6. SQp and SQs attribute responses on well domain

Numerical test of SQp and SQs attributes on rock physics shows that the SQp attribute is an indicator of lithological changes, while the SQs attribute can be used


**3. Methodology**

Three types of neural network variants were modeled and tested for accurately forecasting natural gas energy demand. Their implementations differ even though they all belong to the neural network family of algorithms. Each approach has different input variables, however, the general approach remains the same; historical data train a model that is able to produce accurate forecasts of natural gas energy consumption. The approaches, as well as the general process flow, are described in the following sections.

#### *3.1. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)*

Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) [44] were hypothesized as a method to imitate the human brain and its functions while it performs cognitive tasks, or when it learns. For the mathematical structure of such networks, nodes are used to represent the neurons, and layers are used to represent their interactive synapses in the same fashion as it is within the brain. They received wide acceptance ever since they were conceptualized, however, they started gaining more and more fame ever since the computational power, especially in graphic processing units, has become cheaper and thus easily attainable. Another important reason for their wide acceptance is the vast availability of immense amounts of data that have been collected throughout the past years. This adoption has enhanced the scientific progress of the ANN algorithms, which started from the single-layer perceptron [45], moved to multi-layer perceptron [46], introduced the back-propagation algorithm [47], and led to many new derivatives of ANNs, the most well-known being the deep neural networks that are described in the next paragraph.

#### *3.2. Long Short-Term Memory Networks (LSTM)*

Long Short-Term Memory are also neural networks which are built upon a recurrent fashion by introducing memory cells and their in-between connections, in order to construct a graph directed over a sequence. In general, recurrent networks process sequences by using said memory cells in a fashion that is different than that of the simple ANNs, and even though they are well suited for problems with time dependency, they often face the problem of vanishing gradients, or not being able to "memorize" large portions of data. LSTMs [48] solved this problem because of the specific cell structure they have, which allows the network the ability to variate the amount of retained information. These cell

structures are called gates, and they control which information is stored in the long memory and which is discarded, thus optimizing the memorizing process. Dynamic temporal behavior problems, i.e., time sequences, were suited for such approaches.

#### *3.3. Deep Neural Networks (DNN)*

Deep neural networks [49] are the basis of deep learning, one of the most influential areas of the artificial intelligence for the past decade. Based on the ANN, the DNN is comprised by more layers and nodes in the same sequential fashion. For very deep implementations, the problem of "vanishing" or "exploding" gradients would not allow the network to learn properly, therefore new techniques were introduced, such as "identity shortcut connections" as seen in Resnet [50], as well as others, in order to solve these obstacles. The "deep" approach has been used in all derivatives of neural networks. Deep convolutional neural networks (CNN) have been used for image classification and object detection [51,52], and deep recurrent neural networks (RNN) have been used for word prediction [53] and time series forecasting [54].

#### *3.4. Process Flow*

In order to accurately model the natural gas energy forecast, a specific process flow has been designed. The steps that have been followed, are described below.


*4.5. Probability and Elasticity*

Figure 1 shows the variability in the MaaS preference probability with specification I for scenarios 1 (black line), 2 (red line), and 3 (blue line) and subscenarios A (continuous line), B (dotted line), and C (pointed line). The long-distance scenarios (1 and 2) are reported in Figure 1a while the medium-distance scenario (3) is reported in Figure 1b.

**Figure 1.** MaaS choice preference (%) with calibration model I: (**a**) scenarios A and B (long distance) and (**b**) scenario C (short distance).

The MaaS preference probability increased with travel time in the current alternative (negative value of the time parameter in the current alternative's utility) and decreased with increasing bundle cost (negative value of the parameter of cost in the MaaS alternative). The MaaS preference probabilities had similar values for scenarios 1 and 2 with the same travel time. Scenario 3 had a shorter travel time and had lower preference than scenarios 1 and 2. This result provided information on users and how they behave similarly for short and long distances in the absence of additional parking costs in the presented scenario. The elasticity values evaluated as the ratio between the percentage change of the probability and the percentage change of time were approximately 0.65 for scenario 1, 0.15 for scenario 2, and 0.75 for scenario 3.

In the case of the cost of parking, the behavior was different. In fact, for scenario 2, compared to scenarios 1 and 3, the probability of preference for the MaaS scenario started from higher values for low time values and grew less rapidly. The probability had a narrow range of variation compared to other scenarios with fixed travel times. The cost of additional parking greatly favored preference for the MaaS scenario.


**5. Cardiac evaluation of newborn infant**

In the cardiac evaluation of the newborn infant, understanding the circulatory status at birth is very important. As the result of fetal circulation, newborn infants have right ventricular (RV) dominance associated with a thick RV wall, elevated pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR), and a thick medial layer of the pulmonary arterioles. The thick pulmonary artery smooth muscle gradually becomes thinner, and it resembles that of the adult by the time the baby is age 6 to 8 weeks. Most perinatal changes in hemodynamics are related to the thinning of the pulmonary vascular smooth muscle, resulting in a gradual fall in the PVR and a loss of RV dominance of the neonate. Premature infants in general have lessRV dominance than full-term infants, and the PVR is not as high in the full-term neonate, which adds variability to the process. Because of these unique aspects of the perinatal circulatory system, the basic tools in the initial cardiac evaluation discussed are less reliable and the findings may be different in the newborn infant. Therefore echo studies are commonly performed in the neonatal cardiac evaluation. Some important aspects of normal and abnormal findings in physical examination, electrocardiograpgy (ECG), and chest x-ray films of the neonate are briefly reviewed in this chapter.

#### **5.1 Physical examination**

	- a. Heart rate is generally faster ( usually over 100 beats/min, with normal ranges from 70 to 180 beats/min) than that of older children and adults.
	- b. A varying degree of acrocyanosis is the rule rather than the exception.
	- c. Mild arterial desaturation with arterial Po2 as low as 60 mmHg is not unusual in an otherwise normal neonate. This may be caused by an intrapulmonary shunt through an as yet unexpanded portion of the lungs or by a right-to-left arterial shunt through the patent foramen ovale (PFO).

Evaluation and Emergency Treatment of

discussed later in this chapter.

syndrome.

tricuspid atresia.

indicates relative LAD.

abnormal inferior forces for age

1. S waves in lead I 12 mm or greater

greater than 3 mm in any lead.

0.1 sec or greater as in the adult)

5. Upright T waves in V1 after 3 days of age.

may indicate RAD.

following are present:

progression.

in the newborn infant.

e. Atrial hypertrophy

in V1).

neonate.

a. P axis

b. QRS axis

Criticlly Ill Neonate with Cyanosis and Respiratory Distress 237

2. An abnormal ECG may be in the form of an abnormal P axis, abnormal QRS axis, hypertrophy of the ventricles or atria, vantricular conduction disturbances, or arrhythmias. Because of the wide ranges of normal values, many newborn infants with significant CHDs may show a normal ECG for their age. Arrhythmias in neonates are

1. A P axis in the right lower quadrant ( +90 to + 180 degrees) suggests atrial situs

2. A superor P axis suggests an ectopic atrial rhythm, as seen in polysplenia

1. A superiorly oriented QRS axis between 0 and -150 degrees ( left anterior hemiblock) suggests partial or complete ECD, including splenic syndromes, or

2. A QRS axis less than + 30 degrees is abnormal and indicates left axis deviation (LAD) in the neonate. The QRSetween + 30 and +60 degrees is unusual and

