**Author details**

Romano Benini Sociology of Welfare, Link Campus University, Rome, Italy

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© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**Abstract**

Energy storage technologies is transforming the way the world and utility companies utilize, control and dispatch electrical energy. In several countries, the consequential effect of meeting electrical demands continues to burden the electrical infrastructure leading to violation of statutory operating limits. Such violations constrain a power system's ability to supply suitable energy whilst meeting daily load and growth demands. While optimization techniques can be used to reduce violations, these are still limited do not provide effective short-term solutions when dealing with constrained networks in dense and radial distribution systems. Battery energy storage systems (BESS) and solar rooftop photovoltaics (RTPV) are a viable distributed energy resource to alleviate violations which are constraining medium voltage (MV) networks.

**Keywords:** battery energy storage systems (BESS), rooftop solar-photovoltaics (RTPV), power distribution, voltage limits, thermal limits, technical performance

### **1. Introduction**

In designing and operating electric power networks or implementing major expansions to existing networks, a number of key issues regarding the technical performance of the network at both the transmission and distribution (T and D) levels must be ascertained. These include voltage regulation, voltage fluctuations, rapid voltage rise, electrical loses, distribution plant loading and utilization, fault level, generation stability, harmonics, phase balancing, system security, and supply availability [1]. The approach of Power Utilities to address any constraints or violations, experienced within medium voltage networks, would be based on extensive technical evaluation. While overvoltage is a concern if roof-top solar-photovoltaic (RTPV) penetration is not regulated [2], this study shows the benefit of RTPV and/or including battery energy storage systems (BESS), as this offers relief for constrained networks.

### **2. Network model selection and appraisal**

Real-time power system analysis deals with two critical criteria, from the network appraisal, this being Voltage and Thermal constraints/violations. From the analysis, a network was identified which has both voltage and thermal violations. This study explores the technical influence that RTPV has on MV networks. From the appraisal analysis, a most fitting network type was identified which is found most common amongst the feeders that were analyzed. The predominate network classification is found to be a C2, TZ2 type network [3, 4]. In-line with the investigative violations (voltage and thermal) these networks have a tolerable minimum voltage of 95.5% during normal conditions, and 93.5% during abnormal conditions.

The thermal limit defined in **Table 1** indicates this to be alarming above 90% of its rated capacity.

The MV network selected for this study is Madadeni NB36. **Table 2** shows the appraisal results of Madadeni NB36; this network has been selected due to having both voltage and thermal violations. This study goes on to showcase how RTPV and/ or BESS influences the violations identified on NB36.

As stated in **Table 2**, NB36 peaks during a winter's weekday at 18:30. Annual statistical metering data was analyzed and using statistical analysis methods, data has been fashioned into four, twenty-four hours, thirty-minute intervals; seasonal profiles, based on the four weather seasons. The load profile for a winter's weekday demonstrates the peak loading period and is used throughout this chapter to demonstrate the effective influence of RTPV and/or BESS.

**Figure 1** shows a typically generated PV profile which have been defined to represent each season [7, 8]. The duration of sunlight hours differs between each season. To be consistent with the network analysis, the winter PV profile was selected to match the network breakers winters statistical load profile.

When considering RTPV, some configurations should be considered to decide on the most cost-effective or technically beneficial solution for both the Utility and Customer. This chapter considers the following configurations:

Power simulation has been conducted in Power Factory, the results have been extracted, analyzed and stated in the legends field within the applicable figures.

**Table 1.** *Network characteristics for calculating customer number limits [5].* *Battery Energy Storage Systems and Rooftop Solar-Photovoltaics in Electric Power Distribution… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99248*

#### **Table 2.**

*Madadeni NB36 appraisal data [6].*

**Figure 1.** *Typical p.u. generated seasonal PV output profile.*

#### **3. Installed RTPV system**

The scope of this study relates to RTPV installations connected to every customer connected to an MV network, this is defined as the high penetration of RTPV. The equipment type used in this study is found to be commonly available in South Africa.

