**5. Further applications of lidar remote sensing**

#### **5.1 Forest growth models**

Forest growth models such as the Ecosystem Dynamics model, ED, (Hurtt *et al.*, 2004) and the Tree and Stand Simulator, TASS, (Goudie & Stearns-Smith, 2007) enable forest growth scenarios to be predicted. Remote sensing analysis can be used as a valuable tool to provide observational inputs to models and in order to produce detailed inventories for long-term scenario modelling.

Airborne lidar stand level analysis can be used to produce statistically-derived model inputs. This approach is being undertaken as part of the NASA Carbon Monitoring System (NASA, 2010) using an interpolated surface 80th percentile canopy height model as an input to the ED model (e.g. Hurtt *et al.*, 2004). This method can potentially be applied across large areas and could be achieved with relatively low density lidar data such as might be acquired for regional or national campaigns.

Alternatively, Suárez, 2010, used a tree list generated from individual tree delineation as baseline inventory data from which to predict future scenarios and demonstrate processes at work within stands using the distance-dependent model TASS. These processes include competition, establishment of a dominance hierarchy and recovery from catastrophic events such as wind damage or thinning. This means that the biological principles behind such models adapt them to local conditions, unlike empirical models and suggesting wider application may be possible.

The temporal dimension provided by the TASS simulations provides a valuable insight into the long-term effects of each stand intervention or natural disturbance. Not only growth increments, but timber products can also be predicted with this method. In addition, management practices can be balanced by the constraints introduced by the future risk of wind damage. The scale of analysis and the possibility of creating future scenarios contribute to a substantial reduction in the level of uncertainty associated with forest management.

Lidar Remote Sensing for Biomass Assessment 19

reflectance ratio is calculated and this profile allows the signals within the waveform from ground and vegetation to be differentiated. This would offer a valuable response to the challenging situation of combined vegetation and ground signals within large footprint

Once issues of eye sensitivity at optical wavelengths and energy requirements are fully addressed, multispectral lidar concepts could offer the opportunity for enhanced vegetation

The emerging technology of photon counting lidar offers the potential for low energy expenditure and potential high altitude operation allowing extended laser lifetime and large area coverage. This newest type of lidar technology is currently generally operated at green wavelengths (532 nm), in some airborne systems due to a greater efficiency of the detector and, in the case of NASA's ICESat II, as a result of technical readiness. Low laser energy output ensures eye safety of these instruments despite operating at a visible wavelength. A high pulse repetition rate and photon detection probability produces a high point density even whilst flying at greater altitudes whilst a narrow pulse duration (~1ns) allows photons

One significant factor is that photons returned from the emitted pulse cannot be distinguished from ambient noise. Acquiring data at night or dusk would minimise the difficulties of noise posed by solar background illumination, and sensor specifications such

Initial analysis within NASA's Carbon Monitoring System initiative (NASA, 2010) using the 3D Mapper single photon scanning lidar developed by Sigma Space Corporation, USA, suggests that promising results may be obtained from small footprint photon counting sensors for the generation of vegetation products. The greater point density of the point cloud which is produced, in excess of that which is typically collected by discrete return airborne lidar data, aims to improve the characterisation of vegetation canopies and offers the opportunity for established analysis techniques to be applied to this new technology. The Slope Imagining Multi-polarisation Photon-counting Lidar (SIMPL) is an example of an airborne small footprint photon-counting profiling lidar which operates at both 1064nm and 532 nm wavelengths (Dabney *et al.*, 2010). A single pulse is emitted which is split into four beams, each with four channels for green and NIR wavelengths, each of which at parallel and perpendicular polarisations. The two polarisations respectively identify photons which have been reflected from a single surface or which have undergone multiple scattering. The four beams are distanced approximately 5 metres apart, producing four profile 'slices' through the canopy. The laser repetition rate of 11.4kHz and an aircraft speed of

as the use of a small detector instantaneous field of view would also assist this.

100m/second may be expected to produce 5-15 detected pulses per square metre.

Using SIMPL, Harding *et al.*, in press 2011, have explored the influence of lidar wavelength on the ability to determine standard waveform metrics which may be employed to predict biomass. By aggregating detected photons over a distance along the transect, the authors calculated a cumulative height distribution (such as that used for waveform or discrete return analysis). Height of median energy (HOME) and canopy cover metrics were compared and little difference was found between the two wavelengths, suggesting that lidars using 532nm could produce comparable biomass estimates to those obtained by

waveforms on sloped surfaces.

analysis using lidar systems.

current 1064nm systems.

**6.2 Photon counting lidar systems**

to be located with greater vertical precision.