3. A QRS axis greater than +180 degrees (in the range of -150 to -180 degrees)

1. Left atrial hypertrophy (LAD) or relative LAD (less than +60 degrees) for the

2. An R/S progression in the precordial leads that resembles the adult R/S

3. QRS voltages demonstrating abnormal leftward and posterior forces or

d. Right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH) is difficult to diagnose because of the normal dominance of the RV at this age. However, the following are helpful clues to RVH

3. R waves in V1 greater than 25 mm or R waves in aVR greater than 8 mm.

6. Right axis deviation (RAD) with the QRS axis greater than + 180 degrees.

1. Right atrial hypertrophy (RAH) is present when the P wave amplitude is

2. Left atrial hypertrophy (LAH) iswhen the P wave duration is 0.08 sec or greater (usually with notched P waves in the limb leads and biphasic P waves

f. Ventricular conduction disturbances ( i.e , right bundle branch block (RBBB),left bundle branch block (LBBB), Wolff-Parkinson-Wite (WPW) syndrome, and intraventricular block)are present when the QRS duration is 0.07 sec or more ( not

2. Pure R waves with no S waves in V1 greater than 10 mm.

4. A qR pattern in V1 ( this is also seen in 10% of normal neonates).

c. Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is suggested in the newborn infant when the

inversus, asplenia syndrome, or incorrectly placed ECG electrodes.

	- a. The pulmonary flow murmur of the newborn infant is more frequent and louder in premature than in full-term infants.
	- b. The likelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) murmur is greater in premature infants.
	- c. The peripheral pulses normally appear bounding because of the lack of a normal amount of subcutaneous tissue.

The following abnormal physical findings cardiac pathology.

#### **5.2 Blood gases**

Normal 1-day-old infant may have P02 as low as 60 mmHg, but transcutaneous oxygen saturation is higher than 90%.

### **5.3 Electrocardiographraphy**

	- a. Sinus tachycardia with a rate as high as 180 beats/min.
	- b. A rightward QRS axis with a mean of +125 degrees and a maximum of +180 degrees.
	- c. Relatively small voltages for the QRS complex and the T wave.
	- d. RV dominance with tall R waves in the RPLs (V4R, V1, and V2).
	- e. Occasional q waves in V1(seen in about 10% of normal neonates)
	- f. Benign arrhythmias
	- a. P axis

the lower left sternal border (LLSB) rather than at the apex.

an ejection click (reflecting pulmonary hypertension) is audible.

group is the pulmonary flow murmur of the newborn infant.

The following abnormal physical findings cardiac pathology.

the arm require further evaluation for COA.

a. Sinus tachycardia with a rate as high as 180 beats/min.

c. Relatively small voltages for the QRS complex and the T wave. d. RV dominance with tall R waves in the RPLs (V4R, V1, and V2). e. Occasional q waves in V1(seen in about 10% of normal neonates)

normal infant.

3. Abnormal phycical findings

infants.

**5.2 Blood gases**

follows:

saturation is higher than 90%.

**5.3 Electrocardiographraphy**

degrees.

f. Benign arrhythmias

2. Additional important features of premature infants

premature than in full-term infants.

amount of subcutaneous tissue.

requires further evaluation.

d. There is relative hyperactivity of the RV, with the point of maximal impuls (PMI)at

e. The second heart sound (S2) may be single in the first days of life, and occasionally

f. An innocent heart murmur may be present. The most common one in this age

g. Peripheral pulses are easily palpable in all extremities, including the foot, in every

a. The pulmonary flow murmur of the newborn infant is more frequent and louder in

b. The likelihood of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) murmur is greater in premature

c. The peripheral pulses normally appear bounding because of the lack of a normal

a. Cyanosis, particularly when it does not improve with oxygen administration,

b. Decreased or absent peripheral pulses in the lower extremities suggest coarctation of aorta (COA). Generalized weak peripheral pulses suggest hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS) or circulatory shock. Bounding peripheral pulses suggest an

c. Tachypnea of greater than 60 breaths/min with or without retraction is abnormal. d. Hepatomegaly may suggest a heart defect manifesting with congestive heart failure

e. A heart murmur may be a presenting sign of congenital heart disease (CHD). However, innocent murmurs are more common than pathologic murmurs. f. An irregular rhythm or abnormal heart rate may suggest cardiac arrhythmias. g. Blood pressure readings in the lower extremities 6 to 7 mm Hg lower than those in

Normal 1-day-old infant may have P02 as low as 60 mmHg, but transcutaneous oxygen

1. The normal ECG of a newborn infant is different from that of a child or an adult as

b. A rightward QRS axis with a mean of +125 degrees and a maximum of +180

aortic run-off lesion such as PDA or persistent truncus arterious.

(CHF). A midline liver suggests asplenia or polysplenia syndrome.

	- 1. A superiorly oriented QRS axis between 0 and -150 degrees ( left anterior hemiblock) suggests partial or complete ECD, including splenic syndromes, or tricuspid atresia.
	- 2. A QRS axis less than + 30 degrees is abnormal and indicates left axis deviation (LAD) in the neonate. The QRSetween + 30 and +60 degrees is unusual and indicates relative LAD.
	- 3. A QRS axis greater than +180 degrees (in the range of -150 to -180 degrees) may indicate RAD.
	- 1. Left atrial hypertrophy (LAD) or relative LAD (less than +60 degrees) for the neonate.
	- 2. An R/S progression in the precordial leads that resembles the adult R/S progression.
	- 3. QRS voltages demonstrating abnormal leftward and posterior forces or abnormal inferior forces for age
	- 1. S waves in lead I 12 mm or greater
	- 2. Pure R waves with no S waves in V1 greater than 10 mm.
	- 3. R waves in V1 greater than 25 mm or R waves in aVR greater than 8 mm.
	- 4. A qR pattern in V1 ( this is also seen in 10% of normal neonates).
	- 5. Upright T waves in V1 after 3 days of age.
	- 6. Right axis deviation (RAD) with the QRS axis greater than + 180 degrees.
	- 1. Right atrial hypertrophy (RAH) is present when the P wave amplitude is greater than 3 mm in any lead.
	- 2. Left atrial hypertrophy (LAH) iswhen the P wave duration is 0.08 sec or greater (usually with notched P waves in the limb leads and biphasic P waves in V1).

Evaluation and Emergency Treatment of

syndrome.

c. Dextrocardia or mesocardia

e. Pulmonary vascular markings

initially be associated with a murmur.

the newborn period are as follows:

shortly thereafter.

asphyxia.

Heart murmurs.

suggests asplenia or polysplenia syndrome.

severe pulmonary stenosis or atresia.

characteristic of pulmonary venous obstruction.

