**4.3. Qatar**

Qatar also has salient Religion-CSR Logics as it is an Islamic country with high social, cultural, and religious expectations of firms participating in philanthropy; this ultimately influenced the introduction of CSR in the professional realm and encouraged company participation to meet their social responsibility expectations [23]. Community involvement of businesses in Qatar has always been prevalent through donations such as to orphanages, elderly homes, and particularly sports [29]. Religious groups in Qatar also act as pressure groups on companies to get involved in the annual *Zakat* tradition [24, 25]. These groups account to a significant portion of investors in the country and may choose to invest in companies that show interest in social development and participate with annual philanthropy [24]. Islamic values need to be present and emphasized by companies in Qatar to maintain legitimacy and survival; through enhanced communication with local groups and communities, and transparent disclosure of socially responsible behavior [25].

#### **4.4. Bahrain and Oman**

Bahrain is a small GCC country and has a dearth of research on CSR practices by corporations. However, one study focused on social responsibility reporting of Islamic financial institutions based in Bahrain. The results show a thorough understanding of CSR as the banks are required by law to produce an annual report, the Shari'a Supervisory board report, to assert their commitment to Islamic teachings [30]. There is evidence of voluntary philanthropic practices in Islamic financial institutions which signifies a commitment to social welfare issues in the country [31].

Similar to other countries in GCC, Oman is a Muslim nation characterized with philanthropic practices to low income groups, which has contributed to the assimilation of CSR concepts [27]. There is evidence of a merger in Oman of traditional philanthropic traditions with strategic CSR practices integrating economic, social and environmental challenges [27].

*Islamic religion in the GCC countries views social responsibility as an obligation to business activity mainly through the Zakat tax. However, the Zakat tax was practiced way before the CSR concept came to light and is considered as only one of the secondary pillars of CSR practices which is philanthropic. Social responsibility is present in the GCC in Islamic financial institutions as well.*


2.1.5. UATR-FTIR Spectroscopy

Universal-attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (UATR-FTIR) spectra of RSP, RM-β-CD, and their corresponding PM and KP are presented in Figure 6.

**Figure 6.** Universal-attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (UATR-FTIR) spectra of RSP, RM-β-CD, and RSP/RM-β-CD binary systems PM and KP.

The UATR-FTIR spectrum of RSP presents characteristic bands at 3063, 2936, 2812, 2759, 1648, 1534, 1449, 1414, 1352, 1130, 1027, 959, 854, and 816 cm−1 that have been assigned to the functional groups from the drug structure in our previous study [22]. RMβ-CD shows a broad absorption band in the 3600–3100 cm−1 region corresponding to the O-H stretching vibration from the non-methylated hydroxyl moieties and a large region below 1500 cm−1 which exhibits distinct peaks, which is most probably characteristic to the cyclodextrin ring [19,51].

In the spectral patterns of binary products, several differences are noticed as compared with those of the parent compounds. Thus, the band assigned to the C-N stretching vibration shifted from 1352 cm−1 in the RSP spectrum to 1364 cm−1 in both PM and KP spectra. In addition, the C=O stretching vibration (from tetrahydropyrido-pyrimidinone ring) characteristic band from 1648 cm−1 in the drug substance spectrum is displaced to 1649 cm−1 and 1642 cm−1 in the PM and KP spectra and is markedly reduced in intensity in both binary compounds. In addition, the spectral band attributed to aliphatic C-H stretching vibration from 2936 cm−1 in RSP shifted to 2929 and 2924 cm−1 in the spectral pattern of PM and KP, respectively. In the spectral region of 1050–1000 cm−1 the parent substances, RSP and RM-β-CD, exhibit bands at 1028 and 1027 cm−1 , while in the spectral pattern of binary products, two bands can be observed, at 1009 and 1035 cm−1 in PM and at 1006 and 1037 cm−1 in KP, respectively. A marked reduction in intensity and a shift to different wavenumbers (1535 cm−1 ) in the PM and KP spectra is also noticed for the band assigned to the C=C stretching vibration of the aromatic ring from 1534 cm−1 in the RSP spectrum. Furthermore, the bands from 2812, 2759, and 1130 cm−1 in the RSP spectrum disappeared in binary KP and PM spectra.

The UATR-FTIR spectroscopy pointed out a decreasing in the intensity of RSP characteristic bands along with the shifting to different wavenumbers and the disappearance

of several peaks in the spectral pattern of PM and KP. These data give evidence about the interaction between the antipsychotic drug substance and RM-β-CD.


