*2.6. Statistical Analysis*

All experiments were carried out in at least three independent replicates (*n* = 3), and all data were expressed as the means ± standard deviation. The statistical significance was determined by Duncan's multiple range test (*p*-values < 0.05). For the RSM analysis, the generated 3D surface was determined from the fitted polynomial equation, and significant coefficients (*p* < 0.01) were used in the model. The variance table was generated from both independent variables and experimental outputs using the Design Expert statistical software (version 11.0; State-Ease Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA). For the pairwise comparisons during the proteomic analysis, we performed One-Way analysis of variance (One-Way ANOVA) at the protein-level analysis with two multiple testing correction methods including the Bonferroni and the Benjamini–Hochberg FDR corrections using the ProteinPilot™ Software.


*3.3. Analysis of the Raman Spectra*

The secondary structure content of isolated DBD and AZ was quantified through a deconvolution procedure of the Amide I Raman bands by using three pseudo-Voigt profiles. The model parameters were optimized with the Levenberg–Marquardt minimization algorithm (LMA), and the goodness of the fit was assessed by the reduced chi-square value. The AZ curves as extracted from the fit were used in the DBD:AZ complex analysis, under the hypothesis that the AZ secondary structure does not change upon the interaction [38]. The three pseudo-Voigt profiles were centered at 1650–1656, 1664–1670, and 1680 cm−1 and assigned to α-helix, β-strand, and random coil conformations, respectively, as validated on other IDPs [22,23,27]. In each fitting analysis, additional peaks had to be included in the band-fitting protocol to account for aromatic residue modes (1550, 1580, 1604, and 1615 cm−1) and for disordered structure and/or vibronic coupling (1637 cm−1) not baseline separated from Amide I features [22]. The errors relative to secondary structure percentages were evaluated by repeating the curve-fitting procedure on five different spectra and the accuracy associated with the determined secondary structure content was about 10% for each sample.

In order to improve the performance of deconvolution analysis, we performed a dimensionality reduction of the Raman spectra based on principal component analysis (PCA) [33]. The PCA transforms the original data set into a new data set with transformed variables (principal components) that are linear combinations of the original variables. The principal components were arranged in a swat that the variability of the original data set was contained in descending order in the first principal components. PCA was applied to the isolated DBD and AZ molecules and to the DBD:AZ complex (number of spectra n = 75) in three different spectral regions: (i) Fermi doublets relative to Tyr (830 and 850 cm−1), satisfactorily described by a number of components N= 79; (ii) Fermi doublets relative to Trp (1340 and 1360 cm−1) described by N = 79; and (iii) Amide I Raman band (1600–1700 cm−1) described by N = 77. The number of components of the correlation matrix to be considered was defined as the number required to explain at least 80% of the total variance. STATISTICA 7.0 software (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA, 2004) was used for all the analyses.


We adopted two different methods for each research question, respectively. The first method addressed the effects of plantation management regimes on plant species richness. Plantation management regimes mean the different stand structures that result from the species mixture and tree spacing at the time of establishment and the subsequent management by local people. Silvicultural management was not carried out by the forest department. We performed an inventory where we assessed the plantations composition and structure with special focus on the main understory. The second method consisted of focus group discussions with local communities to access information on the ecosystem services (ES) extracted by them from the inventoried stands.

species with a cover of >5%. The understory vegetation here (i.e., trees with a dbh <10 cm) were

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A total of 82 main plots were laid systematically at intervals of 100 m along parallel transects that resulted in one main plot per hectare. If there was more than one transect required, when forest area is not sufficient for defined intervals, the distance between the two consecutive transects was 40 m. During the inventory, we involved local inhabitants and forest guards who helped us to identify the plants and for triangulation. We collected a herbarium of the plants

Focus group discussions (FGDs) were carried out with members of the executive committee and general members of FPCs including former plantation workers to identify the services derived from the investigated forest types. To ensure that there was a consensus about the stands, each site was visited twice with the participants before and after the FGDs. These visits (i.e., discussion walks) mainly focused on forest products collected from the particular stand as these are the ecosystem services predominantly derived from the plantations by local people for their livelihoods. A list of ecosystem services was prepared with the participants during the discussion walks and the FGD for each selected stand. Discussion walks with focus group participants also helped to reconfirm to them about the plantation stands they were talking about. Participants were asked to rank the most important ecosystem services for their livelihoods and to indicate the five most preferred species using a majority voting system for each product that they obtain from the forest. In addition to the FGDs and discussion walks, interviews were conducted with 14 local experts from divisional forest offices (6), environmental NGOs (5), and local experts (3). Key person interviews were carried out to get information on the present status

of forest management, ongoing conflicts and suggestions for future improvement.

Results from the forest inventory were analyzed with a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Stata 14 software was used for data analysis. The effects of species composition on undergrowth and a variety of forest products were the main interest. The plant species diversity was described by the Shannon Index [21]. The index is a quantitative measure of species diversity in a given community based on the number of species present and their abundance. It

where H' is the Shannon diversity index. Pi is the fraction of the entire population made up of

Knowing the structure and diversity of the different plantation types as well as how these types are utilized for locally important ecosystem services, we wanted to know if and to what extent the different stand variables influence the availability of these ecosystem services. We

H0 ¼ �ΣPi � log Pi (1)

counted and also included in the cover estimates with shrubs, climbers, and herbs.

that were confused and verified with local experts.

2.3. Focus group discussions

2.4. Statistical analysis

is calculated as follows:

species i.

#### 2.2. Plantation inventory

We applied a stratified systematic sampling method for the plantation inventory. The plantations were divided into two groups: monocultures and mixed stands. Based on the working plan for the Darjeeling forest division [12], monocultures were defined as stands with more than 90% of Cryptomeria japonica trees. All other stands were classified as mixed stands. Each group was further stratified into four age classes: under 20 years, 20-40 years, 40-60 years and more than 60 years. This classification was based on the suitability of the particular age-class to produce locally important forest products as preliminary discussions with key persons from the Forest Department and local NGOs including Darjeeling Earth Group, Friends of Trees Forum, WWF Darjeeling, ATREE, and Prerana RCDC. For instance, stands under 20 years old are suitable for fodder and fuel wood, 20 to <40 year-old stands are used for poles, 40 to <60 year-old trees are considered mature, and > 60 years is the harvesting age for timber. A preliminary field visit and interaction with members of the FPC and the Forest Department Range Offices were carried out to select the stands resulting in a total of 17 plantation stands of different age classes that were inventoried (Table 1).

As all plantation stands are homogenous in terms of their age, we considered a sampling size of 2% as sufficient for forest inventory. We used a nested plot design with two different plot sizes. In circular plots of 200 m2 (main plot) to increase the replication by increasing number of plots. We measured the height and diameter at breast height (dbh) of each tree with a dbh of 10 cm or more and recorded the species type. In each main plot we nested three sub-plots of 9 m2 (square shape) to measure the understory vegetation [20]. In these plots we estimated the total cover of the understory vegetation in percent of the total sub-plot, the cover of different growth forms (i.e., herb, shrub, climber and trees) as well as the cover of each species that covered at least 5% of the sub-plot area. We also estimated the cover of different life forms and

Table 1. Plantation types, age groups, area (ha), and number of main plots.

species with a cover of >5%. The understory vegetation here (i.e., trees with a dbh <10 cm) were counted and also included in the cover estimates with shrubs, climbers, and herbs.

A total of 82 main plots were laid systematically at intervals of 100 m along parallel transects that resulted in one main plot per hectare. If there was more than one transect required, when forest area is not sufficient for defined intervals, the distance between the two consecutive transects was 40 m. During the inventory, we involved local inhabitants and forest guards who helped us to identify the plants and for triangulation. We collected a herbarium of the plants that were confused and verified with local experts.

#### 2.3. Focus group discussions

We adopted two different methods for each research question, respectively. The first method addressed the effects of plantation management regimes on plant species richness. Plantation management regimes mean the different stand structures that result from the species mixture and tree spacing at the time of establishment and the subsequent management by local people. Silvicultural management was not carried out by the forest department. We performed an inventory where we assessed the plantations composition and structure with special focus on the main understory. The second method consisted of focus group discussions with local communities to access information on the ecosystem services (ES) extracted by them from the

We applied a stratified systematic sampling method for the plantation inventory. The plantations were divided into two groups: monocultures and mixed stands. Based on the working plan for the Darjeeling forest division [12], monocultures were defined as stands with more than 90% of Cryptomeria japonica trees. All other stands were classified as mixed stands. Each group was further stratified into four age classes: under 20 years, 20-40 years, 40-60 years and more than 60 years. This classification was based on the suitability of the particular age-class to produce locally important forest products as preliminary discussions with key persons from the Forest Department and local NGOs including Darjeeling Earth Group, Friends of Trees Forum, WWF Darjeeling, ATREE, and Prerana RCDC. For instance, stands under 20 years old are suitable for fodder and fuel wood, 20 to <40 year-old stands are used for poles, 40 to <60 year-old trees are considered mature, and > 60 years is the harvesting age for timber. A preliminary field visit and interaction with members of the FPC and the Forest Department Range Offices were carried out to select the stands resulting in a total of 17 plantation stands of

As all plantation stands are homogenous in terms of their age, we considered a sampling size of 2% as sufficient for forest inventory. We used a nested plot design with two different plot sizes. In circular plots of 200 m2 (main plot) to increase the replication by increasing number of plots. We measured the height and diameter at breast height (dbh) of each tree with a dbh of 10 cm or more and recorded the species type. In each main plot we nested three sub-plots of 9 m2 (square shape) to measure the understory vegetation [20]. In these plots we estimated the total cover of the understory vegetation in percent of the total sub-plot, the cover of different growth forms (i.e., herb, shrub, climber and trees) as well as the cover of each species that covered at least 5% of the sub-plot area. We also estimated the cover of different life forms and

Stand type Plantation type Age group Area (ha) No. of main plots

Mixed Mixed <20 years 26.30 27 Young Monocultures 20 to <40 years 23.40 25 Mature Monocultures 40 to <60 years 10.12 12 Old Monocultures ≥60 years 16.19 18

Table 1. Plantation types, age groups, area (ha), and number of main plots.

inventoried stands.