**6. Suggested approach to neonates with central cyanosis**

Criticlly Ill Neonate with Cyanosis and Respiratory Distress 239

The presence of dextrocardia or mesocardia does not always indicate a serious heart defect. The segmental approach should be used for further evaluation. Four common situations seen in dextrocardia or mesocardia are situs inversus totalis with a normal heart, a rightward displacement of a normallyformed heart due to hypoplasia of the right lung, a complex cyanotic CHD, and asplenia or polysplenia

d. The situs of abdominal viscera: A left-sided liver with the heart in the right side of the chest is seen in situs inversus totalis with normal heart. The liver and the cardiac apex on the same side suggest a complex cyanotic CHD. A midline liver

1. Increased pulmonary vascular marking (PVM) in a cyanotic infant suggest TGA, persistent truncus arteriosus, or single ventricle. In an acyanotic infant, increased PVMs suggest VSD, PDA, or endocardial cushion defect (ECD). 2. Decreased PVMs suggest a critical cyanotic CHD with decreased pulmonary blood flow(PBF), such as pulmonary atresia, tricuspid atresia, mor TOF with

3. A ground-glass appearance or a reticulated pattern of the lung fields is

a. Although a significant heart murmur usually suggests a cardiac basis for the cyanosis, several of the more severe cardiac defects (transposition of the great vessels) may not

1. Innocent heart murmurs: More than 50% of full-term newborn infants ( and a higher percentage of premature infants) have an innocent systolic murmur at some time during the first week of life. Infants with innocent heart murmurs have normal ECG and chest x-ray findings. The four most common innocent murmurs in

a. Pulmonary flow murmur is most common. It is more often found in premature and small-for-gestational-age infants than in full-term infants. A soft systolic murmur ( grade 1 to 2/6), heard best at the upper left sternal border (ULSB),

b. Transient systolic murmur of PDA is soft ( grade 1 to 2/6), audible at the ULSB and in the left infraclavicular area on the first day. It usually disappears

c. Transient systolic murmur of tricuspid regurgitation is indistinguishable from that of VSD and is most common in infants who had fetal distress or neonatal

d. Vibratory systolic innocent murmur is a counterpart of Still's murmur in older

2. Pathologic heart murmurs: Most pathologic murmurs except atrial septal defect (ASD) are audible during the first month of life. The time of appearance of a

transmits well to bozh sides of the chest, axillae, and the back.

children. It is audible at the LLSB, apex, or midprecordium.

murmur depends on the nature of the defect.

#### **5.4 Chest roentgenography**

	- a. The cardiothoracic (CT) ratio of normal newborn infants may be greater than 0.5 because of inadequate inspiration and a large thymic shadow.
	- b. The thymic shadow may have any of several shapes, including a classic sail sign, or may have undulant or smooth borders, either unilateral or bilateral, on the upper mediastinum.
	- c. Cardiac silhouette is not always as well defined in neonates as in older children.
	- d. Evaluation of pulmonary vascular markings in the neonate poses a special problem. Although a reduced PBF is usually easier to detect ( and indicates serious cyanotic CHD), increased vascularity is not always apparent even when the pulmonary blood flow is large. The distinction between increased PBF and pulmonary venous congestion is often difficult.
	- a. Heart size

The CT ratio is of limited value, since that of normal neonates is usually greater than 0.5. Many serious CHDs that eventually result in cardiomegaly show a normal heart size in neonates. Unequivocal cardiomegaly may be due to CHD (such as ventricular septal defect (VSD), PDA, transposition of the great arteries (TGA), Ebstein anomaly, hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS), and other), myocarditis or cardiomyopathy, pericardial effusion, metabolic disturbance (e.g., hypoglycemia, severe hypoxemia, and acidosis), and overhydration or overtransfusion.

In the newborn infant who is intubated and on a ventilator, the heart size is greatly influenced by the ventilator setting. For example, a premature infant with a large-shunt PDA may have a normal-sized heart on chest x-ray film if the ventilator settings are high, especially the positive end-expiratory pressure.

	- 1. A boot-shaped heart (coeur en sabot) is seen in tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) and in tricuspid atresia.
	- 2. An egg-shaped heart with narrow waist may be seen in TGA.
	- 3. A large, globular heart is seen in Ebstein anomaly.

c. Dextrocardia or mesocardia

238 Congenital Heart Disease – Selected Aspects

sometimes seen in otherwise normal neonates. 2. LBBB is extremely rare in the newborn infant.

diffuse myocardial diseases.

**5.4 Chest roentgenography**  1. Normal CXR findings

mediastinum.

a. Heart size

overtransfusion.

diagnosis.

tricuspid atresia.

1. RBBB may be associated with Ebstein anomaly and COA in the newborn. It is

3. Intraventricular block ( with a widening of the QRS complex throughout the QRS duration) is more significant than RBBB because it is often associated with significant metabolic abnormalities (e.g., hypoxia, acidosis, hyperkalemia) and

4. WPW syndrome may be an isolated finding or may be associated with CHDs

a. The cardiothoracic (CT) ratio of normal newborn infants may be greater than 0.5

b. The thymic shadow may have any of several shapes, including a classic sail sign, or may have undulant or smooth borders, either unilateral or bilateral, on the upper

c. Cardiac silhouette is not always as well defined in neonates as in older children. d. Evaluation of pulmonary vascular markings in the neonate poses a special problem. Although a reduced PBF is usually easier to detect ( and indicates serious cyanotic CHD), increased vascularity is not always apparent even when the pulmonary blood flow is large. The distinction between increased PBF and

2. Abnormal chest x-ray findings: A cardiac problem is suggested by an abnormal size, position, or silhouette of the heart, by an abnormal shape or position of the liver, and by

The CT ratio is of limited value, since that of normal neonates is usually greater than 0.5. Many serious CHDs that eventually result in cardiomegaly show a normal heart size in neonates. Unequivocal cardiomegaly may be due to CHD (such as ventricular septal defect (VSD), PDA, transposition of the great arteries (TGA), Ebstein anomaly, hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS), and other), myocarditis or cardiomyopathy, pericardial effusion, metabolic disturbance (e.g., hypoglycemia, severe hypoxemia, and acidosis), and overhydration or

In the newborn infant who is intubated and on a ventilator, the heart size is greatly influenced by the ventilator setting. For example, a premature infant with a large-shunt PDA may have a normal-sized heart on chest x-ray film if the ventilator settings are

b. Abnormal cardiac silhouettes may be of considerable help in suggesting the correct

2. An egg-shaped heart with narrow waist may be seen in TGA.

3. A large, globular heart is seen in Ebstein anomaly.

1. A boot-shaped heart (coeur en sabot) is seen in tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) and in

such as Ebstein anomaly or L-TGA. It is a frequent cause of SVT.

because of inadequate inspiration and a large thymic shadow.

pulmonary venous congestion is often difficult.

high, especially the positive end-expiratory pressure.

increased or decreased pulmonary vascularity on CXR films.

	- 1. Increased pulmonary vascular marking (PVM) in a cyanotic infant suggest TGA, persistent truncus arteriosus, or single ventricle. In an acyanotic infant, increased PVMs suggest VSD, PDA, or endocardial cushion defect (ECD).
	- 2. Decreased PVMs suggest a critical cyanotic CHD with decreased pulmonary blood flow(PBF), such as pulmonary atresia, tricuspid atresia, mor TOF with severe pulmonary stenosis or atresia.
	- 3. A ground-glass appearance or a reticulated pattern of the lung fields is characteristic of pulmonary venous obstruction.


Preface

In engineering, risk management is the first step to developing economical and safe solutions. Risk management is a fundamental concept in construction to realize the optimal project. In technical terms, risk is defined as the measure of the probability and severity of adverse effects on life, health, property, or the environment. Researchers consider the fact that risk is estimated by the combined impact of the scenario, probability of occurrence, and the associated consequence. In some cases, the term "risk" focuses on economic concerns, while at other times it refers to loss of life.

Risk management is the systematic process of analyzing, identifying, and responding to project risks. It mainly consists of maximizing the chances and the impact of positive events. It also helps to minimize the probability and the impact of negative events. In addition, it aims to meet the project's objectives. In other words, risk management can be considered a decision-making process, involving a full understanding of known risks and/or necessary actions to reduce the effects and chances of such risks. In the construction industry, risk management studies begin with risk identification, continue with risk analysis and evaluation, and finalize with risk response. In summary, construction risk management is the process of evaluating and implementing procedures to reduce the impact of risks in construction projects.

In this book, researchers and engineers have authored chapters focused on the latest advances in construction risk management. The book includes both theoretical and practical papers of high technical standards for various aspects of risk management, thus facilitating an awareness of modern techniques and methods. We selected high-quality submissions of original research as well as review articles that have the potential for practical application.

