*Article* **Capabilities and Reputation Risks Towards Firm Performance**

**Noraznira Abd Razak 1,\* , Najihah Hanisah Marmaya 2, Mohd Zailani Othman 3,\*, Idris Osman 4, Suhailah Kassim 4, Fatin Aqilah Maskuri 4 and Nik Kutina Mat Tahir 5**

**Abstract:** The effects of firm-specific resources on firm performance has been a quest of many and widely studied worldwide. In today's business environment, arguments suggesting the relative importance of firm-specific resources in explaining firm performance variation are said to be of the greatest influence on the study of firm behavior. On the other hand, firms with strong, positive reputations can attract and retain crucial talent and often have loyal customers likely to buy a broader range of products and services. It can lead to higher sales generated by satisfied customers and their referrals and can potentially raise capital and share price, and improve the firm performance. An empirical study such as this attempts to investigate the combinations of resources of the firm and focus on reputational risk management concerning firm performance. As such, this study involves variables partially adopted from Donabedian Theory, such as intangible resources, namely capability as an exogenous construct towards endogenous construct and firm performance, as well as proposing a mediation model to analyze the mediated relationship of reputational risk in accelerating the relationship between capabilities and firm performance. This study applies variance-based structural equation modeling via Smart PLS to a sample of 161 listed firms in Malaysia as respondents. A judgment purposive sampling technique has been adopted as the respondents are derived from listed firms under Malaysian Bourse. Overall, the findings of this study reveal how firms may gain competitive advantages in terms of their reputation and eventually be able to sustain their firm's performances by implementing an integrative model of intangible resources such as capabilities and in their routines and processes within the firms.

**Keywords:** capabilities; reputation risk; firm performance; mediation model


For the men, the discriminant analysis was performed with the significant variables; a function with 13 variables was obtained, explaining 100% of the differences and the variance between satisfied and unsatisfied men, an eigenvalue of 0.808, a Wilks' lambda of 0.553, and a canonical correlation of 0.669 with a significance of *p* ≤ 0.001, which allowed the discrimination of the variables related to marital satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The standardised coefficients showed that men with marital dissatisfaction perceive controltype violence from their partner, which is the variable that most contributes to marital dissatisfaction with 0.728; it is followed by blackmail, psychological violence, economic violence, humiliation/devaluation, sexual violence, intimidation and physical violence; they preferably settle for a submissive gender role and use escape/avoidance as coping. By contrast, men with marital satisfaction showed an adequate level of self-esteem, a preference for feminine gender roles, and problem solving as their type of coping. The centroids showed -.793 for satisfied men, and 1.000 for unsatisfied men. Hence, it can be concluded that men with marital dissatisfaction have specific indicators related to this condition in 84.6% of the correctly classified cases (see Table 11).

**Table 11.** Structure matrix of the discriminant canonical functions: Men.

**Table 11.** *Cont.*

#### **4. Discussion**

The objective of this paper was to study the relation between marital satisfaction/dissatisfaction, the type of perceived violence, gender roles, self-esteem and coping styles in a sample of Mexican women and men. One of the early findings was the differences between women and men in terms of the percentages for marital satisfaction/dissatisfaction; the percentage of unsatisfied women is 14.5% greater than that of unsatisfied men, which shows a disadvantage for women.

A second finding was the indicators associated to both marital satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Regarding those related to marital dissatisfaction, some similarities were found between both sexes.

The first indicator associated to marital dissatisfaction in both women and men was the perceived violence; the difference lies in the type of violence exerted on the other. In women, the most important factor was perceiving blackmail from their partner, followed by psychological abuse and humiliation/devaluation; in men, it was the perception of their partner exerting control over them, followed by blackmail, psychological and economic abuse. This coincides with Moral et al. [58], who stated that when conflicts are faced inadequately, these become chronic, leading to fights, distancing, indifference and, finally, to violence.

These results differ from what has been noted by other research carried out in Mexico where women are emphasized as the victims of marital violence [59,60]. Possibly, the difference between results is due to the way people tend to give socially desirable answers marked by gender prejudices in massive surveys. Nevertheless, couple violence has been studied in other Latin American countries where similar results to the ones obtained in this study have been found [61].

This would indicate that it cannot be stated that the man is the only one exerting violence in a couple, for many of these examples of violence are focused on the woman as the victim of the man [23,62,63]; therefore, it is important to do research with both sexes to widen the scope of the problem.

However, it must be noted that the studied population for this research comes from the general Mexican population because the INPer is not an institution specialised in women who were victims of violence with a prevalence of physical violence, where different factors could be found.

The second indicator related to marital dissatisfaction has to do with the gender roles established by couple dynamics; the results showed that submission prevailed as a characteristic in both maritally unsatisfied women and men. This coincides with a study on women and the relation between emotional dependency and intimate partner violence, where a high relation was found between the presence of both conditions in couples, resulting in attitudes of subordination and submission [64].

Low self-esteem was the third indicator found in women and men with marital dissatisfaction, which coincides with Echeburúa [65], who found that men with low self-esteem felt unsatisfied in their relationship and showed high levels of jealousy, possessiveness, irritability towards boundaries and poor impulse control. People with low self-esteem frequently struggle with self-confidence; when it comes to marriage, this insecurity leads

them to behave in a way that fosters distancing, violence and dissatisfaction instead of contributing to a satisfactory couple dynamic.

The escape/avoidance type of coping was the fourth indicator related to marital dissatisfaction in both women and men; it is translated as avoiding conflict. Méndez and García [66] also found that this type of coping is a variable that predicts several types of violence that generate dissatisfaction in a relationship. This behaviour emphasizes marital dissatisfaction because it prevents both partners from facing conflicts and modifying some of their elements. Behaviours such as indifference, the silent treatment and not taking any actions to solve problems contribute to dissatisfaction, and they are risk factors that lead to violence [67].

In contrast, the first indicator related to marital satisfaction in both women and men was high levels of self-esteem. Our results showed that women and men who scored high levels of marital satisfaction also had high self-esteem.

A possible explanation for this is that people who trust their abilities and have a positive image of themselves are able to establish effective communication with their partner, express their needs and wishes in a clear way, and set healthy boundaries. They also tend to be less critical of themselves and their partner, which helps to avoid unnecessary conflicts [68].

In second place, we found that marital satisfaction is related to femininity and masculinity in women, for they involve demonstrations of affection and the care for others as well as self-affirmation. Likewise, in maritally satisfied men, femininity was the one prevailing characteristic.

The last indicator related to marital satisfaction in women was positive re-evaluation as a type of coping, which is a strategy centred on the control of emotion when facing a stressful situation, giving it a positive meaning that functions as an adaptive resource. In men, the prevailing type of coping was that of problem-solving, which consists of making an effort to change a stressful situation by means of reflection and assertive behaviour.