116 Conifers

2.2. Plantation inventory

different age classes that were inventoried (Table 1).

Focus group discussions (FGDs) were carried out with members of the executive committee and general members of FPCs including former plantation workers to identify the services derived from the investigated forest types. To ensure that there was a consensus about the stands, each site was visited twice with the participants before and after the FGDs. These visits (i.e., discussion walks) mainly focused on forest products collected from the particular stand as these are the ecosystem services predominantly derived from the plantations by local people for their livelihoods. A list of ecosystem services was prepared with the participants during the discussion walks and the FGD for each selected stand. Discussion walks with focus group participants also helped to reconfirm to them about the plantation stands they were talking about. Participants were asked to rank the most important ecosystem services for their livelihoods and to indicate the five most preferred species using a majority voting system for each product that they obtain from the forest. In addition to the FGDs and discussion walks, interviews were conducted with 14 local experts from divisional forest offices (6), environmental NGOs (5), and local experts (3). Key person interviews were carried out to get information on the present status of forest management, ongoing conflicts and suggestions for future improvement.

#### 2.4. Statistical analysis

Results from the forest inventory were analyzed with a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Stata 14 software was used for data analysis. The effects of species composition on undergrowth and a variety of forest products were the main interest. The plant species diversity was described by the Shannon Index [21]. The index is a quantitative measure of species diversity in a given community based on the number of species present and their abundance. It is calculated as follows:

$$\mathbf{H}' = -\Sigma \mathbf{P} \mathbf{i} \times \log \text{ Pi} \tag{1}$$

where H' is the Shannon diversity index. Pi is the fraction of the entire population made up of species i.

Knowing the structure and diversity of the different plantation types as well as how these types are utilized for locally important ecosystem services, we wanted to know if and to what extent the different stand variables influence the availability of these ecosystem services. We

Table 2. Stand characteristics included in the analysis.

therefore performed a multiple regression analysis to identify the determinants of locally important ecosystem services. We selected tree density, diversity of canopy and understory vegetation, stand age and plantation type as independent variables as these are important determinants of provisioning for multiple ecosystem services [4, 22–24].

In general, the quantity of ecosystem services depends on the intensity of forest management while the variety of ecosystem services depends mainly on structural features of the stand [22, 25]. Hence, we considered the number of locally important forest products as a dependent variable. The stand characteristics tested are listed in Table 2.

The multiple regression was based on the following model:

$$\mathbf{ES} = \alpha + \beta\_1 \mathbf{T} + \beta\_2 \mathbf{H}^\prime \mathbf{u} + \beta\_3 \mathbf{A} + \beta\_4 \mathbf{H}^\prime \mathbf{m} + \beta\_5 \mathbf{PT} \tag{2}$$

populnea was within 60% of all tree individuals of the main planted species followed by

Mixed 19.3 1344 24/76 1.08 2.15 Young 54.3 772 100/0 0.16 1.93 Mature 58.7 412 92/8 0.28 1.92 Old 60.6 344 99/1 0.06 1.71

) Tree per ha Ratio conifers/broadleaved Average H´m Average H´u

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Why Forest Plantations Are Disputed? An Assessment of Locally Important Ecosystem Services…

The highest number of regenerated species (36 species) was recorded in mixed stands and young monocultures. Among the monoculture stands, the number of regenerating species decreased further with the age of the stands, i.e. 30 and 26 species in mature and old monocultures, respectively. Very few species were dominant in the understory vegetation. Approximately, three-fourths of the total number of species was recorded in only less than 10% of the total sub-plots. Common herbaceous species where Dryopteris cochleata, Rumex nepalensis, and Eupatorium adenophorum, which were found in 99% of the total sub-plots, however these species were not used by local people. Other common species were Porteresia coarctata, Eragrostis tenella, and Equisetum debile (92% of the total sub-plots). Eurya acuminata was the highest occurring regenerating tree species and was reported in 60% of the total sub-plots.

Mixed stands showed the highest value for the Shannon Diversity Index. Among the monocultures this value decreases with the age of stands however, they were not statistically

The 12th Working Plan (1997/1998–2017/1918) for the Darjeeling Division states that the main aim of forest plantations was the production of timber and small-timber. However, local people were collecting several products such as fuel wood, fodder, bedding materials, and leaf litter in these plantations (Table 4). Among them, the respondents ranked fuel wood, fodder, and poles as the main collected products. Likewise, Cryptomeria japonica needles were used for decoration and the local Buddhist community used the needles for incense. Bamboo and

In the mixed stands, people collected different types of forest products from both the canopy vegetation and the understory. Bedding materials and fodder in particular were being collected from the understory. In the case of monocultures, Cryptomeria japonica trees from young monocultures were suitable for poles and needles, whilst Cryptomeria japonica trees from mature monocultures were only useful for the needles. Most of the forest products collected

Rattan are used by local artisans to produce toys, furniture, and household articles.

3.2. Supply and preferences for ecosystem services by local communities

3.1.2. Differences in undergrowth vegetation among plantation types

Table 3. Characteristics of the upper canopy (trees >10 cm DBH).

significant within monoculture stand types.

3.2.1. Forest products from different plantation types

Cryptomeria japonica (22%).

Stand type Basal area (m2 ha1

where ES is the number of forest products, how many types of forest products, local people were harvesting from each plantation stand, α is the constant term. β1 to β5 are the vectors of coefficients associated with the tested stand characteristics (Table 2).

#### 3. Results

#### 3.1. Structure and diversity of Cryptomeria japonica plantation types

#### 3.1.1. Differences in the upper canopy among plantation types

A total of 54 species were recorded both in main plots and nested plots of all studied plantations. Of the total, 34 species were trees, 9 herbs, 9 shrubs, and 2 climbers. Among them, 17 species occurred in the upper canopy, which are planted as plantations were followed by clear felling. The basal area and average number of trees per ha reported in Table 3 indicates that the stands are dense according to Takahashi et al. [26]. In the monocultures, two native broadleaved species—Magnolia lanuginosa and Castanopsis tribuloides—were observed sparsely throughout the stands. As per focus group participants, these broadleaved trees were left by the forest workers during tending operations in the past and grew profoundly and regenerated naturally. In the mixed stands, a total of 16 species were found while Exbucklandia

Table 3. Characteristics of the upper canopy (trees >10 cm DBH).

therefore performed a multiple regression analysis to identify the determinants of locally important ecosystem services. We selected tree density, diversity of canopy and understory vegetation, stand age and plantation type as independent variables as these are important

Variables Description Notation Trees per ha Number of trees (≥10 cm dbh) T

Diversity index of main plots Shannon diversity index of vegetation measured in main plots H´m

Plantation type Types of plantations, value as 1 for monocultures and 0 for mixed stands PT

Stand age Age of the plantation stands, which was estimated based on the plantation

Shannon diversity index of vegetation measured in sub-plots H0

In general, the quantity of ecosystem services depends on the intensity of forest management while the variety of ecosystem services depends mainly on structural features of the stand [22, 25]. Hence, we considered the number of locally important forest products as a dependent

where ES is the number of forest products, how many types of forest products, local people were harvesting from each plantation stand, α is the constant term. β1 to β5 are the vectors of

A total of 54 species were recorded both in main plots and nested plots of all studied plantations. Of the total, 34 species were trees, 9 herbs, 9 shrubs, and 2 climbers. Among them, 17 species occurred in the upper canopy, which are planted as plantations were followed by clear felling. The basal area and average number of trees per ha reported in Table 3 indicates that the stands are dense according to Takahashi et al. [26]. In the monocultures, two native broadleaved species—Magnolia lanuginosa and Castanopsis tribuloides—were observed sparsely throughout the stands. As per focus group participants, these broadleaved trees were left by the forest workers during tending operations in the past and grew profoundly and regenerated naturally. In the mixed stands, a total of 16 species were found while Exbucklandia

u þ β3A þ β4H'

m þ β5PT (2)

u

A

determinants of provisioning for multiple ecosystem services [4, 22–24].

variable. The stand characteristics tested are listed in Table 2. The multiple regression was based on the following model:

record

Table 2. Stand characteristics included in the analysis.