Chapter 1 presents a study on the risk management of large dams in the operation stage using actual projects in Türkiye. Chapter 2 presents a building damage estimation and renovation proposal system using constant microtremor measurement for construction risk management. Chapter 3 deals with recent advancements in the management of construction risks. Chapter 4 discusses managing uncertainty in the construction phase of road projects. Chapter 5 focuses on the risk factors affecting public infrastructure projects. Chapters 6 and 7 contain studies on approaches to improving occupational health and safety of the Nigerian construction industry and the risk of delay in construction projects, respectively. Finally, Chapter 8 introduces a study done on client type and communication practice during the pre-contract phase of construction project development in Nigeria.

It is our hope that this book proves a useful resource for readers studying risk management in engineering, as it introduces recent scientific research and the latest knowledge of the construction industry. We are thankful to the authors for their excellent contributions.


**2.11 Hydrolysis**

Hydrolysis is probably the most prevalent chemical reaction in multiple WtE and WtL technologies. Hydrolysis is the chemical reaction where the addition of

**43**

**Figure 7.**

*Example scheme of solvent extraction technology.*

*Review of Biofuel Technologies in WtL and WtE DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84833*

tieth century, with maximum yields of 190 L Mg−1

molecules bind to H+

**2.12 Solvent extraction**

a water molecule breaks the chemical bond of another molecule and the resulting

during the 1930s, the industrial growth at the time needed to develop processes of ethanol production that did not use food sources. In 1934, six pilot reactors were built with the objective of optimizing different hydrolysis technologies, not only to produce ethanol but also other products such as xylitol and furfural. After the First World War, this process was no longer economically viable against more conventional methods. With the advances of the last two decades, enzymatic hydrolysis seems to be the most promising application regarding hydrolysis techniques.

Solvent extraction is a relatively modern technology used in the extraction of products from its substrates (**Figure 7**). By choosing a solvent that best dissolves the wanted product, this process usually results in higher yields when compared with other methods. The separation is quick and efficient and most of the solvent can be reused. Extraction of oils via this technology is a common application in the industry, normally used after mechanical extraction. Hexane is the most used solvent, but ethanol and isopropanol have also been proposed as alternative options. The Soxhlet extractor is often the preferred method for lipid extraction due to the simplicity of operation, relative safety, and ease of replicating results on an industrial scale [76]. From research, organic solvents such as chloroform, ethanol, and hexane were found to produce the best results when performing lipid extraction from microalgae. Solvent mixtures were also observed to yield better results

could produce sugars from cellulose through hydrolysis with sulfuric acid. This hydrolyzed sugar could then be processed and fermented to produce ethanol. The production of ethanol by hydrolysis began extensively at the beginning of the twen-

and OH− ions. In 1819, Henri Braconnot discovered that he

of biomass. In the former USSR

**Figure 6.** *Example scheme of microbial electrolysis technology.*

*Review of Biofuel Technologies in WtL and WtE DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84833*

*Elements of Bioeconomy*

**2.10 Microbial electrolysis**

and new reactor configurations.

**2.11 Hydrolysis**

the need for optimization depending on the waste to be transformed [65]. Other experiments have focused on process enhancement via salt pretreatment. Addition of inorganic salts, for instance, has been reported to improve reducing sugar yields

Microbial electrolysis is a bioelectrochemical transformation where hydrogen or methane is produced from various wastes and wastewaters. Microbial electrolysis cells (MEC) use the metabolic activity of exoelectrogenic bacteria to catalyze redox reactions and promote the flow of electrons between the electrodes [68]. Specifically, the bacteria convert biodegradable substrates at the anode, releasing electrons and protons (**Figure 6**). The electrons are then transferred to the cathode (where hydrogen is produced) inducing an electrical current with electrical potential values (0.2–0.8 V) lower than in traditional electrolysis (1.8–3.5 V) [69]. Microbial electrolysis cells (MEC) have the potential to become one of the most important WtE technologies. However, electrode materials are still costly, and further developments are needed. In this regard, the use of biochar-based electrodes seems to compose an interesting research route [70–72]. Currently, coupling with other technologies for energy generation seems to be its leading application. The use of microbial electrolysis as a pretreatment for AD, for example, has been explored recently with interesting results. In a study focused on the valorization of highly concentrated FW [73], MEC was found to accelerate methane production rate and stabilization. As another example, post-processing of wastewater resulting from hydrothermal liquefaction for recovered hydrogen has also been demonstrated with effective results [74, 75]. As a technology, MEC are still in the early phase of development, and further progress is expected with the use of novel electrode materials

Hydrolysis is probably the most prevalent chemical reaction in multiple WtE and WtL technologies. Hydrolysis is the chemical reaction where the addition of

of sugarcane leaf wastes and mustard stalk and straw [66, 67].

**42**

**Figure 6.**

*Example scheme of microbial electrolysis technology.*

a water molecule breaks the chemical bond of another molecule and the resulting molecules bind to H+ and OH− ions. In 1819, Henri Braconnot discovered that he could produce sugars from cellulose through hydrolysis with sulfuric acid. This hydrolyzed sugar could then be processed and fermented to produce ethanol. The production of ethanol by hydrolysis began extensively at the beginning of the twentieth century, with maximum yields of 190 L Mg−1 of biomass. In the former USSR during the 1930s, the industrial growth at the time needed to develop processes of ethanol production that did not use food sources. In 1934, six pilot reactors were built with the objective of optimizing different hydrolysis technologies, not only to produce ethanol but also other products such as xylitol and furfural. After the First World War, this process was no longer economically viable against more conventional methods. With the advances of the last two decades, enzymatic hydrolysis seems to be the most promising application regarding hydrolysis techniques.


**8. Acknowledgments**

I thank Drs. Kayoko Kameda, Satoru Hobara, Keisuke Koba, Akira Ishida, Yu Fukasawa, and Hiroshi Takeda, Mrs. Satomi Fujiwara, and Mr. Shingo Katsumata for collaborations in the research projects; Drs. Seiji Tokumasu and Susumu Iwamoto for helpful identification of fungi; and Dr. Elizabeth Nakajima for proofreading of the manuscript. Dr. Kayoko Kameda kindly provided original data of Fig. 1. This study was supported by Global COE Program A06 of Kyoto University.


**The Potential Of I-129 as an Environmental Tracer**

Andrej Osterc and Vekoslava Stibilj *Institute Jožef Stefan, Slovenia*

#### **1. Introduction**

366 Radioisotopes – Applications in Physical Sciences

Ulrich R.L. & Ponnaiya B. (1998). Radiation-induced instability and its relation to radiation

Vines A.M., Lyng F.M., McClean B., Seymour C., & Mothersill C. (2009). Bystander effect

Weissenborn U. and Streffer C. (1989). Analysis of structural and numerical chromosomal

Whitehouse C.A. & Tawn E.J. (2001). No evidence for chromosomal instability in radiation

Widel M., Szurko A., Przybyszewski W. & Lanuszewska J. (2008). Non-irradiated bystander

Widel M., Szurko A., Przybyszewski W., Brodziak L., Lalik A. & Rzeszowska-Wolny J.