The found indicators allow us to better steer the psychological intervention as referenced by Santelices [69], who said that intervention models will help focus the factors related to couple conflicts to avoid damage that has an impact on the family at the expense of their psychological, physical and labour well-being.

As can be observed, some indicators were isolated in this study to provide guidelines for the psychological intervention in people with couple problems.

#### **5. Limitations**

One of the main limitations was the small size of the sample, hence the use of psychometric indexes and cutoff points from the original instruments that were validated for the Mexican population, which limits the generalisation of the results.

Another limitation was that it only measured perceived violence and not exerted violence; in a population that suffers from exerted violence, the profiles will probably differ. One further limitation is that it is a nonprobability sample, and no generalisations can be made, for the results only can show risk indicators for populations with similar characteristics.

It should be noted that another limitation is that it was not a couple study; these results are from women and men with and without marital satisfaction but who were worked with independently. For future research, it would be important to carry out a study of dependent samples where the wife/husband pairing is used.

#### **6. Conclusions**

In this study, marital dissatisfaction is 14.5% higher in women; however, generalisations cannot be made, since this study was carried out on a non-random sample in a population with particular characteristics.

The violence perceived from the partner is the same in both groups with marital dissatisfaction.

Marital dissatisfaction is related to submissive characteristics in both sexes.

A decrease in self-esteem is a factor related to couple conflicts.

The type of coping that most contributes to marital dissatisfaction in both sexes is escape/avoidance.

The generation of indicators in different populations by isolating factors that explain the complexity of couple conflicts with no gender biases will contribute to the creation of psychological intervention strategies with greater specificity to avoid the worsening of these conflicts that affect not only both members of the couple but also their surroundings. This work is an incursion in couples who have relationship problems. By isolating explanatory factors, other aspects must be explored in different populations to gain a better understanding of the complexity of couple dynamics.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, C.S. and C.M.; methodology, C.S.; validation, C.M.; formal analysis, C.S.; investigation, C.S. and C.M.; data curation, C.M.; writing—original draft preparation, C.S.; writing—review and editing, C.S. and C.M.; visualization, C.M.; supervision, C.S.; project administration, C.S. and C.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. This protocol was approved by the research and ethics committees of the National Institute of Perinatology (Protocol number<PHONE_NUMBER>-10810-02-16) and was approved on 17 October 2019.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

**Data Availability Statement:** The link to the database is added to be consulted https://drive.google. com/file/d/1ndizrROn3jB23Xoi0yRWvH-60aRgLfns/view?usp=sharing (accessed on 24 April 2023).

**Acknowledgments:** We thank the National Institute of Perinatology for the facilities for this study.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

**Disclaimer/Publisher's Note:** The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

MDPI St. Alban-Anlage 66 4052 Basel Switzerland www.mdpi.com

*Healthcare* Editorial Office E-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>www.mdpi.com/journal/healthcare

Disclaimer/Publisher's Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Academic Open Access Publishing

mdpi.com ISBN 978-3-0365-9523-8


*3.4. Assumption Checking*

Figures S2 and S3 show a heat map, which provides visual inconsistency between direct and indirect comparisons in the frequentist approach. There was a big difference between inconsistency before and after the detachment in some treatment comparisons. However, no inconsistency was observed in the Bayesian approach (Figures S4 and S5).

Substantial heterogeneity was detected in both ORR and PFS, with the global I2 = 78% for both outcomes as well as for either a pairwise pooled effect or a consistency effect (Table S2).

The width of every line reflects the number of studies. The size of the circles is proportional to the number of study participants. A dummy group is a placebo or a control group without additional treatment.

### *3.5. Comparative E*ffi*cacy*

Compared to chemotherapy, afatinib, alectinib, ceritinib, and crizotinib were found to have a higher ORR with RRs ranging between 2.26 (95% CI, 1.34–3.82) for crizotinib and 3.75 (95% CI, 1.80–7.94) for ceritinib (Figure 2). Also, cabozantinib, gefitinib, and osimertinib vs. chemotherapy were found to improve PFS with HRs ranging from 0.17 (95% CI, 0.10–0.29) for alectinib to 0.78 (0.67–0.91) for gefitinib (Figure 3).

**Figure 2.** Response ratio for overall response rate of each targeted therapy vs. chemotherapy.

**Figure 3.** Hazard ratio for progression-free survival of each targeted therapy vs. chemotherapy.

Tables 1 and 2 show the league tables representing the comparative efficacy of targeted therapies for ORR and PFS in the network meta-analysis based on the Bayesian approach.

Among EGFR inhibitors, ORR was found to be significantly higher in afatinib treatment, compared to cetuximab (RR, 2.46; 95% CI, 1.25–4.90), erlotinib (RR, 2.64; 95% CI, 1.54–4.58), and gefitinib (RR, 2.08; 95% CI, 1.18-3.68) (Table 1). Also, afatinib had a significantly longer PFS, compared to cetuximab (HR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.33–0.71), erlotinib (HR, 0.59; 95% CI 0.44–0.80), and gefitinib (HR, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.50–0.95) (Table 2). Osimertinib was found to improve PFS, compared to cetuximab (HR, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.14–0.55), erlotinib (HR, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.17–0.64), and gefitinib (HR, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.20–0.75) (Table 2). Gefitinib showed a better PFS compared to cetuximab (HR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.53–0.94) (Table 2).

Regarding ALK/ROS1/MET targeted drugs, there were no significant differences in ORR between each pair of crizotinib, ceritinib, and alectinib (Table 1). However, alectinib showed a superior efficacy compared to either crizotinib (HR, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.25–0.64) or ceritinib (HR, 0.33; 0.17–0.67) for PFS (Table 2).

As for VEGF pathway (bevacizumab and ramucizumab) and RET targeted therapy (cabozantinib and vandetanib), only cabozantinib was found to improve PFS compared to vandetanib (HR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.20–0.66) (Table 2).


**2. Schottky Contacts to n-Type 4H-SiC**

In the last three decades, many efforts have been devoted to the study and characterization of the metal/4H-SiC interfaces. Despite the large amount of literature data published on this system, the physics at the base of the Schottky properties and carrier transport through the contact is not yet fully understood, and the research on Schottky contacts to 4H-SiC remains a scientifically open topic. Besides its fundamental scientific character, this research is also strongly pushed by industrial requirements for achieving a more efficient performance of SBDs. In this Section, we briefly report on the Schottky barrier fundamentals, the well-established and the most promising metallization schemes, discussing also

some aspects related to the device layouts proposed to optimize the electrical properties of the diodes.


