject to social, cultural, and temporal changes, the latter of which may be long- or short-term' (Nightingale 2020, p. 244). The STs described a process by which their DLCs emerged naturally in the creative and discursive possibilities of the artefact as a pedagogical tool and fine-tuned their multimodal narratives with artistic choices of size, colour (or absence thereof), materials, and objects.

ertoire and more context-specific DLCs. They revealed the evolution and unpredictability of DLCs as life circumstances change (ST13 and ST8), where 'it would appear that the DLC is constantly in flux, subject to social, cultural, and temporal changes, the latter of which may be long- or short-term' (Nightingale 2020, p. 244). The STs described a process by which their DLCs emerged naturally in the creative and discursive possibilities of the ar-Even though flags and objects may have essentialist cultural-national links, it was the positioning or layering of the different languages that decentred hierarchical attitudes and monolingualizing processes. The embeddedness of the DLC constructed a more complete, albeit complex, story of connection with people; of places, not only geographical, but also learning, travelling, and intercultural spaces; and of holistic experiences.

tefact as a pedagogical tool and fine-tuned their multimodal narratives with artistic choices of size, colour (or absence thereof), materials, and objects. Even though flags and objects may have essentialist cultural-national links, it was the positioning or layering of the different languages that decentred hierarchical attitudes and monolingualizing processes. The embeddedness of the DLC constructed a more complete, The DLC artefacts confirm that 'language choices depend not only on level of proficiency, but on the particular language identity that individuals choose to foreground momentarily in diverse situations, and the communicative need of the immediate sociocultural context' (Ibrahim 2022, p. 37). ST13 expressed the ongoing linguistic dynamism of the DLC artefact as follows:

albeit complex, story of connection with people; of places, not only geographical, but also learning, travelling, and intercultural spaces; and of holistic experiences. The DLC artefacts confirm that 'language choices depend not only on level of proficiency, but on the particular language identity that individuals choose to foreground momentarily in diverse situations, and the communicative need of the immediate sociocultural context' (Ibrahim 2022, p. 37). ST13 expressed the ongoing linguistic dynamism of The artefact is fixed, it represents the current situation, meaning that it would not display any changes if the correlation among the languages would switch. To exemplify, if I would like to teach German at some point, I would have to continue both development and practice of the language, meaning that at some moment the representation of German could become colourful, as well as brighter and bigger in size.

#### the DLC artefact as follows: *4.2. DLC Artefacts as Creative and Discursive Research and Pedagogical Tools*

The artefact is fixed, it represents the current situation, meaning that it would not display any changes if the correlation among the languages would switch. To exemplify, if I would like to teach German at some point, I would have to continue both development and practice of the language, meaning that at some moment the representation of German could become colourful, as well as brighter and bigger in size. The creative process of constructing the DLC artefacts afforded the STs agency as they appropriated the tool, at both research and pedagogical levels. The creative approach helped the STs embrace their full language repertoires and identify the parts that contributed to the whole. An 'umbrella identity' (Fisher et al. 2020) 'encompasses, but in important ways, transcends a person's language-specific identities' (Henry 2017, p. 548). The STs constructed linguistically richer selves in the process, thus attesting to the transformative power of arts-based methods in language teacher education (Whitelaw 2019).

Given the freedom to choose the artistic materials and the concrete outcome, the STs externalised their language relationships, giving them a tangible, visible reality that altered their perceptions of their linguistic selves. This activated a reassessment of not only the self but also acquired language ideologies, beliefs about languages in education, and linguistic social justice. As an extension of DLC modelling, which pre-determines the materials and the outcome, the creative and physical process of connecting languages with string, paper garlands, glue, and tape, the process of layering the languages according to relationships and experiences, and the choice of colour and shape further emphasised these subjective relationships. The interplay between shapes, sizes, and colours and the subjective layering of linguistic experiences created an eclectic yet holistic relationship with the full language repertoire. These details were also what allowed for the emergence and identification of the STs' DLCs.

As with DLC modelling, the materiality of the artefact served as a 'cognitive extension and a material symbol of one's own sociolinguistic existence, skills, and languages used, all these against the background of social reality' (Lo Bianco 2020, p. 37). It also extended the potential of a metaphorical perspective on the creative choices in STs' relationships with the languages. The physical activity of creating the artefact changed the STs' relationship with their languages, as was evident in their reflections.

