Agricultural productivity in PICTs is heavily dependent on the seasonal rainfall. About 70 percent of the gross cropped area in the Pacific Islands is geographically located so as to benefit from rains in the summer season (November – April). While the rainfall requirements and tolerance of extremes vary from crop to crop, a working figure for the south west Pacific is that a mean annual rainfall of 1800-2500mm is optimal for agricultural production and a mean annual rainfall of over 4000mm is excessive (Bourke et al., 2006). A significant (>50 percent) increases in rainfall on the windward side of high islands during the wet season may increase taro yields by 5 to 15 percent, but would reduce rice and maize yields by around 10 to 20 percent and 30 to 100 percent, respectively (Hay et al., 2003). In PNG, most of the rural population live and cultivate crops in areas where annual rainfall is in the range 1800–3500 mm. In mountainous locations where clouds form early in the day and reduce sunlight, human settlement and agriculture is generally absent. Localities where

Climate Change Implications for Crop Production in Pacific Islands Region 79

indirect household (Lal et al., 2009)

increased pest activities with yams

**and agriculture production**

1986 (GoSI, 2009)

2008).

2005).

Papua New Guinea

Solomon Islands

Fiji Islands

Vanuatu

New Caledonia

Samoa

Federated States of Micronesia

Kiribati

Marshall Islands

Palau

Group 1 Relatively larger countries of Melanesia

Group 2 Middle – sized countries of Polynesia

Group 3 Resource poor micro, predominantly atoll, states

**Observed climate change and extreme events impact on crops**

Taro production has been reduced (less tubers and lower yields) in coastal areas over the years because of wave overtopping and warmer temperatures. Cyclone Namu wiped out rice industry in

Drought and cyclones in 1997 led to a decline of production to 2.2 million tons of cane and 275 000 tons of sugar from a peak of 4.1 million tons of cane and 501 800 tons of sugar in 1986 (Gawander, 2007) .The cane growers' direct and indirect costs from the 2009 flood are estimated to be US\$13.4 million. The costs include losses in cane output, non-cane and other farm losses, and direct and

Increased temperatures and variability of rainfall resulted in

being the crop most affected and in livestock there was increased incidence of intestinal problems in cattle often associated with pasture. Some plants flowering earlier than usual while others are fruiting much later than normal during the past 3–4 years (FAO,

The estimated cost of damage to agriculture by Cyclone Erica in

The increasing threats from new diseases and pests for both livestock and crops are linked to cyclones, flooding and drought and other variations in climate. The increasing incidence of forest fires has led to the destruction of crops as evident in the past forest fires in rural communities (GoS,

Taro pits on some islands and atolls have been contaminated by salt

The pandanus fruit is used by people as long term preserved food but most trees are lost through coastal erosion due to sea level rise and breadfruit and banana crops suffer from drought stress resulting in

During the El Niño season of 1997–1998, there was significant

Taro pits on some islands and atolls have been contaminated by salt

March 2003 was US\$13 million (Terry et al., 2008)

Tonga Squash crop which had been producing 50% of the country's exports by value was more than halved

fresh-water lenses, extended droughts and saltwater

water associated with a depletion of

reductions in most crop yields (FAO, 2008)

fresh-water lenses, extended droughts and saltwater

Tuvalu Groundwater salinization as a result of sea-level rise is destroying the traditionally important swamp taro pit gardens (Webb, 2007)

water associated with a depletion of

inundation/intrusion (Burns, W., 2000)

inundation/intrusion (FAO,2008)

lower yields (GoK, 2007).

Table 4. Observed climate change impact on agriculture and crop production

Tuber formation in sweet potato was significantly reduced at temperatures above 34 °C (Allan & Bourke, 2009, NARI, 2011).

the annual rainfall is more than 4000 mm tend to be too wet and have too much cloud cover for good agricultural production. Yields of sweet potato and other crops tend to be lower on the southern sides of the main mountain ranges, for example, in Southern Highlands Province and mountainous parts of Gulf Province in PNG. This is because of both excessively high rainfall and high levels of cloudiness (Allen & Bourke, 2009)

Climate change predictions for the region suggest prolonged variations from the normal rainfall which can be devastating to agriculture. Shift of rainfall patterns affect planting time, growing stages, harvest periods, post harvesting storage and drastically reduce total yield. Agriculture and crop production is under stress from these climatic factors but it remains difficult to predict the likely outcomes with certainty because of limited empirical data for the Pacific region. Disruptions to food production and the economy may intensify in future, given the projections for more intense tropical cyclones and precipitation variations of up to 14 percent on both sides of normal rainfall (IPCC 4AR, 2007) by the end of the century. More so, in between climate extremes, altered precipitation and increased evapotranspiration (including its intensity as well as temporal and spatial shifts) will also be of concern as these changes take root. The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide may benefit agriculture but these positive effects are likely to be negated by thermal and water stress associated with climate change (Lal, 2004) and changes in pests' voracity and weeds' growth; loss of soil fertility and erosion resulting from climatic variability being another problem. Increasing coastal inundation, salinization and erosion as a consequence of sea level rise and human activities may contaminate and reduce the size of productive agricultural lands and, thereby, threaten food security at the household and local levels.

The most destructive impact of excessive rainfall on agriculture infrastructure and crops are flooding and waterlogging. For example, flooding during 2004/2005 and 2006/2007 caused around US\$76 million and US\$11 million in damages, respectively in Fiji . The cane growers' direct and indirect costs from the 2009 flood are estimated to be US\$13.4 million. The costs include losses in cane output, non-cane and other farm losses, and direct and indirect household (Lal et al., 2009).

Sea-level rise is affecting agriculture in three different ways: Coastal erosion resulting in loss of land and some areas are permanently inundated, making it unsuitable for agriculture production. Some areas are also subjected to periodic inundation from extreme events, including high tides and storm waves, contaminating the fresh water lens, with devastating effects especially on atolls; and seepage of saline water through rivers during dry seasons, resulting in increasing the salt level in soils. Storm surges and increased salt water intrusion limits the range of crops that can be grown. The small atolls in particular face serious problems for example, pit and swamp cultivation of taro is particularly susceptible to changes in water quality. In Tuvalu, groundwater salinization as a result of sea-level rise is destroying the traditionally important swamp taro pit gardens (Webb, 2006) and raises concern on the safety of drinking water (Tekiene, 2000). In Kiribati, coastal erosion reduces crop productivity such as of pandanus varieties and coconut. The pandanus fruit is used by people as long term preserved food but most trees are lost through coastal erosion (GoK, 2007).

the annual rainfall is more than 4000 mm tend to be too wet and have too much cloud cover for good agricultural production. Yields of sweet potato and other crops tend to be lower on the southern sides of the main mountain ranges, for example, in Southern Highlands Province and mountainous parts of Gulf Province in PNG. This is because of both

Climate change predictions for the region suggest prolonged variations from the normal rainfall which can be devastating to agriculture. Shift of rainfall patterns affect planting time, growing stages, harvest periods, post harvesting storage and drastically reduce total yield. Agriculture and crop production is under stress from these climatic factors but it remains difficult to predict the likely outcomes with certainty because of limited empirical data for the Pacific region. Disruptions to food production and the economy may intensify in future, given the projections for more intense tropical cyclones and precipitation variations of up to 14 percent on both sides of normal rainfall (IPCC 4AR, 2007) by the end of the century. More so, in between climate extremes, altered precipitation and increased evapotranspiration (including its intensity as well as temporal and spatial shifts) will also be of concern as these changes take root. The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide may benefit agriculture but these positive effects are likely to be negated by thermal and water stress associated with climate change (Lal, 2004) and changes in pests' voracity and weeds' growth; loss of soil fertility and erosion resulting from climatic variability being another problem. Increasing coastal inundation, salinization and erosion as a consequence of sea level rise and human activities may contaminate and reduce the size of productive agricultural lands and, thereby, threaten food security at the household

The most destructive impact of excessive rainfall on agriculture infrastructure and crops are flooding and waterlogging. For example, flooding during 2004/2005 and 2006/2007 caused around US\$76 million and US\$11 million in damages, respectively in Fiji . The cane growers' direct and indirect costs from the 2009 flood are estimated to be US\$13.4 million. The costs include losses in cane output, non-cane and other farm losses, and direct and indirect

Sea-level rise is affecting agriculture in three different ways: Coastal erosion resulting in loss of land and some areas are permanently inundated, making it unsuitable for agriculture production. Some areas are also subjected to periodic inundation from extreme events, including high tides and storm waves, contaminating the fresh water lens, with devastating effects especially on atolls; and seepage of saline water through rivers during dry seasons, resulting in increasing the salt level in soils. Storm surges and increased salt water intrusion limits the range of crops that can be grown. The small atolls in particular face serious problems for example, pit and swamp cultivation of taro is particularly susceptible to changes in water quality. In Tuvalu, groundwater salinization as a result of sea-level rise is destroying the traditionally important swamp taro pit gardens (Webb, 2006) and raises concern on the safety of drinking water (Tekiene, 2000). In Kiribati, coastal erosion reduces crop productivity such as of pandanus varieties and coconut. The pandanus fruit is used by people as long term preserved food but most trees

excessively high rainfall and high levels of cloudiness (Allen & Bourke, 2009)

and local levels.

household (Lal et al., 2009).

are lost through coastal erosion (GoK, 2007).

Table 4. Observed climate change impact on agriculture and crop production

Climate Change Implications for Crop Production in Pacific Islands Region 81

6. The five least developed countries in the region including, Kiribati, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu have placed food security as an important issue to address in their National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to climate change and are now in the process of implementing national projects addressing various aspects of food security including crop production. Other PICTs are also developing

their national adaptation plans and food security is high on their agenda.

**7. Other factors contributing to the vulnerability of agriculture and crop**

Simatupang and Fleming (2001) identified three major factors that affect food security in the PICTs have negatively impacted agriculture and crop production. First, a change of diet amongst Pacific Islanders from locally produced food to imported food. Most imported food items such as rice, wheat, sugar, meat, eggs, milk, canned meat and fish, coffee, tea, alcohol and soft drinks are superior to roots and tubers in some aspects of cooking and serving practicality, shelf life, and also with respect to social prestige, which tempts the indigenous people to substitute these foods in their traditional diet. In Marshall Islands, production of taro and sweet potato has fallen dramatically because of increased access to imported staples which are more convenient for preparation and storage (FAO, 2008). Many of the imported foods are, however, nutritionally inferior to the more traditional ones. Second, expansion of large plantations and smallholder commercial farms pulls a large area of land, and potentially much labour, out of traditional food crop production, reducing its output. Third, increasing land pressure has pushed food gardens to less fertile and marginal steep lands and further away from homes. A number of households, especially in urban areas, do not have sufficient access to sufficient land for food gardening. In Tonga for example, there is now insufficient land for all commoner males to obtain their own plots and indeed some 30 percent of Tongans now do not own land. Other factors include: increased incidences of weeds, pests and diseases, thus necessitating increased application of pesticide and herbicides, which may lead to other unintended environmental impacts occurring both on the sprayed site, and offsite, especially water systems; loss of traditional farming techniques traditional knowledge; loss of plant genetic diversity and inbreeding of livestock and other domestic animals; invasive species; lack of sustainable land management; and lack of

These are other clearly identifiable, non-climate change factors contributing to low crop production and reduced crop yields. These often interact with each other so that climate change exacerbates existing problems and subsequently affects food security in the region. In recognition of the impact of climate change and other factors discussed in this section, the PICT's have formulated a "Framework for Action on Food Security in the Pacific". The plan guides countries in determining relevant, specific country-level activity addressing food security. The framework for action was prepared in response to a call for action on food

(FAO, 2009).