3. Cardiovascular safety of non-biologic and biologic anti-rheumatic drugs

Evidence-based medicine provides key insights into the consequences of various classes of antirheumatic drugs on cardiovascular risk in RA, suggesting that TNF inhibitors (TNF-i) and methotrexate decrease the risk of such events, while corticosteroids and IL-6 receptor inhibition via tocilizumab exert a multifaceted intervention on cardiovascular outcomes [1, 2, 26, 31]. Data are summarized in Table 2.

methotrexate group, failure to achieve this magnitude of risk reduction will not degrade the

Cardiovascular Safety of Anti-TNF and Non-TNF Biological Therapy in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76684

97

Data about other synthetic DMARDs are not consistent. Leflunomide has indirect positive effects on cardiovascular outcome through reducing disease activity, while its role in promoting hypertension is a potential limitation, particularly if high blood pressure is documented [1, 2]. Antimalarials, specifically hydroxychloroquine, are able to modulate lipid profile and to reduce the risk of diabetes, although rare cases of cardiomyopathy have been described [1, 2, 31, 33]. Finally, sulfasalazine seems to exert also protective effects, while further studies are

The association between corticosteroids and the rate of total as well as individual cardiovascular events was systematically evaluated in patients with inflammatory rheumatic disorders, principally in RA and systemic lupus. It is widely accepted that corticosteroids are able to

• The risk for future cardiovascular disease is increased due to not only metabolic effects, e.g., abnormal lipid metabolism, impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, relative

• The cardiovascular risk is attenuated through rapid and salutary anti-inflammatory and

Their cardiotoxicity as well as cardiovascular mortality is dose-dependent (actual and previous cumulative dose) [1, 2, 6]. Sustained administration of corticosteroids classically accounts not only for an increased risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, and congestive heart failure but also for all major adverse cardiac events in RA patients as suggested by different studies and meta-

The well-known trend in RA is to maintain the lowest dose of corticosteroids for the shortest period of time and tapering as soon as remission or low disease activity (recommendation 10, EULAR 2016) [6]; the benefits of further administration should be deliberated and reconsi-

Although NSAIDs no longer represent the mainstay of RA therapeutic protocol, both nonselective and COX2-selective medications are still used, even if intermittently, during RA flares and in short-time administration [1, 2, 22, 23, 31, 35]. NSAID safety profile should be emphasized, as their effect on cardiovascular outcomes in RA is challenging. Both nonselective NSAIDs and coxibs increase the cardiovascular risk in general population; however, not all of them exert the same deleterious cardiovascular effect, especially talking about patients with

It is widely recognized that long-term NSAIDs increased the risk of all cardiovascular events and stroke in general population, particularly if cardiovascular disease is documented (congestive heart failure, ischemic heart disease, peripheral arterial disease, or cerebrovascular

weight gain, or true obesity, but also glucocorticoid-induced hypertension.

immune inflammatory background of cardiovascular pathology [3].

3.2. Glucocorticoids enhance the cardiovascular risk in RA

anti-proliferative effects of corticosteroids.

dered once the disease outcomes have been achieved [6].

analyses [1, 2, 6, 31, 34].

RA [2, 6, 31, 35].

shape the cardiovascular risk by two competitive pathways [1, 2, 6, 31, 34]:

required to clearly define its role [2].

Table 2. Cardiovascular profile of anti-rheumatic drugs: non-biologic and biologic DMARDs, corticosteroids, NSAIDs.

#### 3.1. Non-biologic DMARDs: methotrexate and non-methotrexate drugs (e.g., sulfasalazine, antimalarials, leflunomide) improve cardiovascular outcomes in RA

Recent meta-analysis as well as real-life data showed that traditional synthetic DMARDs are able to reduce the cardiovascular risk in RA. However, the precise cardioprotective mechanism of classic immunosupressants remains still under debate.

Undoubtedly, methotrexate and non-methotrexate agents efficiently control inflammation and disease activity, alter the lipid spectrum and concentration, and are able to reduce the arterial stiffness, improving cardiovascular risk in different RA scenarios [1–32].

Furthermore, methotrexate, the drug of choice as first-line treatment, is associated with a consistent reduction in mortality (70%), a decline in the rate of total cardiovascular events (around 28%), and up to 18% lower risk of myocardial infarction in patients with RA [31]. Unlike the anti-TNF agents, methotrexate is not related to a significant decrease in strokes and major adverse cardiac events; nevertheless, it seems that the risk of heart failure is also decreased [1, 2, 31, 32].

The interesting hypothesis of inflammatory origin of cardiovascular disease prompted the ongoing randomized Cardiovascular Inflammation Reduction Trial (CIRT) aiming to investigate whether low-dose methotrexate is able to decrease rates of heart attacks, strokes, and cardiovascular death among stable coronary artery disease patients with type 2 diabetes and/ or metabolic syndrome, conditions associated with an enhanced pro-inflammatory response [3]. Although the study was designed to perceive a 25% cardiovascular risk decline within the methotrexate group, failure to achieve this magnitude of risk reduction will not degrade the immune inflammatory background of cardiovascular pathology [3].

Data about other synthetic DMARDs are not consistent. Leflunomide has indirect positive effects on cardiovascular outcome through reducing disease activity, while its role in promoting hypertension is a potential limitation, particularly if high blood pressure is documented [1, 2]. Antimalarials, specifically hydroxychloroquine, are able to modulate lipid profile and to reduce the risk of diabetes, although rare cases of cardiomyopathy have been described [1, 2, 31, 33]. Finally, sulfasalazine seems to exert also protective effects, while further studies are required to clearly define its role [2].


**5. Indicators for evaluating housing quality**

In assessing the quality or suitability of housing, qualitative studies have identified some criteria as relevant indicators for quality evaluation in residential development. Among such is [18] who acknowledged aesthetics, ornamentation, sanitation, drainage, age of building, access to basic housing facilities, burglary, spatial adequacy, noise level within neighborhoods, sewage and waste disposal and air pollution among others, as related quality determinants in housing. However, [19] concluded that qualitative housing involves the provision of infrastructural services, which could bring about sustainable growth and development through improved environmental conditions and improved livelihood. In determining the quality of residential development, [20] stipulates five basic criteria which include compliance with tolerable standard, free from serious disrepair, energy efficient, provided with modern facilities and services, and that it must be healthy, safe and secure.

pollutants, considering the amount of time stayed indoor [25]. However, Ana et al. reported that the influence of such pollution on human health may vary, depending on age, sex, nutritional status, physiological conditions, and individual predisposition to the pollutants in question [26]. A study conducted by Rim-Rukeh in a slum squatter inundated area of Warri,

**Table 2.** Range of values of indoor air quality in the kitchen and living rooms of selected households in the slum squatter

**S/N Parameters/unit Range of air quality in study area Air quality regulatory limit (WHO, 2006)**

Housing Quality and Risk Factors Associated with Respiratory Health Conditions in Nigeria

**Parlor/Living room Kitchen**

) 255–391 271–439 250

(ppm) 0.19–0.30 0.18–0.30 0.04–0.06

2 CO (ppm) 12–33 18–41 10

settlements of Warri, and the WHO regulatory limits.