Wolff S. (1996). Aspects of the adaptive response to very low doses of radiation and other

Xu W., Liu L.Z., Loizidou M., Achmed M. & Charles I. (2002). The role of nitric oxide in cancer. *Cell Research*, Vol.12, No.5-6, (December 2002), pp. 311-320, ISSN:1001-0602 Xu X.G., Bednarz B. & Paganetti H. (2008). A review of dosimetry studies on external-beam

Xue L.Y., Butler N.J., Makrigiorgos G.M., Adelstein S.J. & Kassis A.I. (2002). Bystander effect

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Induction of a bystander mutagenic effect of alpha-particles in mammalian cells. *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,* Vol.97, Iodine has two natural isotopes – the only stable iodine isotope is 127I, whilst 129I is the only radioactive iodine isotope that is formed in nature (T½ = 1.57 · 107 years). However, the main sources of 129I in the environment are anthropogenic from nuclear fuel reprocessing plants (NFRP) and nuclear accidents. Current levels of 129I do not represent any radiological hazard to humans, but the liquid discharges of 129I from reprocessing plants into the ocean makes it a unique oceanographic tracer to study the movement of water masses, transfer of radionuclides and marine cycles of stable elements such as iodine. The gaseous releases of 129I from reprocessing plants can be used as an atmospheric and geochemical tracer (Hou, 2004).

129I and 127I have the same chemical properties and therefore it is expected that they also behave similar in environment. Lack of 129I and 127I speciation data makes it difficult to confirm or disprove this assumption. The main problem is the mobility – species of newly introduced and old − natural 129I. The old 129I is in equilibrium with 127I – natural 129I/127I ratio and this is disturbed with 129I from NFRP which is released to the environment in volatile form. As such it is rapidly transferred among surface compartments. Liquid discharges to oceans influence areas in accordance with marine currents. Wet and, to a lesser extent, dry depositions of atmospheric 129I are the main sources for 129I in terrestrial environment, which is distant from 129I sources such as NFRP.

The biggest reservoir of iodine is the ocean with an average concentration of approximately 50-60 µg L-1 seawater. From marine environment is iodine transferred to the atmosphere by volatilization mainly as iodomethane (CH3I) and then washed out to terrestrial environment by wet and dry deposition. It is accumulated in soils where it is strongly bound-adsorb to organic matter, and iron and aluminium oxides in soil (Fuge, 2005). In the accumulation processes of iodine in soil besides various physico-chemical parameters including soil type, pH, Eh, salinity, and organic matter content, soil microorganism – especially bacteria were found to play an important role (Muramatsu & Yoshida, 1999, Amachi, 2008). In this way the biogeochemical cycling of 129I is strongly connected to processes in ocean and soil systems – the atmosphere being the bridge between them.


*4.2. CIQUAL—French Food Composition Table*

CIQUAL is an open access French FDB [16], covering a wide range of the most consumed foodstuffs in France. This reference database on the nutritional composition of foods is maintained by the Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (known by the acronym ANSES). This FDB was updated in 2020 and provides the levels of macro (lipids, fatty acids, carbohydrates) and micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, etc.) of more than 3185 foods and 67 components. The main axes targeted by CIQUAL are the input and management of a reference database relating to the composition of foods, the contribution to the assessment of nutritional risks, and the communication and dissemination of validated data to the greatest number of users (encompassing researchers, nutritionists, food manufacturers, and consumers). In the context of the present work, this database is herein described in more detail, to illustrate the general structure of whole food FDBs, sharing main features and functionalities, essential for interconnections between databases, as explained above.

According to ANSES, finding nutritional information can be carried out by looking for the food in question or by food category. Food categories are classified into eleven food groups:

The nutritional information of each food product is given by a table either in detailed composition or in basic composition. In the case of detailed composition, the estimated energy provided from fibres is also included (based in Jones' factor). All the nutrients likely to be present in the food are provided by the table and are expressed in g/100 g or g/100 mL of the edible part. Lipids are detailed by the fatty acid profile (saturated and polyunsaturated). Fibres, water, starch, vitamins, and oligo-elements are all exposed, but not for all foods systematically, and the level of detail may vary. The data source of each compound is also mentioned by CIQUAL, and it may come from different sources, given the interlinkage between FDBs. Thus, data are a compilation between a sampling plan and analyses launched each year by ANSES on 60 to 80 foods in collaboration with subcontracted laboratories, plus data from OQALI (a French project, which aims at monitoring changes in processed foods supply available on the French market), research programs carried out jointly with external partners, information from scientific literature and laboratory, and finally, data from foreign food composition tables [16].


Advances in Metal Recovery from Wastewaters Using Selected Biosorbent Materials and Constructed Wetland Systems

*John G. Murnane, Bashir Ghanim, Lisa O'Donoghue, Ronan Courtney, Thomas F. O'Dwyer and J. Tony Pembroke*


**Abstract**

With time, construction waste is increasing massively and its dumping is a serious issue globally. Utilizing the waste in various products and construction projects is boosting, but still, the amount of waste is much higher. Transitions to more sustainable construction can assist in attaining the specific goal of slowing down natural resources depletion, reducing environmental damage by extracting and recycling new materials, and minimizing pollution from the processing, use, and disposal of materials once they complete their useful life period. An important way to do this is to improve efficiency and bring productivity in the utilization of resources. The circular economy is more productive and healthier, where raw materials are stored longer in the production cycle and can be recycled, thus producing less waste. Due to potential benefits through enhanced quality and productivity in the processes, the concept of circular economy is grabbing the attention of construction industry stakeholders to attain sustainable construction waste management. This chapter focuses on the significance of a circular economy for the attainment of sustainable waste management in the construction sector. Moreover, the impact of construction waste and its utilization through recent sustainable solutions which also impact the economy has also been highlighted.

**Keywords:** circular economy, construction waste management, sustainable waste management


Received: 25 April 2019; Accepted: 15 May 2019; Published: 31 May 2019

**Abstract:** Volcanic ash is a well-known hazard to population, infrastructure, and commercial and civil aviation. Early assessment of the parameters that control the development and evolution of volcanic plumes is crucial to effective risk mitigation. Acoustic infrasound is a ground-based remote sensing technique—increasingly popular in the past two decades—that allows rapid estimates of eruption source parameters, including fluid flow velocities and volume flow rates of erupted material. The rate at which material is ejected from volcanic vents during eruptions, is one of the main inputs into models of atmospheric ash transport used to dispatch aviation warnings during eruptive crises. During explosive activity at volcanoes, the injection of hot gas-laden pyroclasts into the atmosphere generates acoustic waves that are recorded at local, regional and global scale. Within the framework of linear acoustic theory, infrasound sources can be modelled as multipole series, and acoustic pressure waveforms can be inverted to obtain the time history of volume flow at the vent. Here, we review near-field (<10 km from the vent) linear acoustic wave theory and its applications to the assessment of eruption source parameters. We evaluate recent advances in volcano infrasound modelling and inversion, and comment on the advantages and current limitations of these methods. We review published case studies from different volcanoes and show applications to new data that provide a benchmark for future acoustic infrasound studies.

**Keywords:** acoustic infrasound; volcanic emissions; ground-based remote sensing


**5. Staging**

Tumors are proliferations of atypical, autonomous, irreversible cell clones with a tendency to lose cell differentiation. Tumors classified as benign are those that do not present cellular atypia, grow pushing the adjacent tissues, demonstrate the histological aspect of low aggressiveness, low tendency to local recurrence, and low tendency to spread (production of metastases). On the other hand, neoplasms considered malignant have a variable degree of cellular atypia, grow infiltrating adjacent tissues, demonstrate a more aggressive histological aspect, a high tendency to local recurrence, and a high tendency to spread.

The Enneking classification [43] (**Table 3**), for bone tumors has a first structure for the evaluation of benign tumors, a second structure defined for the evaluation of malignant tumors, and both in order to present an evolutionary degree of the lesions according to the increase in the stage in the classification.