ES ¼ α þ β1T þ β2H'

coefficients associated with the tested stand characteristics (Table 2).

3.1. Structure and diversity of Cryptomeria japonica plantation types

3.1.1. Differences in the upper canopy among plantation types

3. Results

Diversity index of undergrowth

118 Conifers

populnea was within 60% of all tree individuals of the main planted species followed by Cryptomeria japonica (22%).

#### 3.1.2. Differences in undergrowth vegetation among plantation types

The highest number of regenerated species (36 species) was recorded in mixed stands and young monocultures. Among the monoculture stands, the number of regenerating species decreased further with the age of the stands, i.e. 30 and 26 species in mature and old monocultures, respectively. Very few species were dominant in the understory vegetation. Approximately, three-fourths of the total number of species was recorded in only less than 10% of the total sub-plots. Common herbaceous species where Dryopteris cochleata, Rumex nepalensis, and Eupatorium adenophorum, which were found in 99% of the total sub-plots, however these species were not used by local people. Other common species were Porteresia coarctata, Eragrostis tenella, and Equisetum debile (92% of the total sub-plots). Eurya acuminata was the highest occurring regenerating tree species and was reported in 60% of the total sub-plots.

Mixed stands showed the highest value for the Shannon Diversity Index. Among the monocultures this value decreases with the age of stands however, they were not statistically significant within monoculture stand types.

#### 3.2. Supply and preferences for ecosystem services by local communities

#### 3.2.1. Forest products from different plantation types

The 12th Working Plan (1997/1998–2017/1918) for the Darjeeling Division states that the main aim of forest plantations was the production of timber and small-timber. However, local people were collecting several products such as fuel wood, fodder, bedding materials, and leaf litter in these plantations (Table 4). Among them, the respondents ranked fuel wood, fodder, and poles as the main collected products. Likewise, Cryptomeria japonica needles were used for decoration and the local Buddhist community used the needles for incense. Bamboo and Rattan are used by local artisans to produce toys, furniture, and household articles.

In the mixed stands, people collected different types of forest products from both the canopy vegetation and the understory. Bedding materials and fodder in particular were being collected from the understory. In the case of monocultures, Cryptomeria japonica trees from young monocultures were suitable for poles and needles, whilst Cryptomeria japonica trees from mature monocultures were only useful for the needles. Most of the forest products collected

Table 4. NTFPs collected from different stand types.

in the monocultures was from the understory. However, it was observed that local people were collecting Cryptomeria japonica branches for fuel wood.

Obviously, mixed plantations supplied more number of forest products than other stand type.

Shannon diversity index of upper canopy vegetation has a strong correlation with the number of provisioning products (r = 0.994, P = 0.006).

4. Discussion

Standard errors in parentheses.

\*, \*\* and \*\*\* denote significant at 10, 5 and 1% levels respectively.

Table 6. Variables that influence a variety of forest products availability.

a

The first question our research addressed was whether mixed species plantations enhanced plant species richness. Regarding the upper canopy this question can be answered, positively. Mixed plantations showed the highest diversity index in both the upper canopy and in the understory. This can lead to a variety of benefits for plantation managers, such as the creation of structural diversity, better utilization of nutrients leading to faster growth and a higher volume of trees [27] and reducing the risk of pest outbreaks [4]. A balanced mix of native and exotic species therefore seems to be a good option when addressing the multiple demands of forest products by rural communities. For instance, native species are suitable for the production of minor forest products including fuelwood, bedding materials and fodder, and exotic

R-square 0.879 Adjusted R-square 0.624

Understory plant communities is widely heralded as forest ecosystem drivers as they are shown to significantly contribute toward enhancing species diversity and providing habitats for wild-animals [23, 28]. In this study area, we have seen that understory plants have a significant contribution to rural livelihoods as they are the only source of daily important forest products after the felling ban. In general, the species mixture in plantations enhances undergrowth plant diversity, but it is only partially true in our study [29, 30]. As expected, the mixed stands have with a value of 2.15 (the highest Shannon index), but the difference with monocultures is not statistically significant. This might be the result of the absence of forest management activities in this study area as silvicultural treatments focusing on maintaining spatial and temporal diversity of environments usually have positive effects on species diver-

Our second question addressed whether increased diversity in forest plantations will also benefit local communities in the Darjeeling Hills. First, we must state that ecosystem services other than timber were derived from all plantations types, even from those which had almost no diversity in structure and plant species (Tables 3 and 4). This opposes the perception that

species are more suited for timber and small wood including pole and veneer [25].

Variables Coefficientsa Constant 5.96 (1.160)\*\*\* Age 0.043(0.008)\*\*\* Diversity Index Undergrowth 0.133(0.055)\*\* Diversity Index Main plot 1.140 (0.630)\* Plantation type 2.083(0.627)\*\*\* Trees per ha 0.016 (0.005)\*\*

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sity of naturally regenerated plants [31–33].

#### 3.2.2. Preferred plant species for different forest products

Native broadleaved species were highly preferred as fuel wood and fodder, while Cryptomeria japonica was the first choice for pole production (Table 5). Local people concerned about crop raiding by wild animals in their agriculture fields stated that an increase in fruit bearing species like Castanopsis spp., Machilus edulis, and Elaeocarpus lanceaefolius in forest plantations would help to create a suitable habitat for wildlife and reduce animal raids on their agricultural fields.

#### 3.3. Variables determining ecosystem services availability

The results of the multiple regression analysis to identify the determinants of ecosystem services are reported in Table 6. The value of R-square indicates that the Model is a good fit. There are a number of significant variables (e.g., the age of the stands, Shannon Index of the undergrowth and the upper canopy, stand type, and number of trees per plot) that determine the variety of forest products from the plantation stands.

The regression analysis showed that the number of trees per ha and the Shannon diversity index of the upper canopy have a positive association with the supply of diverse forest products. On the other hand, the variety of forest products decreases with the understory diversity index and age of the stands, particularly if the stands are monocultures.

Table 5. The five most preferred species by the focus group participants locally important ecosystem services.

\*, \*\* and \*\*\* denote significant at 10, 5 and 1% levels respectively.

Table 6. Variables that influence a variety of forest products availability.

#### 4. Discussion

in the monocultures was from the understory. However, it was observed that local people were

Mixed Fuel wood, Fodder, Poles, Leaf litter, Bedding materials, Support to vegetables

Young monoculture Fuel wood, Fodder, Leaf litter, Decorative, Medicinal herbs

Obviously, mixed plantations supplied more number of forest products than other stand type. Shannon diversity index of upper canopy vegetation has a strong correlation with the number

Native broadleaved species were highly preferred as fuel wood and fodder, while Cryptomeria japonica was the first choice for pole production (Table 5). Local people concerned about crop raiding by wild animals in their agriculture fields stated that an increase in fruit bearing species like Castanopsis spp., Machilus edulis, and Elaeocarpus lanceaefolius in forest plantations would help to create a suitable habitat for wildlife and reduce animal raids on their agricul-

The results of the multiple regression analysis to identify the determinants of ecosystem services are reported in Table 6. The value of R-square indicates that the Model is a good fit. There are a number of significant variables (e.g., the age of the stands, Shannon Index of the undergrowth and the upper canopy, stand type, and number of trees per plot) that determine

The regression analysis showed that the number of trees per ha and the Shannon diversity index of the upper canopy have a positive association with the supply of diverse forest products. On the other hand, the variety of forest products decreases with the understory

diversity index and age of the stands, particularly if the stands are monocultures.

Fuel wood Quercus spp., Acer campbellii, Symplocos spp., Eurya acuminate, Macaranga spp. Fodder Ficus nemoralis, Maesa spp., Garuga pinnata, Quercus spp., Prunus nepalensis

Table 5. The five most preferred species by the focus group participants locally important ecosystem services.

Pole C. japonica, Schima wallichii, Exbucklandia populnea, Symplocos spp., Mallotus nepalensis

collecting Cryptomeria japonica branches for fuel wood.

Mature monoculture Poles, Fuel wood, Fodder, Decorative Old monoculture Fodder, Bamboo & Rattan, Vegetables

Stand type Locally important ES

of provisioning products (r = 0.994, P = 0.006).

Table 4. NTFPs collected from different stand types.

tural fields.

120 Conifers

3.2.2. Preferred plant species for different forest products

3.3. Variables determining ecosystem services availability

the variety of forest products from the plantation stands.

Locally important ES Five most preferred species

The first question our research addressed was whether mixed species plantations enhanced plant species richness. Regarding the upper canopy this question can be answered, positively. Mixed plantations showed the highest diversity index in both the upper canopy and in the understory. This can lead to a variety of benefits for plantation managers, such as the creation of structural diversity, better utilization of nutrients leading to faster growth and a higher volume of trees [27] and reducing the risk of pest outbreaks [4]. A balanced mix of native and exotic species therefore seems to be a good option when addressing the multiple demands of forest products by rural communities. For instance, native species are suitable for the production of minor forest products including fuelwood, bedding materials and fodder, and exotic species are more suited for timber and small wood including pole and veneer [25].