While some studies consider large PV installation's sizes to show benefits to customers [9], this study utilizes an average solar panel output of a single 200 W panel installed at every connected customer [10], this is a very conservative approach taking into account that panel outputs degrade over time due to aging and associated output reduction [11], the build-up of dirt/residue and orientation.

Further to this the battery technology assumed in the assessments, also commonly available, are lead-acid type batteries. These batteries have a depth of discharge rate (DOD) and while it is common to find a DOD of 80%, for the purposes of this study it is assumed that a 100-ampere hour battery with a DOD or 50% is utilized offering 600 W of power. Inverter capabilities [12] have been assumed to operate at 7 amps due to low household breaker sizing and inverter costings. This simulation design, though very conservative, leads to defining the required design for households. The criteria of the PV, battery and inverter that have been utilized in this study are considered as a base design which can be improved upon implementation.


**1. Introduction**

Nowadays, mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets have become very popular, due to a reduction in their cost and an increase in their functionalities and services availability.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Moreover, the growing trend of implementing bring your own device (BYOD) policies in organizations has also contributed to the adoption of these technologies, not only for everyday communication activities but to support enterprise systems, industrial applications, and commercial transactions, which raise new security issues. In this scenario, operating systems have also played an important role in the adoption and proliferation of mobile devices and applications, giving also space for the appearance of malicious software (malware). This is the case for the Android OS, which, due to its openness and free availability, has become not only a major stakeholder in the market of mobile devices but has also become an attractive target for cybercriminals.

Google, the Open Handset Alliance manufacturers, and the Android developers' community have made many efforts in order to improve Android's security. However, the emergence and evolution of new security threats continue being an important issue. Therefore, in this chapter, we advocate to present some current trends and results in the Android malware analysis and detection research area. We start by briefly describing the Android's security model, followed by a discussion of some static and dynamic malware analysis techniques in order to provide a general view to the analysis and detection processes to the reader. After that, a description of a particular set of software developments, which exemplify some of the discussed techniques, is presented accompanied by a set of practical results. Finally, a set of conclusions about the future development of the ideas explored in this chapter are drawn.


**4. Discussion**

#### *4.1. Temporal and Spatial Variations of PM10 and PM2.5*

The mean annual concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 decreased significantly from 2013 to 2017, while concentrations during 2015–2017 did not exhibit any significant variations. Studies have shown that improvements in air quality in megacities are significant in the early stages of governance and then stalled. The improvement of environmental quality rarely accompanies urbanization and industrialization [21]. The inter-annual variation may be attributed to human activities, including auto emissions and steel productions. Additionally, the demand for housing intensified by the expansion of urban land could increase construction dust emissions. The observed variations in the concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 may thus be a result of specific weather conditions, combined with changes in land use and the increased development of urban infrastructure [2,24].

Regarding the seasonal variations in PM10 and PM2.5, both the highest concentrations occurred in winter and the lowest in summer, the second-highest in spring and autumn. This phenomenon might be attributable to frequent sandstorms originating in northwestern China with bare land cover and strong wind, which produced anomalously high concentrations of mineral dust, resulting in a prominent rise of particulate matter in spring [6]. In autumn, straw burning after agricultural harvests results in the rise in particulate matter concentrations. In addition, meteorological factors also play an important role in these processes. Cloudy weather and low wind speed could contribute to the elevated particulate matter concentrations [25]. Many cities seek to alter meteorological conditions to some extent by changing the urban landscape [26]. Wind and turbulence within the urban canopy can play an important role in local measurements of meteorological conditions. This is especially true if pollutants are frequently capped by a statically stable atmospheric layer [2,14]. Such stable conditions may contribute to the lack of spatial variations observed in the downtown area. Our results showed nonsignificant difference for the concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 among the 13 stations. Zhang et al. [27] analyzed the particulate matter at six sites in Xi'an, and also found nonsignificant spatial variations. However, the concentrations of particulate matter were lower in the stations that locate near places with higher tree coverage rates and large water bodies. Meanwhile, the concentrations were higher in the stations surrounded by high energy consumption and bare land. Based on these observations, we believe that the spatial homogeneity of the air quality is also affected by human activities (i.e., pollutant emissions and land use).


