Preface

Root vegetables may be found in a wide variety of plant species; they include potatoes, carrots, beet, and turnips. Root vegetables often act as storage organs extended to store energy in the form of carbohydrates. They vary in terms of the quantities of starches, sugars, and a wide variety of other types of carbohydrates that they contain. Starchy root vegetables are important staple foods, especially in tropical countries. They have supplanted cereals over a significant area of Central Africa, West Africa, and Oceania, where they are consumed either directly or mashed to form dishes like *fufu* or *poi*. Those that have an exceptionally high concentration of carbohydrates in the form of starch are particularly valuable from an economic standpoint.

When preserved in root cellars, the vast majority of root vegetables are able to keep their quality and freshness for a number of months beyond harvesting, which is especially important at latitudes that are not tropical, since winter is typically a season when there is very little or no harvesting. A variety of methods may be used to lengthen the growing season, enabling harvesting to continue far into the winter. The use of polytunnels is essential to the success of these methods.

I hope that this book will act as a handbook for students, researchers, and practitioners working in the field of root vegetables research, as well as stimulating future study ideas by proposing relevant research topics. The book is arranged in 13 chapters, each presenting an overview of background material on the topic within each chapter and recent developments.

> **Dr. Prashant Kaushik** Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain

> > CULTA Inc., Tokyo, Japan

**1**

Section 1

Composition of Root

Vegetables

Section 1


**Figure 3.**

*Global intensity improvement of final energy [12].*

#### **Figure 4.** *Country/region's intensity improvement of final energy [12].*

the main driver of energy density improvements. Global technical efficiency improvements between 2015 and 2018 prevented 4% more energy consumption in 2018. This technical efficiency has doubled the global primary energy intensity improvement rate in 2018 [12].

**9**

*Introductory Chapter: Trends and General Information on Energy Policies in the World*

This book discusses the current world situation regarding the existing energy policies. The interest in energy sources and energy data for renewable energy sources are presented and the energy distribution shares are clearly shown in detail. The biggest problem in energy policies is still the investment cost. Currently, materials and systems of energy systems occupy a significant place in energy conversion.

In this section, it is necessary to determine the global energy targets as well as the current energy data. Energy policies should be considered in the short-term as well as long- and medium-term plans. In short, countries have to take all kinds of measures in their energy policies and wars, turmoil, government stabilization, and

Accordingly, in order to shape the world of, the future, 2050 and beyond, arrangements should be made by taking into account the data that can shed light on

The increase in geopolitical tensions as well as many other uncertainties such as the oil crises in the world affect the energy policies [13]. In addition, precautions must be taken urgently for emissions-particles and other key factors released during energy production. While energy policies affect these phenomena mentioned above, energy investment costs and system installations are other factors. In addition, disagreements, unrest and wars between countries directly affect energy

Due to key factors, when it is evaluated in terms of countries, it is necessary to reveal what should be done in energy policies in the coming years. Laws and objectives should be regulated accordingly [13]. Governments should focus on sustainable energy resources and sound steps should be taken forward. Stability and order can only be achieved through the establishment and implementation of good energy policies. The energy history chronology and future energy scenario are presented in **Figure 6**. In 1919, energy consumption was only 1500 Mtoe, while in 2018 it was 14,300 Mtoe. In 1919, only wood, coal, and small amounts of oil were consumed,

Energy costs can be improved with advanced technological systems.

**4. Results and discussion**

human rights into consideration.

energy policies.

**Figure 5.**

policies.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92882*

*Global primary energy intensity improvement rate [12].*

*Introductory Chapter: Trends and General Information on Energy Policies in the World DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92882*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Energy Policy*

**Figure 3.**

*Global intensity improvement of final energy [12].*

**8**

**Figure 4.**

improvement rate in 2018 [12].

*Country/region's intensity improvement of final energy [12].*

the main driver of energy density improvements. Global technical efficiency improvements between 2015 and 2018 prevented 4% more energy consumption in 2018. This technical efficiency has doubled the global primary energy intensity *Global primary energy intensity improvement rate [12].*

This book discusses the current world situation regarding the existing energy policies. The interest in energy sources and energy data for renewable energy sources are presented and the energy distribution shares are clearly shown in detail. The biggest problem in energy policies is still the investment cost. Currently, materials and systems of energy systems occupy a significant place in energy conversion. Energy costs can be improved with advanced technological systems.

### **4. Results and discussion**

In this section, it is necessary to determine the global energy targets as well as the current energy data. Energy policies should be considered in the short-term as well as long- and medium-term plans. In short, countries have to take all kinds of measures in their energy policies and wars, turmoil, government stabilization, and human rights into consideration.