1 SPM10 (μg/m3

Source: Rim-Rukeh, 2015.

3 NO2

suspended particulate matter (SPM10) in all sampled households to be above the WHO air quality regulatory limits (**Table 2**) [27]. His report suggests that air quality index (AQI) in areas with poor housing settings such as slums, could be described as unhealthy for active children, women, adults and people with respiratory disease such as asthma, as it is usually associated with poor air quality. This therefore further suggests that impairing air quality in housing setting has an inverse relationship with the housing quality, and thus a negative

Respiratory problems refer to as the disorders of the airways and lungs that affect human respiration have been reported to be a major cause of mortality and morbidity among Nigerian children (**Table 3**). Acute respiratory infections (ARIs) are group of heterogeneous diseases caused by a diverse group of organisms in which the anatomical site(s) involved consists of the airways from the nostrils, pharynx down to the alveoli [28, 29]. In most developing countries including Nigeria, the burden of respiratory disease is largely unknown; however, on an average, it was reported that every child has about 5 to 6 episodes of ARI in a year accounting for about 30–50% of the total paediatric outpatient visits [30, 31]. Data from national demographic health survey 2013 reported the prevalence of ARIs in Nigeria to be about 2% [32].

In a study conducted by [33] between the year 2000 and 2003, it was reported that pneumonia accounted for 20% of deaths in children under the age of 5 years in Nigeria. However, there is a seasonal variation in acute respiratory infections in Nigerian children with more episodes occurring during the rainy season [34]. Few studies have also investigated the etiology of pneumonia in Nigerian adults. A retrospective study of 3671 adults cases seen at the emergency room at the Federal Medical Centre Ido-Ekiti in South-Western Nigeria showed that 368 adults had respiratory diseases out of which 127 (34.5%) had pneumonia, 108 (29.4%) had complicated and uncomplicated PTB, 90 (24.5%) had acute asthma attack while 38 (10.3%) had acute

), carbon monoxide (CO) and

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78543

101

Nigeria, reported the measured levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2

impact on the health and wellness of its occupant.

**8. Prevalence of respiratory diseases in Nigeria**

There are however indications from these various studies that a single variable may not be sufficient to assess the qualitative nature of residential development; therefore, housing acceptability and qualitative assessment should also take into account type of constructions, materials used, services, spatial arrangement and facilities within dwellings, function and aesthetics, among others [21].


*Supporting open minds since 2005*

Recent Advances in Knowledge Management http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95687 Edited by Muhammad Mohiuddin, Md. Samim Al Azad and Shammi Ahmed

### Contributors

Poline Bala, Narayanan Kulathuramaiyer, Tan Chong Eng, Catherine Inibhunu, Peter Yao Lartey, Fatoumata Binta Maci Bah, Rupa Jaladi Santosh, Mansuur Husein, Isaac Akolgo Gumah, Stephen Owusu Afriyie, Junguo Shi, Jorge Rodas-Osollo, Karla Olmos-Sánchez, Nathalie Fabbe-Costes, Feng-Shang Wu, Chien-Hsin Wu, Yi-Chih Yeh, Michel Grundstein, Andi Mursidi, Muhammad Mohiuddin, Elahe Hosseini, Mehdi Tajpour

### © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2022

The rights of the editor(s) and the author(s) have been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECHOPEN LIMITED. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECHOPEN LIMITED's written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECHOPEN LIMITED rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com).

Violations are liable to prosecution under the governing Copyright Law.

Individual chapters of this publication are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License which permits commercial use, distribution and reproduction of the individual chapters, provided the original author(s) and source publication are appropriately acknowledged. If so indicated, certain images may not be included under the Creative Commons license. In such cases users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. More details and guidelines concerning content reuse and adaptation can be found at http://www.intechopen.com/copyright-policy.html.

### Notice

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in London, United Kingdom, 2022 by IntechOpen IntechOpen is the global imprint of INTECHOPEN LIMITED, registered in England and Wales, registration number: 11086078, 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom Printed in Croatia

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Recent Advances in Knowledge Management Edited by Muhammad Mohiuddin, Md. Samim Al Azad and Shammi Ahmed p. cm. Print ISBN 978-1-83969-942-9 Online ISBN 978-1-83969-943-6 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-1-83969-944-3


**Author details**

Haico Te Kulve

Department of Science, Technology & Policy Studies, School of Management and Gover‐ nance, University of Twente, The Netherlands

### **References**

[6] Deuten JJ, Rip A, Jelsma J. Societal Embedding and Product Creation Management. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management. 1997;9(2):131-48.

[19] Van Merkerk RO. Intervening in emerging nanotechnologies. A CTA of Lab-on-a-

Anticipating Market Introduction of Nanotechnology-Enabled Drug Delivery Systems

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57180

523

[20] te Kulve H, Rip A. Constructing Productive Engagement: Pre-engagement Tools for Emerging Technologies. Science and Engineering Ethics. 2011;17(4):699-714.

[21] Parandian A. Constructive TA of Newly Emerging Technologies: Stimulating learn‐ ing by anticipation through bridging events. PhD Thesis. Delft: Delft University of

[22] Robinson DKR. Co-evolutionary scenarios: An application to prospecting futures of the responsible development of nanotechnology. Technological Forecasting and So‐

[23] Chatham House. Chatham House Rule. 2010 [cited 2010 20-07]; Available from:

[24] Shah N. Pharmaceutical supply chains: key issues and strategies for optimisation.

[25] Kola I, Landis J. Can the pharmaceutical industry reduce attrition rates? Nature Re‐

[26] Munos BH. Lessons from 60 years of pharmaceutical innovation. Nature Reviews

[27] Boyd BJ. Past and future evolution in colloidal drug delivery systems. Expert Opin‐

[28] Hoffman AS. The origins and evolution of "controlled" drug delivery systems. Jour‐

[29] Kreuter J. Nanoparticles - a historical perspective. International Journal of Pharma‐

[30] Park K. Nanotechnology: What it can do for drug delivery. Journal of Controlled Re‐

[31] Allen TM, Cullis PR. Drug Delivery Systems: Entering the Mainstream. Science.

[32] Couvreur P, Vauthier C. Nanotechnology: Intelligent Design to Treat Complex Dis‐

[33] Wagner V, Dullaart A, Bock A-K, Zweck A. The emerging nanomedicine landscape.

