**2.1 Historical development of vocational training in Germany**

### *2.1.1 Vocational training in Germany form fourteenth until nineteenth century*

As it has been mentioned earlier, VET in Germany is very much known for its "dual system." The practice of apprentice training began during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when the guilds of craftsmen and merchants developed such a system. However, it is important to highlight that legally, these schools started working during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Thanks to industrialization, chambers and guilds have been founded, and they have played (as they still do) an essential role in apprentice and vocational trainings. Even though their role was big, the governments of different Germans states from 1811 up to 1870 paid little to no attention to guilds, merchants, and chambers. Instead, they have been focusing their money, time, and resources on founding higher education institutions, such as universities or schools, for finances and architecture. A small number of schools, such as middle management schools for industry and business, have been founded by private persons. These schools were usually open on Sundays and during the evenings and taught reading, mathematics, and writing, along with subjects that were workoriented. They were predecessors of modern vocational schools that are to be found all over Germany.

#### *2.1.2 Vocational training in Germany during nineteenth century*

During the 1860s, the political climate in the country turned liberal, which led to liberalizing apprentice training and removing all restrictions regarding setting up shops and taking apprentices. After that, in 1870, which is considered a milestone in German apprentice training, when The Craft Trade Workers' Protection Act was established [5]. This Act has given the guilds a bigger role in creating and regulating apprenticeships and the conflicts that might occur between masters and trainees. Centuries after that, in 1897 to be precise, the Handcraft Protection Law organized an artisanal sector into networked chambers, making the membership compulsory and has given them authority to regulate the content and the quality of apprenticeship trainings, such as setting limitations on the numbers of apprentices in one firm or defining the length of apprentice training. In that way, the apprentices have been protected and the firms whose trainings were not up to standards have been losing their privileges. The only way to get a certification of some sort was through the artisanal chambers. Besides that, this Law has also introduced compulsory school attendance for apprentices. Schools have finally begun to teach more profession-related subjects rather than repeating subjects that have been taught in the earlier stages of education. Occupational training and civic rights were now more in focus.

#### *2.1.3 Vocational training in Germany during world war one and world war two*

With the growth of industrialization years before World War One (before 1914), the employers in the metal, electronic, and historical industries had a problem with meeting the demand by training their own staff, which occurred because of the political monopoly of the craft trades. Because of that, a form of industrial workplace training has been created, shaping skilled workers who were taught in groups instead of teaching them individually. Training period of usually 3 years was to be completed, accompanied by attending the vocational school. However, they were not able to provide any kind of certification since Artisan chambers were the only authorized bodies, which is why more and more apprentices began to choose standardized trainings, after which they were able to get certified. This has kept causing conflicts between industrial companies that were offering high-quality trainings and better working conditions to their apprentices and the Artisan chambers that were the only ones authorized to give out a certification. As a result, large industrial companies have developed their own parallel systems of certifying industrial training, under the control of the Industry and Trade Chamber. Through the years of Weimar Republic, there have been several proposals and tries to get admission to certify industrial trainings. Even though some changes have been applied, these proposals have never fully succeeded [6].

During the years of the Nazi regime and World War Two (1939–1945), which demanded a high number of industrial-trained apprentices solely for military production, the same rights were granted to the Industrial chamber as they were to the Artisan chamber. The exams of the Industrial chamber were certified and equally recognized as the ones of the Artisan chamber, which caused a great increase in number of exams that were taken during these years. The regime demanded a huge number of skilled workers and has designed a model of "apprentice contract" that has been regulating the relationship between the firm and the apprentice. Because of a high demand, the skills required from a worker were standardized, which meant that, no matter in which firm the apprentice would gain skill, they would all in the end get the same amount and level of knowledge as every other apprentice in the branch. Also, a national register has been introduced and it has been made obligatory for every firm to register at the local chamber. Industrial exams have been made compulsory at the end of the apprentice training. During the late years of World War Two, the apprentice training was decreased and degenerated into production work for the army. When given an overall look, the Nazi regime has had precedence on the apprentice training, making it more lucrative to industrial firms and more attractive to firms that have not been considering it [7].