Accordingly, in order to shape the world of, the future, 2050 and beyond, arrangements should be made by taking into account the data that can shed light on energy policies.

The increase in geopolitical tensions as well as many other uncertainties such as the oil crises in the world affect the energy policies [13]. In addition, precautions must be taken urgently for emissions-particles and other key factors released during energy production. While energy policies affect these phenomena mentioned above, energy investment costs and system installations are other factors. In addition, disagreements, unrest and wars between countries directly affect energy policies.

Due to key factors, when it is evaluated in terms of countries, it is necessary to reveal what should be done in energy policies in the coming years. Laws and objectives should be regulated accordingly [13]. Governments should focus on sustainable energy resources and sound steps should be taken forward. Stability and order can only be achieved through the establishment and implementation of good energy policies.

The energy history chronology and future energy scenario are presented in **Figure 6**. In 1919, energy consumption was only 1500 Mtoe, while in 2018 it was 14,300 Mtoe. In 1919, only wood, coal, and small amounts of oil were consumed,

#### **Figure 6.**

*Energy history chronology and future energy scenario in the world [13]. Notes: \* 1,500 [Mtoe] & \*\* 14,300 [Mtoe].*

but in 2018 this changed completely. In 2018, petroleum was the first, followed by natural gas. Immediately after, coal and natural gas consumption are listed. Interest in renewable energy sources has also increased. In the 2040 forecasts, petroleum and natural gas are in the forefront, while coal and renewable energy sources are visually equalized in terms of consumption. It is foreseen that the consumption in nuclear energy may be considerable [13].


*2.4. Application of Stepwise Approach to An Iodoaryl Compound*

To demonstrate that our stepwise approach is useful for synthesis of 3-(1, 3-diarylallylidene)oxindoles **3**, which are not accessible by previous palladium-catalyzed methods, we synthesized **3** with an iodoaryl moiety using a Knoevenagel/allylic oxidation/Wittig strategy (Scheme 5). Due to its high reactivity toward the palladium catalyst, the iodoaryl group was not compatible with palladium-catalyzed reactions. Ti(O*i* Pr)4/pyridinemediated Knoevenagel condensation of oxindole **1** with *p*-iodoacetophenone gave 3 methyleneoxindole **5e** in 89% yield, with a preference for the *Z*-isomer (*Z*:*E*=10:1). Allylic oxidation of **5e** afforded aldehyde **7e** in 78% yield. In addition, the last Wittig reaction of **7e** produced **3ea** (80% yield), which could not be formed using previous methods. The iodoaryl group of **3ea** could be used as a functional handle for further molecular modifications. For example, Suzuki-Miyaura reaction of **3ea** introduced another phenyl group to give **9** in 84% yield.

**Scheme 5.** Synthesis of iodoaryl compound **3ea** and its Suzuki-Miyaura reaction.

In conclusion, we have developed two complementary stepwise approaches to synthesize (*E*)-3-(1,3-diarylallylidene)oxindoles **3** from oxindole **1** (Knoevenagel/allylic oxidation/Wittig and Knoevenagel/aldol/dehydration). These strategies enable the synthesis of various **3**, regardless of substituents on the aryl moiety. Especially, **3** with palladium-sensitive functional groups, such as iodoaryl groups, could be obtained by these stepwise methods, which could help to expand the applications of (*E*)-3-(1,3-diarylallylidene)oxindoles.