[34] Wagner V, Hüsing B, Gaisser S, Bock A-K. Nanomedicine: Drivers for development and possible impacts. Seville: Institute for Prospective Technology Studies, 2006.

chip technology. Utrecht University: Doctoral dissertation; 2007.

http://www.chathamhouse.org.uk/about/chathamhouserule/.

Computers and Chemical Engineering. 2004;28:929-41.

Technology; 2012.

cial Change. 2009;76(9):1222-39.

views Drug Discovery. 2004;3(711-715).

Drug Discovery. 2009;8:959-68.

ceutics. 2007;331:1-10.

lease. 2007;120:1-3.

2004;303:1818-22.

ion Drug Delivery. 2008;5(1):69-85.

nal of Controlled Release. 2008;132:153-63.

ease. Pharmaceutical Research. 2006;23(7):1417-50.

Nature biotechnology. 2006;24(10):1211-7.

[19] Van Merkerk RO. Intervening in emerging nanotechnologies. A CTA of Lab-on-achip technology. Utrecht University: Doctoral dissertation; 2007.

[6] Deuten JJ, Rip A, Jelsma J. Societal Embedding and Product Creation Management.

[7] Guston DH, Sarewitz D. Real-time technology assessment. Technology in Society.

[8] Barben D, Fisher E, Selin C, Guston DH. Anticipatory Governance of Nanotechnolo‐ gy: Foresight, Engagement, and Integration. In: Hackett EJ, Amsterdamska O, Lynch M, Wajcman J, editors. The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. third edi‐ tion ed. Cambridge, Masachusetts; London, England: The MIT Press; 2008. p.

[9] Fisher E. Ethnographic Invention: Probing the Capacity of Laboratory Decisions.

[10] Rip A, Misa TJ, Schot J, editors. Managing Technology in Society: The Approach of

[11] Te Kulve H. Anticipatory Interventions and the Co-evolution of Nanotechnology and Society. PhD thesis. Enschede, The Netherlands: University of Twente; 2011.

[12] Rip A. Co-Evolution of Science, Technology and Society. An Expert Review for the Bundesministerium Bildung und Forschung's Forderinitiative Politik, Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft (Science Policy Studies), as managed by the Berlin-Brandenburgi‐ sche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Enschede: University of Twente, 2002 7-06-2002.

[13] Garud R, Ahlstrom D. Technology assessment: a socio-cognitive perspective. Journal

[15] Rip A, Te Kulve H. Constructive Technology Assessment and Socio-Technical Sce‐ narios. In: Fisher E, Selin C, Wetmore JM, editors. The Yearbook of Nanotechnology

[16] Colvin VL. Testimony of Dr Vicki L. Colvin, Director Center for Biological and Envi‐ ronmental Nanotechnology (CBEN) and Associate Professor of Chemistry Rice Uni‐ versity, Houston, TX before the US House of Representatives Committee on Science in regard to 'Nanotechnology Research and Development Act of 2003'. 2003 [cited 2010 October, 12th]; Available from: http://www.house.gov/science/hearings/full03/

[17] ETC Group. Nanotech Rx: Medical Applications of Nano-scale Technologies: What Impact on Marginalized Communities? Ottawa, Canada: ETC Group,, 2006.

[18] Schot J, Rip A. The Past and Future of Constructive Technology Assessment. Techno‐

[14] Rip A. Folk Theories of Nanotechnologists. Science as Culture. 2006;15(4):349-65.

of Engineering and Technology Management. 1997;14:25-48.

in Society, Volume 1: Presenting Futures: Springer; 2008. p. 49-70.

logical Forecasting and Social Change. 1997;54:251-68.

Constructive Technology Assessment. London: Pinter Publishers; 1995.

Technology Analysis & Strategic Management. 1997;9(2):131-48.

2002;24:93-109.

522 Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery

979-1000.

Report No.

apr09/colvin.htm.

Nanoethics. 2007;1:155-65.

[35] Adams DJ. The Valley of Death in anticancer drug development: a reassessment. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 2012;33(4):173-80.

**Chapter 16**

**Current Status and Future Scope for Nanomaterials in**

Nanotechnology is a revolutionary field of micro manufacturing involving physical and chemical changes to produce nano-sized materials. The word "nano" is a Latin word meaning "dwarf". Mathematically a nanometer is equal to one thousand millionth of a meter [1]. A nanomaterial consists of aggregated as well as unbound particles. Nanotechnology in scientific terms is defined as the science which deals with processes that occur at molecular and atomic level or at nanolength size. It involves designing, synthesis and characterization of material structure by controlling the shapes and sizes at nano scale. The conversion of a particle to nano scale size changes the properties of the material such as increase in surface area, dominance of quantum effects often associated with minute sizes, higher surface area to volume ratio etc. and varies material's magnetic, thermal and electrical property. For example, copper which is opaque at macro scale becomes transparent at nano scale. Similarly the properties of gold at nanoscale causes change in melting point from 200°C to 1068°C and colour changes from yellow to blue to violet along with the change in its catalytic property [2]. Nanoparticles are persistent in nature as well. Functional proteins may be classified as nanoparticles. Some biological system consists of nanoparticles which are devoted to locomotory function. The colours on butterfly's wings are due to light being bounced off nanoscale layers in the structure of the wings. The red and yellow colours seen at sunset are also due to nanoparticles [3]. Super paramagnetic iron oxide less than 50 μm are used for imaging of organs. They can be even

used for treating complicated brain disorder bio-imaging at nano scale size [9].

© 2014 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Biswajit Mukherjee, Niladri Shekhar Dey, Ruma Maji,

Priyanka Bhowmik, Pranab Jyoti Das and

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**Drug Delivery**

Paramita Paul

**1. Introduction**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/58450


**6. Discussions**

#### *6.1. Relationship between Observed Geothermal Activities and Underlying Geothermal System*

Recently, MT inversion analysis showed that an extremely conductive layer of resistivity less than several Ω-m existed beneath 200 to 700 m depth (elevation 1100 m to 600 m) from the surface of the Ioyama [25]. This conductive layer was interpreted as composed of a hydrothermally altered clay-rich layer containing copious amounts of smectite [20]. Kagiyama et al. [60] also reported the presence of a conductive layer of 3- to 30- Ω-m resistivity with a thickness of 120 to 150 m beneath the area

around the Ioyama. Inverse modeling, based on repeatedly operated and precise leveling survey data, revealed an inflation source at a depth of 600 to 700 m, just under the conductive layer [61]. Thus, it is suggested that the conductive layer behaved as a caprock preventing the up-flow of pressurized hydrothermal fluids [25]. This caprock, likely corresponding to a low permeable layer, can explain the activity sequence from Stage-1 to Stage-4. Furthermore, the geological setting identified Ebinokogen Ioyama Volcano can be considered to represent a Type 1 system described by Stix and Moor [11].