**production**

capacity to manage farm animals (FAO, 2008).

arching goal of the regional programme is to help island people grow healthier by eating more nutritious local foods, while reducing the amount of processed imported food they eat. Some of the crops promoted under the programme include drought and salt tolerance, pest and disease resistant varieties that are adaptable to changing climate

#### **6. Current climate change adaptation activities in agriculture**

A number of regional climate change adaptation initiatives to address agriculture and crop production are currently implemented through regional organizations like the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) and the Secretariat for Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and supported by various donors. They include:

A number of regional climate change adaptation initiatives to address agriculture and crop production are currently implemented through regional organizations like the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) and the Secretariat for Pacific Regional Environment

1. The Regional Programme on Adaptation to Climate Change in the Pacific Island Region (ACCPIR) which initially has three pilot sites in Fiji, Tonga and Vanuatu but now is being extended to other PICs. Activities in Vanuatu include introducing climateresistant crops, breeding extreme weather- adapted livestock, developing community land-use plans, trialing new agroforestry and soil stabilisation methods, and undertaking innovative climate adaptation education programmes whilst in Tonga, the focus has been on land and forest management on more vulnerable islands including Eua and Vava'u. The projected increase in temperature and rainfall show 'Eua having the highest soil productivity and soil erosion risk level compared to the other islands. 2. The Land Resources Division (LRD) of SPC is conducting atoll agriculture research and development at the Centre of Excellence for Atoll Agricultural Research and Development in Tarawa, Kiribati. Areas of work include atoll soil management, water management, cultivar evaluation, and improving the resilience of food production systems to climate change. The centre is also documenting sustainable food production

3. The Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) and Forestry and Agriculture Diversification under the Land Resources Division (LRD) of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) is the Pacific regional gene bank based in Fiji. It plays an important role in climate change adaptation efforts, improving food security and supporting domestic and export trade in agriculture and forestry products. Since 2009, it has distributed 4,038 plants to 12 PICs. The crops/species distributed include taro, sweet potato, yam, banana, breadfruit, *Alocasia, Xanthosoma*, , cassava, potato and vanilla. The LRD, with the support of the AusAID International Climate Change Adaptation Initiative (ICCAI) and the US government, has established a 'climateready' collection of crops and varieties known to have suitable traits at CePaCT. The collection is now being evaluated in individual PICs for climate tolerant traits such as resistance to drought, salinity and water-logging. The collection is a dynamic one and will be modified according to the evaluation information received. The ICCAI is also supporting a number of other activities, such as salinity tolerance screening research; agrobiodiversity studies in Fiji and Palau; and collaboration with CSIRO in crop

4. The Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change Project (PACC) is implemented by SPREP and is focusing on climate change adaptation. Its objective is to enhance the resilience of a number of key development sectors (food production and food security, water resources management, coastal zone, infrastructure etc.) in the Pacific islands to the adverse effects of climate change. This objective will be achieved by focusing on long-

5. The FAO with financial support from Italy is supporting fourteen island countries in the region in food security through the regional programme: Food Security and Sustainable Livelihood programme in the Pacific Island Countries (FSSLP). The over-

term planned adaptation response measures, strategies and policies.

**6. Current climate change adaptation activities in agriculture**

Programme (SPREP) and supported by various donors. They include:

systems, and food preservation and utilisation methods for atolls.

modeling (SPC, 2010).

arching goal of the regional programme is to help island people grow healthier by eating more nutritious local foods, while reducing the amount of processed imported food they eat. Some of the crops promoted under the programme include drought and salt tolerance, pest and disease resistant varieties that are adaptable to changing climate (FAO, 2009).

6. The five least developed countries in the region including, Kiribati, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu have placed food security as an important issue to address in their National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to climate change and are now in the process of implementing national projects addressing various aspects of food security including crop production. Other PICTs are also developing their national adaptation plans and food security is high on their agenda.

#### **7. Other factors contributing to the vulnerability of agriculture and crop production**

Simatupang and Fleming (2001) identified three major factors that affect food security in the PICTs have negatively impacted agriculture and crop production. First, a change of diet amongst Pacific Islanders from locally produced food to imported food. Most imported food items such as rice, wheat, sugar, meat, eggs, milk, canned meat and fish, coffee, tea, alcohol and soft drinks are superior to roots and tubers in some aspects of cooking and serving practicality, shelf life, and also with respect to social prestige, which tempts the indigenous people to substitute these foods in their traditional diet. In Marshall Islands, production of taro and sweet potato has fallen dramatically because of increased access to imported staples which are more convenient for preparation and storage (FAO, 2008). Many of the imported foods are, however, nutritionally inferior to the more traditional ones. Second, expansion of large plantations and smallholder commercial farms pulls a large area of land, and potentially much labour, out of traditional food crop production, reducing its output. Third, increasing land pressure has pushed food gardens to less fertile and marginal steep lands and further away from homes. A number of households, especially in urban areas, do not have sufficient access to sufficient land for food gardening. In Tonga for example, there is now insufficient land for all commoner males to obtain their own plots and indeed some 30 percent of Tongans now do not own land. Other factors include: increased incidences of weeds, pests and diseases, thus necessitating increased application of pesticide and herbicides, which may lead to other unintended environmental impacts occurring both on the sprayed site, and offsite, especially water systems; loss of traditional farming techniques traditional knowledge; loss of plant genetic diversity and inbreeding of livestock and other domestic animals; invasive species; lack of sustainable land management; and lack of capacity to manage farm animals (FAO, 2008).

These are other clearly identifiable, non-climate change factors contributing to low crop production and reduced crop yields. These often interact with each other so that climate change exacerbates existing problems and subsequently affects food security in the region. In recognition of the impact of climate change and other factors discussed in this section, the PICT's have formulated a "Framework for Action on Food Security in the Pacific". The plan guides countries in determining relevant, specific country-level activity addressing food security. The framework for action was prepared in response to a call for action on food

Climate Change Implications for Crop Production in Pacific Islands Region 83

Some of the major challenges to agriculture and crop production in PICTs include: (1) increasing population against weak economic growth and rapid depletion of natural resources base with unsustainable development; (2) low level of awareness on climate change perceptions and competing government priorities; (3) limited capacity at all levels (regional, national and community) to develop and effectively implement adaptation measures; (4) inadequate resources and weak socio-economic conditions; and (5) unavailability and problem accessing reliable data on climate change impact on the sector in

The agriculture sector has not been given priority in terms of resource allocation and development planning by regional countries in the past although it supports the majority of the people's livelihood. The vulnerability of the sector to climate change is beginning to be recognized amongst Pacific islands leaders and governments because of their concern for the regions food security (Barnet, 2008). The development of regional and national strategies on climate change and sustainable development frameworks now focus more on natural resources sectors including agriculture and food security. There is some level of commitment from the Pacific regional governments and their international partners to address climate change impact on agriculture and crop production. Through implementation of regional and national adaptation strategies to climate change there are

opportunities to address issues and challenges in agriculture and crop production.

Observed climate data in the Pacific region is showing evidence that the climate is changing. The immediate or direct threat to agriculture and crop production comes from extreme events like cyclones, storms, flooding and drought. These extreme events are increasing in severity or intensity and frequency and already causing substantial damage to food crops and associated infrastructure or often result in total collapse of the PICTs economies, especially the small island countries. Recovery efforts are often negatively impacted by continuous occurrences of these extreme events, thus most PICTs are "locked" into a

The effects of climate change on crop production through increase in temperature, changing rainfall patterns, salt water intrusion are less immediate but also complex. Agriculture and crop production is under stress from these climatic factors but it remains difficult to predict the likely outcomes with certainty because of limited empirical data for the Pacific region. There is a need to continue to monitor the impact and conduct studies PICTs to equip for the future. Use of crop simulation models is one option to generate relevant information for planning adaptive measures to address food production and food security in the region. Because of PICTs continues exposure to extreme events and limited adaptive capacity, they also need assistance to develop and implement relevant adaptation strategies to climate change,

Allen B.; & Bourke R.M. 2009. People, Land and Environment, In*: Food and Agriculture in*

Retrieved from http://epress.anu.edu.au/food\_agriculture/pdf/

*Papua New Guinea*. R.M. Bourke & T. Harwood (Eds.), pp28-121, ANU E-press,

especially in the agriculture sector where most people derive their livelihoods.

**9. Challenges and opportunities for food production**

the region.

**10. Conclusions**

vulnerable situation.

**11. References**

security from Pacific leaders at the 39th Pacific Islands Forum, held in Niue in 2008 (Food Secure Pacific, 2010). Some PICTs are now implementing the framework at national level to address the factors affecting agriculture and crop production mention here but these efforts are challenged by threat pose to crop production by climate change.

#### **8. Tools and methods for assessment of climate change impact on crop production**

As Allen and Bourke (2009) pointed out, climatic change is already influencing agriculture and food production in the PICs, but it remains difficult to predict the likely outcomes with certainty. This is because there is not enough information about changes in temperature and patterns of rainfall and rainfall extremes and furthermore agricultural responses to climate change will be complex. This together with limited capacity in the region to comprehensively assess the impacts of climate change and variability on the production of major pacific crops like cassava, taro, sweet potato, banana, rice and sugar cane add to this complexity.

Most estimates of the impacts of climate change on agricultural production in other regions of the world are done using crop simulation models. They are important tools for predicting the likely crop production scenario in the future. Although climate change is a growing concern for decision-makers in the region, information on the impacts of climate change is often lacking or incomplete. In agriculture, crop production will be affected by a combination of factors such as effects of changes in temperature and precipitation regime on plant physiology, changes on growing season onset and length, CO2 fertilization effect, technological improvements, water and availability of which interactions are rather complicated. Researchers in the past two decades have been focused on predictions of climate change and its possible impact on agriculture and food supply in the next couple of decades. This is a major gap in the Pacific region.