**4. Hot water treatment**

Capsicum

is of no exception.

**2. Disease of sweet pepper**

bell pepper is grown in summer, whereas in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bihar and Maharashtra, it is grown in the autumn season [4]. In India, bell pepper covers an area of 29,800 ha with 171,370 tonnes production and productivity of 5.75 tonnes/ha [5]. Sweet pepper is a warm-season crop, which grows well under an extended frost-free season, with the capability of producing high yields of exceptional quality. The best temperature range for sweet pepper growth is 20–25°C, whereas the best germination temperature is 29°C. A temperature of less than 29°C reduces the growth of seedling, leading to increased exposure of seedlings to insects, diseases or salts, resulting in damaged or dead seedlings [6]. High temperatures adversely affect the productivity of many plant species of which sweet pepper

High humidity in the environment and moist soil together with optimum temperature result in high incidence of various diseases.  To avoid the occurrence of such diseases, seed treatment with various chemicals has been recommended from time to time [7]. But in present day agriculture, use of chemicals for crop production is discouraged. Hence, other alternative treatments for disease control must be developed. One such treatment is with hot water which is economically as well as temporally feasible. Farmers, along with a little technical assistance, can easily adopt this treatment. This treatment is also successful for destroying viruses like *mosaic virus* that affect bell pepper. It is very efficient in destroying pathogens borne both outside the testa and inside the seed testa. In this

area no such work has been done in the case of bell pepper.

Bacterial spot (*Xanthomonas campestris* pv. *vesicatoria*), bacterial wilt (*Pseudomonas solanacearum*), anthracnose/ripe fruit (*Colletotrichum* spp.), *Cercospora* leaf spot/frog eye leaf spot (*C. capsici*), bacterial canker (*Clavibacter michiganensis*) and viruses like Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) are some of the most important diseases of sweet pepper that cause huge economic losses to the farmers. Seed-borne diseases of bell pepper are the most important problems in organic farming systems because of the limitation in chemical control methods. For the successful management of any disease under normal conditions, sanitation, elimination of primary source and chemical protection at initial stages are some of the measures recommended. Various workers are now engaged in developing and testing the non-chemical methods for seed-borne diseases of vegetables including

Seed is the primary and essential starting point of a wide range of horticultural crops, including the majority of vegetables. The high-quality seeds of vegetable varieties that display early, consistent, dynamic seedlings and better- and goodquality fruits from individual seed sown at favourable or unfavourable conditions have increased significantly in recent years. Seedling emergence and field stand establishment is one of the problems faced by the growers, especially in early planting where adverse conditions are prevailing (low temperature and high soil moisture). Delayed, erratic germination and emergence, poor stand, slow early seedling growth rate and non-uniform maturity often limit crop production even

**44**

bell pepper.

**3. Seed technology**

The most appropriate seed treatment with respect to least damage, economy, efficiency and application is hot water soaking. It is an old-age practice based on treatment with hot water whose temperature is high enough to kill the pathogen but not high enough to harm the seed, hence a very good technique to control many seed-borne diseases [12, 13]. Heat treatment may be applied for agricultural commodities by (1) immersion in hot water, (2) exposure to vapour heat, (3) exposure to hot dry air, (4) treatment with infrared radiation or (5) microwave radiation. Hot water treatments of seed and plant material are classical thermophysical methods of plant protection and are more eco-friendly and effective than chemical treatments.

Hot water treatment can be damaging or not practical for seeds of peas, beans, cucumbers, lettuce, sweet corn, beets and some other crops [12, 14, 15], but it is highly recommended for pepper, eggplant, tomato, cucumber, carrot, spinach, lettuce, celery, cabbage, turnip, radish and other crucifers. It may also severely damage old seeds, and therefore, a small sample of any seed lot over 1 year should be first treated and then tested for germination to determine the amount of injury that may occur. Hot water treatment is recommended for seeds with surface or deep-seated infections. Effective treatment temperature and duration have to be found out for every vegetable crop and the relevant pathogens. The principle is to eliminate the pathogens as far as possible without decreasing germination of seeds. For example, just a 5-min difference in treatment time can lead to diverse differences in the germination rate of cabbage seed.