**Figure 16.** Structure of terthiophene.

**5. Photorefractive effect in photorefractive FLC blends containing**

FLCs are more crystalline than liquid, in comparison with nematic LCs; therefore several sophisticated techniques are required to prepare fine FLC films. Preparation of a uniformly aligned, defect-free SS-FLC using a single FLC compound is very difficult. In most cases, mixtures of LC compounds are typically used to obtain fine SS-FLC films. The composition of FLC mixture contains a base LC, which is a mixture of SmC phase forming LC compounds, and a chiral dopant. The chiral dopant introduces a helical structure into the LC phase. Utilization of an FLC as a photorefractive material requires the addition of photoconductive compounds to the FLC. However, the introduction of such non-LC compounds to the FLC often hinders the formation of a uniformly aligned SS-state. Thus, appropriate design of the photoconductive compounds is crucial. The photorefractive effect of FLC blends containing photoconductive chiral dopants has been investigated [17-19]. Terthiophene was selected as a photoconductive chromophore because it is a well-known semiconductor compound and has a rod-like structure (Figure 16), which increases the solubility into the rod-like structured LC material. The structures of the LC compounds, the electron acceptor TNF, and the photocon‐ ductive chiral compounds are shown in Figure 17. A ternary mixture of LC compounds was selected as a base LC. The mixing ratio of 8PP8, 8PP10, and 8PP6 was 1:1:2 since the 1:1:2 mixture exhibits the SmC phase over the widest temperature range. The textures of the FLC blends in 10 μm gap cells were observed using polarizing optical microscopy. The alignment of the FLC molecules is dominated not only by the properties of the FLCs but also by the affinity of FLC molecules with the alignment layer (polyimide). A homogeneous, anisotropic film can be obtained through interactions between LC molecules and the alignment layer. The FLC cell is fabricated by the precise assembly of indium tin oxide glasses coated with polyimide alignment layer into a cell of 10 μm gap determined by the diameter of the spacer bead. The appropriate preparation conditions for the fabrication of the LC cell differ from FLC to FLC. The thickness of the polyimide coating (Hitachi Chemicals LX-1400) was 20 to 30 nm and the surface of the polyimide was rubbed with a polyester velvet roll under specific conditions. Typical examples of textures observed in the 3T-2MB and 3T-2OC samples under a polarizing microscope are shown in Figures 18 and 19. On increasing the concentration of the photocon‐ ductive chiral dopant, defects appeared in the texture. The uniformly aligned state with few defects was obtained for samples with 3T-2MB concentrations lower than 8 wt.% (Figure 18). However, the 3T-2OC sample retained the uniformly aligned state with few defects for 3T-2OC concentrations less than 6 wt.% (Figure 19). The spontaneous polarization of the 3T-2MB

. On the other hand, the spontaneous polarization of the 3T-2OC

intermolecular interactions) of the 3T-2MB sample may be advantageous for the formation of the uniformly aligned SS-state. A texture with a pattern of strips was observed in the 3T-2MB samples (Figure 18). It indicates that a complete SS-state was not formed in the 3T-2MB sample in the 10 μm gap cell and the helical structure existed. Zig-zag defect, which is the typical defect

. The smaller spontaneous polarization (and thus smaller

**photoconductive chiral compounds**

**5.1. Photoconductive chiral dopants**

138 Ferroelectric Materials – Synthesis and Characterization

samples was less than 1 nC/cm2

samples was approximately 5 nC/cm2

**Figure 17.** Structures of the smectic LCs (8PP8, 8PP10, and 8PP6), photoconductive chiral dopants (3T-2MB and 3T-2OC), and the sensitizer TNF.

 **Figure 18.** Textures of FLC mixtures containing 3T-2MB in a 10 μm gap LC cell observed under a polarizing micro‐ scope. The strengths of the external electric field were +1.0, 0, and 1.0 V/μm. The direction of the applied electric field is shown in Fig. 5. The 3T-2MB concentrations were in the range of 2 wt.% to 10 wt.% with the addition of 0.1 wt.% TNF.

Dynamic Amplification of Optical Signals by Photorefractive Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60776 141

 **Figure 19.** Textures of FLC mixtures containing 3T-2OC in a 10 μm gap LC cell observed under a polarizing micro‐ scope. The strengths of the external electric field were +1.0, 0, and 1.0 V/μm. The direction of the applied electric field is shown in Fig. 5. The 3T-2OC concentrations were in the range of 2 wt.% to 10 wt.% with the addition of 0.1 wt.% TNF.

**Figure 18.** Textures of FLC mixtures containing 3T-2MB in a 10 μm gap LC cell observed under a polarizing micro‐ scope. The strengths of the external electric field were +1.0, 0, and 1.0 V/μm. The direction of the applied electric field is shown in Fig. 5. The 3T-2MB concentrations were in the range of 2 wt.% to 10 wt.% with the addition of 0.1 wt.% TNF.

μ

μ

140 Ferroelectric Materials – Synthesis and Characterization

μ

### **5.2. Asymmetric energy exchange in photorefractive FLC blends**

The photorefractive effect of the FLC blends was measured by two-beam coupling experi‐ ments. A typical example of the asymmetric energy exchange observed for a mixture of the base LC, 3T-2MB, and TNF at 25 °C with an applied electric field of 1 V/μm is shown in Figure 20. When the laser beams interfered in the sample, the increase in transmitted intensity of one of the beams and the decrease in the transmitted intensity of the other beam were observed. When the polarity of the applied electric field was reversed, these transmittance characteristics were also reversed. Asymmetric energy exchange was not observed when the external electric field was not applied. This indicates that the beam coupling was not caused by a thermal grating or gratings formed through photochemical mechanisms. It was found that approxi‐ mately 40% of the energy of the L2 laser beam migrated to the L1 beam.