Ultimately, the artefacts and the written narratives complemented each other, enhancing each other's meaning-making, thus overcoming the limitations of each mode (Tabaro Soares et al. 2021, p. 25) and contributing to the 'unravelling of narratives of identity and language' (Bristowe et al. 2014).

#### *4.3. Visibilizing the Full Language Repertoire*

By engaging with their full linguistic repertoires, which included their DLCs, additional languages, languages they had forgotten, languages they only knew a few words of, languages they did not currently use, and languages they had not even started learning, the STs came to the realization that they were multilingual. Their reflections on the process of visibilising their multilingual repertoires pointed to a positive engagement with their multilingualism and impact on their developing identities as multilingual primary teachers. This has implications for classroom practice, as the STs' positive engagement with this visual, tangible activity encouraged reflection on the classroom implications in a context of increasing linguistic diversity in Norway. This visibilising process allowed the STs to position themselves as multilingual vis à vis their language repertoires and encouraged them to engage with heteroglossic practices, linguistic biographies, and the interconnectedness of language. This transformative process altered perceptions of the linguistic self and increased the potential for integrating a plurilingual perspective in future classroom practice.

As this was a predominantly qualitative study, an exploration of STs' engagement with subjective, lived multilingualism via visual methods and narrative self-reporting was appropriate. However, these were pre-service teachers with very little agency in the classroom in their teaching practicums. Therefore, it is impossible at this stage to deduce from this study how these experiences of engaging with multilingualism will impact their classroom practice in the future. Even though their comments allowed for a glimmer of hope that the artefactual elicitation of biographical narratives had brought down some language barriers and started the process of normalizing multilingualism, more classroombased research into engaging teachers' multilingual selves is necessary. In addition, a longitudinal approach would also more fully capture the evolution of individual and group DLCs and of shifting relationships with their languages.

#### **5. Conclusions**

This innovative conceptualization of the DLC in teacher education extends its potential as a pedagogical tool and identity artefact, thus establishing an intricate and dynamic relationship between language repertoires and DLCs. In attempting to answer the research

questions, this study has foregrounded three main areas relating to the creation of DLC artefacts: the potential contribution of DLC artefacts as research and pedagogical tools in linguistically diverse classrooms; the symbolic, even metaphorical affordances of the creative process in engaging teachers with subjectively lived multilingualism; and eliciting narratives on the abstract concepts of multilingualism and identity, which reflect potential transformative processes in the identification of the STs as multilingual individuals and future multilingual teachers. In Aronin's (2021, p. 37) words, 'the embodiment of one's personal linguistic life and communal linguistic practices in a tangible model turns out to be not only entertaining but also useful for adult multilinguals, educators and researchers who participated in this activity'.

Ultimately, this method of representation that employs visual, artefactual, and verbal tools gives STs a multilingual voice to bring to the classroom, which can contribute to decentring the monolingual and monoglossic premise of language education and start undoing the shackles of decades of monolingualizing processes. The DLC artefacts enable researchers and teacher educators to access and understand the multilingual voices, identities, and experiences of pre-service teachers, thus creating 'the ideal "learning trance", a state in which time flies and fun is being had alongside the learning' (ST12).

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

**Informed Consent Statement:** The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of NSD Norsk Senter for Forskningsdata (protocol code 836691 and 29 September 2021).

**Data Availability Statement:** The data presented in this study are available in the Results section of the present article.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declares no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

Barkhuizen, Gary, and Pat Strauss. 2020. *Communicating Identities*. Abingdon: Routledge.

Barkhuizen, Gary, Phil Benson, and Alice Chik. 2014. *Narrative Inquiry in Language Teaching and Learning Research*. New York: Routledge. Björklund, Mikaela, and Siv Björklund. 2021. Embracing multilingualism in teaching practicum in Finland? DLC as a tool for uncovering individual and institutional multilingualism. In *Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language*

*Acquisition. Educational Linguistics*. Edited by Larissa Aronin and Eva Vetter. Cham: Springer, pp. 131–50. [CrossRef]

## *Article* **Learning to Teach English in the Multilingual Classroom Utilizing the Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures**

