**8.1 Decreased quality of life**

Health-related quality of life encompasses physical, mental, and social health and is influenced by factors such as socioeconomic status, culture, and environment of the person concerned. The degree of obesity is inversely proportional with the quality of life, as persons with higher BMI values are more likely to have obesity-associated diseases [184].

### **8.2 Risk of mortality**

At least 2.8 million people die annually as a consequence of being overweight or obese. Many complications of obesity are mentioned above that deteriorate the quality of life and may promote early death. Most of the deaths are a direct consequence of cardiovascular problems or cancer [185].


**3.3 BIM in structural design**

Along the development of a project and later construction and use, several processes demanding the transfer of data between software are normally performed, and for that, a high level of interoperability is required. In a structural design, the transposition of models between BIM modeling and structural analysis tools is essential. Concerning the structural design, the interoperability capacity, the transfer and verification of consistencies and the centralization of information and graphic documentation were presented in the training [22].

The process of transposition of structural models between modeling and calculation systems (two-way flow) was analyzed in several situations involving ArchiCAD, Revit and AECOsim modeling tools and SAP [18, 23], Robot [24] and ETABS [25] structural dimensioning tools. The transposition of models between systems is supported in native format of data, when the software belong to the same manufacturer or by the recourse to the universal data transfer standard, the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) format.

The interoperability capability analysis, verified in each model transposition process, is evaluated over several case studies of distinct volume and use. The architectural component was also modeled in order to illustrate the vantages of engineers and architects collaborate over a single and centralized model (**Figure 13**).

First, the BIM models were transferred from the modeler system to the analyses software and the geometric consistency was evaluated. Several inconsistencies were detected (**Figure 14**).

• The *stair* elements were not recognized (remodeled as sloped slabs in the analyses system);

*BIM Academic Training Course to Enhance Construction Professional's Skills DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105221*

**Figure 13.**

*Architectural and structural BIM models of distinct buildings (a) [23], (b) [18], (c) [24], (d) [18], and (e) [25].*

**Figure 14.** *Structural BIM models transferred to the analyses software (a) [25], and (b) [24].*

However, the structural elements (columns, beams and slabs), grids and material, concrete C30/37 and A500 NR SD steel were correctly transposed (**Figure 15**).

After the structural analysis was performed for each case:

**Figure 15.**

*Structural elements transferred with accuracy (a) [18], and (b) [25].*

Next, as required by the BIM centralization concept, the calculation result should be transferred to the initial BIM model. Also, the reinforcements were defined in the dimensioning software and after transferred to the initial structural model (**Figure 16**) [24]:

The limitation detected in the interoperability performance of the software is frequently the main reason to justify the resistance of the implementation of BIM in the design of structures. The main remarks concerning the level of interoperability between BIM-based modeling and calculation systems were assessed and transmitted to the assistance of the course:

• There are advantages of using *Revit/Robot* integrated platforms.

**Figure 16.** *Inaccuracies detect with the reinforcements elements after transposition of models [24].*

*BIM Academic Training Course to Enhance Construction Professional's Skills DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105221*

#### **3.4 HBIM concept**

A recent implementation perspective, the Historic or Heritage Building Information Modeling (HBIM) is directed towards properties of historical value or heritage relevance. Recent research related to HBIM addresses [26]:

It is required to understand geometric rules, in parametric terms, from the books of architectural patterns to the HBIM modeling process. Sets of specific parametric objects must be generated to allow the generation of old buildings with accuracy (**Figure 17**).

The registered documentary information provides data concerning the characterization of the construction (historical epoch and traditional construction systems), the registration of refurbishing interventions and local inspection reports. In addition, the documentary collection, along with municipal archives, composed of drawings of plants, elevations and cut, referring to different dates and with yellows and reds, brings a complete description of the old building.

The stratigraphic analysis covers the study of the constructive steps, which are represented through different colors, leading to a clear visual perception. In an HBIM process, it is also frequently necessary to establish a station of laser devices, properly positioned, so that, later, the points obtained can be unified, in a single cloud of space points (**Figure 18**).

A practical case of reconversion of a building of heritage value was presented [32, 33]. A proposal for the adaptation of an old building, located in Lisbon, requiring the reorganization of internal compartmentalization, but preserving their architectural characteristics, illustrated an application of HBIM (**Figure 19**).

Although the BIM base tools, of current use, are more dedicated to the new construction, adapted to the geometry of the current architecture, the growing interest in the rehabilitation sector has led to the incursion of the application of BIM in the support of the conservation of historic buildings. Old constructive solutions require adequacy libraries of parametric object, to enable the implementation of BIM, also in the recovery of heritage-value buildings.