A combination of integrated modeling from different disciplines and appropriate research is needed to advance the understanding and prioritization of the challenges climate change pose on agriculture and food production. Use of the crop simulation models like Decision Support System for Agro-Technology (DSSAT) and Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) tools are starting to be used in research that will enable researchers to understand the agro-management practices most conducive to cope with the impacts of climate variability and change on important food and economic crops in the Pacific. The APSIM model is being used to determine climate change impact on cassava yield in Fiji and there is also plan to use DSATT on cassava, taro and sugar cane to predict impact of climate change on crop growth and adjust management practices to mitigate the potential impacts in some Pacific Island countries.

The Pacific Food Security Toolkit "Building Resilience to Climate Change – Root Crop and Fisheries Production" which was produced by the University of the South Pacific, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program and Food and Agriculture Organization is an important document. It contains six modules that cover climate change, overview of key Pacific food systems, ecosystems and food securities, Pacific root crops, Pacific fisheries and additional tools to support Researchers, Academics, Farmers and all stakeholders.

#### **9. Challenges and opportunities for food production**

Some of the major challenges to agriculture and crop production in PICTs include: (1) increasing population against weak economic growth and rapid depletion of natural resources base with unsustainable development; (2) low level of awareness on climate change perceptions and competing government priorities; (3) limited capacity at all levels (regional, national and community) to develop and effectively implement adaptation measures; (4) inadequate resources and weak socio-economic conditions; and (5) unavailability and problem accessing reliable data on climate change impact on the sector in the region.

The agriculture sector has not been given priority in terms of resource allocation and development planning by regional countries in the past although it supports the majority of the people's livelihood. The vulnerability of the sector to climate change is beginning to be recognized amongst Pacific islands leaders and governments because of their concern for the regions food security (Barnet, 2008). The development of regional and national strategies on climate change and sustainable development frameworks now focus more on natural resources sectors including agriculture and food security. There is some level of commitment from the Pacific regional governments and their international partners to address climate change impact on agriculture and crop production. Through implementation of regional and national adaptation strategies to climate change there are opportunities to address issues and challenges in agriculture and crop production.

#### **10. Conclusions**

82 Food Production – Approaches, Challenges and Tasks

security from Pacific leaders at the 39th Pacific Islands Forum, held in Niue in 2008 (Food Secure Pacific, 2010). Some PICTs are now implementing the framework at national level to address the factors affecting agriculture and crop production mention here but these efforts

As Allen and Bourke (2009) pointed out, climatic change is already influencing agriculture and food production in the PICs, but it remains difficult to predict the likely outcomes with certainty. This is because there is not enough information about changes in temperature and patterns of rainfall and rainfall extremes and furthermore agricultural responses to climate change will be complex. This together with limited capacity in the region to comprehensively assess the impacts of climate change and variability on the production of major pacific crops like cassava, taro, sweet potato, banana, rice and sugar cane add to this

Most estimates of the impacts of climate change on agricultural production in other regions of the world are done using crop simulation models. They are important tools for predicting the likely crop production scenario in the future. Although climate change is a growing concern for decision-makers in the region, information on the impacts of climate change is often lacking or incomplete. In agriculture, crop production will be affected by a combination of factors such as effects of changes in temperature and precipitation regime on plant physiology, changes on growing season onset and length, CO2 fertilization effect, technological improvements, water and availability of which interactions are rather complicated. Researchers in the past two decades have been focused on predictions of climate change and its possible impact on agriculture and food supply in the next couple of

A combination of integrated modeling from different disciplines and appropriate research is needed to advance the understanding and prioritization of the challenges climate change pose on agriculture and food production. Use of the crop simulation models like Decision Support System for Agro-Technology (DSSAT) and Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) tools are starting to be used in research that will enable researchers to understand the agro-management practices most conducive to cope with the impacts of climate variability and change on important food and economic crops in the Pacific. The APSIM model is being used to determine climate change impact on cassava yield in Fiji and there is also plan to use DSATT on cassava, taro and sugar cane to predict impact of climate change on crop growth and adjust management practices to mitigate the potential impacts

The Pacific Food Security Toolkit "Building Resilience to Climate Change – Root Crop and Fisheries Production" which was produced by the University of the South Pacific, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program and Food and Agriculture Organization is an important document. It contains six modules that cover climate change, overview of key Pacific food systems, ecosystems and food securities, Pacific root crops, Pacific fisheries and additional tools to support

**8. Tools and methods for assessment of climate change impact on crop**

are challenged by threat pose to crop production by climate change.

decades. This is a major gap in the Pacific region.

Researchers, Academics, Farmers and all stakeholders.

in some Pacific Island countries.

**production**

complexity.

Observed climate data in the Pacific region is showing evidence that the climate is changing. The immediate or direct threat to agriculture and crop production comes from extreme events like cyclones, storms, flooding and drought. These extreme events are increasing in severity or intensity and frequency and already causing substantial damage to food crops and associated infrastructure or often result in total collapse of the PICTs economies, especially the small island countries. Recovery efforts are often negatively impacted by continuous occurrences of these extreme events, thus most PICTs are "locked" into a vulnerable situation.

The effects of climate change on crop production through increase in temperature, changing rainfall patterns, salt water intrusion are less immediate but also complex. Agriculture and crop production is under stress from these climatic factors but it remains difficult to predict the likely outcomes with certainty because of limited empirical data for the Pacific region. There is a need to continue to monitor the impact and conduct studies PICTs to equip for the future. Use of crop simulation models is one option to generate relevant information for planning adaptive measures to address food production and food security in the region. Because of PICTs continues exposure to extreme events and limited adaptive capacity, they also need assistance to develop and implement relevant adaptation strategies to climate change, especially in the agriculture sector where most people derive their livelihoods.

#### **11. References**

Allen B.; & Bourke R.M. 2009. People, Land and Environment, In*: Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea*. R.M. Bourke & T. Harwood (Eds.), pp28-121, ANU E-press, Retrieved from http://epress.anu.edu.au/food\_agriculture/pdf/

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Food Secure Pacific. 2010. Towards a Food Secure Pacific Framework for Action on Food

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Gawander, J. 2007. Impact of Climate Change on Sugar Cane Production in Fiji. WMO

Government of Fiji (GoF). 2011. Draft National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for

Government of Samoa (GoS). 2005. National Adaptation Programme of Action. Apia, Samoa Government of Solomon Islands (GoSI). 2008. National Adaptation Programme of Action.

Griffiths, G.M.; Salinger, M.J. & Leleu, I. 2003. Trends in Extreme Daily Rainfall Across the

Huey-Lin, L. 2009. The impact of climate change on global food supply and demand, food

Jansen, T.; Mullen B.F.; Pollard, A.A.; Maemouri, R.K.; Watoto, C.; & Iramu, E. 2006.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate Impacts, Adaptation and

Lal, M. 2004. Climate change and small island developing countries of the south Pacific. Special issue on sustainable development. *J. of Contemporay Fiji*. 2, 15 -31 Lal, P.N.; Rita, R.; & Khatri, N. 2009. Economic Costs of the 2009 Floods in the Fiji Sugar Belt

L.E.; Collins, D.A.; Daw, G.; Finet, A.; Gunawan, D.; Inape, K.; Isobe, H.; Kestin, T.S.; Lefale, P. ; Leyu, C.H.; Lwin, T.; Maitrepierre, L.; Oprasitwong, N.; Page, C.M.; Pahalad, J.; Plummer, N.; Salinger, M.J.; Suppiah, R.; Tran, V.L.; Trewin, B.; Tibig, I.; & Yee,

Mataki, M.; Lal, M.; & Koshy, K. 2006. Baseline Climatology of Viti Levu (Fiji) and Current

P.M.; Haylock, M.R; Hennessy, K.J.; Nicholls, N.; Chambers,

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Subsistence Production, Livestock and Social Analysis, *Solomon Islands Smallholder Agriculture Study*, Volume 2. AusAID, ISBN1 920861 47 5, Canberra, Australia Hay, J.E.; Mimura, N.; Campbell, J.; Fifita, S.; Koshy, K.; McLean, R.F.; Nakalevu, T. Nunn,

P.; & Neil de Wet. 2003. Climate Variability and Change and Sea-level Rise in the Pacific Islands: *Region A Resource Book for Policy and Decision Makers, Educators and*

Vulnerability, Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Climate Change 2007. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978 0521 70596-7,

and Policy Implications. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.Manton, M.J.; Dellaa-Marta,

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the 21st Century, In: *Climate Change in the South Pacific: Impacts and Responses in Australia, New Zealand, and Small Island States,* A. Gillespie, & W. Burns (Eds.), pp 233-250, Advances in Global Change Research Volume 2, Kluwer Academic

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**6**

*Mexico*

Peter R.W. Gerritsen

 *Universidad de Guadalajara,*

 *Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur,*

**Strengthening Endogenous Regional**

Much has been written on the negative effects of globalization in the Mexican countryside, showing the multi-dimensionality of the problems generated, noting not only the economic effects, but also the socio-cultural and ecological repercussions, which have to do with various issues related to rural life and production, such as the quality of rural producers' life, identity and traditional practices, or sustainable natural resource management (Cortez et al., 1994; Schwentesius *et al.,* 2003; Esteva & Marelle, 2003). Additionally, reference is also made to the trans-national nature of the problem, emphasizing the involvement of processes that go beyond the regional and national territory (Halweil, 2000; Schwentesius et al., 2003). Table 1 presents an overview of (some of) these negative effects, as identified from

• Disarticulation of peasant economies from larger national and international economies

Table 1. An overview of some of the negative effects of economic globalization as identified from bibliography (Cortez et al., 1994; Schwentesius et al., 2003; Esteva & Marelle, 2003;

These negative effects contest the process of economic globalization as related to rural actor's livelihood strategies, and as related to the natural resources on which they depend (Toledo, 2000; Carabias & Provencio, 1993). It also questions the capacities of governmental institutions to offer pertinent solutions. Moreover, it gives rise to the idea that overcoming poverty, increased production, appropriate technology development, and farmer participation requires profound social and institutional adjustments. More specifically, this

• Displacement of traditional by hybrid and genetically modified varieties

**1. Introduction**

bibliography.