**Romana Kopeˇcková 1,\* and Gregory J. Poarch <sup>2</sup>**

**Abstract:** Positioned in a specific curriculum context, yet universal in its rationale, this paper illustrates how over the course of one term, student teachers experiment with designing and teaching language learning activities that foster plurilingual competence of young learners of English, while following the *Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures*. It presents two practical teaching examples (one for primary and one for secondary school level) not only to showcase the great learning and motivational potential of pluralistic tasks employed in L3 English classrooms but also to bear testimony to the creativity and plentiful resources today's pre-service language teachers themselves bring into their multilingual classrooms if encouraged and opened up to such a practice. Based on the FREPA descriptors, the paper evaluates the developed teaching material to discuss implications for pre- and in-service training of teachers working with young learners of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

**Keywords:** third language acquisition; pluralistic teaching approaches; plurilingual competence; FREPA; teacher training; metalinguistic awareness; cross-linguistic awareness

### **1. Introduction**

This paper presents the aims and practical teaching examples of a seminar on learning and teaching English as a third/additional language (L3/Ln) for future primary and secondary school teachers in Germany. It is positioned within the broader field of L3 acquisition in which L3/Ln learners are conceptualised as specific learners who have acquired a first language (L1) and are still acquiring or have acquired a second language (L2). Such L3/Ln learners should thus be able to draw on greater previous language learning experiences and linguistic knowledge stemming from two languages than L2 learners do (e.g., De Angelis 2007; Otwinowska and Angelis 2014). Furthermore, and relatedly, L3/Ln learners should differ from L2 learners in displaying enhanced metalinguistic awareness, while also being subject to greater cross-linguistic influence due to the potential interaction of three linguistic systems instead of two (Jessner 2014). We argue that such potential, both in terms of metalinguistic ability and cross-linguistic transfer (whether of facilitative or non-facilitative nature), can and should be put to use in a systematic manner by language teachers in today's foreign language classrooms (cf. Jessner 2008; Krulatz et al. 2018). The aim of language teaching, after all, is to foster pupils' communicative skills in the respective language, on the one hand, and to form a basis for pupils' life-long language learning, on the other hand, which entails the development of plurilingual and pluricultural competence (Council of Europe 2001). This competence is understood as the ability to flexibly call upon the inter-related, uneven, and developing knowledge of multiple languages and cultures (Council of Europe 2018), and the teaching approach that exploits such an ability is referred to as a pluralistic approach (cf. Candelier et al. 2012). It is worth noting that a distinction is

**Citation:** Kopeˇcková, Romana, and Gregory J. Poarch. 2022. Learning to Teach English in the Multilingual Classroom Utilizing the Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures. *Languages* 7: 168. https:// doi.org/10.3390/languages7030168

Academic Editors: Anna Krulatz, Georgios Neokleous and Eliane Lorenz

Received: 29 September 2021 Accepted: 28 June 2022 Published: 4 July 2022

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

made between the terms plurilingualism and multilingualism in European documents to denote individual multilingualism and societal multilingualism, respectively. In the present paper, however, the two terms are used interchangeably in reference to the acquisition of multiple languages by learners of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

Given that today's classrooms in Germany are inhabited by pupils with and without migrant backgrounds, curricular requirements for foreign languages explicitly mention that all pupils' language resources should be integrated in teaching to recruit previous language learning expertise and experiences. In other words, pluralistic approaches to learning should be implemented (see, e.g., curriculum for North Rhine-Westphalia; QUA-LiS NRW 2009). What makes this teaching situation significantly different than hitherto is a paradigmatic shift that acknowledges multilinguals not as speakers with several monolingual competencies but much more as speakers with a linguistic multicompetence (Cook 1991, 1992), in whom languages are co-activated and continuously interact at all linguistic levels (see Kopeˇcková et al. 2016; Kroll et al. 2013; Rothman 2011). Furthermore, there is ample evidence that multilingualism can affect cognition (Bialystok 2017; Poarch 2018; see also Poarch and Krott 2019). Such multilingual interactions and cognitive effects may be modulated to varying extents by factors that include relative language proficiencies, language typology (and psychotypology), and contexts of usage (Gullifer and Titone 2021). According to Lüdi and Py (2009), the language resources mobilized by multilinguals are of an individualized, dynamic, and contextualised nature. As such, future teachers of English should, therefore, be aware and become knowledgeable of the possibly diverging learning paths of individual L2 and L3 leaners in order to foster all of their pupils' learning process.