#### **Figure 17.**

*Architectural configurations (a) [27], (b) [28] and creation of parametric objects (c) [29], and (d) [27].*

#### **Figure 18.**

*Antique drawings of building (a) [30], stratigraphic representation (b) [31], and a drone (c) [author].*

Within HBIM, the creation of families of specific parametric objects is normally required for the rigorous representation of buildings of patrimonial value. In the context of study case, as a basis for modeling, it was required to collect the existing documentation in the Municipal Archive of Lisbon, to obtain photographs from outside and inside of the building and the registration of detailed sketches. In addition,

*BIM Academic Training Course to Enhance Construction Professional's Skills DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105221*

#### **Figure 19.**

*Building of heritage value, old drawing and BIM model of the proposal [32].*

#### **Figure 20.** *New parametric objects representing doors [32].*

**Figure 21.** *Image, sketch and sequence of the modeling process of a window [32].*

to allow a correct geometry represented in the form of parametric objects, it was necessary to add the material type and adjust the physical and mechanical properties, in order to respect the ancestral techniques of construction. The work contributes to empower the HBIM library of parametric objects of old building components. Namely, concerning a new library of doors (**Figure 20**) and windows (**Figure 21**).

## **3.5 Evaluation**

The demonstration of the benefits inherent in the use of methodology for BIM in the construction industry, in the development of various activities based on the

#### **Table 2.**

*Professional course BIM methodology: construction, structures and HBIM.*

project, at a global level, motivates the great interest, which has recently verified by designers and managers to meet the BIM concept and the scope of its application. The course aims to contribute to the dissemination of the potential implementation of BIM methodology in sectors such as infrastructure, construction planning, conflict analysis, structural dimensioning or HBIM.

The course was oriented to various levels and sectors of the construction industry. The degree of satisfaction of the attendees is evaluated in **Table 2**. Some comments and recommendation were also expressed. The comments of the participants to the course were oriented to a general and specific appreciation:

*BIM Academic Training Course to Enhance Construction Professional's Skills DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105221*

Other topics were suggested that could be included in future BIM short courses:

Currently, there is an immediate market need for professional to be more up to speed with BIM and universities are developing BIM guidance, training and BIM certification schemes, and so collaboration in learning and even support between individuals are needed to achieve a common goal. To enhance better and fruitful contributions to the construction industry, a collaborative approach between industry and academia should be instigated. It was found that in order to fulfil the industry requirements, the academia capacities should be oriented in that perspective, contributing to the society, as it is the most important role of a University. Schools should become leaders of the necessary partnerships with industry.

### **4. Conclusions**

A 1-day course, *BIM methodology: construction, structures and HBIM*, was offered, at the University of Lisbon, to professionals of the construction industry. The contents of the training action were established in order to cover a wide range of the applicability of BIM in the sector and with the most recent achievements. The participants demonstrated a global interest in all topics presented. The programmatic content of the BIM professional course was organized in order to attend the requests and interest of the construction industry.

The course was presented in a 1-day session. A practical component was included supporting an adequate base of understanding of the BIM multi-application, in order to meet the various interests of the participants. The participants were composed of professionals of different engineering sectors: civil, mechanical, electrical and informatics, as well as designers, architects and managers. The course initialized with an introduction to the innovative topic and covered a wide range of the applicability of BIM in the sector. Participants showed great interest in all the topics presented, often questioning the trainers, with a perspective of clarifying some doubts of their particular activity, depending on if the background is construction, structures or heritage.

The main purpose of the course was to transmit the main concepts, the strategies of working in each type of BIM application and the reference to the main benefits and limitations. All parts of the course, including practice, construction, structures and HBIM, were essentially illustrated with study cases selected in accordance with the audience. As so, the proposed programme covers diverse sectors of the construction industry, namely, conflict analysis in projects, construction planning, materials take-off, project of structures with the focus on the interoperability capacity of the available software and the activity related with HBIM domain.

The course main goal is to contribute to the dissemination of the potential of BIM in the areas of designing, construction and preservation or renovating of historical buildings. By analyzing the surveys collected, the course was recognized with a good overall classification, and all topics were well classified. Industry professionals feel the need to update themselves in the BIM context, and the course contributes in a positive way to this learning. The school and the industry collaborated in order to establish an interesting and useful programme.