• Un-fair trade

• Fomenting export agriculture and contract farming • Lack of attention to peasant and indigenous farming

• Migration to urban centers and to the United Status

• Loss of traditional and popular identity and culture

• Poverty and natural resource degradation

• Trans-nationalization of the agro-industry

Jansen and Vellema, 2004; Halweil, 2000)

**Development in Western Mexico**

*Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales - Imecbio,*

McGregor, A. 2006. *Pacific 2020 Background Paper: Agriculture*. Common Wealth of Australia, Retrieved from

http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/solomon\_study\_vol2.pdf

### **Strengthening Endogenous Regional Development in Western Mexico**

#### Peter R.W. Gerritsen

*Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales - Imecbio, Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur, Universidad de Guadalajara, Mexico*

#### **1. Introduction**

86 Food Production – Approaches, Challenges and Tasks

McGregor, A. 2006. *Pacific 2020 Background Paper: Agriculture*. Common Wealth of Australia,

McKenzie, E.; Kaloumaira, A.; & Chand, B. 2005. The Economic Impacts of Natural Disasters

National Agriculture Research Institute (NARI). 2011. *Production Issues in Sweet Potato Needs*

Preston, B. L., R. Suppiah, I. Macadam, and J. Bathols. 2006. Climate Change in the

Simatupang P, Fleming E. 2001 Food Security Strategies for Selected South Pacific Island

Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC). 2010. *LRD Annual Report 2010*. Secretariat of the Pacific Community -Land Resources Division, ISBN: 978-982-00-467-2, Suva, Fiji

Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP). 2009*. Climate Change,*

Tekinene, M and Paelate, A. 2000. Tuvalu's vulnerability and adaptation assessment.

Terry, J. P.; Kostaschuk, R. A.; & Wolting, G. 2008. Features of Tropical Cyclone-induced

Webb, A. 2007. Assessment of Salinity of Groundwater in Swamp Taro (*Cyrtosperma*

Webster, P.J., Holland, G.J., Curry, J.A., & Change, H.R. 2005. Changes in Tropical Cyclone

World Bank. 2006. Not if but when - Adapting to natural hazards in the Pacific Islands Region. *A policy note*. The World Bank, East Asia and Pacific Region. World Bank. 2000. Cities, Seas and Storms: Managing Pacific Island economies: Vol. IV,

Pacific Island Countries Management Unit, Washington DC, USA.

Flood Peaks on Grande Terre, New Caledonia. *Water and Environment Journal* 22:

*chamissonis*) "pulaka" pits in Tuvalu. *EU EDF8-SOPAC Project Report 75 Reducing Vulnerability of Pacific ACP States*, Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission,

Number, Duration and Intensity in a Warming Environment'. *Science,* 309: 1844-1846.

*Adapting to climate change.* East Asia and Pacific region, Papua New Guinea and

Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC).2008. Fish and food security. *Policy Brief*,

*Variability and Sea- level Change*. 15/4/2011, Available from:

in the Pacific. *Technical Report*, University of the South Pacific (USP) and the South

Asia/Pacific region: A consultancy Report Prepared for the Climate Change and Development roundtable. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research

Countries. Working Paper 59, CGPRT Centre, JapanSecretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC). 2011. *Pacific Regional Information System (PRISM)* 15/6/2011,

http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/solomon\_study\_vol2.pdf

Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), Suva, Fiji.

http://nariweb.nari.org.pg/2010/production-issues-of-sweet-potato-needs-

*Addressing*. 3/6/2011, Available from:

Organisation (CSIRO), Clayton,Victoria, Australia.

Available from: http://www.spc.int/prism/

Secretariat of the Pacific Community, :LRD, Suva Fiji.

Government of Tuvalu, Funafuti, Tuvalu

http://www.sprep.org/topic/climate.htm

Retrieved from

addressing/

177-183.

Suva Fiji.

Much has been written on the negative effects of globalization in the Mexican countryside, showing the multi-dimensionality of the problems generated, noting not only the economic effects, but also the socio-cultural and ecological repercussions, which have to do with various issues related to rural life and production, such as the quality of rural producers' life, identity and traditional practices, or sustainable natural resource management (Cortez et al., 1994; Schwentesius *et al.,* 2003; Esteva & Marelle, 2003). Additionally, reference is also made to the trans-national nature of the problem, emphasizing the involvement of processes that go beyond the regional and national territory (Halweil, 2000; Schwentesius et al., 2003). Table 1 presents an overview of (some of) these negative effects, as identified from bibliography.

Table 1. An overview of some of the negative effects of economic globalization as identified from bibliography (Cortez et al., 1994; Schwentesius et al., 2003; Esteva & Marelle, 2003; Jansen and Vellema, 2004; Halweil, 2000)

These negative effects contest the process of economic globalization as related to rural actor's livelihood strategies, and as related to the natural resources on which they depend (Toledo, 2000; Carabias & Provencio, 1993). It also questions the capacities of governmental institutions to offer pertinent solutions. Moreover, it gives rise to the idea that overcoming poverty, increased production, appropriate technology development, and farmer participation requires profound social and institutional adjustments. More specifically, this

Strengthening Endogenous Regional Development in Western Mexico 89

Fig. 1. The three sides of the agricultural enterprise (van der Ploeg et al., 2002: 12)

der Ploeg, 1990) (Figure 2).

Rural areas

Generally speaking, there are four dimensions of rural development (either endogenous or not) and they have to deal with the available natural resources in the locality (that is, the domain of farm production and the domain of farm reproduction), the interaction of farmers with other (external) actors and institutions, and the incorporation in different markets (that is, the domain of economic and institutional relations), the maintenance of traditions and certain identity, and finally, an idiosyncratic and specific vision of the world in general and agricultural work in particular (that is, the domain of family and community relations) (van

Mobilization of resources

**Conventional agriculture**

Agro-food supply chain

In the local territory, endogenous potential can be understood as a specific configuration of the different farming domains (and the great many different farming activities that each one of these domains includes), created and coordinated purposefully by local actors. The outcome of this domain coordination is the conformation of specific farming styles, which are to be understood as purposeful socio-productive strategies. A central characteristic of farming styles is the close bond between manual and mental labor, i.e. the close relationship

Aside from its close bond with farmer strategies, endogenous potential for rural development can also be located in different links of the productive chain3. The endogenous potential of productive chains refers to those products that arise from the local territory, and

2 Due to this close relationship, endogenous rural development and farming styles are studied by us by

3 A productive chain is understood here as: *"a system constituted by interrelated actors* […] *and by a succession of operations of production, transformation and commercialization of a product, or a group of products,*

between farming discourse and practice (van der Ploeg, 1994).2

applying an actor-oriented perspective (Long & Long, 1992; Long, 2001).

[developed] *in a given surrounding"* (Heyden et al., 2004: 11).

requires a development model that is able to respond to the specific necessities of the rural sector, as well as one that is able to develop strategies that strengthen governmental intervention in favor of sustainability (Muñoz & Guevara 1997; Gerritsen et al., 2003).

Although it goes beyond discussion to deny the negative effects of economic globalization, an increasing number of social actors can be identified at the local levels, which look for alternative strategies to restrain from the negative effects (Toledo 2000; Gerritsen et al., 2004). These actors have developed a number of responses and strategies, which can be conceptualized as efforts to construct viable and sustainable alternatives for a different social order in the local territory (Cortez *et al.,*1994; Morales, 2004; Waters, 1995).

This chapter's main interest and focus lies on describing and understanding those local experiences that hold the possibility to develop and strengthen development models that may serve as a platform for the designing new agricultural policies that better respond to the social, economic and environmental challenges present in different territories (cf. van der Ploeg & Long, 1994). It presents an overview of an action-research program that has been implemented by personnel of the Rural Development Group of the Department for Ecology and Natural Resources (DERN-IMECBIO, according to its Spanish acronym) at the South Coast University Campus (CUCSUR, according to its Spanish acronym) of the University of Guadalajara. The work of our group has consisted of supporting local initiatives to construct viable alternatives in the South Coast of Jalisco, located in western Mexico.1

In the following pages I will presen some theoretical notions, followed by four different thematic working fields of local development that have been supported and studied by us. The chapter finishes with a discussion and a conclusion, aiming at locating the different thematic experiences within current theoretical debates on the local effects of economic globalization.

#### **2. Endogenous rural development and the farm enterprise**

In general terms, farm production makes up the mobilization of resources, the enrollment of farmers in the agro-food chain in order to sell their produce, and contributes to the creation and maintenance of rural identity and rural social organization (van der Ploeg et al., 2002) (Figure 1).

Originally, farming production was based on diversified, rather autonomous strategies (Toledo, 1990). In other words, endogenous forces were at the heart of rural development (van der Ploeg, 1994). Furthermore, one can also speak of endogenous rural development. Endogenous rural development is understood here as a development model that departs from local natural resource use and management, local actors´ capacities and abilities to develop strategies for the appropriation of material and non-material resources, and where there exists local actors´ control on (the value of) the farming production (van der Ploeg & Long, 1994).

<sup>1</sup> This chapter compiles part of fifteen year's research and extension work experience of the Community Development Group. The author of this paper took up the task to compile the experience gained over the years in this second English written version (see Gerritsen, 2006 for the first version). This paper was published before in Spanish in different versions and forms, see Villalvazo *et al.* (2003); Gerritsen *et al.* (2004, 2005a. 2005b); and Figueroa *et al.* (2003, 2004). The theoretical foundations of the work are described in Gerritsen (2010).

requires a development model that is able to respond to the specific necessities of the rural sector, as well as one that is able to develop strategies that strengthen governmental intervention in favor of sustainability (Muñoz & Guevara 1997; Gerritsen et al., 2003).

Although it goes beyond discussion to deny the negative effects of economic globalization, an increasing number of social actors can be identified at the local levels, which look for alternative strategies to restrain from the negative effects (Toledo 2000; Gerritsen et al., 2004). These actors have developed a number of responses and strategies, which can be conceptualized as efforts to construct viable and sustainable alternatives for a different

This chapter's main interest and focus lies on describing and understanding those local experiences that hold the possibility to develop and strengthen development models that may serve as a platform for the designing new agricultural policies that better respond to the social, economic and environmental challenges present in different territories (cf. van der Ploeg & Long, 1994). It presents an overview of an action-research program that has been implemented by personnel of the Rural Development Group of the Department for Ecology and Natural Resources (DERN-IMECBIO, according to its Spanish acronym) at the South Coast University Campus (CUCSUR, according to its Spanish acronym) of the University of Guadalajara. The work of our group has consisted of supporting local initiatives to construct viable alternatives

In the following pages I will presen some theoretical notions, followed by four different thematic working fields of local development that have been supported and studied by us. The chapter finishes with a discussion and a conclusion, aiming at locating the different thematic experiences within current theoretical debates on the local effects of economic globalization.

In general terms, farm production makes up the mobilization of resources, the enrollment of farmers in the agro-food chain in order to sell their produce, and contributes to the creation and maintenance of rural identity and rural social organization (van der Ploeg et al., 2002)

Originally, farming production was based on diversified, rather autonomous strategies (Toledo, 1990). In other words, endogenous forces were at the heart of rural development (van der Ploeg, 1994). Furthermore, one can also speak of endogenous rural development. Endogenous rural development is understood here as a development model that departs from local natural resource use and management, local actors´ capacities and abilities to develop strategies for the appropriation of material and non-material resources, and where there exists local actors´ control on (the value of) the farming production (van der Ploeg & Long, 1994).