**5. Conclusions**

Network comparisons provided interesting insight into the most interlinked quality of life domains in patients with obesity and low and high physical performance levels, revealing similar network structures, with Vitality playing a central role among quality of life variables. Moreover, in patients with obesity and low physical performance levels, Mental Health is a central variable, indicating that psychological aspects should be considered in defining quality of life in patients with low physical performance levels. Knowledge of these aspects can provide a useful guide for clinicians, suggesting the use of psychosocial interventions and improving the importance of physical fitness aspects in obesity management, especially in patients with low physical performance. Future studies should contribute to clarifying the relationship between quality of life and physical performance using new statistical approaches, including network analysis. Moreover, well-conducted longitudinal clinical trials and intervention studies should be performed to evaluate the effect of associating strategies to improve mental health on the standard weight management in improving physical fitness and quality of life of patients with obesity.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, R.D.G. and S.C.; data curation, S.C., F.S., A.R., L.D.; formal analysis, S.C.; investigation, R.D.G.; methodology, R.D.G. and S.C.; resources, R.D.G., S.C., F.S., A.R., L.D.; software, S.C.; writing—review and editing, R.D.G., S.C., F.S., A.R., L.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare that they are aware of no conflict of interest.


**Abstract**

All amyloid comprises fibrillar polymers of tightly associated protein monomers. Central to the fibril structure is a highly ordered β-pleated sheet domain although this interacting region may only be a relatively short stretch of each constituent polypeptide chain. Fibril formation begins as a nucleation event based either on the constituent monomer protein or its proteolytic fragment(s). The resulting fibrils are generally chemically inert and very stable.

**Keywords:** amyloid, fibril, β-sheet, polymer, nucleation

## **1. Introduction**

The term "amyloid" is intrinsically a misnomer. It was derived in the nineteenth century to describe what was then thought to be amorphous material composed of carbohydrate (*Gk* "amyl," starch) in both plants and pathologic specimens from humans and animals. In human pathology these deposits were identified in the kidney, liver, heart, brain, and elsewhere and were often associated with organ dysfunction. In 1942, Hass [1] showed that the material was largely protein, not carbohydrate. An important observation in 1959 [2] used electron microscopy to show that the material was not amorphous but, rather, consisted of long fibrils. **Figure 1** shows an example of amyloid fibrils.

Subsequent studies have been directed to identifying the constituent proteins and clarifying the process(es) of fibril formation. Treatment for affected individuals depends upon addressing the underlying chemistry and biology. We will review these in turn.

#### **Figure 1.**

*Electron microscopic images of amyloid fibrils derived from synthetic sequences of Alzheimer β(1-42) polypeptides each containing different amino acid substitutions and yet forming characteristic fibrils, emphasizing the generalizability of amyloid fibril formation [3]. Copyright, 2005. National Academy of Sciences, used by permission.*


*2.2. Energy Yield and Aesthetics*

When designing the BIPV system, a trade-off needs to be made between the aesthetics and the energy-yield of the installation. A different approach exists between BAPV and BIPV. For BAPV, the electrical installation is typically done on an existing structure. A high energy yield is of primary importance as the motivation to place it can be found in reduced electricty costs. For BIPV, the energy yield is of secondary importance, whereas aesthetics and building regulation standards are primary factors to take into account [54]. Neglecting the importance of the energy yield could, however, lead to a less favourable position of BIPV compared to other measures that are used to reduce the energy consumption and ecological footprint of the building [55].

