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*4.2. Compressive Strength of Mortars*

The compressive strength of mortar with GGBFS replacement ratio at each curing temperature is shown in Figure 3. The compressive strength of mortar at an early age is found to be lowest with increasing GGBFS replacement ratio. However, with an increase in curing temperature, the compressive strength is increased. It is reported by Karim et al. that supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) in cement significantly modify the hydration kinetics and gives better performance at higher curing temperature [55]. However, the long term strength of blended cement mortar depends on curing temperature. Moreover, SCM can recover the strength once it cured in high temperature at longer duration. The early strength of higher GGBFS replacement mortar is lower, but it can be improved when it would cure at elevated temperature attributed to the quick cement hydration reaction. At 5 ◦C curing temperature, the compressive strength of 50% GGBFS mortar exceeded the compressive strength compared to 30% GGBFS after 39 days (Figure 3a). In addition, at 20 ◦C (Figure 3b) and 35 ◦C (Figure 3c) curing temperature, the compressive strength of 50% GGBFS mortar exceeded compare to OPC after 28 and 22 days, respectively. As the GGBFS replacement ratio increases, the crossover effect of compressive strength is delayed compared to OPC. However, the crossover effect of compressive strength decreases as the curing temperature increases. Therefore, depending on the replacement ratio of GGBFS, the hydration and degree of hydration of mortar are very sensitive to temperature.

**Figure 3.** Compressive strength of mortar, according to curing temperature and replacement ratio of GGBFS (**a**) 5 ◦C, (**b**) 20 ◦C, (**c**) 35 ◦C.


**3. Results**

### *3.1. Fusarium Metabolites*/*Mycotoxins in Fusarium-Inoculated and Naturally-Infected Samples*

Deoxynivalenol (DON), DON-3-glucoside (D3G), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), culmorin (CULM), 15-hydroxyculmorin, 5-hydroxyculmorin, aurofusarin, rubrofusarin, enniatin (Enn) A1, B, B1 (Figure 1a–k) were found in all tested samples, although sometimes in ppb concentrations, while enniatin (Enn) B2 was present in at least half of the tested samples (Figure 1) Chrysogin was also found in all tested samples (Figure 1m), while zearalenone (ZEN), moniliformin (MON), nivalenol (NIV), siccanol, and equisetin were present in some of the tested samples (Figure 1n–r).

The concentrations of *Fusarium* mycotoxins DON, CULM, 3-ADON, 15-hydroxyculmorin, D3G, and 5-hydroxyculmorin were significantly elevated in the inoculated samples compared to naturally-infected samples of all tested winter wheat varieties (Supplementary Figure S1, Figure 1a–f). For other detected *Fusarium* metabolites, i.e., aurofusarin, rubrofusarin, and chrysogin, significant increases also occurred in inoculated samples compared to those that were naturally infected (Supplementary Figure S2, Figure 2c,d,f). The levels of DON measured in four FHB-inoculated samples were 17,586 μg/kg in Ficko, 22,337 μg/kg in Pepeljuga, 14,946 μg/kg in Mv Karizma, and 21,622 μg/kg in Mv Kolompos. Although FHB-inoculated samples were far more contaminated with DON, naturally-infected samples also contained higher levels of DON, as well as several other *Fusarium* mycotoxins, than expected (Figure 1a). Moreover, in Mv Karizma and Mv Kolompos, recorded DON concentrations were 1764 μg/kg and 2682 μg/kg, respectively, which is above the maximal allowed concentration for human consumption. As expected, D3G and 3-ADON were found in all samples that contained DON (Figure 1b,c). The highest concentration of D3G was recorded in Ficko in the inoculated samples (393 μg/kg), while the lowest concentration was in naturally-infected samples of Pepeljuga (31 μg/kg). 3-ADON concentration ranged from 9 μg/kg in naturally-infected samples to 3399 μg/kg in *Fusarium*-inoculated samples. FHB-inoculated samples of Mv Karizma had at least 2 times lower concentrations of 3-ADON compared to inoculated samples of other varieties.