The gain coefficients of the samples were measured as a function of the applied electric field strength (Figure 21(a)). The gain coefficient of 1200 cm–1 was obtained in the 10 wt.% 3T-2MB sample with application of 1.5 V/μm. This gain coefficient is much higher than the values for FLCs reported previously [16]. The higher transparency of the LC blend was considered to contribute to the large gain coefficient. The weak external electric field strength required for the photorefractive effect in FLCs is advantageous for the photorefractive applications. The response time decreased with an increase of the electric field strength due to the increased charge separation efficiency. The shortest formation time of 0.9 ms was obtained with appli‐ cation of an external electric field of 1.9 V/μm (Figure 21(b)). The large gain and fast response are advantageous for the realization of optical devices such as real-time image amplifiers and accurate measurement devices.

**Figure 20.** Typical results for two-beam coupling experiments with a ternary mixture base LC, 3T-2MB, and TNF meas‐ ured at 25 °C. The pump beam was incident at 1 s and closed at 4 s.

**5.2. Asymmetric energy exchange in photorefractive FLC blends**

142 Ferroelectric Materials – Synthesis and Characterization

mately 40% of the energy of the L2 laser beam migrated to the L1 beam.

accurate measurement devices.

ured at 25 °C. The pump beam was incident at 1 s and closed at 4 s.

The photorefractive effect of the FLC blends was measured by two-beam coupling experi‐ ments. A typical example of the asymmetric energy exchange observed for a mixture of the base LC, 3T-2MB, and TNF at 25 °C with an applied electric field of 1 V/μm is shown in Figure 20. When the laser beams interfered in the sample, the increase in transmitted intensity of one of the beams and the decrease in the transmitted intensity of the other beam were observed. When the polarity of the applied electric field was reversed, these transmittance characteristics were also reversed. Asymmetric energy exchange was not observed when the external electric field was not applied. This indicates that the beam coupling was not caused by a thermal grating or gratings formed through photochemical mechanisms. It was found that approxi‐

The gain coefficients of the samples were measured as a function of the applied electric field strength (Figure 21(a)). The gain coefficient of 1200 cm–1 was obtained in the 10 wt.% 3T-2MB sample with application of 1.5 V/μm. This gain coefficient is much higher than the values for FLCs reported previously [16]. The higher transparency of the LC blend was considered to contribute to the large gain coefficient. The weak external electric field strength required for the photorefractive effect in FLCs is advantageous for the photorefractive applications. The response time decreased with an increase of the electric field strength due to the increased charge separation efficiency. The shortest formation time of 0.9 ms was obtained with appli‐ cation of an external electric field of 1.9 V/μm (Figure 21(b)). The large gain and fast response are advantageous for the realization of optical devices such as real-time image amplifiers and

 -

>

μ

**Figure 20.** Typical results for two-beam coupling experiments with a ternary mixture base LC, 3T-2MB, and TNF meas‐

**Figure 21.** Electric field dependence of the (a) gain coefficients and (b) refractive index grating formation times (re‐ sponse time) for mixtures of the base LC, 3T-2MB (10 wt.%), and TNF (0.1 wt.%) measured at 25 °C.

### **5.3. Temperature dependence of the asymmetric energy exchange for photorefractive FLC blends**

The temperature dependence of the gain coefficient for a photorefractive FLC blend with 3T-2MB is shown in Figure 22. Asymmetric energy exchange was observed at temperatures below the SmC\*-SmA phase transition temperature. Figure 23 shows temperature dependence of the helical pitch of the 3T-2MB samples observed under polarizing microscopy. The helical pitch diverged when the temperature approached the phase transition temperature. It has been reported that the asymmetric energy exchange for an FLC sample was observed only in the temperature range where the sample exhibits spontaneous polarization [8]. Thus, asymmetric energy exchange was observed only in the temperature range where the sample exhibits ferroelectric properties (i.e., the SmC\* phase).

**Figure 22.** Temperature dependence of gain coefficients for mixtures of the base LC with 3T-2MB concentrations of (a) 6 wt.% and (b) 10 wt.%.

**Figure 23.** Temperature dependence of helical pitch lengths for mixtures of the base LC with 3T-2MB concentrations of (a) 6 wt.% and (b) 10 wt.%.