Understory plant communities is widely heralded as forest ecosystem drivers as they are shown to significantly contribute toward enhancing species diversity and providing habitats for wild-animals [23, 28]. In this study area, we have seen that understory plants have a significant contribution to rural livelihoods as they are the only source of daily important forest products after the felling ban. In general, the species mixture in plantations enhances undergrowth plant diversity, but it is only partially true in our study [29, 30]. As expected, the mixed stands have with a value of 2.15 (the highest Shannon index), but the difference with monocultures is not statistically significant. This might be the result of the absence of forest management activities in this study area as silvicultural treatments focusing on maintaining spatial and temporal diversity of environments usually have positive effects on species diversity of naturally regenerated plants [31–33].

Our second question addressed whether increased diversity in forest plantations will also benefit local communities in the Darjeeling Hills. First, we must state that ecosystem services other than timber were derived from all plantations types, even from those which had almost no diversity in structure and plant species (Tables 3 and 4). This opposes the perception that forest mono species plantations in general, and Cryptomeria japonica plantations of Darjeeling in particular, are of no use for the diverse requirements of local forest dwellers [6, 34].

is a need for a mixture of different options based on local assessments with moderate management activities [39]. However, it is almost impossible to apply any silviculture options in the Darjeeling hills due to the felling ban. This study calls for further discussions on whether the felling ban was imposed to support the existing practice of absolute protection or to allow for an improvement in forest operations. The answer to this question would provide valuable information to assist in designing an appropriate strategy to optimize the socioeconomic benefits from plantations. If the answer supports the continuation of the existing practice of absolute protection, then further investigation is called for to examine the future prospects of

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The authors thank the Darjeeling Forest Division for providing logistical support for this study. We would like to thank the members of forest protection committees and environmental NGOs working in the Darjeeling Hills for their cooperation. The results of this study are presented in the 'International Conference on Biodiversity, Livelihood and Climate Change in

1 The South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE) -

[1] Brockerhoff EG, Jactel H, Parrotta JA, Quine CP, Sayer J. Plantation forests and biodiversity: Oxymoron or opportunity? Biodiversity and Conservation. 2008;17:925-951

[2] Kanowski J, Catterall CP, Wardell-Johnson GW. Consequences of broadscale timber plantations for biodiversity in cleared rainforest landscapes of tropical and subtropical. Aus-

[3] Costanza R, Fisher B, Mulder K, Liu S, Christopher T. Biodiversity and ecosystem services: A multi-scale empirical study of the relationship between species richness and net pri-

International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), India

the plantations, particularly in the matured monocultures.

\* and Joachim Schmerbeck2

tralia Forest Ecology and Management. 2005;208:359-372

mary production. Ecological Economics. 2007;61:478-491

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
2 Indo-German Biodiversity Programme (GIZ), India

Acknowledgements

Author details

Rajesh Kumar Rai1

References

the Himalayas, 2010' Kathmandu, Nepal.

Second, we found that higher diversity of the upper canopy is correlated with a higher number of tangible ecosystem services derived from the stands. As these mixed plantation stands have not faced any structured management since being planted the increased supply of ecosystem services can be seen from the forest department's perspective as undesirable and at best being somehow directed by the local user supporting species that are important to them. As mixed stands are seen to have a great potential for producing a wide variety of forest products [22, 35], a structured and intentional management of these plantations with the enhancement of the supply of ecosystem services seems to bear a much greater potential than currently utilized. This is especially true for the enhancement of the understory diversity which seems not to depend on the grade of tree species and structural diversity in the upper canopy.

The focus group members did not perceive Cryptomeria japonica plantations as negative as had been generally presumed [15]. Besides timber production, the rural farmers acknowledged the use of Cryptomeria japonica for pole production and its potential for commercial products such as decoration and incense. Typically, rural communities evaluate the plant species based on how their economic needs are influenced by the species regardless of the origin of species [36].

If Cryptomeria japonica plantations in the Darjeeling Hills can contribute to local livelihoods, why is their use disputed? We see two reasons why Cryptomeria japonica plantations were not able to gain public support. First, the felling ban imposed in the hills enforced monocultures to become over-matured and over-stocked. Second, plantation management in the hills follows an assumption that Cryptomeria japonica stands do not respond to thinning and can grow equally in un-thinned stands [12]. As a consequence of both, Cryptomeria japonica monocultures, whether mature or young, are dense. These dense stands create a dark understory environment resulting in low plant species richness [37, 38]. This dark understory reduces the availability of forest products.

Following the imposition of the felling ban it has been almost impossible to implement forest management systems. The ban has constrained the supply of locally important forest products thereby influencing regeneration. As a result, the collection of locally important forest products became unsystematic and local people have been collecting those products from whatever was available. In addition, the mixed-species plantations are dominated by limited species and these species do not represent local preferences (Table 5). This shows that without considering local preferences, the plantations, whether mixed-species or monocultures, cannot satisfy the local needs. Since there are a number of ways that plantation management can be manipulated for greater diversity in structure and species composition [4], it needs to be assessed at the local level.

#### 5. Conclusions

The study concludes that options to enhance the supply of tangible forest products from forest plantations for rural communities in the Darjeeling hills are far from being fully utilized. There is a need for a mixture of different options based on local assessments with moderate management activities [39]. However, it is almost impossible to apply any silviculture options in the Darjeeling hills due to the felling ban. This study calls for further discussions on whether the felling ban was imposed to support the existing practice of absolute protection or to allow for an improvement in forest operations. The answer to this question would provide valuable information to assist in designing an appropriate strategy to optimize the socioeconomic benefits from plantations. If the answer supports the continuation of the existing practice of absolute protection, then further investigation is called for to examine the future prospects of the plantations, particularly in the matured monocultures.

#### Acknowledgements

forest mono species plantations in general, and Cryptomeria japonica plantations of Darjeeling

Second, we found that higher diversity of the upper canopy is correlated with a higher number of tangible ecosystem services derived from the stands. As these mixed plantation stands have not faced any structured management since being planted the increased supply of ecosystem services can be seen from the forest department's perspective as undesirable and at best being somehow directed by the local user supporting species that are important to them. As mixed stands are seen to have a great potential for producing a wide variety of forest products [22, 35], a structured and intentional management of these plantations with the enhancement of the supply of ecosystem services seems to bear a much greater potential than currently utilized. This is especially true for the enhancement of the understory diversity which seems not to depend on the grade of tree species and structural diversity in the upper canopy.

The focus group members did not perceive Cryptomeria japonica plantations as negative as had been generally presumed [15]. Besides timber production, the rural farmers acknowledged the use of Cryptomeria japonica for pole production and its potential for commercial products such as decoration and incense. Typically, rural communities evaluate the plant species based on how their economic needs are influenced by the species regardless of the origin of species [36]. If Cryptomeria japonica plantations in the Darjeeling Hills can contribute to local livelihoods, why is their use disputed? We see two reasons why Cryptomeria japonica plantations were not able to gain public support. First, the felling ban imposed in the hills enforced monocultures to become over-matured and over-stocked. Second, plantation management in the hills follows an assumption that Cryptomeria japonica stands do not respond to thinning and can grow equally in un-thinned stands [12]. As a consequence of both, Cryptomeria japonica monocultures, whether mature or young, are dense. These dense stands create a dark understory environment resulting in low plant species richness [37, 38]. This dark understory reduces the

Following the imposition of the felling ban it has been almost impossible to implement forest management systems. The ban has constrained the supply of locally important forest products thereby influencing regeneration. As a result, the collection of locally important forest products became unsystematic and local people have been collecting those products from whatever was available. In addition, the mixed-species plantations are dominated by limited species and these species do not represent local preferences (Table 5). This shows that without considering local preferences, the plantations, whether mixed-species or monocultures, cannot satisfy the local needs. Since there are a number of ways that plantation management can be manipulated for greater diversity in structure and species composition [4], it needs to be assessed at the local level.

The study concludes that options to enhance the supply of tangible forest products from forest plantations for rural communities in the Darjeeling hills are far from being fully utilized. There

availability of forest products.

122 Conifers

5. Conclusions

in particular, are of no use for the diverse requirements of local forest dwellers [6, 34].

The authors thank the Darjeeling Forest Division for providing logistical support for this study. We would like to thank the members of forest protection committees and environmental NGOs working in the Darjeeling Hills for their cooperation. The results of this study are presented in the 'International Conference on Biodiversity, Livelihood and Climate Change in the Himalayas, 2010' Kathmandu, Nepal.