1 This chapter compiles part of fifteen year's research and extension work experience of the Community Development Group. The author of this paper took up the task to compile the experience gained over the years in this second English written version (see Gerritsen, 2006 for the first version). This paper was published before in Spanish in different versions and forms, see Villalvazo *et al.* (2003); Gerritsen *et al.* (2004, 2005a. 2005b); and Figueroa *et al.* (2003, 2004). The theoretical foundations of the work are

social order in the local territory (Cortez *et al.,*1994; Morales, 2004; Waters, 1995).

in the South Coast of Jalisco, located in western Mexico.1

(Figure 1).

described in Gerritsen (2010).

**2. Endogenous rural development and the farm enterprise**

Fig. 1. The three sides of the agricultural enterprise (van der Ploeg et al., 2002: 12)

Generally speaking, there are four dimensions of rural development (either endogenous or not) and they have to deal with the available natural resources in the locality (that is, the domain of farm production and the domain of farm reproduction), the interaction of farmers with other (external) actors and institutions, and the incorporation in different markets (that is, the domain of economic and institutional relations), the maintenance of traditions and certain identity, and finally, an idiosyncratic and specific vision of the world in general and agricultural work in particular (that is, the domain of family and community relations) (van der Ploeg, 1990) (Figure 2).

In the local territory, endogenous potential can be understood as a specific configuration of the different farming domains (and the great many different farming activities that each one of these domains includes), created and coordinated purposefully by local actors. The outcome of this domain coordination is the conformation of specific farming styles, which are to be understood as purposeful socio-productive strategies. A central characteristic of farming styles is the close bond between manual and mental labor, i.e. the close relationship between farming discourse and practice (van der Ploeg, 1994).2

Aside from its close bond with farmer strategies, endogenous potential for rural development can also be located in different links of the productive chain3. The endogenous potential of productive chains refers to those products that arise from the local territory, and

<sup>2</sup> Due to this close relationship, endogenous rural development and farming styles are studied by us by applying an actor-oriented perspective (Long & Long, 1992; Long, 2001).

<sup>3</sup> A productive chain is understood here as: *"a system constituted by interrelated actors* […] *and by a succession of operations of production, transformation and commercialization of a product, or a group of products,* [developed] *in a given surrounding"* (Heyden et al., 2004: 11).

Strengthening Endogenous Regional Development in Western Mexico 91

economic and cultural consequences mentioned before in Table 1 (Calva, 1993; Saxe-Fernández, 1998; Morales, 2002). From the perspective of sustainability, the agro-industrial development model for consolidating the *"modernization of the Mexican countryside"* can be

Economic globalization processes affect the endogenous potential of a specific territory by changing the locally-specific ecological, social and socio-institutional, cultural, and ethical conditions. In others words, it induces a reconfiguration of the social relations of production, as well as the social and material bases of production. As a consequence, new – intraregional - farming styles can arise. At the same time, it can change the conditions of the different links of the productive chain, affecting the patrimonial values of the region. Figure 3 illustrates this by presenting normatively defined development patterns for farming styles

In order to strengthen regional sustainable development initiatives that depart from the endogenous potential in local territories, it is necessary to design and implement productive alternatives that built upon existing social, economic, cultural and environmental processes, which implies strengthening traditional knowledge, improving traditional technology for family agriculture, generating viable peasant economies, reactivating regional economic dynamics, strengthening a culture of self-sufficiency and one that builds upon and strengthens a harmonious interrelation and respect for living nature (Morales, 2001; Toledo, 2003). In our work, efforts have been directed at four thematic fields of action that relate to these different fields of attention: agroecology and fair trade (aimed at strengthening farm reproduction and production), gender and natural resource management (aimed at incorporating the gender issue in our work), appropriate technology development and, finally, regional production and territorial value recuperation. Within these different thematic fields, various theoretical-methodological tools have been applied.7 In the

**3. Agroecology: Strengthening the reproductive and productive base of farm**

In the reproduction (and production) link of the productive chain, agro-ecology has been the starting point of our work, and, in lesser degree, the related field of fair trade. Following Guzman *et al.* (2000), the restoration of essential ecological processes of agro-ecosystems is the first step in the revalorization of traditional farming systems, where endogenous

This thematic field originates in the beginning of 2001, as a response to the social demands of an indigenous community in the region where we live and work. Until now, activities to

7 This is explained by Rist (2004), who mentions that in the literature on endogenous development, attention goes mostly to *"what to obtain"*, rather than describing *"how to do it"*. Therefore, a great variety of methodologies is potentially useful for identifying, strengthening and evaluating endogenous development initiatives, whose choice depends on the specific characteristics of the local territory

following sections, I will describe our different experiences in these fields.

considered non-viable and extremely harmful in all its dimensions (Toledo, 2000).

in relation to diversity in natural resources.

elements predominate over the exogenous ones.

(Broekhuizen & van der Ploeg, 1995). 8 Based on Figueroa et al. (2004).

**enterprises8**

where production, transformation and commercialization activities are carried on with an actor's own resources and by departing from trans-generational knowledge, and, moreover, where the consumers recognize these products as typical or authentic for the region.4

Fig. 2. The domains of farming (van der Ploeg, 1990: 29)

Development models implemented as part of economic globalization have impacted in different grades and in different moments on rural and indigenous production5 and have aimed at substituting these with agro-industrial methods6, causing the ecological, social,

<sup>4</sup> Opposed to productive chains that are disconnected from the local territory, where inputs are external and knowledge is based mainly on science and technology. It is these kinds of productive chains where the great majority of the high socio-environmental costs of production, transformation and

transportation can be located, with the goal to reach consumers all over the world (Halweil, 2000). 5 The peasant (or indigenous) production mode is understood here as those production systems that are based on diversification, local resource use, family labor, and subsistence-oriented production (Toledo, 1995).

<sup>6</sup> The agro-industrial (or modern) production mode is understood here as those production systems that are based on specialization, external resource use, the use of hired farm laborers, and where a commercial production orientation prevails (Toledo, 1995).

where production, transformation and commercialization activities are carried on with an actor's own resources and by departing from trans-generational knowledge, and, moreover,

Production

Economic and institutional relations

Development models implemented as part of economic globalization have impacted in different grades and in different moments on rural and indigenous production5 and have aimed at substituting these with agro-industrial methods6, causing the ecological, social,

Reproduction

4 Opposed to productive chains that are disconnected from the local territory, where inputs are external and knowledge is based mainly on science and technology. It is these kinds of productive chains where the great majority of the high socio-environmental costs of production, transformation and transportation can be located, with the goal to reach consumers all over the world (Halweil, 2000). 5 The peasant (or indigenous) production mode is understood here as those production systems that are based on diversification, local resource use, family labor, and subsistence-oriented production (Toledo,

6 The agro-industrial (or modern) production mode is understood here as those production systems that are based on specialization, external resource use, the use of hired farm laborers, and where a

where the consumers recognize these products as typical or authentic for the region.4

Fig. 2. The domains of farming (van der Ploeg, 1990: 29)

Family and local community

commercial production orientation prevails (Toledo, 1995).

1995).

economic and cultural consequences mentioned before in Table 1 (Calva, 1993; Saxe-Fernández, 1998; Morales, 2002). From the perspective of sustainability, the agro-industrial development model for consolidating the *"modernization of the Mexican countryside"* can be considered non-viable and extremely harmful in all its dimensions (Toledo, 2000).

Economic globalization processes affect the endogenous potential of a specific territory by changing the locally-specific ecological, social and socio-institutional, cultural, and ethical conditions. In others words, it induces a reconfiguration of the social relations of production, as well as the social and material bases of production. As a consequence, new – intraregional - farming styles can arise. At the same time, it can change the conditions of the different links of the productive chain, affecting the patrimonial values of the region. Figure 3 illustrates this by presenting normatively defined development patterns for farming styles in relation to diversity in natural resources.

In order to strengthen regional sustainable development initiatives that depart from the endogenous potential in local territories, it is necessary to design and implement productive alternatives that built upon existing social, economic, cultural and environmental processes, which implies strengthening traditional knowledge, improving traditional technology for family agriculture, generating viable peasant economies, reactivating regional economic dynamics, strengthening a culture of self-sufficiency and one that builds upon and strengthens a harmonious interrelation and respect for living nature (Morales, 2001; Toledo, 2003). In our work, efforts have been directed at four thematic fields of action that relate to these different fields of attention: agroecology and fair trade (aimed at strengthening farm reproduction and production), gender and natural resource management (aimed at incorporating the gender issue in our work), appropriate technology development and, finally, regional production and territorial value recuperation. Within these different thematic fields, various theoretical-methodological tools have been applied.7 In the following sections, I will describe our different experiences in these fields.

#### **3. Agroecology: Strengthening the reproductive and productive base of farm enterprises8**

In the reproduction (and production) link of the productive chain, agro-ecology has been the starting point of our work, and, in lesser degree, the related field of fair trade. Following Guzman *et al.* (2000), the restoration of essential ecological processes of agro-ecosystems is the first step in the revalorization of traditional farming systems, where endogenous elements predominate over the exogenous ones.

This thematic field originates in the beginning of 2001, as a response to the social demands of an indigenous community in the region where we live and work. Until now, activities to

<sup>7</sup> This is explained by Rist (2004), who mentions that in the literature on endogenous development, attention goes mostly to *"what to obtain"*, rather than describing *"how to do it"*. Therefore, a great variety of methodologies is potentially useful for identifying, strengthening and evaluating endogenous development initiatives, whose choice depends on the specific characteristics of the local territory (Broekhuizen & van der Ploeg, 1995).

<sup>8</sup> Based on Figueroa et al. (2004).

Strengthening Endogenous Regional Development in Western Mexico 93

fertilizers reflects the non-existence of fixed recipes. Additionally, it reflects farmer experience, their problem-solving creativity and the traditional knowledge put to use in

In addition to the preparation of organic fertilizers, the importance of traditional knowledge on nature observation, and the importance of the moon in agriculture, that is, each one of its phases and consequent influence on plant and the animal growth, has been strengthened by thematic workshops. Furthermore, the importance placed on preventing the burning of crop residues has favored crop association recovery and allowed reflection on the necessity to diversify not only crops, but also animal use within the household. Likewise, level curve ploughing was realized by promoting the "A-apparatus" to avoid erosion in steep areas.