### **5.4. Effect of the photoconductive chiral dopant concentration**

 The gain coefficients of samples with various 3T-2MB and 3T-2OC concentrations are plotted as a function of the external electric field magnitude in Figure 24. The gain coefficient increased with the strength of the external electric field up to 1.6 V/μm. The decrease in the gain coefficient at high external electric field is due to the realignment of the FLC molecules being restricted because the strength of the external electric field exceeds that of the internal electric field. The gain coefficient increased with the concentration of the photoconductive chiral dopants. The increase in the concentration of charge carriers in the FLC medium and an increase in the magnitude of spontaneous polarization contributes to a larger gain coefficient. The magnitude of the gain coefficient was independent of the concentration of TNF. It shows that charges are drifted through electric conduction based on a hopping mechanism, where electron holes hop between the photoconductive chiral dopants. The molecular weight of the photoconductive chiral dopant is similar to that of the LC molecules; therefore, in a 10 wt.% doped sample, approximately 10 photoconductive molecules are dispersed in 90 LC molecules. A cube, wherein each side includes 5 LC molecules, contains 125 LC molecules. Thus, the average distance between the photoconductive chiral dopant molecules in the LC is no more than 3 LC molecules. In this case, charge transport based on a hopping mechanism may be feasible. The gain coefficient of the 10 wt.% 3T-2MB sample was 1200 cm–1 with an applied electric field of only 1.6 V/μm (Figure 24(a)), which is twice as high as that of the 8 wt.% 3T-2OC sample at a similar external electric field (Figure 24(b)).

The response time of the samples is plotted as a function of the external electric field magnitude in Figure 25. The response time decreased with the increase of the electric field strength due to increased charge separation efficiency. The shortest formation time of 0.93 ms was obtained for the 10 wt.% 3T-2MB sample with an applied electric field of 2.0 V/μm. It was found that the response was faster than that of the 3T-2OC samples. The gain coefficient is lower and the response speed slower for the 3T-2OC sample even though the magnitude of the spontaneous polarization in the 3T-2OC samples (5 nC/cm2 ) is higher than that in the 3T-2MB sample (less than 1 nC/cm2 ). The transparency of the FLC film is more important for the photorefractive effect than the magnitude of spontaneous polarization.

(a) 6 wt.% and (b) 10 wt.%.

**5.4. Effect of the photoconductive chiral dopant concentration**

sample at a similar external electric field (Figure 24(b)).

**Figure 23.** Temperature dependence of helical pitch lengths for mixtures of the base LC with 3T-2MB concentrations of

The gain coefficients of samples with various 3T-2MB and 3T-2OC concentrations are plotted as a function of the external electric field magnitude in Figure 24. The gain coefficient increased with the strength of the external electric field up to 1.6 V/μm. The decrease in the gain coefficient at high external electric field is due to the realignment of the FLC molecules being restricted because the strength of the external electric field exceeds that of the internal electric field. The gain coefficient increased with the concentration of the photoconductive chiral dopants. The increase in the concentration of charge carriers in the FLC medium and an increase in the magnitude of spontaneous polarization contributes to a larger gain coefficient. The magnitude of the gain coefficient was independent of the concentration of TNF. It shows that charges are drifted through electric conduction based on a hopping mechanism, where electron holes hop between the photoconductive chiral dopants. The molecular weight of the photoconductive chiral dopant is similar to that of the LC molecules; therefore, in a 10 wt.% doped sample, approximately 10 photoconductive molecules are dispersed in 90 LC molecules. A cube, wherein each side includes 5 LC molecules, contains 125 LC molecules. Thus, the average distance between the photoconductive chiral dopant molecules in the LC is no more than 3 LC molecules. In this case, charge transport based on a hopping mechanism may be feasible. The gain coefficient of the 10 wt.% 3T-2MB sample was 1200 cm–1 with an applied electric field of only 1.6 V/μm (Figure 24(a)), which is twice as high as that of the 8 wt.% 3T-2OC

The response time of the samples is plotted as a function of the external electric field magnitude in Figure 25. The response time decreased with the increase of the electric field strength due to increased charge separation efficiency. The shortest formation time of 0.93 ms was obtained for the 10 wt.% 3T-2MB sample with an applied electric field of 2.0 V/μm. It was found that the response was faster than that of the 3T-2OC samples. The gain coefficient is lower and the

 -

μ

144 Ferroelectric Materials – Synthesis and Characterization

 -

μ

**Figure 24.** Electric field dependence of the gain coefficients for (a) mixtures of the base LC, 3T-2MB (2-10 wt.%), and TNF (0.1 wt.%), and (b) mixtures of the base LC, 3T-2OC (2-8 wt.%), and TNF (0.1 wt.%) measured at 25 °C.