More specifically, we make out three concurrent objectives for English language teachers: (1) pupils with migrant backgrounds should be made aware of the possible language learning synergies originating from their native language(s) and their L2 German; they may profit from their enriched language learning history and language awareness in acquiring L3 English. At the same time, fostering language awareness and cross-language comparisons in these pupils may reciprocally accelerate and support the development of proficiency in their heritage language(s) and L2 German; (2) pupils without migrant backgrounds should be nudged towards perceiving it as meaningful and relevant to acquire an additional language. Such a process could be supported by fostering language awareness through cross-linguistic comparisons between L1 German (including German dialects if relevant) and L2 English (and any other foreign languages they are familiar with), and by reflecting their language learning process; (3) all pupils should benefit from co-creating knowledge about similarities and differences between languages and how languages work at different linguistic levels; this can include morphosyntactic, lexical, phonological, semantic, orthographic, as well as pragmatic features. Being in charge of their personally significant learning, pupils will arguably become more motivated and autonomous learners, confident to engage in life-long language learning.

To enable such learning spaces, foreign language teachers need to be supported with suitable pre-service and in-service training programmes that allow them to reflect on their attitudes towards multilingualism and pluralistic approaches, and to experience how to teach linguistically and culturally diverse audiences effectively. Recent studies from German educational contexts suggest that today's (in-coming) teachers of English are aware of the linguistic and cultural diversity of their classrooms, acknowledging the learning potential this constellation offers. However, they often feel insecure about how to teach English in a linguistically inclusive and effective way (cf. Busse et al. 2020; Cutrim Schmid and Schmidt 2017; Jakisch 2015; Komusin 2017). This paper presents a best practice example in pre-service English teacher preparation that aims to address these teachers' needs.

#### *Utilizing FREPA in Pre-Service English Teacher Training*

The English Department of the University of Münster has been offering a seminar titled "Multilingualism in Schools: L3 English Acquisition" since 2014. Students enrolled in teacher training for either primary or secondary school levels are obliged to take this

seminar as part of their German as a second language module (Deutsch als Zweitsprache— DaZ Modul). The first half of the 14-week seminar covers key aspects of L3 acquisition, while the second half focusses on how to implement pluralistic approaches in the English classroom. At the end of the seminar, students reflect their learning process and their developing skills as foreign language teachers, using sections of the European Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages (EPOSTL, Newby et al. 2007) 1 .

Specifically, during the initial phase of the seminar (8 weeks), student teachers reflect on how prior language knowledge features in the learning of additional languages (Cenoz 2003), on their own multilingualism and their attitudes towards pluralistic pedagogies (De Angelis 2011), and whether knowing and using multiple languages has any beneficial effects on non-verbal cognition (Poarch and Bialystok 2017; Poarch and Hell 2018). Furthermore, student teachers become familiar with the concepts of metalinguistic and cross-linguistic awareness, which have been shown to be of key relevance in L2/L3/Ln learning (Hofer 2015) and can be effectively fostered in the primary (Busse et al. 2020; Hopp et al. 2020) and secondary (Cajko ˇ 2014) classrooms. Against the backdrop of such concepts, the seminar goes on to offer the student teachers a guideline and a tool on how to transfer the theoretical knowledge gained into practical application by utilizing the *Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures* (FREPA, Candelier et al. 2012).

The FREPA operationalises language learners' competences and resources using specific descriptors for a range of educational levels. It makes a principled distinction between the concepts in that competences are viewed in the framework as linking to complex tasks that are situation-bound, while resources represent a mix of knowledge, attitudes, and skills that are at least partially de-contextualised. Competences call upon these internal resources (as well as external resources such as dictionaries) and can be taught as a result of appropriate learning activities. In other words, the FREPA postulates that teaching contributes to the development of competences through the resources which they activate. Accordingly, the FREPA project offers teaching materials with distinct learning objectives regarding knowledge (e.g., about the evolution of languages, cultural and social diversity), attitudes (e.g., language learning motivations, values, and identities), and skills (e.g., metalinguistic observation and reflection). These learning objectives (descriptors) were also used in the present paper as an analytical tool to evaluate the developed teaching activities in terms of their potential to activate pupils' various resources. Relatedly, this study's research question asks about the extent to which the two best practice example activities presented below fulfil FREPA's key learning objectives.