**Figure 2.** *Alternaria* and *Aspergillus* mycotoxins in *Fusarium*-inoculated and naturally-infected samples: alternariol (**a**), alternariolmethylether (**b**), altersetin (**c**), infectopyron (**d**), tentoxin (**e**), tenuazonic acid (**f**), and kojic acid (**g**). The asterisk (\*) indicates < LOD.

The highest concentration of CULM (6551 μg/kg) was recorded in FHB-inoculated samples of Ficko, and the lowest was obtained in naturally-infected samples of Pepeljuga (443 μg/kg) (Figure 1d). The highest concentrations of 15-hydroxyculmorin and 5-hydroxyculmorin were found in FHB-inoculated samples of Mv Kolompos—63,329 and 23,864 μg/kg, respectively—similar to the levels detected in inoculated samples of Ficko and Pepeljuga, but lower levels were detected in inoculated samples of Mv Karizma (Figure 1e,f).

In this study, pigments were also detected; aurofusarin was detected in the range of 735 to 63,098 μg/kg and rubrofusarin from 65 to 5136 μg/kg. Although aurofusarin and rubrofusarin levels in all inoculated samples increased compared to naturally-infected samples, inoculated samples of Mv Karizma had at least three times lower concentrations of these mycotoxins compared to other varieties (Figure 1g,h).

The highest level of enniatins A1, B, B1, and B2 (8, 94, 57, and 4 μg/kg, respectively) were found in naturally-infected samples of Mv Kolompos. Overall, these mycotoxins were shown to be present in lower concentrations in FHB-inoculated samples compared to naturally-infected samples or were not detected at all in the inoculated samples (Figure 1i–l). The various enniatins were ranked as follows, in descending order of incidence and mean concentration: enniatin B > enniatin B1 > enniatin A1 > enniatin B2 > enniatin A > enniatin B3. Total enniatin levels varied from traces (0.02 μg/kg, enniantin A) to 94 μg/kg (enniantin B).

Chrysogin, in the inoculated samples compared to those that were naturally infected, decreased by 97, 97, 94, and 94%, respectively, in Ficko, Pepeljuga, Mv Karizma, and Mv Kolompos (Figure 1m).

All inoculated and two naturally-infected samples were contaminated with ZEN, and the highest concentration of this mycotoxin was detected in FHB-inoculated samples (26 μg/kg). No ZEN was detected in naturally-infected samples of Ficko and Pepeljuga, and all detected concentrations were below legal limits set in the EU by the European Commission regulation 1881/2006 (Figure 1n).

In the case of MON, the concentration in the inoculated sample of Ficko was 480 μg/kg, which is a 99% increase in relation to naturally-infected grain, while other varieties were far less contaminated with MON, and its concentration in other tested samples ranged from 3 (Pepeljuga, inoculated sample) to 86 μg/kg (Mv Kolompos, inoculated sample) (Figure 1o).

Nivalenol (NIV) was found in seven out of eight samples. Here, the inoculated samples had increased NIV levels compared to the naturally-infected grains, although the di fference between naturally-infected and inoculated samples was the least pronounced for Mv Kolompos, in which high values of NIV were detected in both treatments (Figure 1p). The di fferences between treatments were not statistically significantly di fferent (data not shown).

Inoculated sample of Ficko and naturally-infected samples of Mv Karizma and Mv Kolompos had no siccanol. The highest amount was recorded in naturally-infected samples of Ficko (300 μg/kg) (Figure 1q). The presence of siccanol is not specific for *Fusarium* strains used in this research, and such a high concentration in naturally-infected sample likely came from natural co-contamination by other *Fusarium* species.

Equisetin was detected only in samples of Mv Karizma, both FHB-inoculated and naturally-infected, as well as in naturally-infected samples of Pepeljuga and inoculated samples of Mv Kolompos (Figure 1r).