Lidar data therefore provide a useful contribution as a baseline input position from which future scenarios can be determined. Subsequent lidar campaigns or observations of landcover disturbance from optical data (Huang *et al.*, 2010) could furthermore allow model predictions to be validated or calibrated to closer match observed growth trends.


**3.3.1 Architecture issues**

Architecture level issues concerns threats - pertaining information security (e.g., data confidentiality and integrity), authorization, and service level security - that impact the whole grid system.

**Information Security** is defined as the security properties of data transmission between hosts, that is, mainly, secure communication and authentication. These aspects involve confidentiality (i.e., the data can be accessed only by legitimate users) and integrity (i.e., the data has not been modified during transmission). These aspects are essential security requirements in all information and communication areas, but become extremely critical in distributed and heterogeneous environment like grids. The Open Grid Forum released an open standard called Open Grid Standards Architecture OGSA (2007) which is the referring point for worldwide researchers. OGSA specifies a layer called Grid Security Infrastructure GSI (2010) which aim is to undertake these matters, for further details see Section 3.3.4. The GSI is based on X.509 infrastructure and Secure Socket Layer (SSL) protocol, and uses public key cryptography and certificates for creating secure grid and application level data encryption. The X.509 certificates are used to ensure authentication: every user or service owns a certificate which contains needed information to identify and authenticate the owner.

#### **3.3.2 Infrastructure issues**

8 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

Grid Security Issues

Architecture Issues Infrastructure Issues Management Issues

Xen is a Virtual Machine Monitor that allows several guest operating systems to be executed on the same computer hardware concurrently. A Xen system is structured with the Xen hypervisor as the lowest and most privileged layer. Above this layer are located one or more guest operating systems, which the hypervisor schedules across the physical CPUs. Xen can work both in Para Virtualized or HVM mode; in the first the guest operating system must be modified to be executed. Through Para Virtualization, Xen can achieve very high performance. The HVM mode offers new instructions to support direct calls by a Para Virtualized guest/driver into the hypervisor, typically used for I/O or other so-called hypercalls. KVM is a Full Virtualization solution for Linux on x86 hardware containing virtualization extensions (Intel VT or AMD-V). KVM is implemented as a module within the Linux kernel. A hypervisor hosts the virtual machine images as regular Linux processes, so that each virtual machine image can use all of the features of the Linux kernel, including hardware, security, storage, and applications. KVM supports I/O Para Virtualization using

The basis idea of pooling has been always employed by humans. Its most evident and valuable advantage is cost and resource optimization, but it hides facets that may shadows its benefits. Whenever we share something we are worried since our goods may not be handle properly and may be manipulated by strangers. Moreover when we use someone else stuff

The above concept perfectly fits grid system since grid can be seen as a mechanism to pool resources to optimize system utilization. Therefore we can state that security and trust, together with resource monitoring, authentication and authorization of users, and data protection, are essential to Grid Computing. In the following we give an overview of security in Grid Computing by using the classification proposed by Chakrabarti (2007). As shown in Figure 4, he categorized grid security issues into three main categories: architecture,

Architecture level issues concerns threats - pertaining information security (e.g., data confidentiality and integrity), authorization, and service level security - that impact the whole

**Information Security** is defined as the security properties of data transmission between hosts, that is, mainly, secure communication and authentication. These aspects involve confidentiality (i.e., the data can be accessed only by legitimate users) and integrity (i.e., the data has not been modified during transmission). These aspects are essential security

the so called VIRTIO subsystem consisting of 5 kernel modules IBM (2010).

we worry about safety since objects may be dangerous, broken or compromised.

Network Host Credential

Trust Management

Management

Monitoring

Information Security Authorization Service

Fig. 4. Taxonomy of grid security issues.

**3.2.2 Xen and KVM based virtualization**

**3.3 Security overview**

**3.3.1 Architecture issues**

grid system.

infrastructure, and management related issues.

Security

Infrastructure threats regards network and host devices that form the grid infrastructure and are classified in Host level and Network level. These issues impact data protection, job protection, host availability, access control functionalities, secure routing and all the communication aspects.