A number of tests and studies of heat treatment must be undertaken to optimise the time and temperature that are most adaptable to the seeds to be treated and the pathogens to be killed before practical application. Susceptibility to heat damage may differ among different varieties of plant species [16, 17]. The time/temperature combination for a given plant seed depends on many factors interacting with the heat susceptibility of the host, viz., conditions of external layers, dormancy, moisture content, age and vigour [18]. Particularly, it has long been known that the smaller the initial water content of seeds is at the time of heating, the greater the resistance to high temperatures [19]. Two major groups of proteins may be activated by the hot water treatments that induce fruit resistance: heat shock proteins (HSPs) and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins. HSPs are believed to play a major role in thermotolerance [20–22]. Among the PR proteins, most characterised enzymes chitinases and β-1,3-glucanases hydrolyse polymers of fungal cell walls and are, therefore, thought to be involved in the plant defence mechanism against fungal infection [23, 24].


*2.2. Raw Materials and Substrates Characterization*

The tissue substrate was analysed by thermogravimetric analysis using a TA Q-500 (TA Instruments, Waters LLC, New Castle, DE, USA) to evaluate its qualitative composition and thermal degradation profile. This analysis was performed from room temperature to 900 ◦C

under a nitrogen atmosphere at 10 ◦C/min. At 900 ◦C, an isothermal treatment of 30 min under air was performed to evaluate the residual weight under oxidative atmosphere.

Extracted active molecules were analysed by infrared spectroscopy using a Nicolet T380 Thermo Scientific instrument equipped with a Smart ITX ATR accessory with a diamond plate (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), collecting 256 scans at 4 cm−1 resolutions.

The polyphenols main composition was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS) at 294 nm. An Agilent 1100 HPLC system coupled to a LC/MSD ion trap mass spectrometer with an electrospray ionization (ESI) source (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA) was used. A HALO C18 column (100 mm × 4.6 mm × 2.7 μm) coupled to a HALO C18 guard column 90 Å (4.6 × 5 mm × 2.7 μm) operating at 25 ◦C was used. The mobile phase was composed of milli-Q water (solvent A) and acetonitrile (solvent B), both added with 0.1% acetic acid. A gradient elution program was used at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min: starting A at 85% to 60% in 15 min to 30% in 3 min to 10% in 1 min and returning to the initial composition in 3 min. Mass spectra were recorded in the negative ionization mode (m/z 50–900). The electrospray chamber was set at 3.5 kV with a drying gas temperature of 350 ◦C. The N2 pressure and flow rate of the nebulizer were 50 psi and 10 L/min, respectively. Polyphenols were identified by comparing MS experimental data with those of standard compounds prepared in ethanol:water (60%, *v*/*v*). All solutions were filtered through a 0.22 μm nylon membrane prior to injection (6 μL).

The ChNF nature was investigated to verify the effect of the defibrillation process. A drop of diluted ChNF dispersion (1:1000 *v*/*v* in water) was poured on a microscopy slide and dried at room temperature. The slide was mounted on a SEM stub and observed under a field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) using a FEG-Quanta 450 instrument (FEI, Hillsboro, OR, USA).


*2.3. Complex Terrain Recognition*

In the field, terrain is usually complex. The accuracy of terrain with obstacles and mixed terrain, which is composed of two or more terrain types, is greatly reduced if traditional identification methods are used. This scenario affects the normal operation of the robot. Therefore, a systematic method based on image segmentation and infilling for recognition of terrain with obstacles and mixed terrain is introduced in this section.


**1. Introduction**

Solar photovoltaic energy is becoming the most popular renewable energy used in the world, at many caring of installations. Modeling and characterization are important topics that necessitate the determination of the exact solar photovoltaic (PV) cell's unknown parameters values and thus optimizing the PV power generated. Solar PV generator's performances are affected by many factors, where some of them are external, related to the environmental conditions like the weather's variations (irradiation and temperature), shading phenomenon, hotspot [1], dust, cell damage, wind velocity, and soiling [2]. Others are internal, related to the electrical, physical, and mathematical modeling. After the modeling step of any PV generator, their identified parameters values are used in the established model. Therefore, it is necessary to find the accurate values of the unknown electrical PV parameters by an appropriate approach. Besides, accurate parameter values of PV cells are essential for the development of good controlling techniques for Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) based power electronic converters [3]. As shown in the **Figure 1** the importance of PV parameters' obtaining accurate values for a whole PV system.