In addition to the mycotoxins presented in Figure 1, beauvericin, enniatin A, fumonisin B1, fumonisin B2, and antibiotic Y were also detected in the same samples, while enniatin B3, which was tested, was not detected in any of the analyzed samples. Concentrations of beauvericin and enniatin A were very low: 0.5 μg/kg of beauvericin was detected in inoculated samples of Ficko and enniatin A was detected in naturally-infected samples of Pepeljuga, Mv Karizma, and Mv Kolompos at concentrations of 0.5 μg/kg, 0.1 μg/kg, and 0.2 μg/kg, respectively. The inoculated sample of Pepeljuga was the only variety in which fumonisin B1 and B2 were detected at concentrations of 54 μg/kg and 15 μg/kg, respectively, while antibiotic Y was only detected in inoculated samples of Mv Karizma at a concentration of 73 μg/kg. The presence of those metabolites was not specific for *Fusarium* strains used in this research and probably resulted from natural co-contamination by other *Fusarium* species. T2 and HT2 toxins were absent in those tested wheat varieties in both treatments.


**2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1. Materials**

**1. Introduction**

62 Fractionation

CO2

etable species use and store CO2

crops, the new growing vegetable species can use the CO2

carbon dioxide cycle, as reported in the literature by Kelli et al. [14].

During the processing of açaí juice from açaí (*Euterpe oleracea*, Mart) seeds *in nature*, a native palm of natural occurrence in the Amazon region, belonging to the family Arecaceae and compassing approximately 200 genera and about 2600 species, distributed predominantly in tropical and subtropical areas [1], a by-product is produced and/or discharged, the açaí seeds, posing a huge environmental problem of solid waste management in Belém metropolitan

The State of Pará is the largest national producer of açaí with 1,012,740 ton/year of fruits [2], being the production due to extractive 198,149 tons/year of fruits in the crop year 2014 [3], representing 55.4% (wt.) of the national production of extractive açaí in the crop year 2014, and the production due to agricultural systems using a planted area of 154,500 hectare, was 814,590 tons in the year 2014. Of the total 1,012,740 tons/year of fruits, 8,405,742

The metropolitan region of Belém-Pará-Brazil, capital the State of Pará, has approximately 10,000 stores of açaí commercialization, producing an average of 200 kg açaí seeds/day per store, thus producing around 2000 tons residue/day [4]. In 2015, there was a growth of 27.35% (wt.) in production, 10.86% (wt.) in planted area and 14.88% (wt.) on the specific production yield, compared to 2014 [2]. The seed of açaí is an oil-fiber seed, and according to the literature, constituted by a small solid endosperm attached to a tegument, rich in cellulose with approximately 53.20% (wt.), hemicelluloses 12.26% (wt.), lignin 22.30% (wt.), as well as 3.50% lipids (wt.) [5–9]. In a scenery, the modern industrial society focuses on minimization of global warming and

 emission, as well as energy efficient supply systems and less consumption of fossil-based fuels. To achieve this, the use of renewable energy resources is essential [10]. In this context, processes that minimize the industrial and agro-industrial residues either by reusing or recycling them result in energetic and environmental benefits to the global society. In addition, recycling industrial and agro-industrial residues enables to use raw materials of low cost,

Among the most important renewable energy sources, this biomass is considered as an important one, since it could be a suitable alternative for conventional fossil fuels [12]. In addition, biomass energy producing systems may be implemented not only close to industrial and agro-industrial production systems, but also in any location where vegetable species can be grown and/or domestic animals are reared [12]. The systematic use of biomass makes it possible to reduce global warming compared to fossil fuel energy systems, as all the veg-

is released when the plant material is burned and/or decays [12, 13]. Thus, by replanting the

species, as in the carbonization processes (e.g., pyrolysis), and hence contributing to close the

The residual açaí seeds, an oil-fiber seed rich lignin-cellulose material, whose centesimal composition reported in the literature is constituted of lipids between 1.65 and 3.56% (wt.), total fibers between 29.69 and 62.75% (wt.), hemicellulose between 9.01 and 14.19% (wt.), cellulose

for the photosynthesis process [13]. CO2

stored in the plant

produced by burning vegetable

making it possible to increase the economic viability of biofuels' production [11].

region, as well as in the municipalities around the city of Belém-Pará-Brazil.

tons/year is a residue (açaí seeds) representing approximately 83% (wt.).