The framework recognizes all linguistic repertoires, both within and outside of the educational environment, including regional, migrant, and heritage languages as well as those taught within the school curriculum; it provides teachers with a better understanding of the options in the pursuit of their plurilingual educative goals. The FREPA can thus be viewed as an important instrument for the implementation of language education policies that strive to develop plurilingual and pluricultural competence of all learners.

In line with these educative goals, the following section presents two example activities developed by student teachers together with the aims of the activities and corresponding lesson plans. The effectiveness of the teaching activities is then evaluated against a set of FREPA descriptors regarding target English learners' knowledge, attitudes, and skills (Candelier et al. 2012).

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

Motivated by the aims and concepts of the FREPA framework, the student teachers in the L3 English seminar collaboratively design their own teaching activities that draw on the languages of a specific learner group. These often include French, Spanish, Italian, Polish, Russian, Czech, Dutch, and Turkish next to German and English; however, they are also encouraged to consider regional dialects and/or languages that no one in their group may be familiar with. It is required that their learning activity is plurilingual in nature (not

juxtaposing but rather interrelating multiple languages), well-resourced (integrated within the curriculum for the intended learner group), instructive (effective in delivery), and engaging for the intended multilingual group (based on exploration and encounter rather than direct instruction). Each team-teaching activity to their student peers, pretending to be their target learner group, is planned for 20 to 30 min in length to allow for self-reflection, peer, and instructor feedback after teaching.

Two example activities developed by the student teachers on the training seminar one from a primary and the other from a secondary school level context—are presented. These were selected for evaluation considering: (1) the attained consent from teacher trainees to use their work in a research publication; (2) the diversity of educational levels and linguistic domains illustrated; and (3) fulfilment, at least to some degree, of the first two requirements for the development of the teaching material outlined above, which means evidencing a pluralistic approach to teaching English and having relevance to the curricular goals for the target learner group.

#### *2.1. Example Activity 1: Children of the World, Special Days*

The main aim of this vocabulary learning activity, targeting primary school pupils, is to provide the prospective learners with an opportunity to discover similarities and differences between words in different languages, exemplified on the lexical field of birthday celebrations (see Table 1 below for a detailed lesson plan and Appendix A for related handouts). Acting as language detectives when listening to the Happy Birthday song and matching birthday-related words in different languages, primary school pupils learn to search for lexical connections between their own languages and those of their peers (that is, foster their cross-linguistic lexical awareness), talk about languages (enhancing their metalinguistic awareness), and reflect on different linguistic and cultural practices related to birthday celebrations, as lived in their own familial and cultural contexts (intercultural awareness).

**Table 1.** Lesson plan for multilingual birthday celebrations.

#### *2.2. Example Activity 2: Present Simple vs. Present Progressive Tenses*

This grammar-oriented activity targets lower secondary school pupils. It aims to consolidate their understanding of the use of present simple and present progressive in English while inviting comparisons of the function and the form of the grammar in other languages (see Table 2 for a detailed lesson plan and Appendix A for a related worksheet). The pupils, thus, learn to compare a grammatical structure and its use in different languages (cross-linguistic grammatical awareness) and to use relevant terminology in the discussion of grammar (metalanguage).

#### **Table 2.** Lesson plan for multilingual present tenses.

#### **Table 1.** *Cont.*

#### **3. Results**

The two teaching activities designed and taught by the two teams of student teachers were evaluated in terms of the activities' potential to activate pupils' various resources, as defined by the FREPA descriptors regarding knowledge, attitudes, and skills (Candelier et al. 2012).

#### *3.1. Example Activity 1: Children of the World, Special Days*

This activity is firmly embedded within the English curricular requirements for the target learner group (cf., QUA-LiS NRW 2009) in addressing children's lived (home) experiences and acknowledging the diverse linguistic and cultural manifestations of these. It further helps the primary school pupils to reflect on linguistically and culturally appropriate behaviour in a specific context.