#### Author details

Rajesh Kumar Rai1 \* and Joachim Schmerbeck2

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
1 The South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE) - International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), India

2 Indo-German Biodiversity Programme (GIZ), India

#### References

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[20] Sharma SK, George M, Pasad KG. Forest vegetation survey and classification with special reference to south India I. Vegetation survey and quadrat analysis. Indian Forester. 1983;

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[21] Shannon CE, Weaver W. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana, USA:

[22] Montagnini F, Jordan CF. Tropical Forest Ecology: The Basis for Conservation and Man-

[23] Nilsson M-C, Wardle DA. Understory vegetation as a forest ecosystem driver: Evidence from the northern Swedish boreal forest. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 2005;

[24] Yang H, Wang S, Zhang J, Fan B, Zhang W. Biomass and nutrients of Pinus massoniana plantations in southern China: Simulations for different managing practices. Journal of

[25] Lamb D. Large-scale ecological restoration of degraded tropical Forest lands: The poten-

[26] Takahashi T, Awaya Y, Hirata Y, Furuya N, Sakai T, Sakai A. Stand volume estimation by combining low laser-sampling density LiDAR data with QuickBird panchromatic imagery in closed-canopy Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) plantations. International Jour-

[27] Brown D, Malla Y, Schreckenberg K, Springate-Baginski O. From Supervising 'Subjects' to Supporting 'Citizens': Recent Developments in Community Forestry in Asia and Africa.

[28] Zanini L, Ganade G. Restoration of araucaria forest: The role of perches, pioneer vegeta-

[29] Duan W, Ren H, Fu S, Wang J, Zhang J, Yang L, et al. Community comparison and determinant analysis of understory vegetation in six plantations in South China restora-

[30] Erskine PD, Lamb D, Bristow M. Tree species diversity and ecosystem function: Can tropical multi-species plantations generate greater productivity? Forest Ecology and Man-

[31] Halpern CB, Spies TA. Plant species diversity in natural and managed forests of the.

[32] Nagaike T. Review of plant species diversity in managed forests in Japan. ISRN Forestry.

[33] Thomas SC, Halpern CB, Falk DA, Liguori DA, Austin KA. Plant diversity in managed forests: Understory responses to thinning and fertilization. Ecological Applications. 1999;

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[5] Bauhus J, Vd Meer P, Kanninen M, editors. Ecosystem Goods and Services from Planta-

[6] Cannell MG. Environmental impacts of forest monocultures: Water use, acidification,

[7] Daily GC. Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Washington

[8] Cusack D, Montagnini F. The role of native species plantations in recovery of understory woody diversity in degraded pasturelands of. Costa Rica Forest Ecology and Manage-

[9] Keenan R, Lamb D, Parrotta J, Kikkawa J. Ecosystem management in tropical timber plantations: Satisfying economic, conservation, and social objectives. Journal of Sustain-

[10] Lamb D, Erskine PD, Parrotta JA. Restoration of degraded tropical forest landscapes.

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[12] Ghosh D. Twelfth Working Plan for the Forest of Darjeeling Sub-Division 1997-98 to 2017-18 Hill Circle. Kolakata: Directorate of Forest, Government of West Bengal; 1997

[13] Paritsis J, Aizen MA. Effects of exotic conifer plantations on the biodiversity of understory plants, epigeal beetles and birds in forests. Forest Ecology and Management. 2008;255:

[14] Stephens S, Wagner MR. Forest plantations and biodiversity: A fresh perspective. Journal

[16] Saxena K, Rao K, Sen K, Maikhuri R, Semwal R. Integrated natural resource management: Approaches and lessons from the Himalaya. Conservation Ecology. 2001;5:14-22

[17] Lindenmayer D, Hobbs R, Salt D. Plantation forests and biodiversity conservation. Australian

[18] Supreme Court of India. Civil Original Jurisdiction Writ Petition-202. New Delhi:

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[34] Shiva V. Monocultures of the Mind: Perspectives on Biodiversity and Biotechnology.

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[36] Binggeli P. The human dimensions of invasive woody plants. In: McNeely JA, editor. The Great Reshuffling: Human Dimension of Invasive Alien Species. Gland: IUCN; 2001. pp.

[37] Hassan P, Gader P. Plant species diversity in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) and sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don.) plantations in the western Guilan. Iran International Journal

[38] Ito S, Nakagawa M, Buckley GP, Nogami K. Species richness in sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) plantations in southeastern Kyushu, Japan: The effects of stand type and age on

understory trees and shrubs. Journal of Forest Research. 2003;8:0049-0057

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Penang, Malaysia: Third World Network; 1993

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New York: Springer; 2005. pp. 262-268

145-160

126 Conifers

### *Edited by Ana Cristina Gonçalves*

The conifer tree can lead to a wide variety of products and services. Overall, the evaluation, management and planning of the multiplicity of these forest systems requires effective and specific methods and tools in a sustainable frame of the systems and of their products and services. This book reflects the current research on conifer stands and forests. The authors, specialists in different areas, addressed several issues in forest science, focusing on the species' characteristics, silviculture and climate change; growth analysis; reconstruction of stand dynamics of mixed stands; establishment, regeneration and succession; litter-fall, nutrient cycle and silviculture; distribution and zonation; and ecosystem services provided by monocultures and mixed stands.

Published in London, UK © 2018 IntechOpen © newannyart / iStock

Conifers

Conifers


**3.5 Brain distribution of nAChRs**

The nAChRs are distributed in various brain regions including the ventral tegmental area, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and nucleus accumbens. The two most abundant nAChRs, α7 nAChRs (α-bungarotoxin sensitive) and α4β2 (α-bungarotoxin insensitive), are localized in the brainstem, cerebellum, mesencephalic structures, limbic system and cortex. The α4β2, the first to be pharmacologically characterized, constitutes the principal nAChR subtype in the cortex, striatum, superior colliculus, lateral geniculate nucleus and cerebellum. The second abundant nAChR subtype, α7 subunit-containing receptors, have high expression in the cortex, hippocampus and subcortical limbic regions, and are expressed at low levels in the thalamic regions and basal ganglia. Although α7 nAChRs anatomical distribution differ markedly from α4β2, the two co-localize in some areas such as in the superficial layer of the superior colliculus. nAChRs are located in pre- and postsynaptic regions well as in extra-synaptic locations. Specially, receptors containing the β2 subunit are located diffusely throughout the membrane of the neuron.


**Lazaros Moysis 1, Aleksandra Tutueva 2, Christos Volos 1,\*, Denis Butusov 3, Jesus M. Munoz-Pacheco 4 and Hector Nistazakis 5**

Received: 20 April 2020; Accepted: 8 May 2020; Published: 18 May 2020

**Abstract:** This work proposes a modified logistic map based on the system previously proposed by Han in 2019. The constructed map exhibits interesting chaos related phenomena like antimonotonicity, crisis, and coexisting attractors. In addition, the Lyapunov exponent of the map can achieve higher values, so the behavior of the proposed map is overall more complex compared to the original. The map is then successfully applied to the problem of random bit generation using techniques like the comparison between maps, *XOR*, and bit reversal. The proposed algorithm passes all the NIST tests, shows good correlation characteristics, and has a high key space.

**Keywords:** random bit generation; logistic map; chaos; chaos-based cryptography


**3. Education in the indigenous peoples living and resisting**

explicitly racial and cultural fields, featuring the geography of Master and Slave, as termed by Aristotle. Post-colonial society melts the visible and legal boundaries of oppression and slavery; however, the colonialist culture is deeply rooted in the deepest "being" of colonized men, i.e., the oppressor's shadow remains culturally and psychologically hosted within the

In his conclusive—and to some extent desperate—narrative, Fanon leaves some warning to those "wretched of the earth" who conquer their independence, advising them to stay clear from the mistake of "mimicking" Europe, implicitly emphasizing the vigor of the Eurocentric colonialism domain in the epistemological and cultural scope: "Mankind expects from us something betterthan this generally demeaning mockery"; and "if we hope to transform Africa into a new Europe,America into a new Europe, than we'd better entrust the Europeans with the fate of our country," as "they'll know better how to do it than the best amongst us" (p.275) [12]. Hence, for Fanon, the conquest of political independence, ousting colonizers from the territory, is just the first stage of the decolonization process and maybe this is the most visible phase of the "liberating war," since the enemy to be defeated is in plain sight beyond the trenches. The toughest and most complex challenge is to fight the shadow of the oppressor that is ingrained in the soul of the colonized population and in the minds of the "colonized intellectuals."

One of the most efficient imperative rationales of European modernity is achieved through colonialism in knowledge, "driven" by Eurocentrism. Eurocentrism is both a vision of the world and a new form of power; it is an epistemological knowledge matrix that justifies and validates this new world standard for the power of modernity/colonialism. Eurocentrism, states Anibal Quijano, is the perspective of knowledge whose systematic compilation began in Western Europe during the first half of the seventeenth century, though its origins date from earlier times. Its ideology was built together with the "specific bourgeoise secularization of European thinking, as well as the world's experience and needs of the capitalist, modern/

The philosophy of liberation proposed by Enrique Dussel is that one which stems from the ontological criticism to the normative moral of the prevailing social system, which also implies "unraveling" and decolonizing the Eurocentric epistemological knowledge geography, mostly the epistemological decolonization of human and social sciences. The "liberating" term evokes historical experiences and mythical reports referring to the liberating processes in oppressed people that deposed the domineering moral order and transcended their oppression and enslavement by means of a new and more equitable social order. In the past, there was the enslaving moral of ancient societies, the European feudal period servitude, the castes system in Eastern and Asiatic societies, and the modern and contemporary colonial order in America,

Africa, and Asia; in the present, there was the neoliberal-grounded capitalist moral.