**Host Security** impacts data protection and job starvation. The former regards the protection of data already stored in the host, in fact the host submitting the job may be untrusted and the job code may be malicious. The latter is a scenario in which resources assigned to a job are denied to the original job and assigned to a different (malicious) job. The most effective countermeasures to limit data threats are: (1) application level sandboxing, (2) virtualization, and (3) sandboxing. The first approach uses proof carrying code (PCC), the compiler creates proofs of code-safeness and embed those in the executable binary. The second solution is based on the creation of Virtual Machines upon the physical host, this technique ensures strong isolation between different VMs and the host system. The third method confines system calls and sandboxes (isolates) the applications to avoid data and memory access not allowed. The solution adopted to avoid job starvation are based on

addresses exactly this issue, it defines security requirements and provides a framework to provide security in Virtual Organization based grid systems. GSI has been provided by the Global Grid Forum (GGF) that is a forum of researchers and practitioners with the aim to exchange information and to define standards for Grid Computing. One of the most important aspects of GSI is that it is not only a theoretical definition, but it is implemented and used worldwide thanks to Globus Toolkit Globus (2010). GSI handles different security requirements, that can be summarized in: authentication, integrity, confidentiality, and delegation. The most prevalent mechanisms of authentication in a GSI based on grid is the certificate based on authentication (X.509) mechanism where a public key infrastructure (PKI) is assumed to exist which allows the trusted authority to sign information to be used for authentication purposes, by using these mechanisms it is also possible to ensure integrity. In addition to certificate based mechanism, it supports password based authentication, and research efforts are underway to integrate One Time Password (OTP) and Kerberos

Grid Infrastructure for Domain Decomposition Methods in Computational ElectroMagnetics 257

Confidentiality are supported through transport level security using SSL/TLS protocols, and message level security using Web services standards. It is worth notice that Globus Toolkit is one of the few implementations where message level security is used for grid confidentiality

Delegation is especially important in case of grid because of the possibility of multiple resources involved in grid based transactions. It may be unnecessary or very expensive to authenticate each and every time a resource is accessed. On the other hand, if the user issues a certificate allowing the resource to act on its behalf then the process will become a lot simpler. This type of certificate issued by the user to be used by some other entity is called a proxy certificate. A proxy is made up of a new certificate containing two parts, a new public and a new private key. The proxy certificate has the owner's identity, with a slight change to show that it is a proxy certificate. The certificate owner will sign the proxy certificate. As part of the proxy certificate there is an entry with a timestamp, which indicates at what time the proxy

A complete discussion about the EM modeling and the mathematical aspects of the formulation goes beyond the scope of this paper; only a short summary of the problem will be presented in the following. In order to simplify the mathematical model, in the following the analysis of the electromagnetic behavior of Perfectly Electric Conducting (PEC) objects in a free space environment will be briefly introduced. Nevertheless, the authors would like to point out that the described approach is not limited to PEC objects in free space, in fact it is applicable to different formulations as well (dielectric objects or layered media problems for instance): in other terms it is a kernel free method. Besides, the focus of this chapter will be on a Grid Computing approach applied to computationally demanding electromagnetic problems: rather than considering more complicate approaches, that would divert the attention from the subject of this chapter, we prefer to introduce and apply the method to PEC objects in a homogeneous background, but we stress that it can be applied to other formulations as well. The Electric Field Integral Equation (EFIE) is a very versatile approach to the full-wave analysis of complex electromagnetic problems: for PEC objects the EFIE can be written by enforcing the boundary condition on the surface of the object, i.e. the

authentication with GSI.

purposes.

certificate expires.

**3.4 Computational ElectroMagnetics description**

resource booking or priority reduction for long running jobs, in order to reduce starvation likelyhood.

**Network Security** is a core requirement in grid scenario due to high speed needs and host heterogeneity. Access control and isolation are fundamental to the grid networks. Solutions for Grid Computing may not work effectively with existing firewalls and virtual private networks (VPN), for this reason researcher developed solutions like Adaptive Grid Firewalls (AGF) and Hose. Moreover routing attacks can be very dangerous for grid working, countermeasures to these threats came from the traditional networking research and foresee the deploy of secure routing protocol.

#### **3.3.3 Management issues**

Management issues are very delicate as the grid is an heterogeneous environment composed of several entities, users, domains, and policies. The management problem can be seen as three distinct, but correlated, points: (1) credential management, (2) trust management, and (3) monitoring.