Based on Candelier et al. (2012) the following resources are likely fostered in the young language learners when engaging in this learning activity:

*Knowledge (pp. 27–30):*

*Attitudes (pp. 39–49):*

*Skills (pp. 52–59):*

This activity thus activates a range of relevant resources in the young learners, and sensitively combines both linguistic and cultural aspects of foreign language learning. It promotes both listening and speaking skills in the learners, which is a pedagogically sound decision considering the intended primary classroom context. It is notable, however, that the systematic cross-linguistic and metalinguistic work concerning the observation of similarities and differences between lexical items related to birthday celebrations is limited to five specific languages, which happen to comprise of Modern European languages that the teachers themselves reported being familiar with.

#### *3.2. Example Activity 2: Present Simple vs. Present Progressive Tenses*

This activity revolves around a typical item of English grammar that has been shown to be challenging for L2 learners whose L1 does not make a distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects (e.g., Roberts and Liszka 2013). To facilitate cognitive links to prior grammatical knowledge of the pupils and thus the acquisition of this grammar, the activity promises to activate the following resources in the lower secondary school pupils (Candelier et al. 2012):

*Knowledge (pp. 29–30):*

*Attitudes (pp. 39–45):*

*Skills (pp. 51–55)*:

As above, in the case of this activity, a range of key resources are to be activated in view of fostering the learners' plurilingual competence. It is worth noting that Turkish, a typologically distant language and a frequent home language in the specific curricular context, was invited in the cross-linguistic comparison task. German, as the majority language and language of instruction, and arguably an interesting case for comparison regarding imperfective aspect, was nevertheless omitted from the planned comparison. It also remained unclear why the cross-linguistic work was planned for a learning activity that served as a consolidation exercise rather than in the input phase.

Furthermore, the student teachers justified the choice of the teaching material by suggesting that Santa Claus and Christmas Eve tap a familiar topic that is positively associated in the mind of their pupils. As such it was meant to alleviate some pupils' anxieties about an item of grammar that can be otherwise felt as distant to them and/ or processed independently from their background grammatical knowledge. While the anxiety-reducing consideration on the part of the teachers is to be applauded, the teachers apparently missed on appreciating that their learners may come from more diverse cultural backgrounds than they themselves do, and that the teaching material may, thus, potentially exclude some students. The teachers' designed material, therefore, did not seem to systematically support affective and cognitive linking to the pupils' background cultures and languages (including German) to a full potential.

#### **4. Discussion**

As illustrated in the example activities designed by the student teachers in the introduced teacher training programme, relatively small yet fundamental changes to the lesson planning of English teachers can be made to assure that pupils can build on their many linguistic resources for a more personally significant and effective language learning experience. With the help of FREPA descriptors, teachers are empowered to set specific learning

goals for their target English lessons, to analyse and develop linguistically and culturally appropriate teaching materials, and to devise new plurilingual and pluricultural tasks. The teachers in this study appeared well-guided by the FREPA descriptors in this regard and showed great creativity in developing suitable teaching material for their respective school form only after eight weeks of input providing theoretical grounding and eight weeks of practical teaching support.

What clearly transpired from the nature of the developed teaching material is that student teachers at this stage of their professional career can be rather challenged in thinking beyond their own foreign language learning (and indeed cultural learning) experiences. Evidence for this assessment is the selection of languages for comparison in the first example activity and the main motivation for the design/choice of the topic in the second example activity. Indeed, in a small-scale follow-up study with six of the seminar participants, Komusin (2017) found that, at the end of the seminar, the student teachers still struggled with the idea of incorporating additional languages in the English language classroom. A particular challenge was what they referred to as incorporating "other languages", exemplified by Turkish and Russian languages, both of which may be perceived as less prestigious in German society (cf. Busse et al. 2020). Given that most of the seminar participants had non-migrant backgrounds, the student teachers did not seem to yet have a clear vision of how to integrate truly all pupils' language repertoires into their day-to-day future teaching. Consequently, they actually questioned the feasibility of such a practice.

Future teachers should not feel insecure about devoting lesson time to multilingual tasks in their teaching of a foreign language. Recent findings from research projects including intervention studies that devoted up to 20% of the total of lesson time on multilingual activities show that this is time well spent, which does not impair target language development but rather boosts the learners' vocabulary and specific items of grammar learning, as well as language learning strategies (Busse et al. 2020; Hopp and Thoma 2021). Importantly, these studies also indicate that pluralistic teaching approaches benefit students irrespective of their linguistic backgrounds, that is whether they come from majority or minority language backgrounds. They are, therefore, to be acknowledged as a viable inclusive strategy in teaching foreign languages to promote the development of foreign language skills across language domains and learner groups.