**Figure 1.**

*Importance of determination of accurate PV parameter values in PV systems [3].*

With the complexity of the nonlinearity founded from the current-voltage relationship through the model used to represent the physical behavior of PV cells (Single Diode, Double Diode, Three Diode, and so on) [4]. The parameters to be found become more numerous, as the complexity of models increases. The PV parameters of a Single Diode Model (SDM), which are the most determined in literature, and which are the light and the diode saturation currents, the diode ideality factor, the series, and the shunt resistances. A challenge is to obtain the values of all the PV model's parameters value while keeping a reasonable compromise of some criteria, such as the fast speed of convergence, low implementation complexity, and so on.

Artificial intelligent (AI) algorithms have attracted attention lately, by the scientific community to be used for resolving many topic's problems. Among them solar photovoltaics' problems, such as modeling, identification, prediction, optimization, sizing, control, and many others [5]. The hybrid optimization-based methods have attracted more attention to achieve more efficiency and precision. For this reason, this paper presents a combination of the traditional Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) with the recent meta-heuristic Grey Wolf optimizer (GWO) method. This hybrid LMGWO method has seemed to be the most performing, which we finally have chosen to be used in this work.

The remaining of this chapter is structured as follow. After the introduction given in this Section 1. Section 2 presents a classification of the optimizationbased methods used in the literature to estimate the PV parameters values. In the Section 3, models are presented of the PV cell (single diode), and the problem of PV parameters obtaining values is presented. Section 4 gives some details about the hybrid used method to estimate the SDM parameters values. Moreover, this section provides the basic concept of the LM and the GWO. Finally, Section 5 shows some results comparing one method of each type proposed in the classification and the LMGWO. Some conclusions are given in Section 6.


**6. Water quality in Major Nile basin fisheries and its impact on fish production**

#### **6.1. Water quality in the upstream basins**

**5.3. Northern Delta lakes (NDL)**

358 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

directly or indirectly.

**Figure 5.** The Northern Nile Delta lakes

for >50% of the total annual yield for the country.

As the final reservoirs of Nile river water before it flows into the Mediterranean, the four lakes (Mariut, Edku, Burullus and Manzalah) are the last opportunity for Egyptians to use the Nile water within the Delta area (Fig. 5). The four lakes occupy an area of about 1100 km². They are commonly shallow (average depth 1.10m), and their water salinity is known to change from fresh to brackish in the seaward direction. They are connected to the Mediterranean Sea either

During the last 50 years, the surface area of the four lakes has been reduced to as little as 50% of the area they covered during the 1950's (Table 3). The lake areas lost have been used for highway construction, reclamation of new lands for agriculture, and in some cases, for residential constructions. Such unnatural use of the lake basins has certainly modified their ecosystems as a whole, beginning with hydrological changes and resulting in the reduction of their economic and natural value. Due to their location along the coastal area of the Egyptian Mediterranean, the lakes are surrounded by or included within the highly populated coastal cities of the country. This has become more pronounced, particularly during the last 20 years, in the various forms of human impact on these water bodies, such as industrialization and the construction of new infrastructures in response to population density increases. These impacts are manifested in the deterioration of the water quality and reduction in lake surface area [17]. The consequent negative effect of human impact on the NDL ecosystems became evident in the decline in fish production. Up to 1985 the annual fish production of these lakes accounted Studies of water quality of the Nile basin and its channels and lakes have demonstrated a trend of lower water quality in the downstream basins compared with those located upstream. This is mainly due to the following:

The all-year round continuous flow of the river from south to north which dilutes existing pollutants and contaminants and carries them downstream.

Less industrialization of upstream countries compared to the downstream ones.

Neither water multi-use nor recycling processes are common practice in upstream countries compared with the downstream ones.

Low population densities and less modernized sewage systems at upstream countries compared with the downstream ones.

In addition to the above, the main impact of human activities in the areas surrounding the upstream Nile river water bodies may result from the uncontrolled drainage and discharge of agriculture fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides and untreated sewage into the Nile basin. This is probably true for Lake Victoria and Lake Tana, since industrial pollution and discharge of inorganic pollutants are more limited. However, in these upper parts of the Nile basin, the existing civil wars and the absence of hygiene have resulted in periodic devastating epidemics such as cholera and other infectious diseases that may also negatively influence fisheries production either directly or indirectly.