#### **3.3.4 Grid Security Infrastructure (GSI)**

The definition and implementation of a robust infrastructure is one of the main issue when the problem of securing grid is investigated. The Grid Security Infrastructure GSI (2010) 10 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

**Network Security** is a core requirement in grid scenario due to high speed needs and host heterogeneity. Access control and isolation are fundamental to the grid networks. Solutions for Grid Computing may not work effectively with existing firewalls and virtual private networks (VPN), for this reason researcher developed solutions like Adaptive Grid Firewalls (AGF) and Hose. Moreover routing attacks can be very dangerous for grid working, countermeasures to these threats came from the traditional networking research

Management issues are very delicate as the grid is an heterogeneous environment composed of several entities, users, domains, and policies. The management problem can be seen as three distinct, but correlated, points: (1) credential management, (2) trust management, and

**Credential Management** is a complex and delicate task due to the distributed and numerous components that form the grid. Each of these requires rights to access resources that need to be trusted and non compromised. This aim is achieved by using credential management mechanisms that securely store, grant, revoke, and renew credentials for user and system. Some solutions move the burden to store credential from the user to the system, e.g., by using smart cards. Other approaches resort to the federated identity paradigm to manage credentials, across different systems, domains, and frameworks. Implementation example of the first family is MyProxy, while KX.509 (a protocol which enables interoperability between X.509 and Kerberos), Liberty Framework and Shibboleth are examples of the

**Trust Management** is a critical aspect in grid since nodes and users continuously join and leave the system. Therefore a mechanism to manage trust levels of users, nodes and the grid itself is mandatory. Different trust management solutions have been developed, their key features are scalability, reliability, and security and can be grouped into two main categories: reputation based and policy-based systems. The formers are based on trust metrics taken from local and global reputation of a resource or an host. In the latter approach, the different units that compose the system, exchange and manage credentials

**Monitoring** of resources is necessary in grid due to two main reasons. Firstly, organizations can be charged according to grid utilization, and, secondly, resource information can be logged for auditing, debugging, testing and security purposes. Different monitoring system are available in literature and can be grouped into three categories: (1) system level, (2) cluster level, and (3) grid level. The first systems collect and transmit data related to standalone systems or networks. The second ones require deployment across clusters and gather information upon the cluster itself. The thirds are more flexible than the formers because they can be deployed on top of other monitoring systems and may

The definition and implementation of a robust infrastructure is one of the main issue when the problem of securing grid is investigated. The Grid Security Infrastructure GSI (2010)

provide interfaces for querying, and displaying data in standard formats.

and foresee the deploy of secure routing protocol.

to create trust connections given a set policies.

**3.3.4 Grid Security Infrastructure (GSI)**

likelyhood.

**3.3.3 Management issues**

(3) monitoring.

second one.

resource booking or priority reduction for long running jobs, in order to reduce starvation

addresses exactly this issue, it defines security requirements and provides a framework to provide security in Virtual Organization based grid systems. GSI has been provided by the Global Grid Forum (GGF) that is a forum of researchers and practitioners with the aim to exchange information and to define standards for Grid Computing. One of the most important aspects of GSI is that it is not only a theoretical definition, but it is implemented and used worldwide thanks to Globus Toolkit Globus (2010). GSI handles different security requirements, that can be summarized in: authentication, integrity, confidentiality, and delegation. The most prevalent mechanisms of authentication in a GSI based on grid is the certificate based on authentication (X.509) mechanism where a public key infrastructure (PKI) is assumed to exist which allows the trusted authority to sign information to be used for authentication purposes, by using these mechanisms it is also possible to ensure integrity. In addition to certificate based mechanism, it supports password based authentication, and research efforts are underway to integrate One Time Password (OTP) and Kerberos authentication with GSI.

Confidentiality are supported through transport level security using SSL/TLS protocols, and message level security using Web services standards. It is worth notice that Globus Toolkit is one of the few implementations where message level security is used for grid confidentiality purposes.

Delegation is especially important in case of grid because of the possibility of multiple resources involved in grid based transactions. It may be unnecessary or very expensive to authenticate each and every time a resource is accessed. On the other hand, if the user issues a certificate allowing the resource to act on its behalf then the process will become a lot simpler. This type of certificate issued by the user to be used by some other entity is called a proxy certificate. A proxy is made up of a new certificate containing two parts, a new public and a new private key. The proxy certificate has the owner's identity, with a slight change to show that it is a proxy certificate. The certificate owner will sign the proxy certificate. As part of the proxy certificate there is an entry with a timestamp, which indicates at what time the proxy certificate expires.


*3.3. Body Condition*

The examined flocks of both transport variants showed an average plumage score of 24.62 ± 1.37 (mean ± SD) before and after transportation, indicating a good feather condition (maximum possible score = 28, for seven body areas with four degrees of severity). Flocks D4 and D5 of Variant II had a better plumage score after transportation than before (Figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Difference across flocks in plumage score before and after transportation in two transport variants. Thick black lines show mean values, boxes represent upper and lower quartiles, whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals, and dots show outliners. A mean value above zero indicates a better plumage score after than before transportation.