As compared to conventional PV systems, partial shading due to adjacent structures, building elements (e.g., pipes and ducts), frame edges, or the curvature of the installation is more prevalent in BIPV installations [36,47–49]. As a consequence, the power output of the shaded modules and, more importantly, the unshaded modules will be reduced, depending on the electrical configuration. The mismatch losses due to partial shading are specific for each installation, though studies indicate losses ranging from 5–25% [53,56–58].

This impact can, however, be limited by implementing the MPPT on smaller scales, e.g., per panel and not per string. To increase the power output, it is advisable to do the MPPT per module (distributed MPPT) and not per string. A micro-inverter (DC/AC) or power optimizer (DC/DC) solution is, thus, preferred to the traditional string inverter approach.


**2. Papers Details**

Hu et al. [10] investigate the important aspect of spillover of sediments due to the occurrence of typical tidal processes. The study was devoted to analyzing the case study of the Yangtze River's Estuary. They proposed a 2D numerical model based on the resolution of the depth-averaged 2D shallow water equations. The model is able to simulate the tidal flow, the sediment transport, and eventually the bed evolution in the estuary. Moreover, it allows giving a quantitative estimation regarding the spillover of water and sediment in the analyzed river. They used a high-resolution unstructured grid covering a great part of the river estuary (more that 600 km) to reproduce the Yangtze Estuary. The validation of the results against field data showed the good performances of the model in reproducing tidal levels, sediment concentration, and depth-averaged velocity.

Botsou et al. [12] analyzed the aspects related to metals' mobility in the water column, focusing their attention on Antinioti Lagoon and Corfu Island. In particular, they investigated the processes responsible for the mobility of metals both in and beyond the transitional fresh–saline water interface. They acquired water samples in two sampling campaigns, as well as surface and core sediments during only the first and second campaigns, respectively. These data were analyzed by means of trace metal analysis. They also performed a statistical analysis to evaluate the significant differences in terms of metal concentrations.

Johnson et al. [13] investigated the role of hurricanes on the modification of the rocky coastline in the Gulf of California, in the Ensenada Almeja in particular. They acquired field data to classify the weight and density of the rocks and performed a study on the hydrodynamic forces needed to move the largest boulders in the site. Geological and lithological characterization of the study area was performed by the authors. Moreover, they collected an aerial photo to map the coastal boulder bed of Ensenada Almeja. In this way, boulder shapes and sizes were evaluated and correlated with the wave heights required to lift the rocks from the bedrock.

Lisi et al. [14] proposed an integrated modeling approach useful for the simulation of sediment dispersion in several types of coastal areas (i.e., semi-enclosed basins and off-shore areas). At first, the attention is focused on the definition of sediment resuspension sources. Then, a definition of the level of accuracy that should be required in modeling activities is proposed. Moreover, they proposed a wide spectrum of possible modeling approaches that could be used by contractors and controlling authorities for scheduling and performing sediment handling activities, giving also a methodological approach useful to read and interpret the numerical results. They also underlined the importance of a modeling–monitoring feedback system.

Kuznetsova and Saprykina [11] analyzed how the beach profile is influenced by the location of underwater bars. They performed this study by using a numerical model with attention paid to the time scale of a given storm. The experiments were numerical; however, they used realistic boundary conditions and wave climate. The results reveal a direct correlation between the location of the underwater bar and the shoreline. Moreover, they found an inverse correlation between the retreat of the shoreline and low-frequency wave heights occurring at the coast.

**Author Contributions:** All authors contributed equally to this manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Acknowledgments:** We want to express our sincere thankfulness to all the authors and the reviewers.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


*4.1. Factors A*ff*ecting the Monthly PM Reduction in Urban Green Areas*

Overall, the PM values were higher at IC than at UG and RA. This result could be attributed to the PM reduction effects of UG. As PM generated from IC passed through UG, trees could absorb PM via leaf stomata [8,23] and remove PM by deposition onto the leaves and branches [24,25]. However, we also considered the spatial distance effect on PM reduction according to the distance from pollutant emission areas. PM10 and PM2.5, which have a long atmospheric lifetime [26], decreased, so we can speculate that the influence of UG on PM reduction was greater than that of distance.