The classification of the American Joint Committee on Cancer [44] (**Table 4**), defines only primary malignant bone neoplasms (except for primary bone lymphoma and multiple myeloma). This classification evaluates factors, such as histological grade, presence of regional metastases (lymph nodes), or distance (pulmonary and non-pulmonary), in addition to the size of the lesion. Related to the tumor size, it is observed that Ewing's sarcomas ≤8 cm have a better prognosis than those >8 cm, as well as in osteosarcoma that lesions ≤8 cm have a better prognosis in relation to osteosarcomas >8 cm greater in size.

Another staging related to primary bone sarcomas is in relation to the histological response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy. The surgical specimen is evaluated to analyze the degree of tumor necrosis and in patients with osteosarcoma and Ewing's sarcoma who present a degree of necrosis ≥90% are classified as good responders and who generally have good survival. This type of analysis was developed by Huvos [45, 46] (**Table 5**), initially for patients with osteosarcoma, however, it demonstrates to be applicable to Ewing's sarcoma [47].

### **Table 3.**

*Enneking staging system for bone neoplams.*

### **Table 4.**

*AJCC staging system – 8th edition.*

### **Table 5.**

*Huvos's histologic grading of chemotherapy effect.*


**2. Materials and methods**

The BGMA was collected along the coast of Tamil Nadu, India, near Chidambaram. It is cleaned and dried at room temperature with distilled water. It is then pulverised to 150–200 microns in size. For IR spectrum investigations of dried biomass and Ni(II) sorbed biomass in the range of 4000–400 cm1 , a Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrometer (BRUKER FT-IR, ALPHA-T, GERMANY) was employed.

The synthetic Ni(II) solution is made with an analytical grade salt, Nickel(II) sulfate heptahydrate (NiSO47H2O). To make 1 L of solution for the stock purpose of *Removal of Divalent Nickel from Aqueous Solution Using Blue Green Marine Algae… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.103940*

1000 ppm, exactly 4.7852 g of NiSO4�7H2O is weighed and utilised. For stock solution preparation, double distilled water is employed. This stock solution is diluted to a concentration of 25–250 parts per million.

Each solution's pH is changed from 2 to 7. pH is adjusted with 0.1 N nitric acid (HNO3) and 0.1 N sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions. The amount of biomass put to the conical flask varies from 0.5 to 2.5 g (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 g).

A 500 mL conical flask is used for the batch adsorption experiment. The starting concentrations of metal ions are 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, and 250 parts per million. Each 500 mL Erlenmeyer flask contains 400 mL of 25 ppm metal ion solution. Each Erlenmeyer flask receives 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 g of BGMA, respectively. In all five flasks, the pH of the solution is kept at 2. The flasks are agitated at 120 rpm in a rotary shaker. There is a total of 24 hours of contact (shaking) time given. This is more than enough to attain the desired equilibrium (maximum adsorption). The starting and ultimate concentrations of the solution are determined using a double-beam Atomic Adsorption Spectrophotometer (AAS SL176-Elico Limited India). The % removal of metal ions is computed using Eq. (1) from the starting (Cin) and equilibrium final concentration (Ceq).

$$\% \text{Removal} = \frac{\text{C}\_{\text{in}} - \text{C}\_{\text{eq}}}{\text{C}\_{\text{in}}} \times 100 \tag{1}$$

Eq. (2) is used to compute the equilibrium metal uptake, qeq, using the starting (Ci) and equilibrium (Ceq) concentrations of the metal ion solution.

$$\mathbf{q}\_{\rm eq} = \frac{\mathbf{V}}{\mathbf{M}} \left( \mathbf{C}\_{\rm in} - \mathbf{C}\_{\rm eq} \right) \tag{2}$$

where V is the litre volume of the liquid sample and M is the gram weight of the adsorbent. In order to improve the pH value and biomass loading, the same operation is repeated with adjusting the solution pH as 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Similarly, 50 ppm, 75 ppm, 100 ppm, 125 ppm, 150 ppm, 175 ppm, 200 ppm, 225 ppm, and 250 ppm metal ion concentrations are used in the studies. For concordant results, experiments are repeated (**Table 1**).

#### **Table 1.**

*Experimental values of adsorption of Ni(II) onto BGMA.*

One parameter model (Henry's law), two parameter models (Henry's law with intercept, Langmuir, Freundlich, Dubinin-Radushkevich, Temkin, Hill-de Boer, Fowler-Guggenheim, Flory-Huggins, Halsey, Harkin-Jura, Jovanovic, Elovich and Kiselev), three parameter models (Hill, Redlich-Peterson, Sips, Langmuir-Freundlich, Fritz-Schlunder-III, Radke-Prausnits-I, Radke-Prausnits-II, Radke-Prausnits-III, Toth, Khan, Koble-Corrigan, Jossens, Jovanovic-Freundlich, Brouers-Sotolongo, Vieth-Sladek, Unilan, Holl-Krich and Langmuir-Jovanovic), four parameter models (Fritz-Schlunder-IV, Baudu Weber-van Vliet and Marczewski-Jaroniec) and five parameter model (Fritz-Schlunder-5) are used to examine the experimental facts and to discover its applicability for modelling purpose. The parameter values are predicted using the cftool kit available in MATLAB R2010a software. This toolkit aids in the estimation of model parameters, including the non-linear regression coefficient (R2 ), Sum of Squares due to Error (SSE), and Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE).


3.3.3. Element Content

The profiles of some elements associated with JF samples treated with calcium citrate and calcium lactate brines, as well as with JF treated with salt–alum, revealed the absence or very low levels of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg) in JF tissues (Table 4). In *R. pulmo* treated with the traditional salt–alum traditional method (Salt-Alum JF-DW), a value of Pb corresponding to 9.748 ppm (or mg/Kg) of dry weight was observed. Notably, the Ca-Citrate JF-DW and Ca-Lactate JF-DW showed lower contents of metals compared with the samples produced with the traditional alum-based process (Salt-Alum JF-DW and Salt-Alum Jp). This evidence was important to demonstrate the unique features of the products obtained by the optimized method described here, since the element composition of the food matrix can directly impact human health and is therefore closely related to food safety.

**Table 4.** Elements evaluated in the samples of *R. pulmo* subjected to different treatments. JF-DW, JF samples washed with drinking water; Ca-Citrate JF-DW and Ca-Lactate JF-DW, *R. pulmo* JF treated with brines containing calcium citrate or calcium lactate, respectively; Salt-Alum JF-DW, JF samples treated with an alum-based procedure; Salt-Alum Jp, commercial JF treated with alum from Japan. Data are expressed in ppm ± SD; the different letters in line indicate significant differences between samples (*p* < 0.05).

Chromium (Cr) is considered an essential element, playing a role in the maintenance of carbohydrates, fats, and protein metabolism. However, the levels of this element in Asianstyle produced JF should be supervised, since the European suggested daily intake range for humans is 25–200 mg/day [35]. The same considerations can be applied to Vanadium (V), which has a mean dietary intake of about 10–20 μg/person/day or 0.2–0.3 μg/kg body weight/day. Studies in humans revealed gastrointestinal disturbances deriving from the oral intake of vanadium compounds, as well as adverse effects on kidneys and other organs in rats, at relatively low doses. These compounds are not considered essential for humans. AllthetestedJFdidnotcontainlevelsofPb,Cd,andwhich

 samples significant Hg, are considered critical contaminants in foodstuffs [36,37].