*Edited by Claudia do Rosario Vaz Morgado and Victor Paulo Pecanha Esteves*

The reconciliation of economic development, social justice and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is one of the biggest political challenges of the moment. Strategies for mitigating CO2 emissions on a large scale using sequestration, storage and carbon technologies are priorities on the agendas of research centres and governments. Research on carbon sequestration is the path to solving major sustainability problems of this century a complex issue that requires a scientific approach and multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary technology, plus a collaborative policy among nations. Thus, this challenge makes this book an important source of information for researchers, policymakers and anyone with an inquiring mind on this subject.

CO2 Sequestration and Valorization

CO2 Sequestration and

Valorization

*Edited by Claudia do Rosario Vaz Morgado*

*and Victor Paulo Pecanha Esteves*

Photo by olando\_o / iStock


**2. Welding technology**

#### **2.1. Applications**

Welding is used extensively in various manufacturing industries including shipyards, automobile factories, machines, home appliances, computer components, bridge building and other constructions. Welding is used for manufacturing pressure vessels, heat exchangers, tanks, sheet metal, prefabricated metal buildings and architectural work. Also, welding is an applicable technique in maintenance operations and repair shops. It is used in mining, oil and gas transmission companies, piping systems, heavy equipment manufacturing, aerospace, electronics, medical products, precision instruments, electric power, and petrochemical industries. Perhaps artists and sculptors are the smallest group who use welding techniques to create artworks. Therefore, many things that people use in daily lives are welded or made by welded parts [12].

#### **2.2. Workplace conditions**

cumulative effects, increasing risk of injury. The main components of welding emissions are oxides of metals due to contact between the oxygen in the air and the vaporized metals. Common chemical hazards include particulates (lead, nickel, zinc, iron oxide, copper, cadmium, fluorides, manganese, and chromium) and gases (carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and ozone). Recently, nanoparticles emitted by welding operations are considered as an important group of air pollutants and there is a need to assess particle sizes and size distributions when risk assessment is done. Each welding technique produces a distinctive range of particulate composition and morphology. Different and complex profiles of exposures

> **PAW/PAC Carbon Arc Processes**

Ergonomic + + + + Electric Shock + + + x Bright light + + - + Ultraviolet radiation + + - x Toxic fumes and gases + + - + Heat, Fire, and Burns + + + +

Noise + x x x

Welding is used extensively in various manufacturing industries including shipyards, automobile factories, machines, home appliances, computer components, bridge building and other constructions. Welding is used for manufacturing pressure vessels, heat exchangers, tanks, sheet metal, prefabricated metal buildings and architectural work. Also, welding is an applicable technique in maintenance operations and repair shops. It is used in mining, oil and gas transmission companies, piping systems, heavy equipment manufacturing, aerospace, electronics, medical products, precision instruments, electric power, and petrochemical industries. Perhaps artists and sculptors are the smallest group who use welding techniques to create artworks. Therefore, many things that people use in daily lives are welded or made

**WELDING PROCESS**

**SAW Oxyfuel**

**SMAW GTAW GMAW FCAW**

may be related to various welding environments [8-10].

x No hazards, + Hazard present, - Hazard present if SAW flux is absent [11]

**Table 1.** The hazards associated with welding Processes

**2. Welding technology**

**2.1. Applications**

by welded parts [12].

**HAZARD**

34 Current Air Quality Issues

Welders, depending on conditions, work in outdoor or indoor workplaces, in open or confined spaces, underwater, and above construction sites. In some conditions, welding processes are carried out in confined spaces where the welding work area is surrounded on most sides by walls and there is no sufficient space for the installation of a conventional exhaust hood [1, 7].

Working in indoor environments includes all works which are done in buildings like work‐ shops, repairing shops, storages, office, and any closed area in industries, factories, and other places. Welders may work in indoor areas to do welding tasks full time or part time. An important benefit of indoor workplaces is the protection against environmental factors such as rain, wind and sunshine. Outdoor workers spend long periods of time working in open areas. They are exposed to different hazards depending on their type of work, as well as geographic region, season, and the period of time they are outside. Outdoor works include agriculture, construction, mining, oil and gas transmission through pipelines, transportation, warehousing, utilities, and service sectors. Sometimes welders should work in such workpla‐ ces to do their tasks. Some workplace hazards related to outdoor areas include unpredictable weather conditions, bugs and wild animals, extreme heat, extreme cold, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Many workplaces contain spaces that are considered "confined" because their configurations hinder the activities of employees who must enter, work in, and exit them. A confined space has limited or restricted means for entry or exit. Confined spaces include underground vaults, tanks, storage bins, manholes, reactor vessels, silos, process vessels, and pipelines. Confined spaces have the following characteristics: limited space, entry, or exit; poor ventilation and lack of safe breathing air. Welders may experience various hazards when welding in confined spaces, such as fire, explosion, electric shock, asphyxiation, and exposure to hazardous air contaminants [13-16].