Another deeper pressure source, likely related to a magma reservoir, is present between 8 and 10 km below Ebinokogen. It appeared that this source was inflated before the eruption at Shinmoedake in 2011 and was deflated during the early large eruptions (subplinian and lava-accumulation stages) in 2011 [47]. Further, it was re-inflated after the early large eruption stages, and almost stagnated around January 2012 at Shinmoedake [62,63]. Seismicity then increased at the northern side of Karakunidake from December 2013 [48], implying the possibility that magmatic fluids started to be supplied from the deeper parts under Karakunidake to the shallow hydrothermal system under Ebinokogen Ioyama Volcano. The volcanic tremor event that took place on 20 August, 2014, may represent the beginning of the activation of the shallow hydrothermal system under the conductive caprock in Stage-1. As no manifestation was observed at the surface in this stage, it is hypothesized that the fluid-driven heating and pressurization of the shallow hydrothermal system beneath the Ioyama-fumarole area developed gradually (Figure 10). Incidentally, the deep system is the magmatic reservoirs in Kirishima Volcano Group [62,64,65].

The temperatures of fumaroles during Stage-2 were almost constant at around 96 ◦C (Figure 4), the boiling point temperature at an altitude of 1300 m. The relationship between the δD and the δ18 O ratio showed that the water from the spring K3 at this stage was derived from the meteoric water (Figure 9). Most likely the high-temperature hydrothermal fluids accumulated below a depth of 600 to 700 m in Stage-1 started to percolate through the conductive caprock layer during Stage-2. Thus, fumaroles began to appear at the ground surface (Figure 10).

The successive period was characterized by the appearance of mud pots and jet fumaroles between March and April 2017 in Stage-3. The stage was defined by a rapid expansion of the thermal anomaly area from early 2017, and a temperature rose in the spring K3 in early April (Figure 4). The mud pot A appeared just before/on 19 March, and the mud pot F appeared between 19 and 21 March (Figure 5). The jet fumarole H appeared about 30 m east of the mud pot F between 15 and 18 April, and the jet fumarole A appeared about 10 m northwest of the mud pot A on 26 April. Hydrothermal minerals of the blowout deposit from the jet fumarole A contained mostly quartz and alunite (soda) and almost no smectite (Table 1). The mineral assemblage of the blowout deposit well matches the surficial alteration near Ioyama, characterized by the alunite zone with quartz, cristobalite and tridymite [44]. In other cases, the lower limit of the alunite zone is at a 380 m depth in the Hatchobaru geothermal area in Kuju Volcano [66,67], as well alteration zones containing alunite develop in very shallow parts of Hakone and Ontake volcanoes [68,69]. The XRD analysis for a drilling core at Owakudani in Hakone showed that alunite was distributed up to a depth of 100 m from the surface [23]. A key information for estimating depth of hydrothermal fluids in the Ebino-fumarole area comes from the geothermal drilling carried in the 1950s, in which blowout occurred at two wells while drilling at depth between 18.3 and 18.4 m below the surface [41]. The hot groundwater (aquifer) at a depth of 20 m in the western part of Ioyama with the same topographical gradient is considered to have been at a 50 to 70 m depth below the summit of Ioyama in the 1950s. Currently, the height difference between the spring K3 and the summit is about 50 m. The temperature of the spring K3 at the time of the blowout event was relatively low, 40 ◦C, and it was probable that there was a hot confined aquifer located deeper than 50 m. Alunite is widely stable in a low pH environment, and its deposition or accumulation is known to form altered layers of low-permeability [70,71]. Recently, alunite filling among mineral grains was reported [72]. Therefore, the 2017 blowout event at the jet fumarole A with the products abundant in alunite can be considered as a phenomenon that originated from low pH hydrothermal liquids at a very shallow depth (mostly up to a depth of 100 m). Alunite, quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, kaolinite, smectite and

halloysite were found on the surface around the Ioyama-fumarole area in 1950s [44]. It was probable that the alunite accumulation had formed low permeability layers (or spots) before the year 2008, under which developed pockets of hydrothermal fluids or confined groundwater (Figures 10 and 11).

**Figure 10.** Conceptual sketch showing the different stages of geothermal activity in Ebinokogen Ioyama Volcano. Numerical values in Stage-1 denote Ω-m [25].

The high heat and gas emission released at the jet fumaroles H and A resulted in a decrease in the thermal anomaly area since August 2017. The temperature of the K3 spring rose again in February 2018, with the simultaneous appearance of the fumarole S. In this stage, a continuous uplift of the summit area was observed by the JMA tilt meter from 2018 mid-March. The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) observations showed inflation prior to the 2018 eruption. The geophysical pressure source was estimated to be around 950 m altitude (about 350 m below the ground) [53]. The 2018 eruption deposits contained dominant quartz and alunite (soda) similar to those in the 2017 event deposits, and both probably came from similar hydrothermal environments. The smectite content of the 2018 eruption deposit was about 1 wt%, implying that the April 2018 eruption originated from a smectite depleted hydrothermal environment. The surface altered areas at the Ioyama contained minor amounts of the smectite mineral [44]. Less kaolinite (about 10 wt%) from the April 2018 eruption were derived from the hydrothermal region in an acidic environment. Part of the kaolinite or minor smectite may also have been taken from very shallow altered host rocks. The hydrothermal pond Y1 appeared on 7 April, and a large amount of hydrothermal fluids gushed out. The relationship between δD and δ18O ratio of the water in the Y1 pond just before the eruption indicated that the pond liquid was a mixture of meteoric and magmatic liquids, creating an environment in which both end member liquids probably mixed. Thus, geological and geochemical observations show that the main excavation of the 2018 eruption may have been at a very shallow depth around the top of conductive layer. It is probable that the pressure source of about 350 m, indicated by low-resistivity implies the stagnation of magmatic–hydrothermal water. Seki et al. [73] suggested that a low-resistivity layer in the shallow part was formed due to the percolation of acidic hydrothermal fluid into the clayey lacustrine sediment at Midagahara Volcano in Tateyama. The resistivity >10 Ω-m was observed down to a depth of about 150 m (1150 m altitude) beneath Ioyama [60]. The similar interpretation is also possible here for the aquifer of hydrothermal fluids at depths of between 150 m and 350 m. We defined those systems above the 350 m depth as the very-shallow hydrothermal system (Figure 10). The main zone of acid alteration is the kaolinite zone without dickite which registered temperatures of up to 120 ◦C [13]. The temperature of 130 ◦C at the jet fumarole H in Stage-3 may suggest a leakage from this hydrothermal system (Figure 11).