living biota. Unfortunately, these types of studies did not show the full effect of these pollutants on fish and the degree of pollution of the lake water. Recently, a monitoring study of a range of heavy metals (Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Sr, and Zn) in Nile tilapia fish of different ages (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3 years) from Lake Nasser was undertaken by [23]. This study examined the trace element concentrations in water, sediments, and aquatic plants, as well as different edible and non-edible fish organs at different ages. The study showed that both water samples and aquatic plants have higher levels of Fe compared with concentrations detected in fish edible parts (muscles). On the other hand, the concentrations of the various metals in sediments were higher than their concentration in fish muscles. The author concluded that the concentrations of Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Sr, and Zn in the edible parts of the examined Tilapia fish were within

**Elements Zn Sr Ni Mn Fe Cu Cr Co**

(μg/g DW) 143 (±2.9) 455 (±12) 122(±3.2) 1000 (±19) 51500 (±24) 109 (±2.6) 79 (±2.0) 89.5 (±2.6)

(μg/g DW) 230 (±0.84) 1852 (±18) 145 (±1.02) 186 (±0.9) 1420 (±8) 220 (±1.1) 240 (±0.58) 185 (±0.8)

(μg/g DW) 1.55 (±0.08 1.92 (±0.99) 0.19 (±0.25) 0.5 (±0.066) 6.45 (±1.1) 0.27 (±0.08) 0.29(±0.22)

Lake Nasser. "Modified from, [23]". DW, dry weight; (±), Standard deviation

**6.3. Water quality in the downstream basins**

**Table 4.** Heavy metal concentrations in fish (*T. nilotica*), aquatic plant (*N. armeta*), sediment and water samples from

In their location farthest downstream in Nile basin, the Nile Delta branches (Damietta and Rosetta) and the Northern Delta Lakes (NDL) are, not surprisingly, the most polluted and have the lowest water quality. The trophic status in these water bodies has been descri‐ bed in the scientific literature as varying between eutrophic and hypertrophic conditions [17], [2]. The continuous aggressive human impacts on the water bodies of the NDL since the 1950's until now have resulted in various negative consequences, beginning with the reduction of their surface area (Table, 3), and increase of nutrients discharge through agricultural, industrial drainages and domestic sewage; and leading to the dramatic decline of their fisheries [24]. Both domestic and industrial sewage represent a major source of nutrient enrichment of water bodies of the Nile delta. These contribute significantly to the development of the eutrophication phenomenon and the consequent degradation of water quality. In a number of cases, municipal and rural domestic wastewater is discharged directly into waterways. The constituents of domestic and industrial input to water

175 (±6) 240 (±9) 19(±1.2) 740 (±8) 1720 (±14) 68 (±6) 29 (±1.1) 35(±1.6)

0.25 (±0.05)

The Nile Fishes and Fisheries http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57381 361

the recommended permissible levels for human consumption (Table 4).

Aquatic plantMean (μg/g DW)

SedimentMean

WaterMean

FishMean

Studies of Lake Victoria water quality have indicated that notable changes in physical, chemical and biological features of the lake ecosystem have occurred during the last three decades. These changes have resulted in increasing eutrophication and decreasing water transparency and decreasing dissolved oxygen concentrations at the hypolimnion layer during periods of stratification [18], [19]. These studies indicated also that water eutrophication in Lake Victoria is a direct result of nutrient enrichment from human activities in the catchments area as well as industrial and domestic sewage discharge from combustion processes. That is in addition to soil erosion and fertilizers' washout through drainage since the introduction of tea, cotton and maize farming.

Recent studies of pesticide residues in Nile tilapia and Nile perch from southern Lake Victoria has implications of recent exposure of these two species to DDT and endosulfan isomers. The study concluded that most of the analyzed samples contained residue levels higher than the method detection limits, though below or within the Accepted Daily Intake (ADI) limits [20]. Other studies have indicated that spraying of endosulfan in cotton fields near Tana River (Kenya) result in levels of fish contamination [21], [22].

The most surprising finding of these studies is the detection of these compounds in fish but not in local sediments and water. It has been found that the high demand for fish has pushed some Lake Victoria fishermen to use DDT as a mean to catch fish in certain areas of Lake Victoria. The reason of the absence or the inability to detect such compounds in the lake sediments could be due to dilution effect of the running water in these basins which made their residuals below the detection limits.