The liberating philosophy, therefore, is a philosophy born in and developed from the life conditions of the oppressed/excluded ones, a "pedagogy of the oppressed" as meant by Aimé Césaire, Frantz Fanon, and Paulo Freire, aspiring to justice, equity, and life quality. More than a Western-style philosophy, Dussel expresses some radical criticism to the positivistic and illuministic vision of history, as reported from the Eurocentric stance. It demystifies the key arguments of the West European history of philosophy, evidencing a philosophy of

colonial, Eurocentric power, established from America" [13].

oppressed ones, as Paulo Freire would put it.

102 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

What was the life style and, particularly, education in the major civilizations in *Abya Yala* like? What was education like for the people in the forests? The entire epistemological reality of the original people was "covered" by the West European epistemological modernity. Our first pedagogical mission is to dig and "uncover" this immense world that was buried. When Spanish conquerors invaded the *Anáhuac* territory (currently Mexico and Guatemala) in 1519, for instance, the Aztec civilization was organized into 38 provinces. On top of a complex urban structure that impacted the Spaniards' first impressions, there was a public education system and an erudite culture that valued the art of knowledge to be preserved and shared by means of books. The books, as Jacques Soustelle points out, "were regarded as very important by ancient Mexicans"; in the temples and more affluent homes, there were rich libraries, and the profession of painter-scribe (*tlacuiloani*) was particularly valued. Spaniards still had a chance to witness the existence of two public education systems: "the neighborhood schools, where male instructors taught boys and female instructors taught girls, to get them prepared for real life," and the monastery-school (*calmecac*), "where teaching was performed by priests" [15].

The Inca civilization, differently from the Aztec, did not need written language to develop its complex urban architecture or its knowledge in astronomy and mathematics; they developed a recording and accounting method using a technique involving knots on ropes. When Spaniards invaded the *Tawantinsuyu* territory, they not only destroyed the "admirable" city of Cusco, *Tumipampa, Cajamarca, Huánuco, Jauja, Huaytará*, and *Vilcashuaman*, but also destroyed and covered the information and knowledge artifacts from this complex cultural diversity of the Inca civilization. In the State territory, for instance, there were two educational modes, one institutional, and another informal, "natural education" [16].

The *Tawantinsuyu* empire developed between the 12th and 15th Centuries, gathering within its domain millennial traditions from other people. The Empire's social basis was strongly supported on an *Ayllu* network, a family and community organization created by kinship within a territory collectively shared by a number of families. At its climax, the Inca empire had its domains spanning from the present territory of Colombia to Argentina, covering about 1.5 million square miles, with an estimated population of 30 million inhabitants [17].

Education-wise, the Empire organized a system of educational agents in different tiers and roles, a system that privileged the male members and the higher classes, however including all communities that were part of the Empire. Teaching philosophy, practical moral, and literature were assigned to the *Amautas,* wise men who represented the higher knowledge of the Inca culture. Knowledge on poetry, nature, and good life was conveyed by the *Harávecs*, recognized for their knowledge and memorization skills. Priests also had their educational role, and one of the most acclaimed was Willac Umu, a specialist in teaching philosophy and religion. The *Kupucamáyoc* were specialists in the *Kipus* arts, the method used for recording and accounting with ropes, enabling knowledge in arithmetic, mathematics, and record-keeping in the Empire. The *Chasquis* were some kind of messengers of knowledge. Their role was in communication, transmitting information, usually performed by physically fit youngsters who had a good memory. Other educational agents, no less important than the previous ones, were the *Mitmacs*, some kind of cultural envoys intended to spread the Inca culture by replacing, in rebellious territories, those who opposed the sovereign's power, thereby performing this pacific occupation through the dissemination of the Empire's language and lifestyle in the occupied territories. The Inca government recruited *Mitmacs* from among the working population, selecting experts in varied occupations, such as shepherds, farmers, painters, masons, and goldsmiths [16].

sexually abused"; and these boarding schools were "correctional facilities where boys and girls were tortured with extreme fierceness." According to the civilizing process adopted by these two major modern North American states, Indians should be civilized and humanized, beginning with the younger children. Based on the mandatory education laws, state employees pulled boys and girls from their parents' arms, to send them to boarding schools, "where the goal was to suppress Indians, however without slaughtering them physically [19]."

Precursors of Decolonial Pedagogical Thinking in Latin America and *Abya Yala*

upheaval context, we see a scenario of interests and conflicts elicited by three major projects: the independence of Colombia, led by the colonized elites from Panama, in 1903, a situation that split the Kuna people territory and caused widespread discontent, since part of the Kuna families thereon would belong to Panama, and the other part to Colombia; the imperialistic US government project, which benefitted from the independence, and took over the construction of the Panama Channel (1904–1914); and the Kuna people autonomy project, which culminated in the 1925 revolution. Atencio López Martinez explains that, after independence, new issues came up for the Kuna people, among them the invasion and colonization policy by nonindigenous foreigners, fishing and hunting poachers, and explorers seeking minerals, coconuts, rubber, wood, and other natural resources. Martinez states that "Panama government took no action to placate those grievances, neither at that time, nor in the ensuing years, so the conflict in *Kuna Yala* escalated." Furthermore, the situation got worse after Law #59 was passed, in 1908. It determined the "civilization of the Indians," i.e., a legal instrument to use all "peaceful means" to acculturate into civilized life all "savage tribes" living in the territory of Panama. In order to render viable such "evangelizing" project, government sent missionaries and teachers as "civilizing agents," making available "abundant land plots for non-indigenous settlers" [20]. Faced with this invasion and colonization scenario, the leaders of the Kuna and other indigenous people assembled a general meeting on February 12, 1925, where they passed the Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Tule. The key issues in that Declaration to be negotiated with the Panama government were the administrative and political independence of the Kuna people in its territory; land boundaries defined for the San Blas jurisdiction (Kuma Yala); jurisdiction of the plantations in Armila and Mandinga bay, as well as the exploit of iron and manganese; and also the implementation of educational institutions that

In Southern Colombia, other indigenous people also rebelled against the national State colonization and modernization project. This resistance can be found and understood from the path and work of Manuel Quintín Lame, a Colombian Indian from the landless Paeces people, who had to work in the farms of major landowners, like his father. He was born in 1883, in the Polindara reserve, currently located in the Totoró county, Cauca district, in Southern Colombia. According to his testimony, he dictated the book *Los pensamientos del indio que se educó dentro de las selvas colombianas (The Thoughts of the Indian Educated in the Colombian Forests)* to the Indian Florentino Moreno, who wrote very well and who finished it by December 1939. Nevertheless, its first edition only came out in 1971. A second edition was published in 1987,

people to rebel in 1925. In this

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72343

105

In Panama, this enforced cultural disrespect caused the Kuna2

respected the Kuna people cultural traditions [20].

Different documents and works also use Cuna or Dule to refer to the Kuna people.

2

In the early seventeenth century, the Peruvian Indian Felipe de Guama Poma de Yala (1534–1615) wrote his *First New Chronicle and Good Government*, a 1200-page document, denouncing the social injustice of the Spanish colonial regime and asserting the peaceful coexistence of the two worlds. He also implicitly advocated for the return of an educational system focused on the *Tawantinsuyu* cultures. In his chronicle, Guama Poma states that the Inca people had nothing to learn from the European colonizers, since these had nothing good to teach to the conquered people other than the art of violence and prejudice. Guama Poma's claims were not awarded [18]. In both the Spanish and Portuguese colonial systems, there was an extended process of culture assimilation imposed by military, judicial, religious, and educational action. In colonial societies, educating the indigenous ethnic groups was paramount, and priests and missionaries were the ones who performed the most durable colonizing educational work, with the purpose of "civilizing" and "acculturating" Indians.

In the nineteenth century, the colonizing elites—who fought for independence and spread the patriotic discourse and the colors of the new national identities—viewed both Indians and negroes as an obstacle to the intended advancement of the Eurocentric modernization. In this (in)dependent modernization context, three policies were found, relative to the indigenous people: the extermination policy for those Indians who resisted invasion of their territory; the confinement policy in reserves and schools for the ethnic groups who preserved their indigenous identity, aiming at social control and progressive acculturation to the national State; and the school education for the rural population, in regional realities (mostly Andean and Central America), where the prevailingly indigenous and mixed population had been born and survived within the colonial society's borders. Within the national States, the education the new republican nations offered to the indigenous people, during the first 150 years after political independence, was focused on assimilation and acculturation. That school education was conceived and organized by the State and the Catholic Church.