The geology of Ioyama and the surrounding area consists of thin debris avalanche and thick welded pyroclastic deposits from Karakunidake [29,32]. The borehole survey at 1.1 km west of Ioyama [74] indicated that an upper boundary of the welded pyroclastic deposit was about 50 m depth. This deposit is exposed on the surface near the Ioyama-south craters. The elevation di fference between the two sites is about 170 m. Assuming horizontally flat deposition, the welded pyroclastic deposit is distributed down to about 170 m depth under the Ioyama-south craters, corresponding to the distribution of a moderate resistivity layer down to 200 m depth. This welded pyroclastic deposit is interfingered pumice fall layers [75]. It is considered that pumice layers behave as permeable layers for ground water, where meteoric and magmatic liquids mix.

The conductive caprock layer with a low resistivity of <1 Ω-m at depths from 200 to 700 m was considered to have smectite as its main altered mineral [25]. In the laboratory experiments, higher contents of smectite achieved a lower resistivity [76]. Smectite exceeding 10% of maximum intensity by the XRD analyses was contained in the drilling core from the conductive layer in Hakone [23]. However, the lithological resistivity measured in the laboratory indicated a conductivity of about one order of magnitude higher than those in borehole observation. This di fference was possibly a ffected by the pore fluid conductivity [24]. Additionally, the results of the e ffect of acidity on the conductivity were significant [77]. We will need further discussions about the morphology of the conductive layer.

For magma with a temperature of 870 ◦C such as the 2011 Shinmoedake silicic andesite magma [64] located at a depth of 600 to 700 m, the conductive, smectite-bearing caprock would not be observed around the inflation source because of the instability of smectite at temperatures above 200 ◦C [13]. It is known the high electrical conductivity is enhanced by the higher temperature e.g., [24,76]. Therefore, it was reasonable to assume that the main component of the inflation source was magmatic–hydrothermal

fluids at a temperature slightly higher than 200 ◦C. Thus, we tentatively propose a hydrothermal reservoir system at the inflation source at around 600 to 700 m in depth (Figure 11). A high-temperature fumarole of 247 ◦C had previously developed at the summit of Ioyama in the 1970s [34], where gases probably originated from this depth.

#### *6.2. A Kick Sign before the April 2018 Eruption*

In order to forecast a steam-driven eruption, it is essential to understand how an aquifer of hydrothermal system is depressurized or heated and what triggers an eruption.

During the events of March to April 2017, the jet fumarole A blew out on 26 April, after the appearance of the mud pot A just before/on 19 March. The jet fumarole A blew out about a ten meter away from the mud pot A. Furthermore, welling-up of a large amount of fluids in the hydrothermal pond Y1 continued for 12 days immediately before the steam-driven eruption on 19 April, 2018 at Ioyama south craters (4–19 vents). The locations of the upwelling of hydrothermal fluids and of the eruption were about 60 m apart.

The characteristic feature in both the blowout and eruption is that the upwelling of hydrothermal fluids began just before the events. The technical report on drilling describes a phenomenon referred to as a "kick", in which fluid leaks into a borehole, which typically occurs before blowouts of pressurized fluid [3]. It was known that two boreholes blew out after reaching 18.3 to 18.4 m below the surface in the Ebino-fumarole area during a geothermal survey [41]. In this event, hot water welled up and steam blowout occurred after sudden increase of the borehole temperature. In the geothermal excavation, the pressurized hot water leaked, resulting in blowing through the wells. In addition, it is known that the cyclic behaviors of the lake water level and temperature in a hydrothermal system can be explained by the "two-phase boiling systems" phenomenon observed at the Inferno Crater Lake in New Zealand [78,79].

**Figure 11.** The schematic image of the shallow (ca. 600 m) and very shallow (ca. 350 m) systems beneath Ebinokogen Ioyama Volcano (See more details in Sections 6.1 and 6.2).

*Geosciences* **2020**, *10*, 183

One question remains open about why hydrothermal fluids upwelling site and the explosion site were different. There appeared depressions of 3 to 10 m in the crater Y2a, 2 to 8 m in the crater Y2b, and 3 to 12 m in the crater Y3, a little time after the April 2018 eruption. The total depression volume was about 8400 m3. And the depression volume of the Y2a and Y3 craters was about 6500 m3 (Table 1). Those values are clearly larger than the ejecta volume of about 1500 m3, assuming the density of the deposit as 1500 t [54] is 1000 kg/m3. Therefore, the mechanism such as the crushing of the host rock around the conduit as in a maar formation [80] is not plausible. A hydrothermal dissolution [81] may be possible by continuous hydrothermal water outflow after the eruption. However, it is unclear if dissolution of a large volume in a short time. Therefore, we conclude that a certain amount of space had existed underground (Figure 11). The coupling between the geyser conduit and a laterally offset reservoir system [82] in the geyser eruption may be constructed under Ebinokogen Ioyama Volcano. However, the geyser system does not eject directly from a laterally offset reservoir, so it is difficult to apply this model for the April 2018 eruption. Likely, when the relatively low-temperature hydrothermal fluids in the upper layer leak and reduce the groundwater level, the resultant decreasing of hydrostatic pressure causes boiling to start. An instance of a similar trigger was seen when the dropping water levels at Gengissig lake in Kverkfjöll Volcano (Iceland) were observed to decompress the pressured aquifers, resulting in explosions due to boiling [15]. Additional explanation for the separation between the upwelling and eruption sites may originate from the fluid percolation pattern dictated by the deposit heterogeneity in the very-shallow hydrothermal system. Therefore, several mechanisms are possible for this eruption.

In summary, the pressurization of hydrothermal system is considered to be caused first as a bottom–up. The increase in fumarolic activity and the spring K3 temperatures from February 2018 indicated that the magmatic liquids were supplied to the very-shallow hydrothermal system. Second, hydrothermal fluids were observed to comprise mixed magmatic and meteoric waters up-welled at the Y1 just before the eruption in April 2018. We conclude that an initial bottom–up fluid pressurization (kick) destabilized the shallow part of the hydrothermal system, producing a boiling-front that penetrated downwards into the hydrothermal reservoir, followed by the explosion according to a top–down mechanism [12,83]. The expanding steam fragmented and dispersed the broken host rocks until the boiling decreased and stopped supplying sufficient energy to break and ejected rocks from the crater. Such mechanisms may explain the 2018 Ebinokogen Ioyama eruptions. Based on our observations, we also conclude that sudden injection and up-welling of hot magmatic fluids may cause an increase in temperature of very-shallow hydrothermal systems, and in turn produce changes in geothermal features at the surface. Thus, rapid increases in the geothermal manifestation over a short period of time, as in the case of Ebinokogen Ioyama Volcano, should be taken as a sign for caution in geothermal areas.