#### **6.2. Water quality in the Mid-River basins**

In Sudan the water quality of the southern wetlands (Sudd area) depends on how much water is supplied annually to its basins. The continuous alteration of wetlands by human activities and their utilization for other purposes have negatively influenced both the quality and the quantity of water reaching this area. The redirection of water away from the Sudd for human activities has resulted in the formation of isolated ponds, promoting water stagnation and growth of macrophytes, and weeds. These practices have negatively influenced the capacity of fisheries in this part of the Nile basin.

At Lake Nasser, where both the White Nile and the Blue Nile water mix in different portions, the residues of Nile water contaminants from the upstream countries via Sudan reach this huge man-made reservoir shared by Sudan and Egypt. Lake Nasser water quality is affected also by the continuous fluctuation of its water level. In this regard, most of the studies focused on detecting contaminant levels in the lake water and its effect through bioassay experiments of living biota. Unfortunately, these types of studies did not show the full effect of these pollutants on fish and the degree of pollution of the lake water. Recently, a monitoring study of a range of heavy metals (Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Sr, and Zn) in Nile tilapia fish of different ages (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3 years) from Lake Nasser was undertaken by [23]. This study examined the trace element concentrations in water, sediments, and aquatic plants, as well as different edible and non-edible fish organs at different ages. The study showed that both water samples and aquatic plants have higher levels of Fe compared with concentrations detected in fish edible parts (muscles). On the other hand, the concentrations of the various metals in sediments were higher than their concentration in fish muscles. The author concluded that the concentrations of Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Sr, and Zn in the edible parts of the examined Tilapia fish were within the recommended permissible levels for human consumption (Table 4).

**Table 4.** Heavy metal concentrations in fish (*T. nilotica*), aquatic plant (*N. armeta*), sediment and water samples from Lake Nasser. "Modified from, [23]". DW, dry weight; (±), Standard deviation

#### **6.3. Water quality in the downstream basins**

agriculture fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides and untreated sewage into the Nile basin. This is probably true for Lake Victoria and Lake Tana, since industrial pollution and discharge of inorganic pollutants are more limited. However, in these upper parts of the Nile basin, the existing civil wars and the absence of hygiene have resulted in periodic devastating epidemics such as cholera and other infectious diseases that may also negatively influence fisheries

Studies of Lake Victoria water quality have indicated that notable changes in physical, chemical and biological features of the lake ecosystem have occurred during the last three decades. These changes have resulted in increasing eutrophication and decreasing water transparency and decreasing dissolved oxygen concentrations at the hypolimnion layer during periods of stratification [18], [19]. These studies indicated also that water eutrophication in Lake Victoria is a direct result of nutrient enrichment from human activities in the catchments area as well as industrial and domestic sewage discharge from combustion processes. That is in addition to soil erosion and fertilizers' washout through drainage since the introduction of

Recent studies of pesticide residues in Nile tilapia and Nile perch from southern Lake Victoria has implications of recent exposure of these two species to DDT and endosulfan isomers. The study concluded that most of the analyzed samples contained residue levels higher than the method detection limits, though below or within the Accepted Daily Intake (ADI) limits [20]. Other studies have indicated that spraying of endosulfan in cotton fields near Tana River

The most surprising finding of these studies is the detection of these compounds in fish but not in local sediments and water. It has been found that the high demand for fish has pushed some Lake Victoria fishermen to use DDT as a mean to catch fish in certain areas of Lake Victoria. The reason of the absence or the inability to detect such compounds in the lake sediments could be due to dilution effect of the running water in these basins which made

In Sudan the water quality of the southern wetlands (Sudd area) depends on how much water is supplied annually to its basins. The continuous alteration of wetlands by human activities and their utilization for other purposes have negatively influenced both the quality and the quantity of water reaching this area. The redirection of water away from the Sudd for human activities has resulted in the formation of isolated ponds, promoting water stagnation and growth of macrophytes, and weeds. These practices have negatively influenced the capacity

At Lake Nasser, where both the White Nile and the Blue Nile water mix in different portions, the residues of Nile water contaminants from the upstream countries via Sudan reach this huge man-made reservoir shared by Sudan and Egypt. Lake Nasser water quality is affected also by the continuous fluctuation of its water level. In this regard, most of the studies focused on detecting contaminant levels in the lake water and its effect through bioassay experiments of

production either directly or indirectly.

360 Biodiversity - The Dynamic Balance of the Planet

tea, cotton and maize farming.

(Kenya) result in levels of fish contamination [21], [22].

their residuals below the detection limits.

**6.2. Water quality in the Mid-River basins**

of fisheries in this part of the Nile basin.