**Figure 25.** Refractive index grating formation times (response time) for (a) mixtures of the base LC, 3T-2MB (2-10 wt. %), and TNF (0.1 wt.%), and (b) mixtures of the base LC, 3T-2OC (2-8 wt.%), and TNF (0.1 wt.%) measured at 25 °C.

### **5.5. Dynamic amplification of optical images in photorefractive FLC blends**

The most straightforward application of the photorefractive effect is the amplification of optical signals, which is one of the important elements of optical technologies. Light amplifi‐ cation based on stimulated emission and non-linear optical effects are well known. Distinct from these phenomena, the photorefractive effect enables selective amplification. The photo‐

refractive effect is based on the formation of holograms in a material; therefore, it distinguishes a specific light signal from other light signals based on the difference in wavelength, polari‐ zation, and phase. Optical image amplification was demonstrated (Figure 26), where a computer-generated image was displayed on a spatial light modulator (SLM) and irradiated with a 473 nm diode-pumped solid-state laser beam [18]. A signal laser beam carrying a 2D image was transmitted through the FLC sample. The image was monitored with a chargecoupled device (CCD) camera. A pump beam (a beam divided from the signal beam before SLM) was interfered with the signal beam. The amplification of the signal beam transmitted through the FLC was observed. The intensities of the optical signal beam with and without the pump beam are shown in Figure 27. The intensity of the signal beam was amplified sixfold to the value without the pump beam.

**Figure 26.** Optical image amplification experiment. A computer-generated image was displayed on the SLM. The SLM modulated the object beam (473 nm), which was irradiated on the FLC sample and interfered with the pump beam. The image transmitted through the FLC sample (10 wt.% 3T-2MB) was monitored with a CCD camera.

 Dynamic amplification of moving optical signal was demonstrated using a photorefractive FLC blend [18]. A rotating image was displayed on the SLM with the frame rate at 30 fps. A 473 nm beam was irradiated on the SLM and the reflected beam was incident on the FLC sample. A pump beam was then interfered with the beam from the SLM in the FLC sample. The laser beam containing the moving animation image was amplified by the incident pump beam (Figure 28). This result shows that the response of the photorefractive FLC was suffi‐ ciently fast to amplify the moving optical image. If a typical photorefractive polymer with a response time of ca. 100 ms was used in place of the FLC sample, then the moving image would not be amplified. In that case, although a still image could be amplified, the intensity of the video-rate moving image would not be amplified.

Dynamic Amplification of Optical Signals by Photorefractive Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60776 147

**Figure 27.** Signal beam intensities with and without the pump beam.

refractive effect is based on the formation of holograms in a material; therefore, it distinguishes a specific light signal from other light signals based on the difference in wavelength, polari‐ zation, and phase. Optical image amplification was demonstrated (Figure 26), where a computer-generated image was displayed on a spatial light modulator (SLM) and irradiated with a 473 nm diode-pumped solid-state laser beam [18]. A signal laser beam carrying a 2D image was transmitted through the FLC sample. The image was monitored with a chargecoupled device (CCD) camera. A pump beam (a beam divided from the signal beam before SLM) was interfered with the signal beam. The amplification of the signal beam transmitted through the FLC was observed. The intensities of the optical signal beam with and without the pump beam are shown in Figure 27. The intensity of the signal beam was amplified six-

**Figure 26.** Optical image amplification experiment. A computer-generated image was displayed on the SLM. The SLM modulated the object beam (473 nm), which was irradiated on the FLC sample and interfered with the pump beam.

Dynamic amplification of moving optical signal was demonstrated using a photorefractive FLC blend [18]. A rotating image was displayed on the SLM with the frame rate at 30 fps. A 473 nm beam was irradiated on the SLM and the reflected beam was incident on the FLC sample. A pump beam was then interfered with the beam from the SLM in the FLC sample. The laser beam containing the moving animation image was amplified by the incident pump beam (Figure 28). This result shows that the response of the photorefractive FLC was suffi‐ ciently fast to amplify the moving optical image. If a typical photorefractive polymer with a response time of ca. 100 ms was used in place of the FLC sample, then the moving image would not be amplified. In that case, although a still image could be amplified, the intensity of the

The image transmitted through the FLC sample (10 wt.% 3T-2MB) was monitored with a CCD camera.

fold to the value without the pump beam.

146 Ferroelectric Materials – Synthesis and Characterization

video-rate moving image would not be amplified.