#### **2.3. Types of welding processes**

There are different welding processes (over 50 types) that differ greatly in some parameters such as heat, pressure, and the type of equipment used. Welding process can be classified into various types based on different literatures. Some common types of welding are listed in five categories each of which includes some subcategories (Figure 1). The most common and known types of welding include:

**Shielded Metal Arc Welding:** (SMAW) also is known as Manual Metal Arc welding (MMA) or stick electrode welding. It is one of the oldest, simplest, and most versatile arc welding processes used for carbon steel welding and low alloy welding. In SMAW, the electrode is held manually, and the electric arc flows between the electrode and the base metal. The electrode is covered with a flux material which provides a shielding gas for the weld to help minimize impurities. A wide range of metals, welding positions and electrodes are available based on intended requirements. This type of welding is especially suitable for jobs such as the erection of structures, construction, shipbuilding, and pipeline work. Contrary to the other methods requiring shielding gas which are unsuitable in wind, SMAW can be used outdoors in different weather conditions. However, owing to the time required for removing the slag after welding and changing the electrodes, its arc time factor is relatively low. As a disadvantage, forming fumes in SMAW makes the process control difficult.

**Gas Metal Arc Welding:** (GMAW) or metal inert gas (MIG) welding is used for most types of metal and is faster than SMAW. It may be applied to weld vehicles, pressure vessels, cranes, bridges and others. This process involves the flow of an electric arc between the base metal and a continuous and consumable wire electrode. Shielding gas (usually an argon and carbon dioxide mixture) is supplied externally; therefore, the electrode has no flux coating or core. MIG welding is used for mild steel, low alloyed and stainless steel, for aluminum, for copper, nickel, and their alloys. Some parameters can affect MIG welding process, such as:

To perform an optimum welding, most of the mentioned parameters should be matched to each other. In addition to affecting the quality of welding, some of these parameters can influence the fumes and gases emitted from the process. However, the fume produced by MIG welding is less than that of SMAW. Unlike the SMAW that is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes, GMAW is a continuous welding process. There is no slag and no need for high level of operators' skill. Nevertheless, expensive and non-portable equipment is required, and also outdoor applications are limited because of the negative effects of weather conditions like wind on the shielding gas [17, 18].

**Gas Tungsten Arc Welding:** (GTAW) is also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding. GTAW is used on metals such as aluminum, magnesium, carbon steel, stainless steel, brass, silver and copper-nickel alloys. This technique uses a permanent non-consumable tungsten electrode. The filler metal is fed manually, the weld pool and the electrode are protected by an inert gas (usually argon), and high electrical currents are used in this type. Welding of stainless steel, welding of light metals, such as aluminum and magnesium alloys, and the welding of copper are the main applications of TIG welding. GTAW welds are highly resistant to corrosion and cracking over long time periods. However, TIG welding is suitable to weld thin materials and produces a high quality weld of most of metals. There is no need for slag removal in GTAW process. The concentration of heat takes place in a small zone, resulting in the minimal thermal distortion of work piece. The TIG welding has some disadvantages including low welding rate, expensiveness, and need for high level of operators skill. Although during TIG welding operators are exposed to dangerous gases and fumes, the generation of these compounds is very little in comparison with other welding processes.

**Figure 1.** Classification of welding processes [18]

weather conditions. However, owing to the time required for removing the slag after welding and changing the electrodes, its arc time factor is relatively low. As a disadvantage, forming

**Gas Metal Arc Welding:** (GMAW) or metal inert gas (MIG) welding is used for most types of metal and is faster than SMAW. It may be applied to weld vehicles, pressure vessels, cranes, bridges and others. This process involves the flow of an electric arc between the base metal and a continuous and consumable wire electrode. Shielding gas (usually an argon and carbon dioxide mixture) is supplied externally; therefore, the electrode has no flux coating or core. MIG welding is used for mild steel, low alloyed and stainless steel, for aluminum, for copper,

To perform an optimum welding, most of the mentioned parameters should be matched to each other. In addition to affecting the quality of welding, some of these parameters can influence the fumes and gases emitted from the process. However, the fume produced by MIG welding is less than that of SMAW. Unlike the SMAW that is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes, GMAW is a continuous welding process. There is no slag and no need for high level of operators' skill. Nevertheless, expensive and non-portable equipment is required, and also outdoor applications are limited because of the negative effects of weather