In any case, the results from the present study suggest that suitable pre-service teacher training can help student teachers to begin to appreciate the nature of pluralistic teaching approaches and to build on their own positive language learning experiences (cf. Lorenz et al. 2021) in developing suitable teaching materials. Greater practical teaching experience in actual language classroom and accumulated rewarding encounters with diverse languages positioned next to the target English, which may have so far eluded most foreign language teachers' experiences, may aid teachers' willingness to regularly integrate also minority languages and cultures present in their classroom. Long-term in-service teacher training programmes will be fundamental in supporting such an aspiration for further professional development of foreign language teachers (for an example from the Finnish educational context, see Christison et al. 2021).

Relatedly, language teachers may like to be reminded of the bi-directional nature of the teaching and learning process. Even though well-trained and/or experienced teachers may be appreciative of pluralistic approaches themselves and implement these systematically in their multilingual English classroom, it is also the pupils who bring expectations regarding instruction into the classroom interaction. Although the affective and cognitive aspects of language learning are likely improved in classrooms that implement pluralistic approaches, language learners may initially be unaccustomed to the novel pedagogy and experience a degree of reticence. In a case study with a secondary school English teacher who was a graduate of the academic programme described in this study, Kopeˇcková and Poarch (2022) found that teachers may initially receive a rather questioning rapport from both their multilingual pupils and other stakeholders in the school setting. This finding is also in line with those from a recent large-scale research project conducted in primary schools in

German-speaking Switzerland, which showed that multilingual pupils may not always feel at ease when positioned into the role of language experts, especially when engaged in multilingual activities that appear random, without clear learning objectives and/or stereotypical in nature (Peyer et al. 2020).

It is hoped that the first research-based, practically oriented publications on how to effectively plan for and deliver linguistically and culturally inclusive English lessons (Busse et al. 2020; Christison et al. 2021; Krulatz et al. 2018, 2022; Peyer et al. 2019) will empower foreign language teachers in their specific teaching and professional contexts.

#### **5. Conclusions**

The present paper presented the theoretical background and practical examples of teaching English as an L3 using pluralistic approaches. It described how prior linguistic knowledge can be included in the English language learning classroom and how this may help foster the development of plurilingual competence in primary and secondary school pupils.

We acknowledge that the teacher training seminar presented in this paper has a clear linguistic and cognitive focus and does not explicitly integrate intercultural, or other relevant aspects often found in multilingual didactics. Nevertheless, acknowledging and integrating dimensions of plurilingual competence presented here and envisaged in the FREPA should be considered a worthwhile tool for both foreign language teachers and learners.

For student teachers, it will further be important to experience how exactly such multilingual activities work in real-life classroom situations. Apart from reflecting their own developing competences revolving around lesson planning, lesson conduct, learner interaction, and assessment of learning, they will also have to be aware of the potentially broad linguistic and cultural experiences that will be present in their future classrooms. They will also need to be trained on how to find ways to effectively communicate their pluralistic teaching approach to their own pupils.

In light of the increasingly heterogeneous linguistic backgrounds of pupils in the foreign language classroom, (continuous) teacher training programmes should place more effort on catering to the resulting needs of future and present language teachers. Such needs could be met by offering good practice examples of learning activities that are closely tied to the realities of individual learner groups and teachers, as well as regular opportunities for teacher peer observation and peer feedback.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, methodology, and writing, R.K. and G.J.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** We acknowledge support from the Open Access Publication Fund of the University of Muenster and the University of Groningen.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** The present study was conducted in accordance with local legislation and the institutional requirements, and it follows both the Code of Ethics "Rules of Good Scientific Practice" of the University of Münster (2002) and The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity (European Federation of Academies of Sciences and Humanities, 2017).