Notably, very low levels of aluminum were detected in the Ca-Citrate and Ca-Lactate JF-DW samples. In accordance with other studies [10,38], the data reported here showed very high levels of aluminum in both salt–alum-treated JF, the Salt-Alum JF-DW, and the commercial Salt-Alum Jp, as expected. Regarding the use of alum as a structuring agent for human food, allowed as aluminum sulfates (E 520–523) and sodium aluminum phosphate (E 541), the European Union is very restrictive due to the possible neurotoxic effects of aluminum salts [11], whereas the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) set a provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of 2 mg/kg of body weight [39].

### *3.4. Principal Component Analysis Applied to JF Treated Samples*

A principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out in order to thoroughly compare the JF products obtained by the different treatment methods. The PCA was applied to many relevant parameters, such as the texture, pH, salinity, protein content, fatty acid content, antioxidant activity, and metal content, that can describe the JF samples: JF-DW, Ca-Lactate JF-DW, Ca-Citrate JF-DW, JF treated by the traditional salt–alum method (Salt-Alum JF-DW), and the commercial JF (Salt-Alum Jp) (Figure 3).

**Figure 3.** PCA of parameters associated with all treated JF samples. The PCA variables were the data obtained from the analysis of the values of physical traits and the concentrations of chemical compounds at the end of the process. The figure displays the sample scores and variable loadings in the planes formed by PC1–PC2.

A bi-plot is used to show the projection of the variables on the plane defined by the first and second principal components. The total variance of the two main components was 80.3 % (Figure 3). PC1 clustered samples treated with both calcium salts (Ca-Lactate and Ca-Citrate JF-DW) with the untreated JF-DW on the negative semi-axis of the first component, discriminating them from the two salt–alum-treated JF. The clustered group of untreated JF-DW, Ca-Lactate-JF-DW, and Ca-Citrate JF-DW samples were evidently located in the portion of the plane characterized by the pH, texture, antioxidant activity (AA), and PUFA content. The second and the third groups containing Salt-Alum JF-DW and the commercial Salt-Alum Jp, respectively, were located in the opposite portion of the plane, mainly associated with metal ions, particularly aluminum, salinity, SFAs, and MUFAs, and an unfavorable ω6/ω3 ratio.

The application of this unsupervised technique disclosed the considerable difference between the products obtained by the newly proposed method and the traditional methods used to prepare JF for human food uses. The Ca-Lactate-JF-DW and Ca-Citrate JF-DW final products were very close to the fresh untreated JF and were characterized by peculiar food safety and food quality traits.

### *3.5. Application of the New Treatment to Different JF Species*

The described JF treatments were also applied to three other putatively edible JF species: *Cotylorhiza tuberculate*, *Rhopilema nomadica*, and *Phyllorhiza punctata*. These three scyphozoa are consumed by humans as food in different areas of the world [1] and were chosen in this study as their presence has also been detected in the Mediterranean Sea.

Food safety and several product features (such as microbiology, texture, pH, and salinity), together with basic nutritional characteristics (such as the fatty acids profile, protein content, and antioxidant activity) were assessed for these samples to evaluate them as potential sea-derived food.

*Safety and quality traits*. The loads of potential pathogenic species, spoilage microbes, and halophilic microbes were not significant in the untreated samples for any of the analyzed JF (Tables S5–S7). After calcium citrate and lactate treatments, the final microbial counts in terms of halophilic species were very low in all three tested JF species, thus suggesting that brine treatment exerts efficient microbial control in all of the different analyzed JF species, despite their distinctive features.

Calcium citrate and calcium lactate treatments improved the texture value of *Cotylorhiza tuberculata* samples by 2.1- and 1.8-fold, respectively. On the other hand, the same treatments led to a decrease in the texture value in the *Rhopilema nomadica* and *Phyllorhiza punctata* samples (Table S8). The latter results are probably related to the non-optimal conditions for storing the samples, having been shipped as frozen material from Israel to Italy and subject to an extended transit time. Therefore, additional tests are planned to confirm the applicability of the proposed procedures to *R. nomadica* and *P. punctata* species.

*Nutritional traits. R. nomadica* and *C. tuberculata* washed with drinking water (JF-DW) showed protein contents of 176.8 mg/100 g FW and 170.3 mg/100 g FW, respectively, (Figure S2a), values that were slightly lower than that measured for *R. pulmo* JF-DW (Figure 2a. On the other hand, *P. punctata* showed a protein content about 2.2-fold higher than that of the other two analyzed species (393.6 mg/100 g FW, Figure S2a). The calcium salt brine treatments decreased the protein content by 60–70% in almost all three JF species, as was previously observed also for *R. pulmo* samples (Figure 2a), with the only exception of *R. nomadica* treated with calcium citrate, where the original value was preserved (Figure S2a).

Additionally, *R. nomadica* treated with calcium citrate kept the same antioxidant activity (AA) value (about 130 nmol TE/g FW, Figure S2b) as that before treatment, whilst the same treatment on *P. punctata* and *C. tuberculata* caused a reduction in AA of about 50% (Ca-Citrate JF-DW, Figure S2b). Furthermore, both *R. nomadica* and *P. punctata* showed a reduction of 40% in the initial AA after calcium lactate treatment, whereas in *C. tuberculate*, the reduction was only about 20%. These data, together with the values obtained for *R. pulmo* (Figure 2), suggested that the calcium brines significantly affected the protein concentration and the choice of calcium salt for the treatment should be adapted to the different JF species.

The FA profiles, reported as the percentage of total FA, were very different between the three JF species (Table S9). *R. nomadica* and *C. tuberculata* JF-DW showed a higher content of SFA than *P. punctata*. PUFAs detected in the JF were probably correlated with the presence of symbiotic species of zooxanthellae microalgae in *C. tuberculata* and *P. punctata*. Calcium salt treatments, mainly calcium citrate, led to a slight increase in the SFA percentage and a reduction in the PUFA content in *R. nomadica* and *C. tuberculata*. In *R. nomadica*, these treatments also led to a reduction in MUFA. On the contrary, *C. tuberculata*, which did not contain any detectable MUFAs in untreated material, contained iso-oleic acid (C18:1 trans-10) and the PUFA isolinolenic acid (C18:2 trans 8,11) when treated with calcium lactate. *P. punctata* treated with calcium salts exhibited a decrease in the SFA content and an increase in the PUFA contents, whereas the levels of MUFAs did not vary compared with the untreated sample. Remarkably, the MUFA iso-oleic acid (C18:1) and PUFA eicosadienoic acid (C20:2) appeared in *P. punctata* Ca-Lactate JF-DW, although they were not initially detectable in the untreated JF sample. However, as shown in Table S9, the essential fatty

acids' (EFAs') ω-6 to ω-3 ratio in untreated *P. punctata* was less than 1 ( ω6/ ω3 < 1) and was maintained after the samples were treated with calcium salts (0.4 and 0.3 for Ca-Citrate and Ca-Lactate JFDW, respectively). Among all other treatments, *C. tuberculata* JF-DW treated with calcium citrate was the only species having yielded a favorable ratio of ω6/ ω3<1 (0.7, Table S9). On the contrary, both *R. nomadica* and *C. tuberculata* samples treated with calcium lactate always achieved a ω6/ ω3 ratio higher than the recommended score of 1 (Table S9).


**1. Introduction**

The growing concern over the climate change caused by global warming due to a high emission of greenhouse gases (essentially carbon dioxide (CO2 )) has increased the interest in finding various techniques to resolve this problem. The injection of this gas for enhanced oil recovery has been tested with full success in several fields over the world.