#### *2.1.4 Vocational training in Germany after world war two*

After World War Two, in West Germany, the school part of apprentice training has been getting more and more attention. The aim was to bring the young people the idea of democracy and social responsibility closer. The practical part was, in essence, left to the firms and apprentices to figure out. Since the country was devastated through the war years, having lost a lot of labor-capable young people and the infrastructure, the biggest part of industrial and artisanal parts of apprentice trainings were focused on repairing it as soon as possible, but have also kept the focus on enabling young people to get included into the market as soon as possible. Up until 1969, vocational training has, for the most part, stayed the same.

The Vocational Education and Training Act in 1969 led to the final legal regulation of apprentice training in the country. It meant that the government had finally recognized artisanal and Industrial trainings as equals and given their Chambers rights to certify apprentices. The unions have been granted equal executive powers in any matter involving VET and the workers. This has given rights to unions and responsible authorities to decide on creating new or changing the existing occupations. Due to the

structural organization of Germany, these decisions are not made at a governmental level but rather on a level of every constitutional land [7].

Thanks to that, in the 1970s, the amount of people doing apprentice trainings rose by +20% in comparison to 1969. After that, it has been only rising, and for decades now, roughly 60% of the German population has taken part in apprentice dual training. The number of people rolling into school-based apprentice training has also remained stable, even though there is a big demand for medical personnel. This lack has been filled by people who immigrated, mostly from Eastern Europe. In the last couple of decades, Germany's labor market has been facing a great lack of qualified personnel in many fields, caused mostly by population aging but also because the educational system cannot provide enough skilled workers to satisfy the market's needs. This can also be justified by financial shortages provided by state government and the growing popularity of university attendance. Many students are now more attracted to going to university than to doing apprentice training. Also, training opportunities and possibilities highly vary from state to state, which means that one's training and employment opportunities are highly related to the economic situation of a certain state or region [8].

#### **2.2 Institutional configuration of VET system in Germany**

Dual VET system in Germany is contemporarily regulated by the Vocational Training Act *(Berufsbildungsgesetz)* and regulations of the constitutional state. In order to better understand the German school system, we will have to introduce its socio-demographic aspects. Germany is a parliament republic, consisting of 16 federal states whose respective governments play a big role when it comes to laws and regulations, especially ones in education. Besides them, trade unions and VET researches also play a big role in regulating and coordinating vocational trainings. In coordination with experts from the Federal Government, experts in every constitutional state develop a core learning VET program for schools. The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung-BIBB) is recognized as a center of excellence for vocational research [9].

German educational system is also a part of the European Qualifications Network, making it more transparent and providing easier access to it, for people wanting to work or find education in Germany. There is also a National Qualifications Network, aligned with the European one [10].

When it comes to costs of trainings, it highly varies from state to state. Normally, the companies cover the expenses of training in the company and the government of the constitutional state funds the schools. There are also exceptions, so in some states there are also funds that the government pays to companies, in order to cover the training expenses. The Employment Agencies of constitutional states are also providing the resources for covering additional costs.

German VET system is organized into three different sectors. The first sector is the one that is most famous for dual, firm-based apprentice training, which includes parallel working and attending schools. The second one is a school-based sector, for occupations only being taught at school, without attending firm-based training. However, they also include practical work or internships, that are usually integrated into the school curriculum. The third sector is prevocational training measures, which usually last one year. Doing the apprentice in one of the first two sectors always brings certified, country-wise recognized vocation. It is important to clarify, that firm-based and school-based trainings teach entirely different vocations, so it is not possible

to take a firm-based training and expect to get certified for a vocation that is being taught as school-based. On the other hand, if one decides to take prevocational training measures, one cannot expect to get any kind of certification. Mostly people who left school, are the ones attending prevocational trainings [3].