**Informed Consent Statement:** Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

**Data Availability Statement:** The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

**Acknowledgments:** We would like to thank Victoria Rolfes, Moritz Meyer, Linda Klang, Nadine Sinram, and Melanie Benavides Herrera for their kind consent to use their lesson plans and designed teaching material in the present paper.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Appendix A Appendix A. Activity 1: Children of the World, Special Days**

*Appendix A.1. Activity 1: Children of the World, Special Days* **Appendix A. Activity 1: Children of the World, Special Days**

*Languages* **2022**, *7*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

.

.

#### *Appendix A.2. Activity 2: Present Simple vs. Present Progressive Tenses* II. Activity 2: Present Simple vs. Present Progressive Tenses

*Languages* **2022**, *7*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 13

### II. Activity 2: Present Simple vs. Present Progressive Tenses

#### **Note**

<sup>1</sup> The EPOSTL is a tool for students in teacher training that allows them to reflect on their knowledge of didactics and the necessary skills for language teaching, as well as to assess their developing didactic competences (Newby et al. 2007, p. 5).

#### **References**

## *Article* **Jeg Gotta Like Spille Fortnite, Men I Never Win the Game: Implementing Multilingual Pedagogies in a Norwegian Primary School**

**Delia Schipor**

Department of Languages and Literature Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, 3184 Borre, Norway<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
**Abstract:** Teachers in Norway have been increasingly faced with the challenge of adapting their instruction methods to address the needs of minority-language students. The current body of research on the issue seems to indicate that multilingual practices are being introduced in Norwegian classrooms. However, they often rely on majority languages, such as English and Norwegian. Some teachers have been found to employ minority languages to support learners' English writing in drafts. As a result, minority languages in Norwegian schools tend to be regarded as less valuable than Norwegian and English. However, more recent projects are being implemented in Norwegian schools to help teachers alter their ideologies of minority languages. This article adds to this body of research by presenting two teachers' work with multilingual pedagogies, involving the active use of minority languages alongside Norwegian and English in student texts. The data were collected from: teacher reports, student materials, and mentorship meetings. The findings indicate that the teachers successfully implemented multilingual pedagogies by using language portraits, parallel translanguaging in multilingual posters and multimodal dictionaries, and complementary translanguaging in multilingual poetry. These multilingual practices enabled the students to showcase their linguistic identities and multilingual literacy practices. The implementation of multilingual pedagogies benefited from the long-term availability of scholarly input and guidance for teachers and the opportunity to share experiences in a professional network.

**Keywords:** multilingual pedagogy; translanguaging; code-switching; multilingual practices; minority language; home language

#### **1. Introduction**

According to Statistics Norway (2022), immigrants and Norwegians born to immigrant parents currently represent 18.9% of the Norwegian population. This contributes to a culturally and linguistically diverse society, where educators are challenged to adapt their teaching approaches to accommodate the needs of students who use two or more languages in everyday communication on a regular basis, and are thereby considered *multilingual* (cf. Franceschini 2009, pp. 33–34). This article investigates the implementation of multilingual practices to address the needs of multilingual students in mainstream Norwegian primary school classrooms. More specifically, it discusses how two primary school teachers have implemented multilingual practices and presents their reported experiences and needs throughout the implementation process.

The rights of multilingual students are stated in governmental documents such as the Education Act (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training 1998) and, more recently, in the revised national curricula for both English and Norwegian (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training 2019a, 2019b). More specifically, the Education Act states the following in Sections 2–8:

Pupils attending the primary and lower secondary school who have a mother tongue other than Norwegian or Sami have the right to adapted education in

**Citation:** Schipor, Delia. 2022. Jeg Gotta Like Spille Fortnite, Men I Never Win the Game: Implementing Multilingual Pedagogies in a Norwegian Primary School. *Languages* 7: 147. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/languages7020147

Academic Editors: Anna Krulatz, Georgios Neokleous and Eliane Lorenz

Received: 12 October 2021 Accepted: 18 April 2022 Published: 9 June 2022

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2022 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

Norwegian until they are sufficiently proficient in Norwegian to follow the normal instruction of the school. If necessary, such pupils are also entitled to mother tongue instruction, bilingual subject teaching, or both. The mother tongue instruction may be provided at a school other than that normally attended by the pupil. When mother tongue instruction and bilingual subject teaching cannot be provided by suitable teaching staff, the municipality shall, as far as possible, provide for other instruction adapted to the pupils' abilities.