The different agro-ecological proposals for sustainable development have been promoted by us as suggestions, recommendations, or as a guide, and can be used and developed according to the specific conditions of participating farmers, without creating an artificial

Several years after having initiated the activities described, a number of lessons can be

• *The importance of the recovery of crop diversity*: we found a greater diversification in maize cultivation fields of participant farmers, amongst others, due to the abolishment of chemical herbicides. Associations of crops that have been established include: maize, bean, Jamaica (*Hibiscus* sp.), cucumber, tomato, pumpkin, banana and blackberry. • *The abolishment of fire as a practice to eliminate crop residues and weeds*: this practice has been reduced by those farmers that have participated in the different workshops, and

• *The trace of level curves*, with the use of A-apparatus. This practice diminishes soil

It is important to mention that these practices have obtained relevance in the sense that they have reinforced farmer autonomy and independence and have contributed to a revalorization of manual (family) labor. For example, all the cleaning in the parcel was performed manually, a fact that furthermore reinforces the incorporation of organic matter to the soil and replaces the use of (chemical) fertilizer and pesticides. The adoption of the organic fertilizers by the producers of several communities has many perspectives to continue advancing, due to the flexibility in the use of supplementary local resources to

Rural development policies do not only affect male, but also female farmers, although the majority of the policies is directed mainly at the former (Moser 1993; Kabeer 1998). It is for this reasons that our work has included a gender dimension, in order to strengthen the position of women in different societal spaces, such as: citizen participation and decision making, community leadership, and access, use and control of natural resources, among

daily practice, demonstrating great skill and capacity for self-management.

separation of agricultural work from the daily of rural communities.

has favored the incorporation of organic matter into the soil.

erosion, together with the use of dead and live fences. • *The incorporation of organic fertilizers*, elaborated by participants.

elaborate the organic fertilizers, as we already mentioned before.

**4. Gender relations in small-scale projects9**

others (Enríquez, 2000).

9 Based on Reyes et al. (2004).

learned, of which we want to mention the following:

Fig. 3. Normatively defined development patterns for farming styles in relation to resource diversity (Gerritsen, 2002: 27)

improve the soil and the quality of local foods have been carried out, and have spread to other communities. Farmer training workshops are an important part of the work and are realized by (professional) advisers and by farmer extensionists.

The recuperation of traditional ecological knowledge and practice is oriented towards the revalorization of local knowledge, in addition to the advisory work, allowing a permanent dialogue between the different parties. Likewise, following Restrepo (1998), it is the farmers themselves, who discover the main problems that affect them. Moreover, it is these farmers who set the priorities and look for solutions, or demand a solution to external institutions, when not locally available.

A central activity has been the development of organic fertilizers elaborated with local materials and knowledge. The diverse ways in which farmers have are prepared organic

Fig. 3. Normatively defined development patterns for farming styles in relation to resource

improve the soil and the quality of local foods have been carried out, and have spread to other communities. Farmer training workshops are an important part of the work and are

The recuperation of traditional ecological knowledge and practice is oriented towards the revalorization of local knowledge, in addition to the advisory work, allowing a permanent dialogue between the different parties. Likewise, following Restrepo (1998), it is the farmers themselves, who discover the main problems that affect them. Moreover, it is these farmers who set the priorities and look for solutions, or demand a solution to external institutions,

A central activity has been the development of organic fertilizers elaborated with local materials and knowledge. The diverse ways in which farmers have are prepared organic

realized by (professional) advisers and by farmer extensionists.

diversity (Gerritsen, 2002: 27)

when not locally available.

fertilizers reflects the non-existence of fixed recipes. Additionally, it reflects farmer experience, their problem-solving creativity and the traditional knowledge put to use in daily practice, demonstrating great skill and capacity for self-management.

In addition to the preparation of organic fertilizers, the importance of traditional knowledge on nature observation, and the importance of the moon in agriculture, that is, each one of its phases and consequent influence on plant and the animal growth, has been strengthened by thematic workshops. Furthermore, the importance placed on preventing the burning of crop residues has favored crop association recovery and allowed reflection on the necessity to diversify not only crops, but also animal use within the household. Likewise, level curve ploughing was realized by promoting the "A-apparatus" to avoid erosion in steep areas.

The different agro-ecological proposals for sustainable development have been promoted by us as suggestions, recommendations, or as a guide, and can be used and developed according to the specific conditions of participating farmers, without creating an artificial separation of agricultural work from the daily of rural communities.

Several years after having initiated the activities described, a number of lessons can be learned, of which we want to mention the following:

It is important to mention that these practices have obtained relevance in the sense that they have reinforced farmer autonomy and independence and have contributed to a revalorization of manual (family) labor. For example, all the cleaning in the parcel was performed manually, a fact that furthermore reinforces the incorporation of organic matter to the soil and replaces the use of (chemical) fertilizer and pesticides. The adoption of the organic fertilizers by the producers of several communities has many perspectives to continue advancing, due to the flexibility in the use of supplementary local resources to elaborate the organic fertilizers, as we already mentioned before.

#### **4. Gender relations in small-scale projects9**

Rural development policies do not only affect male, but also female farmers, although the majority of the policies is directed mainly at the former (Moser 1993; Kabeer 1998). It is for this reasons that our work has included a gender dimension, in order to strengthen the position of women in different societal spaces, such as: citizen participation and decision making, community leadership, and access, use and control of natural resources, among others (Enríquez, 2000).

<sup>9</sup> Based on Reyes et al. (2004).

Strengthening Endogenous Regional Development in Western Mexico 95

Lorena". The Lorena stoves use less firewood and have decreased the negative health effects associated with fire smoke. They can be considered as a technology that is appropriate to

Our work in promoting the Lorena stoves in the Southern Coast of Jalisco has increased the understanding of the problem with firewood collection, especially related to women farmers, as well as the inconveniences of traditional stoves. Collection and the nuisance of smoke in the

Until now, a total number of approximately 250 Lorena stoves have been built in the region, illustrating the possibilities of fomenting appropriate technology amongst peasant and

According to results, Lorena stoves reduce firewood use up to 70%, in comparison to traditional stoves. Besides, the improved firewood stoves have substantially improved the health of farmers, especially women. While the introduction of the Lorena stove has been a success, farmers do not directly relate its functioning with natural resource conservation (through there was an observed decrease in the firewood necessities). This stresses the need

There are a great diversity of products, which are produced in the region. These products, called here regional products, can be local foods and beverages, with typical recipes that have a limited geographic distribution with respect to his elaboration. We also include ceramics, embroidery, furniture and other handmade products (cf. van der Meulen, 1999). Regional production can be divided into three categories. First, many of the regional products are the product of agricultural work, elaborated by individuals, families or by groups of farmers who live in rural zones. Secondly, in urban zones we found the second category, i.e. to be the typical occupations, for example, baker or butcher. In these cases, importance is attributed to preparation or elaboration of certain product, rather than the origin of the resources. Finally, the third category consists of those regional products in urban zones that are commercialized by small entrepreneurs. These can consist of products that are traditional for a region or products that carry the name of the region, showing their origin in a given region (*ibid.*). It is worth noting that the different categories are not mutually exclusive, and it is not always totally clear in which of the

So far, we have described 32 regional products, which represent a first approximation in the Southern Coast of Jalisco (and part of the neighboring state of Colima) in regards to understanding of how actors respond to economic globalization that affects them in one

With respect to the characteristics of regional production, a statistical analysis suggests the existence of two large groups. On the one hand, we found a group of producers and

kitchen were mentioned as two major problems regarding firewood and its burning.

for incorporating a environmental education component in our work.

three categories a specific product belongs.

way or another in the local territory.

11 Taken from Gerritsen et al. (2004, 2005a).

**6. Endogenous development and regional agricultural and artisanal**

local conditions.

indigenous farmers.

**production11**

Since 1995, several actions have been established with a group of women farmers in one of the indigenous communities in the region, directed at reinforcing production strategies based on the reality and the necessities suggested by the women. These actions have consisted in supporting women solely, but also include mixed - male and female - farmer groups, in developing small-scale projects, such as: organic coffee, embroidery, natural conserves, organic honey, and traditional medicine.

Within the projects, women are not perceived as passive objects of development, but as active actors who have capacities and abilities to modify their socio-material surrounding, based on their knowledge of the specific characteristics of their natural surroundings, and their definition of strategies in order to interact with different local and governmental actors (cf. Long & Long, 1992; Long, 2001).

The actions within this thematic field are oriented to reinforce coherent strategic necessities of the participant women farmers. This includes the following activities:

As mentioned before, these strategies were translated into a number of small-scale development projects, which for the sake of feasibility were established initially within the frame of the family production. Not only economic benefits have been derived from the productive projects, but there has also been the systematization of a series of social indicators that allow us to establish a retrospective reflection of the process of the on-going work with the women.

Furthermore, the inclusion of a gender approach in our actions has allowed a valorization of the contribution of women farmers to be strengthened further. Although the small-scale projects have turned around family production, throughout time it has become clear that the strategic needs of the women farmers have to be addressed also in the training workshops implemented.

### **5. Endogenous rural development and technology development10**

Endogenous rural development not only requires the strengthening of the reproductive and productive base of the farm enterprise, or giving attention to the role of male and female farmers. It also has to deal with the development of appropriate technology (Pretty 1995). Generally speaking, technology is understood here as a combination of a number of techniques and the knowledge to apply these techniques.

Firewood is one of the most frequently used renewable resources in rural areas and one of the aspects to be considered here is the type of technology used for its burning. Traditional stoves are inefficient in their energy consumption and have a negative impact on human health. For this reason we started to promote improved firewood stoves, called "Estufas

<sup>10</sup> Based on Figueroa et al. (2003).

Since 1995, several actions have been established with a group of women farmers in one of the indigenous communities in the region, directed at reinforcing production strategies based on the reality and the necessities suggested by the women. These actions have consisted in supporting women solely, but also include mixed - male and female - farmer groups, in developing small-scale projects, such as: organic coffee, embroidery, natural

Within the projects, women are not perceived as passive objects of development, but as active actors who have capacities and abilities to modify their socio-material surrounding, based on their knowledge of the specific characteristics of their natural surroundings, and their definition of strategies in order to interact with different local and governmental actors

The actions within this thematic field are oriented to reinforce coherent strategic necessities

• Training the different groups, both women solely and mixed in order to strengthen

• Generation of mechanisms for active and constructive participation of women, allowing

As mentioned before, these strategies were translated into a number of small-scale development projects, which for the sake of feasibility were established initially within the frame of the family production. Not only economic benefits have been derived from the productive projects, but there has also been the systematization of a series of social indicators that allow us to establish a retrospective reflection of the process of the on-going

Furthermore, the inclusion of a gender approach in our actions has allowed a valorization of the contribution of women farmers to be strengthened further. Although the small-scale projects have turned around family production, throughout time it has become clear that the strategic needs of the women farmers have to be addressed also in the training workshops

Endogenous rural development not only requires the strengthening of the reproductive and productive base of the farm enterprise, or giving attention to the role of male and female farmers. It also has to deal with the development of appropriate technology (Pretty 1995). Generally speaking, technology is understood here as a combination of a number of

Firewood is one of the most frequently used renewable resources in rural areas and one of the aspects to be considered here is the type of technology used for its burning. Traditional stoves are inefficient in their energy consumption and have a negative impact on human health. For this reason we started to promote improved firewood stoves, called "Estufas

**5. Endogenous rural development and technology development10**

techniques and the knowledge to apply these techniques.

of the participant women farmers. This includes the following activities:

production, administration and commercialization capacities;

a change of the women's social position in their community.

conserves, organic honey, and traditional medicine.