The difference between the PM reduction rates of IC and RA was especially high in August and October. The high PM reduction rate in August seemed to be related not only to PM reduction mechanism of UG but also to an increase of atmospheric mixing height during the summer [27–29]. The dispersion of PM occurred rapidly due to active mixing by air turbulence in the summer [28], leading to a minimum PM concentration. Therefore, it is likely that PM could quickly spread due to the effects of intensive air mixing and prevailing western wind systems, resulting in increasing PM reduction through UG. High PM reduction rates in October were also related to the active atmospheric dispersion affecting the PM reduction, similar to the results observed in August. Moreover, the cleaning effect due to high precipitation in August during the monsoon rainy season should be considered. However, we excluded the effect of PM reduction caused by precipitation because we sampled PM in the dry period, not on rainy days. June, the sharing the summer season with August, had the lowest PM reduction rate. This phenomenon appears to be related to high humidity (remaining in the range of 60% to 70%) in June, whereas other months had lower humidity. The increase of humidity in the atmosphere could reduce solar radiation reaching the earth surface, resulting in adjusting the atmospheric temperature to be similar to that of the earth. As the atmosphere nearer to the surface becomes colder than the upper layers, the air currents seem to decrease and air pollutants become stagnant [30,31]. Therefore, the high humidity interferes with upward-moving air currents, leading to the increase of air pollutant concentrations.


**Conflict of interest**

No conflict of interest is present.

*Endoscopic Ear Surgery in Children DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84563*

*The Human Auditory System - Basic Features and Updates on Audiological Diagnosis and Therapy*

The first factor is the variation of duration of the same surgery through time. According to our experience, surgical duration decreased with time in all types of endoscopic surgeries especially in ventilation tube positioning and tympanoplasty. For cholesteatoma endoscopic removal, since it was the last to introduce in our daily practice and therefore we were already acquainted with otoendoscopic surgery,

The second factor is expressed by the anatomical results obtained through time. Concerning tympanoplasty, with time, we have experienced less reperforations in the reconstruction of the successive tympanic membranes. For cholesteatoma surgery, we become more confident in cholesteatoma removal from the hidden parts of the tympanic cavity, that is, sinus tympani and epitympanum. Such an experience permitted us to approach the middle ear less invasively such as creating less intra-

Concerning ossiculoplasties, stapedotomies, and cochlear implantation, it is preferable that they are advised after having obtained a certain confidence with

Otosurgery belongs to the micro-surgery procedures. In order to progress through various techniques of otosurgery, the microscope is fundamental to adequately understand the anatomy in its three dimensions. For a beginner, the best choice is to proceed training with both techniques contemporary in order to understand the different perspective of the middle ear. Not all surgeries could be completely done by endoscope, and also in case of a complication or bleeding, a microscope surgery is necessary. For experienced otosurgeons, it is preferable to start their endoscopic surgery with ventilation tube placement then move to myrin-

Endoscopy as a diagnostic and surgical tool in otology is now a valid instrument for different pathologies of the ear. Indications for solely endoscopic surgery should be well planned. Before starting endoscopic surgery, one should have good preparation in using the operating microscope and in certain surgeries should always be present in the operating theater. There are still some limits to endoscopy that in the future will be overcome thanks to technological advances such as miniaturization of 3D systems.

duration of surgery did not undergo a tangible reduction.

canal atticotomy or removing intact ossicles.

**9. Surgical training and young surgeons**

goplasty and therefore to cholesteatoma removal.

otoendoscopic surgery.

**10. Conclusions**

**Conflict of interest**

No conflict of interest is present.