The schooling offered—and in many cases imposed—by local governments was an extension to the colonization effort, intolerant to the lifestyle of indigenous cultures. In the United States and Canada, after having "conquered the West," many indigenous children were plucked from theirfamilies and sent to boarding schools. Yataco states that "in these schools, they were forbidden to speak their ancestors' languages, children were separated from their parents, their grandparents, and their cultures; they were psychologically, physically, and oftentimes sexually abused"; and these boarding schools were "correctional facilities where boys and girls were tortured with extreme fierceness." According to the civilizing process adopted by these two major modern North American states, Indians should be civilized and humanized, beginning with the younger children. Based on the mandatory education laws, state employees pulled boys and girls from their parents' arms, to send them to boarding schools, "where the goal was to suppress Indians, however without slaughtering them physically [19]."

of the most acclaimed was Willac Umu, a specialist in teaching philosophy and religion. The *Kupucamáyoc* were specialists in the *Kipus* arts, the method used for recording and accounting with ropes, enabling knowledge in arithmetic, mathematics, and record-keeping in the Empire. The *Chasquis* were some kind of messengers of knowledge. Their role was in communication, transmitting information, usually performed by physically fit youngsters who had a good memory. Other educational agents, no less important than the previous ones, were the *Mitmacs*, some kind of cultural envoys intended to spread the Inca culture by replacing, in rebellious territories, those who opposed the sovereign's power, thereby performing this pacific occupation through the dissemination of the Empire's language and lifestyle in the occupied territories. The Inca government recruited *Mitmacs* from among the working population, selecting experts in varied occupations, such as shepherds, farmers, painters, masons, and goldsmiths [16].

104 New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education

In the early seventeenth century, the Peruvian Indian Felipe de Guama Poma de Yala (1534–1615) wrote his *First New Chronicle and Good Government*, a 1200-page document, denouncing the social injustice of the Spanish colonial regime and asserting the peaceful coexistence of the two worlds. He also implicitly advocated for the return of an educational system focused on the *Tawantinsuyu* cultures. In his chronicle, Guama Poma states that the Inca people had nothing to learn from the European colonizers, since these had nothing good to teach to the conquered people other than the art of violence and prejudice. Guama Poma's claims were not awarded [18]. In both the Spanish and Portuguese colonial systems, there was an extended process of culture assimilation imposed by military, judicial, religious, and educational action. In colonial societies, educating the indigenous ethnic groups was paramount, and priests and missionaries were the ones who performed the most durable colonizing edu-

In the nineteenth century, the colonizing elites—who fought for independence and spread the patriotic discourse and the colors of the new national identities—viewed both Indians and negroes as an obstacle to the intended advancement of the Eurocentric modernization. In this (in)dependent modernization context, three policies were found, relative to the indigenous people: the extermination policy for those Indians who resisted invasion of their territory; the confinement policy in reserves and schools for the ethnic groups who preserved their indigenous identity, aiming at social control and progressive acculturation to the national State; and the school education for the rural population, in regional realities (mostly Andean and Central America), where the prevailingly indigenous and mixed population had been born and survived within the colonial society's borders. Within the national States, the education the new republican nations offered to the indigenous people, during the first 150 years after political independence, was focused on assimilation and acculturation. That school education

The schooling offered—and in many cases imposed—by local governments was an extension to the colonization effort, intolerant to the lifestyle of indigenous cultures. In the United States and Canada, after having "conquered the West," many indigenous children were plucked from theirfamilies and sent to boarding schools. Yataco states that "in these schools, they were forbidden to speak their ancestors' languages, children were separated from their parents, their grandparents, and their cultures; they were psychologically, physically, and oftentimes

cational work, with the purpose of "civilizing" and "acculturating" Indians.

was conceived and organized by the State and the Catholic Church.

In Panama, this enforced cultural disrespect caused the Kuna2 people to rebel in 1925. In this upheaval context, we see a scenario of interests and conflicts elicited by three major projects: the independence of Colombia, led by the colonized elites from Panama, in 1903, a situation that split the Kuna people territory and caused widespread discontent, since part of the Kuna families thereon would belong to Panama, and the other part to Colombia; the imperialistic US government project, which benefitted from the independence, and took over the construction of the Panama Channel (1904–1914); and the Kuna people autonomy project, which culminated in the 1925 revolution. Atencio López Martinez explains that, after independence, new issues came up for the Kuna people, among them the invasion and colonization policy by nonindigenous foreigners, fishing and hunting poachers, and explorers seeking minerals, coconuts, rubber, wood, and other natural resources. Martinez states that "Panama government took no action to placate those grievances, neither at that time, nor in the ensuing years, so the conflict in *Kuna Yala* escalated." Furthermore, the situation got worse after Law #59 was passed, in 1908. It determined the "civilization of the Indians," i.e., a legal instrument to use all "peaceful means" to acculturate into civilized life all "savage tribes" living in the territory of Panama. In order to render viable such "evangelizing" project, government sent missionaries and teachers as "civilizing agents," making available "abundant land plots for non-indigenous settlers" [20].

Faced with this invasion and colonization scenario, the leaders of the Kuna and other indigenous people assembled a general meeting on February 12, 1925, where they passed the Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Tule. The key issues in that Declaration to be negotiated with the Panama government were the administrative and political independence of the Kuna people in its territory; land boundaries defined for the San Blas jurisdiction (Kuma Yala); jurisdiction of the plantations in Armila and Mandinga bay, as well as the exploit of iron and manganese; and also the implementation of educational institutions that respected the Kuna people cultural traditions [20].

In Southern Colombia, other indigenous people also rebelled against the national State colonization and modernization project. This resistance can be found and understood from the path and work of Manuel Quintín Lame, a Colombian Indian from the landless Paeces people, who had to work in the farms of major landowners, like his father. He was born in 1883, in the Polindara reserve, currently located in the Totoró county, Cauca district, in Southern Colombia. According to his testimony, he dictated the book *Los pensamientos del indio que se educó dentro de las selvas colombianas (The Thoughts of the Indian Educated in the Colombian Forests)* to the Indian Florentino Moreno, who wrote very well and who finished it by December 1939. Nevertheless, its first edition only came out in 1971. A second edition was published in 1987,

<sup>2</sup> Different documents and works also use Cuna or Dule to refer to the Kuna people.

by The National Indigenous Organization of Colombia (ONIC), and a third one in 2004, by the University of Cauca and the Faculty of Humanities of Universidad del Valle [21].

make their political choices for a world endowed with more fairness, solidarity, and welcom-

Precursors of Decolonial Pedagogical Thinking in Latin America and *Abya Yala*

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72343

107

In Bolivia, our chosen educator was Elizardo Pérez (1892–1980), one of the pioneers of liberating pedagogy, in our opinion. Pérez was born in Ayata, Muñecas province, La Paz district. He died at age 88 in Buenos Aires (Argentina). In 1931, he led a "cultural revolution" through one of the most unique pedagogical experiences in Latin America. Under authorization from Bailón Mercado, Minister of Education, and in partnership with the Aimara native Avelino Siñani (1881–1941), he founded the *Ayllu* school in Warizata, an indigenous school whose pedagogical project was inspired in the ancient legacy from the Inca civilization. Pérez conceived the school project convinced that indigenous education should take place in the community and cultural environment where people lived; that the school should become a preservation center for indigenous traditions, and at the same time, it should create solid

In his book *Warisata: The ayllu school* (1962), Elizardo Pérez refers to the book *Creation of the National Pedagogy* (1910), by Franz Tamayo (1879–1956), a Bolivian thinker who rebuked importing educational ideas and projects from Europe. Peréz believed that the spirit of the indigenous man had survived, and that the mission of the indigenous school was to bring it to life, "modernizing without giving away traditions, civilize without disrupting its ancient culture and institutions" [22]. His book is an invaluable historic document, as Elizardo Pérez describes one of the most liberating pedagogical experiences in Latin America. He conceived a pedagogical project aligned with the people in *Abya Yala*. His project became viable under the dialogical partnership with the Aimará indigenous master Avelino Siñani *who, with his own knowledge and understanding, and without any official backing, did a pioneer educational job with the children in that region*, as observed by Carlos Soria Galvarro (1981/2014). Elizardo Pérez, points out Soria Galvarro, *acknowledges Avelino Siñani as the true inspiration for Warisata, describing him*

Warisata was not a casual choice for the *ayllu* school. Elizardo Pérez selected an indigenous territory, far away from both urban centers and the countryside areas where chiefdom by landowners prevailed. The school was collectively and cooperatively built by that very indigenous population, with supplemental resources from the State, Bolivian society friends' associations, Elizardo Pérez's own funds, and building materials donated by the governments of Peru, Venezuela, and Mexico. The architectural design of the *ayllu* school drew admiration and conservative fear, as it was an investment for the indigenous population. It was a two-story building, having an 8000 sq.ft. yard, surrounded by trees and a garden. The design also included a boarding school, with five dormitories hosting 150 beds. Inside, there were five classrooms, five other rooms for offices and storage, plus six workshops for practical classes and production in carpentry, textiles, tapestry, and blacksmithery, as well as canteen, kitchen, and bathroom [24].

The Bolivian indigenous people, like other countries having an expressive indigenous population, has had an endless struggling history. In 1780 there was the Tupac Amaru II rebellion (Tupac Katari), led by the native José Gabriel Condorcanqui against the Spanish colonial system, and in 2000 the Water War in Cochabamba, the first anti-neoliberal

ing, for a respectful intercultural and interethnical coexistence.

conditions for the socioeconomic development of the community.3

*as an apostle-like figure, an Andean "amauta"* [23].