**Figure 28.** Optical image amplification experiment. A computer-generated animation was displayed on the SLM. The SLM modulated the object beam (473 nm), which was irradiated on the FLC sample, and interfered with the reference beam. The image transmitted through the FLC sample (10 wt.% 3T-2MB) was monitored with a CCD camera.

### **5.6. Dynamic holograms formed in FLC blends**

 Dynamic hologram formation was demonstrated in an FLC blend [19]. A moving image was displayed on an SLM and a laser beam was irradiated onto the SLM. The reflected beam was incident on the FLC sample and a reference beam was then interfered with the beam within the FLC sample. The interference condition was set to a Raman–Nath diffraction regime. The multiple scattering was observed in this condition. A red beam from a He–Ne laser (633 nm) was incident on the FLC sample and the diffraction was observed. A moving image was observed in the diffracted beam (Figure 29). No image retention was observed, which indicates that the hologram image (refractive index grating) formed in the FLC was rewritten with sufficient speed to project a smooth reproduction of the holographic movie. This result shows that a hologram image was formed at the interference area in the FLC material and that contributes to the optical image amplification.

**Figure 29.** Dynamic hologram formation experiment on an FLC sample. A computer-generated animation was dis‐ played on the SLM. The SLM modulated the object beam (488 nm), which was irradiated on the FLC sample and al‐ lowed to interfere with the reference beam. The readout beam (633 nm) was irradiated on the FLC and diffraction was observed.


**Index of technical terms**

**7. Concluding comments**

166 An Excursus into Hearing Loss

**Index of technical terms**

slow down hearing loss and lead to a healthier society.

To avoid advanced hearing loss and instances of hearing loss-related dementia, it is important to recognize hearing loss at an early stage and provide treatment that prevents the loss of haircell or auditory-nerve stimulation. In particular, for those who wear hearing aids in only one ear, speech intelligibility is known to degrade more in the other ear [50, 51]. However, currently popular implanted hearing devices are a fairly large burden for people soon after they become aware of their hearing loss.  Researches are therefore using the scientific method to remove technical barriers for hearing aids. Further, governments should try to remove other barriers by providing services such as financial support or public qualification for handling hearing aids, and companies that make hearing aids should charge less money. This will help

Active noise control, p11 Active noise control is a technique for min-

Audiogram, p5 Audiogram represents hearing thresholds

Aural cartilage, p11 Aural cartilage is flexible fibrous tissue

Autocorrelation function (ACF), p12 Autocorrelation function is correlation of

A-weighting filter, p12 A-weighting filter is designed by a loud-

Bone conducted ultrasonic hearing aid, p10 Bone conducted ultrasonic hearing aid

Bone-anchored hearing aid (BAHA), p8, p11 Bone-anchored hearing aid is a hearing

auditory canal.

function of decay.

waveform.

titanium projection.

imizing undesired sound by acoustic interference with a secondary sound source.

for standardized frequencies in a dB-scale.

shaping an auricle and a part of external

a signal with decayed copy of itself as a

ness curve (IEC 61672:2003) around 40 phone, and the filtered sound pressure level can quantify the loudness partly.

has an ultrasonic transducer which is attached to a mastoid to transmit vibration in ultrasonic range modulated by speech

device which transmit vibration to skull bone through the intermediary of an implanted

[3] Lin FR, Ferrucci L, An Y, Goh JO, Doshi J, Metter EJ, Resnick SM. Association of hearing impairment with brain volume changes in older adults. NeuroImage. 2014;**90**:84-92 [4] Lin FR, Niparko JK, Ferrucci L. Hearing loss prevalence in the United States. Archives

Hearing Aids

169

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73527

[5] Groshcel M, Gotze R, Ernst A, Basta D. Differential impact of temporary and permanent noise-induced hearing loss on neural cell density in the mouse central auditory path-

[7] Kircher A. Phonurgia Nova Sive Conjugium Mechanic-Physicum Artis & Naturae

[8] Turnbull L. A Clinical Manual of the Diseases of the Ear. 2nd edition, revised ed.

[9] Mills M. Hearing aids and the history of electronics miniaturization. IEEE Annals of the

[10] Documents of EuroTrak, JapanTrak, and MarkeTrak (European Hearing Instrument Manufacturers Association). Avairable from: http://www.ehima.com/documents/

[12] Håkansson B, Tjellström A, Rosenhall U. Hearing thresholds with direct bone conduction versus conventional bone conduction. Scandinavian Audiology. 1984;**13**:3-13

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Meet the editor

Akira Takeda, MD, PhD, is the founder and director of the Division of Clinical Immunology & Rheumatology at International University of Health and Welfare Hospital, Japan. He graduated from Akita University School of Medicine, Japan, after which he joined Jichi Medical School, where he was actively involved in clinical rheumatology practice as well as basic research in the field of Immunology. After completing his thesis studies, he

worked as an assistant professor at the University of Massachusetts Medical School while pursuing extensive studies of cellular and humoral immunity against pathogens to elucidate the precise host defense mechanisms. Upon his return to Japan, Dr. Takeda joined Dokkyo University School of Medicine and the current institute where he has been exploring the immuno-pathogenesis of connective tissue disease (CTD)-associated organ injury, leading to numerous publications including novel research into how T cells trigger and promote interstitial pneumonia in CTDs.