• Supporting the organization of the group of women;

(cf. Long & Long, 1992; Long, 2001).

work with the women.

10 Based on Figueroa et al. (2003).

implemented.

Lorena". The Lorena stoves use less firewood and have decreased the negative health effects associated with fire smoke. They can be considered as a technology that is appropriate to local conditions.

Our work in promoting the Lorena stoves in the Southern Coast of Jalisco has increased the understanding of the problem with firewood collection, especially related to women farmers, as well as the inconveniences of traditional stoves. Collection and the nuisance of smoke in the kitchen were mentioned as two major problems regarding firewood and its burning.

Until now, a total number of approximately 250 Lorena stoves have been built in the region, illustrating the possibilities of fomenting appropriate technology amongst peasant and indigenous farmers.

According to results, Lorena stoves reduce firewood use up to 70%, in comparison to traditional stoves. Besides, the improved firewood stoves have substantially improved the health of farmers, especially women. While the introduction of the Lorena stove has been a success, farmers do not directly relate its functioning with natural resource conservation (through there was an observed decrease in the firewood necessities). This stresses the need for incorporating a environmental education component in our work.

#### **6. Endogenous development and regional agricultural and artisanal production11**

There are a great diversity of products, which are produced in the region. These products, called here regional products, can be local foods and beverages, with typical recipes that have a limited geographic distribution with respect to his elaboration. We also include ceramics, embroidery, furniture and other handmade products (cf. van der Meulen, 1999).

Regional production can be divided into three categories. First, many of the regional products are the product of agricultural work, elaborated by individuals, families or by groups of farmers who live in rural zones. Secondly, in urban zones we found the second category, i.e. to be the typical occupations, for example, baker or butcher. In these cases, importance is attributed to preparation or elaboration of certain product, rather than the origin of the resources. Finally, the third category consists of those regional products in urban zones that are commercialized by small entrepreneurs. These can consist of products that are traditional for a region or products that carry the name of the region, showing their origin in a given region (*ibid.*). It is worth noting that the different categories are not mutually exclusive, and it is not always totally clear in which of the three categories a specific product belongs.

So far, we have described 32 regional products, which represent a first approximation in the Southern Coast of Jalisco (and part of the neighboring state of Colima) in regards to understanding of how actors respond to economic globalization that affects them in one way or another in the local territory.

With respect to the characteristics of regional production, a statistical analysis suggests the existence of two large groups. On the one hand, we found a group of producers and

<sup>11</sup> Taken from Gerritsen et al. (2004, 2005a).

Strengthening Endogenous Regional Development in Western Mexico 97

producers (Figure 1). Compared to the latter, analytically one can state that endogenous development initiatives are characterized by a "broadening", a "deepening" and a "re-

Following van der Ploeg et al. (2002), the broadening of farming activities refers to the incorporation of new farming activities into the farming domains, such as agri-tourism, care activities, diversification or nature and landscape management activities. Deepening refers to the aggregation of new values to the farm, as a consequence of the shift to organic farming, the elaboration of high-quality and regional products, and the shortening of the supply chains. Finally, the re-grounding of farming practice refers to the substitution of certain values for others, such as, for example, new forms of cost-reduction, off-farm income

In our case, a deepening and re-grounding of farming practice characterize the endogenous development initiatives in the Southern Coast of Jalisco. Deepening refers to the elaboration of organic and regional products, as well as the search for fair trade commercialization initiatives. Furthermore, re-grounding takes place by the substitution of chemical by organic fertilizers, as well as the use of Lorena stoves. It also takes place by through the association

Retaking Figure 2, a (qualitative) assessment of the sustainability of endogenous rural development initiatives can also be made, as compared to conventional agricultural practices (Gonzalez, 2006). Figure 5 presents a qualitative comparison of four crops that are important in the region, including the underlying livelihood strategies, as well as their

Comparing organically cultivated peanuts and maize with agro-industrially produced melon and agave in relation to single-use vs. multiple-use strategies (i.e. specialization vs. diversification) and the presence of a low vs. high diversity in natural resources (i.e. enrichment vs. degradation of the natural environment) shows that the endogenous rural development initiatives are characterized by diversification and environmental enrichment,

Until now, we presented a general description of the endogenous rural development program, as well as the different initiatives supported by us, through training, organization and applied research. However, the strengthening of endogenous rural development initiatives goes beyond mere training and organization of different farmer groups with whom we work. It has relates to the topic of "rurality", that is to say, our understanding of and actions associated with "the rural". Generally speaking, we understand "rurality" referring to the social representations of rural zones, which relate to existent dynamics and socio-materials processes (van der Ploeg, 1997). In the case of Mexico, reflecting about existing rurality is important, due to the deep transformations to which the Mexican countryside is submitted, and which are due to neo-liberal development and economic globalization processes (Schwentesius et al., 2003; Esteva &

while melon and agave are specialized and degrading farming systems.

grounding" of the different farming activities, as illustrated by Figure 4.

sources and new forms of co-operative management.

of women farmers around common productive issues.

**8. Towards a new emergent rurality**

environmental impact.

Marielle, 2003).

businessmen that use an advanced process of industrialization, and who are located mainly in urban zones. Products of this group are characterized by a high exchange value. Additionally, specialist dominates this group. On the other hand, we found a second group comprised of those actors whose products are characterized by a high use value. These actors do not use a very advanced industrialization process; rather they take advantage of locally available resources. In other words, the logic of this group is geared toward home consumption, and they only commercialize surplus produce. Additionally, the activities of this group are more related to farming, and, as such, this group is mainly found in rural zones.

Our analysis further suggest that the activities of the first group (the specialists in urban areas) requires a considerable economic investment and constant acquisition of inputs for production and commercialization, meanwhile most products in the rural zones are developed more or less in a context of economic limitations and with a predominant use of their own resources.

Many of the regional products can be considered as "novelties" (Swagemakers, 2002). With this term, reference is made here to specific changes made by an actor in the production process with the purpose of reaching a desired situation. In order for a novelty to develop, a "niche" is required, that is specific local conditions where the idea can emerge and the fabrication of a regional product can take place. It does not only require a favorable context, but also time so that the development of a regional product can mature. Third, the development of a regional product is closely related with insecurity in or vulnerability of livelihood strategies, in both production and commercialization (Wiskerke & van der Ploeg, 2004). As such, many of regional products are a result from constant experimentation. These three elements, *novelty - niche – insecurity* are highly related with the life histories of the social actors who produce and commercialize these regional products.

#### **7. Understanding endogenous rural development initiatives**

In the foregoing, we described the four thematic work fields we have been working with, which aim to support and strengthen endogenous rural development initiatives in the Southern Coast of Jalisco. These different experiences can be considered as different strategies of valuation, and use and management of natural resources in local territories. Furthermore, these strategies depart from the existing endogenous potential in the local space, which can be characterized by a productive autonomy, maintenance of identity and local culture, and strong roots to the local area. In relation to the latter, a fundamental difference is observed with those strategies, where the mobilization of resources is based on organization outside of the local area. In these latter cases, resources are not only mobilized outside the territory, but also the production (and reproduction), transformation and commercialization, including economic and institutional relations and the family or community relations that accompany it. The latter implies that any effort to strengthen endogenous rural development initiatives allows revaluing the social, economic and ecological characteristics of local territories, i.e. it involves a revaluation of multi-functional nature of these areas.

The endogenous rural development initiatives as developed by the social actors supported show a farming domain coordination (Figure 2) that is different than that of conventional

businessmen that use an advanced process of industrialization, and who are located mainly in urban zones. Products of this group are characterized by a high exchange value. Additionally, specialist dominates this group. On the other hand, we found a second group comprised of those actors whose products are characterized by a high use value. These actors do not use a very advanced industrialization process; rather they take advantage of locally available resources. In other words, the logic of this group is geared toward home consumption, and they only commercialize surplus produce. Additionally, the activities of this group are more related to farming, and, as such, this group is mainly found in rural

Our analysis further suggest that the activities of the first group (the specialists in urban areas) requires a considerable economic investment and constant acquisition of inputs for production and commercialization, meanwhile most products in the rural zones are developed more or less in a context of economic limitations and with a predominant use of

Many of the regional products can be considered as "novelties" (Swagemakers, 2002). With this term, reference is made here to specific changes made by an actor in the production process with the purpose of reaching a desired situation. In order for a novelty to develop, a "niche" is required, that is specific local conditions where the idea can emerge and the fabrication of a regional product can take place. It does not only require a favorable context, but also time so that the development of a regional product can mature. Third, the development of a regional product is closely related with insecurity in or vulnerability of livelihood strategies, in both production and commercialization (Wiskerke & van der Ploeg, 2004). As such, many of regional products are a result from constant experimentation. These three elements, *novelty - niche – insecurity* are highly related with the life histories of the

In the foregoing, we described the four thematic work fields we have been working with, which aim to support and strengthen endogenous rural development initiatives in the Southern Coast of Jalisco. These different experiences can be considered as different strategies of valuation, and use and management of natural resources in local territories. Furthermore, these strategies depart from the existing endogenous potential in the local space, which can be characterized by a productive autonomy, maintenance of identity and local culture, and strong roots to the local area. In relation to the latter, a fundamental difference is observed with those strategies, where the mobilization of resources is based on organization outside of the local area. In these latter cases, resources are not only mobilized outside the territory, but also the production (and reproduction), transformation and commercialization, including economic and institutional relations and the family or community relations that accompany it. The latter implies that any effort to strengthen endogenous rural development initiatives allows revaluing the social, economic and ecological characteristics of local territories, i.e. it involves a

The endogenous rural development initiatives as developed by the social actors supported show a farming domain coordination (Figure 2) that is different than that of conventional

social actors who produce and commercialize these regional products.

**7. Understanding endogenous rural development initiatives**

revaluation of multi-functional nature of these areas.

zones.

their own resources.

producers (Figure 1). Compared to the latter, analytically one can state that endogenous development initiatives are characterized by a "broadening", a "deepening" and a "regrounding" of the different farming activities, as illustrated by Figure 4.