In order to get to firm-based training, one does not have to hold any degree. However, that is rather an exception than a rule, since many people entering firmbased training usually hold an intermediate or upper-secondary school degree. The same can be applied to the people doing school-based training. That means at least 9–10 years of school attendance, depending on the regulations of a constitutional state. VET system and market is highly competitive, which usually means that companies are hiring only a certain profile and number of people. This means that often it is not easy to enter apprentice training and that high requirements need to be met. This also means that more apprentices are looking for a training place than the number of apprentice-level jobs that are open. The fact that there are not many jobs open and that companies require a certain profile in order to give an apprentice-level job, creates high competition among young people who are looking for apprentice training.

When it comes to school-based trainings, situation is a little different, meaning that there are regulations created by a school that need to be met. These regulations are usually very clear, so there is no competition in order to be better. School-based trainings usually require holding an upper-secondary degree or higher. The number of places available is not being adjusted to the number of youths seeking school-based training, but rather to the costs for the teachers, supply, and the number of internship places that will be available through the training.

The firm-based and school-based training usually last for 2–3.5 years. During this period, apprentices get paid for their work, that is usually lower than the regular wages. For small firms, paying an apprentice can be challenging, whereas bigger companies have the capital and human resources to bear such costs.

Both trainings are completed with a final exam. For skilled crafts, this exam is called *Gesellenprüfung,* which means journeyman's examination and for industry workers, it is called *Facharbeiterprüfung,* which means skilled worker's exam. Both of these exams are used as a tool in order to determine if the apprentice has acquired professional competences. There is also a mid-level examination organized in the middle of training, which serves to determine the level of training. Exams exist as written and practical part, which is approved by the highest Land authority and it is free of charge. They are organized by the Industry or Craftsman chambers who are also responsible for giving out the certificates [3].

Depending on the constitutional state, an apprentice who has completed a firmbased training and has work experience is able to enroll in a subject-specific program immediately. However, this is only theoretically possible, where in the praxis, there are very few people who manage that. A big part of the problem is the fact that many skills and knowledges that are gained through the VET are not recognized in higher educational institutions. Also, the focuses of VET and higher educational institutions are very different. VET is focused on giving practical knowledge and skills, highly focusing on the labor market, whereas higher education is more theory-oriented and not necessarily labor-market-oriented. These differences cause a very low percentage of mobility between these two systems. The only way to make this possible, is to obtain a higher, upper-level diploma. Obtaining one through VET is also a possibility, although this diploma is not as recognized as the one obtained through a higher upper-level school attendance, that usually takes place before enrolling to any kind of vocational training. There are also dual study programs, which allow students to

#### *Vocational Training in German-Speaking Countries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112109*

obtain both a vocational and university diploma. However, they are still not resolving the problem of enrolling to university after VET, but rather deepening it. The sectors of VET and higher education are still remaining separate, and the examinations are organized separately. Also, the number of places opening dual study programs is very low. However, companies are profiting off of that, since it keeps VET interesting and attractive for young people and allows the companies to get to know the employees before they actually employ them [3].

When it comes to higher vocational qualifications, there are different possibilities open: master craftsman/master craftswoman or industrial foreman/forewoman, certified senior clerk, or clerk. Exams are organized throughout the country by industrial or craft chambers. In order to take the exam, one has to have a subject-specific qualification and sufficient professional practice. These exams usually qualify for the managerial positions in the respective field [9].

Quality assurance of the VET is organized cooperatively. That means that all parts of the VET system (government of the state, chambers, trade unions, employer associations and companies) are working together, in order to deliver the best quality of trainings [9].

VET trainings are highly standardized, which means that apprentices can transfer their certifications to other companies and employers. However, Germany's labor market is highly determined by occupational certificates, which leads to a lower ability to switch between occupations later in life. Also, for students who are for any reason incapable of finishing the occupational training, there is very often no possibility of finishing it later in life, because German dual system is organized as initial vocational training only [3].


**Research Progress of Metals and Alloys by Thermal Layering and Deposition**

Editors

**Ashish Kumar Srivastava Amit Rai Dixit**

Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade • Novi Sad • Cluj • Manchester

*Editors* Ashish Kumar Srivastava G.L.Bajaj Institute of Technology and Management India

Amit Rai Dixit Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) Dhanbad India

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