Traditionally, oil recovery operations have been subdivided into three stages: primary, secondary, and tertiary as shown in **Figure 1**. Historically, these stages described the production from a reservoir in a chronological sense. Primary production, the initial production stage,

**Figure 1.** Oil recovery stages [1].

resulted from the displacement energy naturally existing in a reservoir; the driving energy may be derived from the expansion of the gas cap or an active aquifer, from the liberation and expansion of dissolved gas, from gravity drainage, or from a combination of all these mechanisms. Secondary recovery, the second stage of operations, usually was implemented after primary recovery declined. Traditional secondary production processes are gas injection, water flooding, or water alternative gas injection (WAG). Tertiary recovery or enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is a term used to describe a set of processes intended to increase the production of oil beyond what could normally be extracted when using conventional oil production techniques, while traditional oil production (primary and secondary stage) can recover up to 35–45% of the original oil in place (OOIP). The application of an EOR technique is typically performed toward what is normally perceived to be the end of the life of an oil field, and tertiary production used miscible gases (e.g., CH4 , CO2 ), chemicals, and/or thermal energy to displace additional oil (5–15%).


**2. Next-generation DR models and conclusion**

The ideal animal model for DR would mimic the complete pathophysiological process of DR in humans, with initial development of NPDR features and gradual progression to PDR with or without macular edema in the presence of prolonged hyperglycemia. However, the majority of existing animal models only display early or advanced lesions of DR. DR has a complex etiology, with various genetic and environmental factors implicated in its disease susceptibility and progression. Animal models are particularly important for the screening of novel therapeutic interventions. The clinical application of gene therapy for DR has been garnering increasing interest, and this may call for animal models that better reflect the intricacies of DR pathogenesis. Mice and rats are highly genetically tractable, but current transgenic models are based on isolated crosses [92]. Increasing development and use of resources such as The Collaborative Cross [92] may be required to enhance future identification and development of mouse strains with complex traits and epigenetics that are more reflective of the clinical scenario. Only by identifying and manipulating genes that mediate clinically relevant phenotypes can we realize and exploit the full genetic tractability of the mouse to better model DR.


*3.3. Dichotomous Evaluation*

With respect to dichotomous evaluation, Figure 8 compares the number of 24-h extreme precipitation events recorded at all stations in different precipitation thresholds. As the main emphasis of this study was on the evaluation of extreme events, the maximum of ensemble forecasts was carefully determined. Based on Figure 8, at a threshold of 25 mm, NWP models estimated precipitation better than IMERG, while among the NWP models, ECMWF was closer to in situ observations. However, all products underestimated the number of events above 25 mm. At the 50 mm threshold, the UKMO predictions of the number of events were closer to the observations. However, in terms of mean ensemble forecast, IMERG estimated the number of events closer to the observations than the NWP models. It is worth noting that the performance of the NCEP model decreased significantly with an increase in the threshold. At the 75 mm threshold, UKMO was better than the other products, whereas NCEP had difficulty in forecasting the precipitation amount at this threshold. From 15 March 2019 to 2 April 2019, precipitation amounts of over 100 mm were reported for a number of days. At this threshold, in situ observations recorded 22 events, while NCEP detected none. However, the UKMO and ECMWF maximum ensembles as well as IMERG detected 11, 10, and 4 events, respectively.

**Figure 8.** Comparison of the number of extreme events estimated by the NWP models and IMERG satellite with observations in different precipitation thresholds.

The performance of all precipitation products was then evaluated using dichotomous evaluation criteria (Figure 9). Based on the POD metric, which measures the percentage of the accurate detection of events, the ECMWF in the 25 mm threshold and the UKMO in 50, 75, and 100 mm thresholds showed the highest PODs over Iran. The decline in the performance of NCEP with an increase in the threshold is clearly evident in this criterion. However, based on the FAR metric, which expresses the percentage of false alarms, ECMWF obtained the lowest FAR in maximum ensemble forecasts within all thresholds, although it did not perform well in high thresholds in the mean ensemble forecast mode. Based on the ETS, which measures the forecast quality of detecting occurrence and non-occurrence of an event, the mean ensemble forecast of the ECMWF model achieved the best score in the 25 mm threshold. In the other thresholds, the maximum ensemble forecast of the ECMWF model achieved the highest ETS scores.

**Figure 9.** Verification statistics (POD, FAR, and ETS) between ECMWF, NCEP, UKMO, IMERG, and the in situ observations for different thresholds over Iran for 15 March 2019 to 2 April 2019.

Finally, the evaluation with respect to the number of events estimated by the precipitation products at different thresholds was conducted. According to Figure 10, in Gorganrud basin in 25 mm threshold, both UKMO and ECMWF models performed well. Satellite (IMERG) and NCEP obtained rather similar performances with the detection of seven events among the 13 events in these thresholds, while the ECMWF and UKMO performances were more robust and closer to the in situ observations with the detection of 12 events. In the 50 mm threshold, both ECMWF and UKMO still performed better than the other products with the detection of seven events among the 11 events detected by the in situ observations, while the skill of NCEP declined and IMERG showed an improvement with the detection of two and six events, respectively. At a threshold of 75 mm, both ECMWF and UKMO models performed well and could forecast almost 80% of events (five out of seven events) in the 75 mm threshold. The NCEP model did not record any event and IMERG estimated only one event out of seven events. In the 100 mm threshold, both ECMWF and UKMO forecasted five events out of six events above 100 mm. The satellite and NCEP model were weak in this segment and did not estimate any events in northeast Iran in the Gorganroud Basin.

f h b f db E E U **Figure 10.** Comparison of the number of extreme events estimated by ECMWF, NCEP, UKMO, and IMERG with in situ observations.

In the Karkheh Basin, the NCEP model performed well in the 25 mm threshold and was able to estimate the number of events better than the other products. However, the performance of NCEP decreased dramatically with an increase in the threshold (e.g., in the 75 mm (100 mm) threshold only one (zero) event out of 15 (5) events were forecasted). Meanwhile, IMERG performed better at higher thresholds. Generally, the ECMWF revealed better results than the other products in all precipitation categories.

In Karun Basin, NCEP again performed better at lower thresholds than at higher thresholds, whereas UKMO was slightly better than ECMWF. However, extreme precipitation greater than 100 mm was only recorded once in this basin.

#### **4. Discussion**

In this study, the evaluation of three precipitation forecast models, namely ECMWF, NCEP, and UKMO as well as the IMERG-RT V05B satellite product provided new insight into how errors vary with extreme precipitation events within different climate zones of Iran. Overall, the examined products in this study sometimes agreed well with in situ observations while in some other instances, showed significant differences. As far as possible causes for model performances, precipitation is a function of available atmospheric moisture while derived from moisture convergence. Thus, the models need to be correctly initialized and parameterized through several factors such as (i) gross condensation rate, (ii) latent heat energy exchange within the atmosphere, and (iii) the microphysical behavior of clouds [30]. However, individual clouds typically occur at subgrid scales and must be parameterized based on resolved variables such as average humidity and temperature [31]. The parameterization of cloud, and thus precipitation, continues to be one of the greatest sources of uncertainty in NWP models [32].

Another is the significant differences in the detection of extreme precipitation amounts among the products when compared with the in situ observations. Although, in general, the models captured the spatial distribution of heavy precipitation events, the hot spots were not located in the correct area. Moreover, orography and local effects can affect the accuracy of the products. These issues should be addressed by improving the models' algorithms [33].

Another factor in the interpretation of the differences between the model/satellite products and in situ observations might be related to the precipitation thresholds. As such, overestimation or underestimation in each precipitation threshold means that a given precipitation product was not able to estimate/detect precipitation within that particular threshold, while they could have estimated/detected the precipitation within a lower or higher threshold.