**130**


**2. Distribution of Carotenoids**

Many different kinds of carotenoids were found from the algal species studied. Structures of some important carotenoids in algae are illustrated in Figure 1. Among them, approximately 30 types may have functions in photosynthesis, and others may be intermediates of carotenogenesis or accumulated carotenoids. Some carotenoids are found only in some algal divisions or classes; therefore, these carotenoids and also chlorophylls can be used as chemotaxonomic markers, and their distribution in algae is summarized in Table 1 [2–6].

Allene (C=C=C) is a unique structure in natural products, and is found mainly in carotenoids [10]; fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms, 19ȝ-acyloxyfucoxanthin in Haptophyta and Dinophyta, peridinin only in dinoflagellates, and 9ȝ-*cis* neoxanthin in green algae and land plants. Acetylene (C ǓC) is also a unique structure, and acetylenic carotenoids are found only in algae; alloxanthin, crocoxanthin and monadoxanthin in Cryptophyta, and diadinoxanthin and diatoxanthin in Heterokontophyta, Haptophyta, Dinophyta and Euglenophyta. Acetylated carotenoids (-O-CO-CH3), such as fucoxanthin, peridinin and  dinoxanthin, are also mainly found in algae, such as Heterokontophyta, Haptophyta and Dinophyta. These carotenoids are specific to certain algal divisions and classes, and they are summarized in Table 1 based on our results [11–14] and some references [1–6].

Many cyanobacteria contain Ά-carotene, zeaxanthin, echinenone and myxol pentosides (myxoxanthophyll), while some species lack part of these and some contain additional carotenoids, such as nostoxanthin, canthaxanthin and oscillol dipentoside (Table 1, Figure 1) [13]. In addition, the carotenoid compositions of cyanobacteria are very different from those of chloroplasts in algae; consequently, during symbiosis of cyanobacteria to eukaryotic cells, carotenoids might be considerably restructured [13]. Note that since the name of myxoxanthophyll cannot specify the glycoside moieties, we have proposed the name of myxol glycosides to specify the glycosides, such as myxol 2ȝ-΅-L-fucoside, 4-ketomyxol 2ȝ-rhamnoside and oscillol dichinovoside [13,15].

Rhodophyta (red algae) can be divided into two groups based on carotenoid composition; the unicellular type contains only Ά-carotene and zeaxanthin, and the macrophytic type contains additional ΅-carotene and lutein (Table 1, Figure 1) [16]. The relationship between phylogenetics of red algae and carotenoid composition is not clear [14]. Cryptophyta also contains ΅-carotene and its acetylenic derivatives, crocoxanthin and monadoxanthin, which are only found in this division.

**Figure 1.** Structures of some carotenoids.

*Mar. Drugs* **2011**, *9*, 1101–1118

Heterokontophyta, Haptophyta and Dinophyta contain Ά-carotene and its derivatives as well as chlorophyll *c* (Table 1, Figure 1). These divisions, except for Eustigmatophyceae, which lacks chlorophylls *c*, contain unique acetylenic carotenoids of diadinoxanthin and diatoxanthin. Fucoxanthin and its derivatives are found in only four classes of Heterokontophyta (Chrysophyceae, Raphidophyceae, Bacillariophyceae and Phaeophyceae),

Haptophyta and Dinophyta. Peridinin and its derivatives are found only in Dinophyta. Fucoxanthin and peridinin have unique structures (Figure 1) and are class-specific carotenoids (Table 1).

Euglenophyta, Chlorarachniophyta and Chlorophyta contain the same carotenoids, such as Ά-carotene, violaxanthin, 9ȝ-*cis* neoxanthin [11] and lutein, as well as chlorophyll *a* and *b* with land plants (Table 1, Figure 1). Some classes contain additional carotenoids, such as loroxanthin, siphonaxanthin and prasinoxanthin, which are derivatives of lutein, and are class specific.

Note that identifications of some carotenoids were lacking because of insufficient analysis, and that some algae names were changed because of new developments in taxonomic technology and phylogenetic classification.