Following van der Ploeg et al. (2002), the broadening of farming activities refers to the incorporation of new farming activities into the farming domains, such as agri-tourism, care activities, diversification or nature and landscape management activities. Deepening refers to the aggregation of new values to the farm, as a consequence of the shift to organic farming, the elaboration of high-quality and regional products, and the shortening of the supply chains. Finally, the re-grounding of farming practice refers to the substitution of certain values for others, such as, for example, new forms of cost-reduction, off-farm income sources and new forms of co-operative management.

In our case, a deepening and re-grounding of farming practice characterize the endogenous development initiatives in the Southern Coast of Jalisco. Deepening refers to the elaboration of organic and regional products, as well as the search for fair trade commercialization initiatives. Furthermore, re-grounding takes place by the substitution of chemical by organic fertilizers, as well as the use of Lorena stoves. It also takes place by through the association of women farmers around common productive issues.

Retaking Figure 2, a (qualitative) assessment of the sustainability of endogenous rural development initiatives can also be made, as compared to conventional agricultural practices (Gonzalez, 2006). Figure 5 presents a qualitative comparison of four crops that are important in the region, including the underlying livelihood strategies, as well as their environmental impact.

Comparing organically cultivated peanuts and maize with agro-industrially produced melon and agave in relation to single-use vs. multiple-use strategies (i.e. specialization vs. diversification) and the presence of a low vs. high diversity in natural resources (i.e. enrichment vs. degradation of the natural environment) shows that the endogenous rural development initiatives are characterized by diversification and environmental enrichment, while melon and agave are specialized and degrading farming systems.

#### **8. Towards a new emergent rurality**

Until now, we presented a general description of the endogenous rural development program, as well as the different initiatives supported by us, through training, organization and applied research. However, the strengthening of endogenous rural development initiatives goes beyond mere training and organization of different farmer groups with whom we work. It has relates to the topic of "rurality", that is to say, our understanding of and actions associated with "the rural". Generally speaking, we understand "rurality" referring to the social representations of rural zones, which relate to existent dynamics and socio-materials processes (van der Ploeg, 1997). In the case of Mexico, reflecting about existing rurality is important, due to the deep transformations to which the Mexican countryside is submitted, and which are due to neo-liberal development and economic globalization processes (Schwentesius et al., 2003; Esteva & Marielle, 2003).

Strengthening Endogenous Regional Development in Western Mexico 99

Finally, the consolidation of this new rurality not only requires an appropriation of the patrimonial values by the regional society, but also the protection of these values.12 In addition, it requires a deep change in the thinking of civil society towards farming practices

> Tendency towards endogenous development

in general and food products in particularly.

High diversity in natural resources

Fig. 5. Qualitative sustainability assessment of four crops

Single-use strategy

Agave

research collaboration NCCR North South for their support.

The author acknowledges the University of Guadalajara and the international program on

Melon

Multiple-use strategy

Tendency towards exogenous development

Organic peanuts

Organic maize

12 Some of the mechanisms to protect the different initiatives of endogenous rural development might be the origin denominations in the case of the productive process, or the certification of the final

**9. Acknowledgements**

Low diversity in natural resources

products (Casablanca and Linck 2004).

Fig. 4. The structure of rural development at farm enterprise level (van der Ploeg et al., 2002: 12)

Our work in the South Coast of Jalisco suggests the presence of a new emergent rurality where the endogenous properties form the essence. As such, we understand rurality as being the result and expression of a co-production process, i.e. the on-going interactions and mutual transformations between man and nature in the local area, and where farmers play a strategic role. It is through the process of co-production that the typical (cultural) landscape of a region comes to life, or where an unique (agro-) biodiversity is being created (van der Ploeg, 1997; Gerritsen, 2002). Moreover, it has multiple benefits, such as the generation of local employment; the generation of income articulated to the regional economy, the maintenance of culture and local identity, and the conservation of natural resources, amongst others.

We assume that this new rurality is emergent as it appears there is an increasing number of producers who look for developing alternative models of production, transformation, and industrialization. The strategies of these actors include an appropriation of local territory's patrimonial values and the (re)valuation of its natural resources (*cf.* Casablanca & Linck, 2004). In this context, the absence of a favorable institutional context to strengthen these experiences is noticeable. Those who have played a role of facilitor in this process have been all non-governmental organizations.

*Organic farming High-quality production*

**Deepening**

 *Regional products*

Fig. 4. The structure of rural development at farm enterprise level (van der Ploeg et al., 2002: 12)

*Off-farm income*

*New forms of cost reduction*

food

**Convencional agriculture**

zones Agro-

Rural

Mobilization of resources

**Regrounding**

Our work in the South Coast of Jalisco suggests the presence of a new emergent rurality where the endogenous properties form the essence. As such, we understand rurality as being the result and expression of a co-production process, i.e. the on-going interactions and mutual transformations between man and nature in the local area, and where farmers play a strategic role. It is through the process of co-production that the typical (cultural) landscape of a region comes to life, or where an unique (agro-) biodiversity is being created (van der Ploeg, 1997; Gerritsen, 2002). Moreover, it has multiple benefits, such as the generation of local employment; the generation of income articulated to the regional economy, the maintenance of

We assume that this new rurality is emergent as it appears there is an increasing number of producers who look for developing alternative models of production, transformation, and industrialization. The strategies of these actors include an appropriation of local territory's patrimonial values and the (re)valuation of its natural resources (*cf.* Casablanca & Linck, 2004). In this context, the absence of a favorable institutional context to strengthen these experiences is noticeable. Those who have played a role of facilitor in this process have been

culture and local identity, and the conservation of natural resources, amongst others.

all non-governmental organizations.

*Agri-tourism New on-farm activities Diversification*

**Broadening**

Finally, the consolidation of this new rurality not only requires an appropriation of the patrimonial values by the regional society, but also the protection of these values.12 In addition, it requires a deep change in the thinking of civil society towards farming practices in general and food products in particularly.

Fig. 5. Qualitative sustainability assessment of four crops

#### **9. Acknowledgements**

The author acknowledges the University of Guadalajara and the international program on research collaboration NCCR North South for their support.

<sup>12</sup> Some of the mechanisms to protect the different initiatives of endogenous rural development might be the origin denominations in the case of the productive process, or the certification of the final products (Casablanca and Linck 2004).

Strengthening Endogenous Regional Development in Western Mexico 101

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Gónzalez, F., R. (2006). *Analisis de sustentabilidad de cuatro cultivos en el ejido La Cienéga,*

Gúzman C., G., M. González de Molina & E. Sevilla G. (2000). *Introducción a la agroecología*

Halweil, B. (2002). *Home grown. The case for local food in a global market.* Washington, D.C.:

Heijden, D. van der, P. Camacho, C. Marlin & M. Salazar G. (2004). *Guía metodológica para el análisis de cadenas productivas.* Quito: Ruralter/SNV/CICDA/Intercooperation. Jansen, K. & S. Vellema. (2004). *Agribusiness and society. Corporate responses to environmentalism, market opportunities and public regulation.* London/New York: Zed Books. Kabeer, N. (1998). "Conectar, extender, trastocar: El desarrollo desde una perspectiva de

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febrero de 2005.

Guadalajara. B.Sc.-thesis.

Madrid/Barcelona/México.

Oaxaca, Oaxaca, 25 al 28 de mayo de 2005.

and New York: Routledge Press.

and Oxford: Westview Press.

Worldwatch Paper 163.

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*Municipio de Limón.* Autlán: Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur, Universidad de

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FES. México.

Cristóbal de las Casas:

**7**

*Norway*

Hans Morten Haugen

*Diakonhjemmet University College, Oslo*

**Enhanced Food Production by**

**Applying a Human Rights Approach –**

**Does Brazil Serve as a Model of Best Practice?**

The ignorance of agriculture in development policy circles that prevailed in most of the 1980s and 1990 has finally come to an end. Agriculture, including the right use of the land, is

a. Overcoming poverty, as GDP growth from agriculture is found to be overall twice as effective in reducing poverty as GDP growth derived from other sectors; and GDP growth originating in agriculture benefits the poorest half of the population

b. Mitigating climate change, by promoting 'low greenhouse gas agriculture' (Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 2009, Nellemann et al. 2009, IPCC 2007, chapter 8,

c. Reducing imports of food, in order to avoid becoming vulnerable to volatile prices on the world market; note in this context that Brazil, which relies on a global market for food, recognizes the concept of food sovereignty, most notably in Article 5 of the Law 11.346 of 2006 on a National Food and Nutrition Security System (SISAN), which reads (extract): "countries must be guaranteed the supremacy of their own decisions

d. Enhancing energy security, as in the case of Brazil, where ethanol from sugarcane has bypassed petrol as the dominant fuel, while the sugarcane currently occupies less than

It might be difficult to achieve all these objectives simultaneously, and in particular the latter seems difficult to reconcile with the three former. FAO, however, promotes integrated foodenergy systems (Bogdanski et al. 2011), which makes frequent references to Brazil, including Brazil's processing flexibilities in producing either food (sugar) or fuel (ethanol), depending

This chapter analyzes Brazil, primarily as its efforts towards enhanced food production has been widely endorsed simultaneously as the human right to food has been strengthened, both through legal amendments and specific programmes. Brazil's policies are referred to when other states' agricultural and social policies are reviewed (Economist, 2011a; see also

**1. Introduction**

considered central for the following objectives:

substantially more (World Bank, 2007, 6)

regarding food production and consumption."

on the overall supply and market conditions.

one per cent of (the best) agricultural lands in Brazil.

IAASTD, 2009, 538).

### **Enhanced Food Production by Applying a Human Rights Approach – Does Brazil Serve as a Model of Best Practice?**

Hans Morten Haugen *Diakonhjemmet University College, Oslo Norway*

#### **1. Introduction**

102 Food Production – Approaches, Challenges and Tasks

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The ignorance of agriculture in development policy circles that prevailed in most of the 1980s and 1990 has finally come to an end. Agriculture, including the right use of the land, is considered central for the following objectives:

It might be difficult to achieve all these objectives simultaneously, and in particular the latter seems difficult to reconcile with the three former. FAO, however, promotes integrated foodenergy systems (Bogdanski et al. 2011), which makes frequent references to Brazil, including Brazil's processing flexibilities in producing either food (sugar) or fuel (ethanol), depending on the overall supply and market conditions.

This chapter analyzes Brazil, primarily as its efforts towards enhanced food production has been widely endorsed simultaneously as the human right to food has been strengthened, both through legal amendments and specific programmes. Brazil's policies are referred to when other states' agricultural and social policies are reviewed (Economist, 2011a; see also

Enhanced Food Production by Applying a Human