3

revolution in the twenty-first Century.

What do we see in the "thoughts of the Indian educated in the Colombian forests"? Quintín Lame characterizes nature as a mother and master of divine origin; he explicits a conception of otherness, differences between Indians and white men. He learned the Spanish language as a strategy to accuse the oppression of his people. As Martha Elena Carvajal points out, *Quintín Lame, like the vast majority of American Indians, in tune with his legacy cosmic vision, feels, sees, and conceives nature, in itself and in the land, as his mother; and just like the actual Peace Indians, Nature is his "nasa kiwe," his motherland* [21]. It explicits a concept of "natural education," emphasizing the moral value of an educational philosophy ingrained in nature.

Quintín Lame says he did not receive the schooling intended for non-Indians; and he knew that this education represented prestige and access to the modern society knowledge. However, he observes that his "natural education" was and is at least as important as the formal education provided to non-Indians. Grounded on the indigenous people's tradition, Quintín Lame conceives nature as the great master of life. He says that *the little Indian hasn't seen or enjoyed these knowledge or educational principles*. However, he remarks that *Nature has educated me under its shadow, its warmth and its freeze; it has shown me idyllic poetry under those shadows; it has also shown me its three kingdoms—mineral, animal, vegetable; it has taught me to think; it showed me where my office was, in the desert loneliness had given me*. What is the cradle of knowledge, asks Quintín Lame? Nature. And what is nature? Nature, he says, *is the Book of God and the Science of God is infinite, while the Science of men is limited* [21].

Hence either North or South of the Americas, the indigenous people resist as much as they can to the modernity expansionistic project; and modernity/colonialism always comes from either the right or the left. In the scope of—private or public—schooling, school has been a national and global instrument for "shaping" modern subjects, implementing curricular disciplining practices that suppress the historical and cultural diversity of the people in *Abya Yala*.


**3.1. The ideal bare wind turbine model**

The one-dimensional bare wind turbine model without losses has been treated extensively and is well documented in textbooks [15]. The velocity of the air crossing the wind turbine velocity is assumed to be a fraction of the upstream air velocity. This fraction is introduced as a parameter, *a*, which expresses the ratio between the latter and the former. Parameter *a* is assigned a value in the range of numbers between zero and one. It is important to note that the physical range of this parameter is limited, for example, 0<a<0.5, otherwise the velocity at the downstream becomes negative. To help clarify this point, calculations were performed covering the full range of parameter *a*. Equations (6) and (8) give the power coefficient and the thrust coefficient, respectively. Figure 5 shows these coefficients as functions of parame‐ ter *a* (a very well-known result in the professional literature in the field).

**Figure 5.** Power and thrust coefficients for the ideal bare wind turbine as a function of the parameter a (the ratio between the air velocity crossing the turbine blades and the upstream velocity of the air). The plot is reproduced simi‐ lar to what is known in the literature, but highlighting the physical region (0<*a*<0.5) with thicker black color and the non-physical region (0.5<a<1) with thinner red color.

For explicit presentation, the physical range of parameter *a* (up to the value of 1/2) was drawn in a thick black color, while the rest of the plot was prepared using a thinner red col‐ or. It is clear from the figure that the coefficients vanish at the zero and one values of the parameter. In between, the maximum thrust coefficient (with a value of unity) occurs at the value of *a*=1/2. On the other hand, the maximum value of the power coefficient occurs at the value of *a*=1/3, for which the Betz limit is given (*CP* = *B* = 16/27). If we plot the power coeffi‐ cient as a function of the thrust coefficient, as Figure 6 shows, a loop shape would be pro‐ duced. Again, the physical range was highlighted using a thick black color.

**Figure 6.** Power coefficient for the ideal bare wind turbine as a function of the thrust coefficient. The plot has been extended to include the non-physical region as was done in Figure 5 for reasons of consistency.

Two important points must be noted on such a plot: the maximum power coefficient (the Betz limit) for which the thrust coefficient receives a value of 8/9; and the maximum thrust (with the value of unity), for which the power coefficient gets a value of 1/2. These relations can be checked using equation (9), or more explicitly by using equation (17).

#### **3.2. The bare wind turbine with losses**

**3. Numerical considerations**

18 Advances in Wind Power

**3.1. The ideal bare wind turbine model**

In this section sample, plots of the results are considered.

ter *a* (a very well-known result in the professional literature in the field).

**0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1**

**Power and thrust coefficients.**

non-physical region (0.5<a<1) with thinner red color.

The one-dimensional bare wind turbine model without losses has been treated extensively and is well documented in textbooks [15]. The velocity of the air crossing the wind turbine velocity is assumed to be a fraction of the upstream air velocity. This fraction is introduced as a parameter, *a*, which expresses the ratio between the latter and the former. Parameter *a* is assigned a value in the range of numbers between zero and one. It is important to note that the physical range of this parameter is limited, for example, 0<a<0.5, otherwise the velocity at the downstream becomes negative. To help clarify this point, calculations were performed covering the full range of parameter *a*. Equations (6) and (8) give the power coefficient and the thrust coefficient, respectively. Figure 5 shows these coefficients as functions of parame‐

> **Power and thrust coefficients for the bare wind turbine with zero loss coefficeint vs. the parameter a**

**0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 a**

**Figure 5.** Power and thrust coefficients for the ideal bare wind turbine as a function of the parameter a (the ratio between the air velocity crossing the turbine blades and the upstream velocity of the air). The plot is reproduced simi‐ lar to what is known in the literature, but highlighting the physical region (0<*a*<0.5) with thicker black color and the

For explicit presentation, the physical range of parameter *a* (up to the value of 1/2) was drawn in a thick black color, while the rest of the plot was prepared using a thinner red col‐

**0<a <0.5 0.5<a<1**

> In this section, sample plots are given to demonstrate the effect of the losses as modeled in section 2.2. The losses are due to friction and are modeled as proportional to the velocity of the square of the velocity of the air flowing through the wind turbine. The plots are pre‐ pared for three different values of the non-dimensional loss coefficient C\* loss: 0, 0.05, and 0.1. Figure 7 shows a plot of the power coefficient and of the thrust coefficient as a function of parameter *a,* covering the physical range while accounting for losses.

**Figure 7.** Power and thrust coefficients for the bare wind turbine as a function of parameter *a*, accounting for friction‐ al losses, with different values.

It is clear from the figure that there is degradation in both coefficients in the order of a few percentage points. The two points (maximum power coefficient and maximum thrust coeffi‐ cient) can be better visualized as illustrated by Figure 8.

**Figure 8.** Power coefficient for the bare wind turbine as a function of the thrust coefficient, accounting for frictional losses, with different values.


**4. The "Made in Danube" project approach**

The "Made in Danube" project (full name "transnational cooperation to transform knowledge into marketable products and services for the Danubian sustainable society of tomorrow") is currently being implemented (time frame 2017–2019) with financing from the Interreg-Danube transnational Program (project code DTP1-1-072-1.1) and involves seven of the DTCs active in the Danube region, being focalized on supporting the development of bioeconomy in this area of the continent through innovation and technology transfer policies and instruments. The outputs and results of the project reflect the contributions of the partners toward researching and supporting this emerging economic sector, with demonstrators proposed on three directions, each in a different country [17]:

The project has a total of six workpackages (**Figure 4**), with the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca being in charge of the one aimed at developing new tools in instruments and the Union of Slovak Cluster contributing to the pilot local action plan implementation in Nitra that deals with innovative precision farming, in partnerhsip with the Slovak University of Agriculture [18]. Thus, these two entities have expanded their collaboration on the topic of smart agriculture that started within the DTCN, with the DTIC platform (developed by TUCN) playing an important role in the activities carried out as part of the Slovakian pilot initiative.

The project aims to bring together all relevant actors working in bioeconomy in the macro-region (companies—especially small- and medium-sized ones, professional networks, universities, research institutes, nongovernmental organizations, public authorities at local and national levels, experts, and the general public) and to perform the scanning and cross-referencing of strategies, policies, and other programmatic documents to contribute in the future the better alignment of interests and initiatives. The web platform, the direct technology transfer instruments, and the training materials represent the main vehicle through which changes are being designed in line with state-of-the-art concepts and approaches related to innovation, before being deployed through the localized demonstrators and proposed as solutions on regional level to decisionmakers.

**Figure 4.** *Logical structure of "Made in Danube" activities [18].*


**EFFECTS OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ON HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES**

Edited by **Vlassios Hrissanthou**

#### **Effects of Sediment Transport on Hydraulic Structures**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/59636 Edited by Vlassios Hrissanthou

#### **Contributors**

Jose Ramon Barros Cantalice, Wagner Luis Sousa, Yuri Silva, Alex Araujo, Douglas Cavalcante, Sergio Monthezuma Guerra, Levent Yilmaz, Jueyi Sui, Peng Wu, Ram Balachandar, Anastasios Georgoulas, Manolia Andredaki, Vlassios Hrissanthou, Nikolaos Kotsovinos, Marcus Schindewolf, Constance Bornkampf, Michael Von Werner, Jürgen Schmidt

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