The seeds of Açaí (*Euterpe oleracea*, Mart) obtained in a small Store of Açaí Commercialization, located in the District of Guamã, Belém-Pará-Brazil. **Figure 1** shows the anatomy of aça *i* ́ fruits (cross section): (1) Embryo, (2) Endocarp, (3) Scar, (4) Pulp, (5) Pericarp + Tegument, and (6) Mesocarp.

#### **2.2. Pre-treatment of açaí (***Euterpe oleracea***, Mart) seeds**

The seeds of Açaí (*Euterpe oleracea*, Mart) are submitted to drying at 105°C using a pilot oven with air recirculation (SOC, FABBE, Ltd, Brazil, Model: 170) for a period of 24 h. Afterward,

**Figure 1.** Anatomy of Açaí (*Euterpe oleracea*, Mart) fruit *in nature* (cross section): (1) embryo, (2) endocarp, (3) scar, (4) pulp, (5) pericarp + tegument, and (6) mesocarp.

the dried seeds are grinded using a laboratory knife cutting mill (TRAPP, Brazil, Model: TRF 600). Then, the dried and grinded açaí seeds are sieved using an 18 Mesh sieve to remove the excess fiber material.

#### *2.2.1. Centesimal and elemental characterization of açaí (Euterpe oleracea, Mart) seeds*

The centesimal and elemental characterizations of açaí (*Euterpe oleracea*, Mart) seeds are performed for moisture (AOAC 935.29), volatile matter (ASTM D 3175-07), ash (ASTM D 3174-04), fixed carbon (ASTM D6316-09), lipids (AOAC 963.15), proteins (AOAC 991.20), fibers according to the official methods reported in the literature [29], and insoluble lignin according to the method of Klason described elsewhere [30].

fractions (gasoline, kerosene, and light diesel-like fuels) is recorded and weighed. The distillation fractions are submitted to the pre-treatment of decantation to separate the aqueous and

**Figure 2.** Vigreux borosilicate-glass distillation column of 500 ml, electrical heating mantel, cryostat bath, Liebig

Fractional Distillation of Bio-Oil Produced by Pyrolysis of Açaí (*Euterpe oleracea*) Seeds

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79546

65

Bio-oil and the distillation fractions are obtained according to the boiling temperature range of fossil fuels (gasoline, kerosene, and diesel) physicochemical characterized for acid value (AOCS Cd 3d-63), density (ASTM D4052) at 25°C, kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445/D446), and refractive index (AOCS Cc 7-25), as described in the literature [31]. The qualitative analyses of chemical functions present in the bio-oil are performed by FT-IR spectroscopy, accord-

The separation and identification of all the compounds present in bio-oil are performed by GC-MS, using a gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies, USA, Model: GC-7890B) coupled to MS-5977A Mass Spectrometer, a SLBTM-5 ms (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 mm) fused silica capillary column. The temperature conditions used in the GC-MS were: injector temperature: 250°C; split: 1:50, detector temperature: 230°C and quadrupole: 150°C; injection volume: 1.0 mL; oven: 60°C/1 min; 3°C/min; 200°C/2 min; 20°C/min; 230°C/10 min. The intensity,

**2.4. Physicochemical analysis of bio-oil and distillation fractions and chemical**

*2.4.1. Physicochemical analysis of bio-oil and distillation fractions*

organic phases.