**Gas Tungsten Arc Welding:** (GTAW) is also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding. GTAW is used on metals such as aluminum, magnesium, carbon steel, stainless steel, brass, silver and copper-nickel alloys. This technique uses a permanent non-consumable tungsten electrode. The filler metal is fed manually, the weld pool and the electrode are protected by an inert gas (usually argon), and high electrical currents are used in this type. Welding of stainless steel, welding of light metals, such as aluminum and magnesium alloys, and the welding of copper are the main applications of TIG welding. GTAW welds are highly resistant to corrosion and cracking over long time periods. However, TIG welding is suitable to weld thin materials and produces a high quality weld of most of metals. There is no need for slag removal in GTAW process. The concentration of heat takes place in a small zone, resulting in the minimal thermal distortion of work piece. The TIG welding has some disadvantages including low welding rate, expensiveness, and need for high level of operators skill. Although during TIG welding operators are exposed to dangerous gases and fumes, the generation of

these compounds is very little in comparison with other welding processes.

nickel, and their alloys. Some parameters can affect MIG welding process, such as:

fumes in SMAW makes the process control difficult.

**•** Electrode diameter

36 Current Air Quality Issues

**•** Welding speed

**•** Wire feed speed and current

**•** Shielding gas and gas flow rate

conditions like wind on the shielding gas [17, 18].

**•** Torch and joint position

**•** Voltage

**Submerged Arc Welding:** (SAW) is a highly-productive welding method (4-10 times as much as the SMAW). SAW may be automatic or semi-automatic. It is used to weld thick plates of carbon steel and low alloy steels. In this welding process, the electric arc flows between the base metal and a consumable wire electrode; however, the arc is not visible since it is sub‐ merged under flux material. This welding process is usually used for large structures such as large tubes, cylindrical vessels, and plates in shipyards. Some parameters can affect SAW process such as welding arc voltage, arc current, the size and shape of the welding wire, and the number of welding wires. A low fume emission is produced during SAW process and there is a little ozone, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide generation because of the invisibility of the arc. Very high welding rate, suitability for automation, suitability for both indoor and outdoor works, and high weld quality are mentioned as advantages of SAW. Some limitations of this welding process include: slag inclusion, limited applications often for welding in a horizontal position, and need for precise parameter setting and positioning of the wire electrode.

**Plasma Arc Welding:** (PAW) is an arc welding process in which arc is formed between an electrode and the workpiece. In PAW process, the plasma arc can be separated from the shielding gas cover by positioning the electrode within the body of the torch. It can be named as a key difference between GTAW and PAW. Two inert gases are used in the process, one forms the arc plasma and the second shields the arc plasma. Applying the plasma arc welding is being increased in industries, because it provides a high level of control and accuracy to produce high quality welds. Also, using the PAW leads to long electrode life for high produc‐ tion conditions. This welding process is suitable for both manual and automatic applications. It can be used for precise welding of surgical equipment, jet engine blades, and instruments required for food and dairy industry. There is a low level of fume generation during PAW, but welding gases especially ozone is often formed in this process. Need for less operator skill, high welding rate, high penetrating capacity, long electrode life, high accuracy and precision, and short weld time are considered as the advantages of PAW process. Its limitations include expensive process tools, needs for high power electrical equipment, more distortion and loss of mechanical properties due to the greater heat input.

**Flux Core Arc Welding:** (FCAW) is used for carbon steels, low alloy steels and stainless steels. This welding process has similarities to both SMAW and GMAW. This process is used in construction because of its high welding speed and portability. The consumable tubular electrode is continuously fed from a spool and an electric arc flows between the electrode and base metal. The electrode wire has a central core containing fluxing agents. There are a variety of cored wires; some of them require the use of shielding gas like carbon dioxide or the mixture of argon/carbon dioxide and the others (self-shielded flux cored wires) do not require addi‐ tional shielding gas. The slag produced in FCAW process acts as an additional protection during cooling time but has to be chipped away after that. Like other welding process, FCAW has some advantages and limitations. No needs for skilled operators and pre-cleaning of metals, suitability for use in the outdoor or windy condition (it is true about self-shielded flux cored wires), suitability for use in all positions, and ease of varying the alloying constituents are mentioned as FCAW advantages. Its limitations include: emission of considerable amount of fumes in self-shielded wires, higher price of filler material and wire in comparison with GMAW, and needs for slag removal. Also, escaping of the shielding gas from the welded area leaves holes in welded metal, resulting in porosity in products [17, 18].