#### *6.3. Issues of Steam-Driven Eruptions for the Volcanic Disaster Prevention*

Information pertaining to the level of damage corresponding to steam driven eruptions originating in hydrothermal aquifer systems should be provided at tourist spots near and in geothermal areas. The magmatic–hydrothermal fluids storage system may have developed at two different levels in Ebinokogen Ioyama Volcano, contained by the conductive caprock layer (Figure 11).

Steam driven explosions from very-shallow levels are known to occur in some geothermal areas [84–87]. In a hydrothermal blowout event at the jet fumarole vent A, altered volcanic fragments of block size were scattered only a few meters from the vent. The magmatic hydrothermal eruption at Ioyama in April 2018 may have involved hydrothermal liquids shallower than 350 m depth. Based on past activity [32], larger steam-driven eruptions ejecting larger volumes of debris and producing tens-to-hundreds-meter-diameter craters at the Fudoike and Karakunidake north craters, occurred in Ebinokogen Ioyama Volcano. These explosions may involve greater depth, similarly to phreatic or phreato–magmatic eruptions, yet likely have a steam-driven dominant component e.g., [88–90]. The question remains, what may be the signs of bigger eruptions. The geophysically detected source

of the 2014 phreatic eruption at Ontake Volcano, which scattered ballistics ejecta over 1 kilometer away [91], was thought to be from 600 to 1000 m deep [92,93]. Kato et al. [94] proposed that hot fluids infiltrated to cracks from the deeper magma chamber in middle September 2014 before the September 27 phreatic eruption in Ontake. The break of the seal of the conduit for hydrothermal fluids at a shallow level began just prior to the eruption [94], resulting in the decompression that led flashing of hydrothermal fluids from the top to downward. Recent research [95] supports this model by the finding of a small amount of juvenile material in the 2014 eruption products in Ontake. A steam-driven eruption at Sinmoedake Volcano in 2008 scattered ballistics as far as 800 m [31]. The geophysically detected source of the inflation and deflation in the eruption was estimated to be at a depth of 500 to 600 m below the volcano [96]. These are similar to the VLP events, 700 ± 200 m below the lake, in Kawah Ijen (Indonesia) and that of 850 ± 150 m below the crater at White Island (New Zealand) [97].

In case of Ebinokogen Ioyama in 2018, it took over two months for magmatic fluids to be supplied into shallow hydrothermal system before the eruption from the deep system, contrasting to about two weeks (11 to 16 days) in Ontake. In Ebinokogen Ioyama, the supplied amount and rate of magmatic fluids of the 2018 eruption may be much smaller than the 2014 eruption in Ontake. In summary, smaller events could be better understood as result of our study. And more energetic steam-driven eruptions may occur in this area if larger amount of magmatic fluid is injected rapidly and a wider area of the shallow hydrothermal system is destabilized. However, more studies are needed to improve our knowledge of triggers, mechanisms and potential precursors of steam-driven eruptions at Ebinokogen Ioyama. Additionally, we need to consider repetitive highly hazardous hydrothermal eruptions like that of Lake Okaro in New Zealand [12].

The technology to forecast very-shallow hydrothermal eruptions has developed by combining observations of hydrothermal phenomena such as increasing activity of geothermal areas, a welling-up kick, results of In-SAR and precise leveling observations. In the small eruption of Hakone 2015, In-SAR observed an uplift deformation area of approximately 200 m in diameter immediately before the eruption, along with a ground uplift of up to 30 cm. The vents appeared at the southern edge of deformation [98]. Locations of the fumarole S and the Y1 hydrothermal pond at Ebinokogen Ioyama may be possible sites for future eruption. A hydrothermal eruption occurred from the Ioyama-south craters on 19 April 2018. The next day, vents (Ioyama-west crater) formed 500 m away from the Ioyama-south craters. The impact area of the ejecta from the latter vents was as small as ~50 m. The outside of the alert level 2 area possibly impacted by ballistics, within a one-kilometer radius from the Ioyama crater, shown in the volcanic hazard map of Ebinokogen Ioyama [99,100], was not a ffected. Given that the tourist facility is relatively close to the potential venting area, in addition to addressing the 19 April vents, there is also the need to highlight the occurrence of the 20 April.


*2.4. Data Extraction*

The data were extracted using a standardized data extraction form and entered into an excel sheet (Excel, Microsoft Corporation, WA, USA). The following study details were extracted where possible from included studies: first author, publication year, region, publication journal, type of study, year of study, sample size, participant demographic details, thoracolumbar fracture level, surgical approach, segmental fixation, time to implant removal, cause of implant removal, and clinical outcomes after implant removal. Data from the research were compared, and disagreements were resolved by consensus among researchers.


**6. Conclusions**

This paper mainly focuses on the major application scenarios mentioned by various researchers and practitioners in the field of architecture, engineering and construction. The advances in the digitization of all processes and workflows in the AEC industry in general and beyond with the wide adoption of BIM as a common methodology for managing large construction projects enables the use of advanced information communication technology (including, augmented reality) in AEC workflows. It is not emphasized that the approach of AR is better and more effective compared to others, but it is a helpful complement to other technologies for managing a building life cycle.

Through AR it is possible to obtain a special feature, namely "instant visualization", which facilitates communication and decision making between the parties involved in the project. According to Wang J et al. [27], AR inherently involves human interaction with real and virtual information sources. Within BIM technology, the use of AR allows designers to place the virtual construction schematic in a real physical environment; it grants owners an engaging and interactive experience and suppliers the ability to communicate effectively with both clients and the technical team.

The case studies are different, the first being a road infrastructure project, more specifically a tunnel (already completed) and the second an architectural project for a commercial/service building (under construction), both with 3D models from BIM, which allowed visualization in AR. **Table 1** shows the SWOT analysis for use of augmented reality in BIM based on the above presented use-cases and key takeaways from those examples.

Future research should generally focus on three main themes: (1) improving the understanding of information transfer processes, (2) enhancing software solutions, and (3) better understanding the required information contained in BIM models.

By improving the understanding of information transfer processes, we mean determining the tasks that could benefit most from AR technology [28]. It would

#### **Table 1.**

*Augmented reality in BIM SWOT analysis.*

also be interesting to explore an alternative information flow where building information models could be generated or updated in a real 3D space, on mobile devices, rather than on 2D computer screens in offices. It is expected that building information modeling software vendors will improve their products in this direction, which would also be based on research such as that conducted or reviewed in this paper.

Computer market leaders say augmented reality will change everything. But right now AR still has many challenges to overcome (improving occlusion, the process of creating 3D content and asset quality, connectivity, computing power of devices, miniaturization of hardware components …) and if AR on mobile phones is the first step and most AR experience for a few years, AR on smart glasses will completely change the user experience.