**composition of bio-oil**

condenser, and separating funnel.

ing to the literature [31].

*2.4.2. GC-MS of bio-oil*

#### **2.3. Fractional distillation of bio-oil**

#### *2.3.1. Distillation: experimental apparatus and procedures*

The fractional distillation of bio-oil is performed by using an experimental apparatus, as described in the literature [31]. The distillation apparatus, illustrated in **Figure 2**, has an electrical heating blanket of 480 W (Fisaton, Model: 202E, Class: 300), which is thermostatically controlled, a 500 ml round bottom, and two neck flasks with outer joints. The side joint is used to insert a long-thin thermocouple of a digital thermometer, and the center joint is connected to a distillation column (Vigreux) of 30 cm. The center top-outer joint is connected to the bottom inner joint of a Liebig glass-borosilicate condenser. The Liebig glass-borosilicate condenser is connected to a 250 ml glass separator funnel by the top-outer joint. A thermocouple connected to the top-outer joint 24/40 of the distillation column makes it possible to measure the vapor temperature at the top of the borosilicate-glass distillation columns (Vigreux). A cryostat bath provides cold water at 15°C to the Liebig glass-borosilicate condenser. The 500-ml round-bottom borosilicate-glass flask and the distillation column are insulated with glass wool and aluminum foil sheet to avoid heat losses, respectively. The mass of distillation Fractional Distillation of Bio-Oil Produced by Pyrolysis of Açaí (*Euterpe oleracea*) Seeds http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79546 65

**Figure 2.** Vigreux borosilicate-glass distillation column of 500 ml, electrical heating mantel, cryostat bath, Liebig condenser, and separating funnel.

fractions (gasoline, kerosene, and light diesel-like fuels) is recorded and weighed. The distillation fractions are submitted to the pre-treatment of decantation to separate the aqueous and organic phases.

### **2.4. Physicochemical analysis of bio-oil and distillation fractions and chemical composition of bio-oil**

#### *2.4.1. Physicochemical analysis of bio-oil and distillation fractions*

Bio-oil and the distillation fractions are obtained according to the boiling temperature range of fossil fuels (gasoline, kerosene, and diesel) physicochemical characterized for acid value (AOCS Cd 3d-63), density (ASTM D4052) at 25°C, kinematic viscosity (ASTM D445/D446), and refractive index (AOCS Cc 7-25), as described in the literature [31]. The qualitative analyses of chemical functions present in the bio-oil are performed by FT-IR spectroscopy, according to the literature [31].

#### *2.4.2. GC-MS of bio-oil*

the dried seeds are grinded using a laboratory knife cutting mill (TRAPP, Brazil, Model: TRF 600). Then, the dried and grinded açaí seeds are sieved using an 18 Mesh sieve to remove the

**Figure 1.** Anatomy of Açaí (*Euterpe oleracea*, Mart) fruit *in nature* (cross section): (1) embryo, (2) endocarp, (3) scar, (4)

The centesimal and elemental characterizations of açaí (*Euterpe oleracea*, Mart) seeds are performed for moisture (AOAC 935.29), volatile matter (ASTM D 3175-07), ash (ASTM D 3174-04), fixed carbon (ASTM D6316-09), lipids (AOAC 963.15), proteins (AOAC 991.20), fibers according to the official methods reported in the literature [29], and insoluble lignin according to the