In their location farthest downstream in Nile basin, the Nile Delta branches (Damietta and Rosetta) and the Northern Delta Lakes (NDL) are, not surprisingly, the most polluted and have the lowest water quality. The trophic status in these water bodies has been descri‐ bed in the scientific literature as varying between eutrophic and hypertrophic conditions [17], [2]. The continuous aggressive human impacts on the water bodies of the NDL since the 1950's until now have resulted in various negative consequences, beginning with the reduction of their surface area (Table, 3), and increase of nutrients discharge through agricultural, industrial drainages and domestic sewage; and leading to the dramatic decline of their fisheries [24]. Both domestic and industrial sewage represent a major source of nutrient enrichment of water bodies of the Nile delta. These contribute significantly to the development of the eutrophication phenomenon and the consequent degradation of water quality. In a number of cases, municipal and rural domestic wastewater is discharged directly into waterways. The constituents of domestic and industrial input to water resources are pathogens, nutrients, trace metals, suspended solids, salts and oxygen demanding materials [25]. Siegel [26] reported that the nutrient base for aquaculture in Lake Manzalah is sewage carried by drains from as far away as Cairo, 140 km to the south. He added that untreated or poorly treated industrial wastes, heavy metals and other pollu‐ tants have been released into the Nile Delta drainage network and have been discharged, along with sewage and agriculture wastes, into the northern delta lakes and their associat‐ ed wetlands. Studies of sedimentary deposits in the southeastern sector of Lake Manzalah have detected different trace metal concentration. They have detected Hg (up to 822 ppb), Pb (up to 110 ppm), Zn (up to 635 ppm), Cu (up to 275 ppm), Cr (up to 215 ppm), Sn (up to 14 ppm) and Ag (up to 4.7 ppm). The results suggest that high concentrations of heavy metals in lake sediments may cause contamination in fish, especially bottom feeders in such environments [26]. This may be the case in the northern lakes, since all of them receive the sewage discharges of major cities.

the control of insects. The reported active ingredients of major organochlorine pesticides during a 30-year period include: toxaphene 45,000 Mt (1955-1961), endrin 10,500 Mt (1961-1981), DDT 13,500 Mt (1952-1971) and lindane 21,000 Mt (1952-1978) [28]. DDT is still in limited use in the country as a rodenticide and termiticide. These pollutants are released into drainage canals and reach the delta branches and NDL. According to the data provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, the application of pesticides decreased in the country, from 20,500 tons in 1980 to 16,435 tons in 1995. Since chlorinated pesticides have been banned, the majority of the pesticides currently in use are organophosphorus compounds [27]. Table 5 shows concentrations of PCB's, DDT's, HCB and Lindane present in the water bodies located in the

The Nile Fishes and Fisheries http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57381 363

Freshwater aquaculture activities in the Nile basin countries depend on the following main

**1.** The status of fish as a main food source according to the customs of the local populations

The existence of a market demand for specific fish living in the local river and lake waters

The economic value of these activities for the private sector compared with other projects

This is clearly demonstrated by the estimation of aquaculture production within the Nile basin countries (Table 6). Although Lake Victoria produces almost 25% of the freshwater fish catch in Africa, the aquaculture productivity of countries sharing the basin of Lake Victoria is very limited. This could be due to the lack of interest of the private sector in developing aquaculture activities, since the Lake production easily satisfies local and international market demand. In Uganda the number of ponds totals 6200, covering a total area of 124.6 ha. In some of these ponds yields of about 10,000 kg ha-1 y-1 were recorded. The most widely distributed species are mirror carp and various tilapia species. However, since the Nile perch is the most popular fish for export, there is little interest in developing aquaculture. It is expected that future expansion in freshwater farming in this part of the Nile basin is promising, especially when

Although freshwater aquaculture was not commercially practiced in Sudan until 1990, the population density increase and local market demands have encouraged large scale aquacul‐ ture of freshwater fish, especially Tilapia species. The main demand comes from the capital Khartoum, where population density is rising, with growing interest in tilapia fish as an

In Egypt, where water conservation is becoming the highest priority, the reutilization of drainage water from other activities has assisted private sector investment at aquaculture activities in general and freshwater fish farms in particular. This has been spurred by the Egyptian tradition of consuming fish as an essential food item. The local market demand for fish has increased tremendously during the last three decades due to population growth.