Contents

**Preface XI**

**Chapter 1 1**

**Chapter 2 27**

**Chapter 3 37**

**Chapter 4 57**

**Chapter 5 69**

Physical Exercise Improves Quality of Life in Patients with Connective

Growing Need for Diagnostic Precision in Rheumatoid Arthritis:

Lupus Erythematosus: Dermatologic Perspectives on the Diversity *by Ran Xin, Wang Peng, Huang Jinghong, Pradhan Sushmita,*

The Established and Evolving Role of Nailfold Capillaroscopy

Ankylosing Spondylitis and Other Seronegative Arthritis

*by Ricardo Munir Nahas, Vivianne Horsti Dos Santos*

Proposal of MR Imaging Criteria for Early Diagnosis

*by Akira Takeda and Hideharu Sugimoto*

*by Matthew J.S. Parker and Neil W. McGill*

*Yang Heli and Ran Yuping*

in Connective-Tissue Disease

*by Balaji Zacharia and Antony Roy*

Tissue Disease

*and Silvio Lopes Alabarse*

## Contents

Preface

Connective tissue diseases (CTDs) constitute a heterogenous group of systemic autoimmune disorders and related conditions, characterized by rheumatic manifestations, production of myriad autoantibodies, and varied immune-mediated organ injury. Included in this category are rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), scleroderma (systemic sclerosis; SSc), polymyositis/ dermatomyositis (PM/DM), systemic vasculitides, and Sjögren's syndrome (SS), among others. During the past few decades, a great paradigm shift has occurred in the realm of therapeutics due to advances in our understanding of disease etiopathology. Robust emerging evidence on the precise role of the innate and adaptive immune systems and their contributions to initiation and development of CTDs has facilitated our understanding of disease, generating great interest in immunotherapy including numerous biologics. To achieve the best outcomes for patients, timely and accurate evaluation has become fundamental and, as such, advanced diagnostic and assessment modalities have also been developed, and have had a revolutionary

impact in precise characterization of the disease conditions in CTDs.

fatigue in these diseases, with both short- and long-term effectiveness.

Written by expert clinical and research scientists who are directly involved in patient care and CTD research, this book covers a broad spectrum of interests and provide a deep understanding of this category of diseases for rheumatologists, physician

*Connective Tissue Disease: Current State of the Art* consists of five chapters that combine systematic reviews, investigations and original clinical studies; comprehensive rheumatologic perspectives on RA, lupus and the other arthritides such as spondyloarthritis; new concepts of diagnostic modalities; and clinical implications of physical therapy. In Chapter 1, which serves as an introductory chapter and which has original material, we start with a comprehensive overview of the recent and revolutionary paradigm shift in RA, the most common of the CTDs, emphasizing the urgent need for diagnostic precision. This leads us to the introduction of our proposed "diagnostic criteria for early RA with MRI findings." Chapter 2 discusses lupus, the most typical of the systemic autoimmune disease in its ability to cause widespread inflammation and tissue damage in affected organs including skin, joints, brain, lungs, kidneys, and blood vessels. The authors provide intriguing dermatologic perspectives based on their studies with dermoscopy and histopathology. Chapter 3 elegantly demonstrates recent advances in nail fold capillaroscopy, a modality that is extremely important today in the evaluation of patients with Raynaud's phenomenon and systemic sclerosis (SSc) spectrum diseases. Considering that vasculature changes by functional and structural alterations of the microcirculation play a central role in the pathogenesis of CTDs, this methodology gives new impetus for improvement of precision evaluation of disease in daily practice. Chapter 4 covers the disease concept of spondyloarthritis (SpA) in which several subtypes can be distinguished, including ankylosing spondylitis (AS), psoriatic arthritis (PsA), SpA related to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD-SpA), reactive arthritis (ReA), and undifferentiated SpA (uSpA). Chapter 5 appraises the increasing importance of physical activity and exercise training in the clinical course of CTDs, explaining the benefits of exercise on physical limitations and