The fractional distillation of bio-oil is performed by using an experimental apparatus, as described in the literature [31]. The distillation apparatus, illustrated in **Figure 2**, has an electrical heating blanket of 480 W (Fisaton, Model: 202E, Class: 300), which is thermostatically controlled, a 500 ml round bottom, and two neck flasks with outer joints. The side joint is used to insert a long-thin thermocouple of a digital thermometer, and the center joint is connected to a distillation column (Vigreux) of 30 cm. The center top-outer joint is connected to the bottom inner joint of a Liebig glass-borosilicate condenser. The Liebig glass-borosilicate condenser is connected to a 250 ml glass separator funnel by the top-outer joint. A thermocouple connected to the top-outer joint 24/40 of the distillation column makes it possible to measure the vapor temperature at the top of the borosilicate-glass distillation columns (Vigreux). A cryostat bath provides cold water at 15°C to the Liebig glass-borosilicate condenser. The 500-ml round-bottom borosilicate-glass flask and the distillation column are insulated with glass wool and aluminum foil sheet to avoid heat losses, respectively. The mass of distillation

*2.2.1. Centesimal and elemental characterization of açaí (Euterpe oleracea, Mart) seeds*

excess fiber material.

64 Fractionation

method of Klason described elsewhere [30].

*2.3.1. Distillation: experimental apparatus and procedures*

**2.3. Fractional distillation of bio-oil**

pulp, (5) pericarp + tegument, and (6) mesocarp.

The separation and identification of all the compounds present in bio-oil are performed by GC-MS, using a gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies, USA, Model: GC-7890B) coupled to MS-5977A Mass Spectrometer, a SLBTM-5 ms (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 mm) fused silica capillary column. The temperature conditions used in the GC-MS were: injector temperature: 250°C; split: 1:50, detector temperature: 230°C and quadrupole: 150°C; injection volume: 1.0 mL; oven: 60°C/1 min; 3°C/min; 200°C/2 min; 20°C/min; 230°C/10 min. The intensity, retention time, and compound identification were recorded for each peak analyzed according to the NIST (Standard Reference Database 1A, V14) mass spectra library, which is part of the software. The identification is made based on the similarity of the peak mass spectrum obtained with the spectra within the library database, included in the software. The contents of all identified oxygenates and hydrocarbons present in each sample were separated and the chemical composition of each experiment was estimated.

#### **2.5. Morphology of solid phase products of açaí seeds (***Euterpe oleracea***, Mart)**

The characterization of solid phase products (coke) obtained by pyrolysis of dried Açaí (*Euterpe oleracea*, Mart) seeds at 450°C and 1.0 atm, in pilot scale, was performed by scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) according the equipment's and procedures described in detail elsewhere [31, 32].


**5. Conclusions**

In conclusion, we observed the clinically important improvement of both office blood pressure control and central aortic pressure parameters, including augmentation index, in half of our cohort of HCV-infected stable kidney transplant recipients after successful HCV eradication with a sofosbuvir-based DAA therapy. The concomitant decrease of liver steatosis, measured by the controlled attenuation parameter, was only observed in this subgroup of patients, which may suggest the potential underlying mechanism of beneficial hemodynamic changes. Further investigation would elucidate the pathomechanism of the observed improvement of blood pressure control, however, the increased availability of DAA therapy already resulted in pretransplant eradication of HCV infection in a majority of currently dialysis patients. We believe that patients receiving DAA therapy in the pretransplant period will benefit even more. Nevertheless, the confirmation of relatively moderate BP improvement in dialysis patients would be much more difficult due to procedural-related fluctuations in volemia.

**Supplementary Materials:** The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/9/4/948/s1, Table S1: Laboratory parameters before and after successful DAA therapy, divided into subgroups based on changes in OBP control after treatment, Table S2: The results of liver function tests as well as the measurements of liver stiffness (LSM) and liver steatosis (controlled attenuation parameter—CAP) in kidney transplant recipients before and after the successful DAA therapy, divided into 2 subgroups based on the changes in OBP control after treatment.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization and methodology, A.K. and J.M.; formal analysis, A.K. and J.C.; investigation, M.B., N.S.-B., A.K.-S., and P.K.; data curation, A.K. and K.K.-F.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K., J.M., and J.C.; writing—review and editing, A.W.; supervision, A.K. and A.W.; funding acquisition, A.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was funded by Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Grant KNW-1-058/N/8/K.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.