Delta region.

factors:

**7. Freshwater aquaculture in the Nile basin**

the fish stock at Lake Victoria become overexploited.

alternative source of animal protein [3].

**Table 5.** Concentrations (ng/l) of HCB, DDT's, PCB's and lindane in freshwaters from different locations of the Nile Delta- Egypt "Modified from [27]" <DL: below detection limit

Although both agricultural drainages and sewage discharges into the lake environments may be considered as sources of nutrient that can compensate the nutrients reduction in the Nile water after the construction of Aswan High Dam (AHD), these discharges have different pollutants, such as organochlorine compounds, which are not only harmful to the fisheries but also to the consumers of fish. In his study, [27] noted that the use of organochlorine insecticides in Egypt began in the 1950's and was extensively used until 1981 to protect crops from insects, disease fungi and weeds, to remove undesired vegetation and for domestic household use in the control of insects. The reported active ingredients of major organochlorine pesticides during a 30-year period include: toxaphene 45,000 Mt (1955-1961), endrin 10,500 Mt (1961-1981), DDT 13,500 Mt (1952-1971) and lindane 21,000 Mt (1952-1978) [28]. DDT is still in limited use in the country as a rodenticide and termiticide. These pollutants are released into drainage canals and reach the delta branches and NDL. According to the data provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, the application of pesticides decreased in the country, from 20,500 tons in 1980 to 16,435 tons in 1995. Since chlorinated pesticides have been banned, the majority of the pesticides currently in use are organophosphorus compounds [27]. Table 5 shows concentrations of PCB's, DDT's, HCB and Lindane present in the water bodies located in the Delta region.


3.4.2. Standard Deviation (SD)

To analyze the significance of the inconsistencies between the four products, we first computed the 90%, 95%, and 99% percentile of standard deviation (Figure 14). The 99% percentile SD (red color) mainly occurs in southern Tibet (Region A in Figure 14), western Sichuan with mixed forest and grass land cover types (region B in Figure 14), and Taiwan (region C in Figure 14) with mainly broadleaf and needleleaf forest; the 95% percentile SD (green color) mostly occurs in southern provinces in temperate climate zones with mixed forest and savannas biomes, and 90% percentile SD (blue color) mainly occurs in eastern Sichuan province in a cold climate zone with mainly grass.

We extracted three 99% percentile SD typical regions according to pixel density and geographic location (Tibet, Sichuan, and Taiwan (regions A, B, and C)), then calculated the minimum, maximum, median, mean, 25% and 75% quartile values for each product and the boxplots (Figure 15). Because GLASS LAI performs best in direct validation, we set GLASS LAI as the benchmark. For the Tibetan region (region A), the main reason for the difference could be due to GLOBMAP LAI, whose mean value is quite high compared with the other three products. For the Sichuan region (region B), the main reason for the difference can also be attributed to GLOBMAP and MODIS LAI, as the mean GLOBMAP LAI is a little high while MODIS LAI is a little low with an LAI difference of 0.5 m2/m2 between them. Also, for the Taiwan region (region C), the difference may be because of the high deviation of GLOBMAP.

**Figure 14.** Percentile distribution of standard deviation of four LAI climatologies over China. Blue represents 90% percentile level, green represents 95% percentile level, and red represents 99% percentile level.

**Figure 15.** LAI boxplots of typical regions: (**a**) region A; (**b**) region B; (**c**) region C; (**d**) region D.

We then counted the proportion of each land cover type at 99%, 95%, and 90% percentile SD (Table 6). At the 99% percentile SD level, evergreen needleleaf forest, woody savannas, and mixed forest have the highest proportion with 32.87%, 16.71%, and 11%, respectively. At 95% and 90% percentile SD levels, evergreen needleleaf forest, woody savanna, and savanna have the highest proportion. Thus, from the perspective of standard deviation, the LAI discrepancy can attribute to evergreen needleleaf forest, savannas, and mixed forest.

**Table 6.** Pixel proportion of different biome types at three standard deviation percentiles.

Similarly, we counted the proportion of each climate type at three percentile SD levels (Table 7). At 99% and 95% percentile SD levels, temperate hot summer/no dry season, temperate warm summer/dry winter, and temperate dry hot summer climate types are the top three, and at 90% percentile SD level, temperate dry hot summer, temperate warm summer/dry winter and cold dry winter/warm summer climate types have the highest proportion.

**Table 7.** Pixel proportion of different climate types at three standard deviation percentiles.