Altogether, we found no significant differences in the plumage condition of the body areas scored with four degrees of severity before and after transportation, regardless of layer line, transport variant or flock, with one exception: HNB in comparison with HNS showed less plumage deterioration (−0.28, 95% CI: (−0.8; 0.25)) in Variant I, and in Variant II, greater deterioration (0.35, 95% CI: (−0.03; 0.73)). The total plumage score, including those body areas scored with two forms of severity (flight and tail feathers, fault bars) apparently significantly improved after transportation compared with before transportation in Variant II (OR: 0.672; 95% CI: (0.53; 0.863)) but not in Variant I (OR: 1.454; 95% CI: (0.931; 2.218)). Integument injuries of body areas scored with three degrees of severity were not sufficiently variable in their distribution of characteristics, and only isolated injuries were found. The same applies for integument injuries of the eyelid (binary score). Both comb and head (evaluated with a binary score) were scored positive in 13% and 4% of the cases, respectively. We could find no major differences in integument injuries before and after transportation.

Following the transit from the rearing farm to the farm of laying hens, the birds showed a weight loss of −2.9% ± 1.9% (mean ± SD). Comparing both transport variants, birds of Variant I lost significantly more weight (2.1 percentage points; 95% CI: (−2.6; −1.5)) than birds of Variant II. Regarding the layer lines, HNB lost significantly less weight than HNS (0.5 percentage points; 95% CI: (0.3; 0.7)). Considering the transport variants, differences in weight loss between layer lines can solely be found for Variant II: HNS showed higher loss in weight (−2.38% ± 1.46%) compared with HNB (−1.3% ± 0.71%) (effect: −0.01603; 95% CI: (−0.02026; −0.01180)). Differences in relative weight losses between flocks hardly existed (Figure 6). None of the mean temperature variables on the rearing farm, the transport vehicle, and the farm of laying hens showed a significant effect on the change in body weight.

Birds of the control flock, which were not transported and were kept in the winter garden overnight, free to move around without access to food and water, showed a mean weight loss of −5.9% (95% CI: (−6.3; −5.6)). HNB hens of the control flocks lost significantly less weight (−5.4%; 95% CI: (−5.8; −5.0)) than HNS hens (−6.5%; 95% CI: (−6.9; −6.1)). Comparing the weights of all birds (study and control flocks) calculated as means, birds of the control flock showed on average a higher loss of −2.0% (95% CI: (−2.5; −1.6)) than birds of the study flocks.

**Figure 6.** Linear assorted regression model. Estimated body weight differences across flocks before and after transportation in two transport variants, considering the factors of the layer line, the transport variant, and the average temperature on the rearing farms. The figure shows estimates (solid circles) and 95% confidence intervals (bars) of the effect of flocks on body weight changes. Estimates that cross zero do not deviate significantly from the mean values.

The target weight of the 18-week-old pullets, which is defined by the breeder and distributor H&N International, is set at 1300 g for HNS and 1479 g for HNB. It was not reached by all weighed hens: HNS hens weighed on average 1339 ± 102 g (mean ± SD), and HNB hens 1679 ± 156 g. With age included, no differences could be found within each layer line in reaching the target weight (Figure 7). The only significant effect was the effect of the layer line. The chance of HNS observing a shortfall was on average elevated by a factor of 8.1 (95% CI: (5.1; 12.7)).

**Figure 7.** Body weight before transportation in two layer lines, according to age in days. Thick black lines show mean values, boxes represent upper and lower quartiles, whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals, and dots show outliers. The dashed lines represent the target weight according to H&N International for layer lines H&N Super Nick (HNS; 1300 g) and H&N Brown Nick (HNB; 1479 g).


**Appendix A**

#### *Appendix A.1. Parasitic Capacitances Modeling*

In the analysis of parasitics inside the CMOS transistor, we can identify three types of capacitances. First, the thin oxide capacitance between the gate and the other terminals of the transistor that depends on the operating zone with an approximate value of

$$\mathsf{C}\_{\mathfrak{F}} = W L \mathsf{C}\_{\text{ox}} \tag{A1}$$

In the accumulation zone and factionary values of *Cg* of depletion, saturation, and linear zones of operation. The second type of parasitic capacitance inside the CMOS transistor is the PN junctions capacitors formed between the material P and N in the channel and substrate and sidewall capacitances. This is given by,

$$C\_j \cong \frac{C\_{jb}(A\_b + A\_{\rm sw})}{\left(1 - \frac{v\_j}{q\_B}\right)}\tag{A2}$$

The third type of parasitic capacitance inside a CMOS transistor is the Overlap capacitance that can be from the overlap of gates due to lateral diffusion (Cov) and fringing effects (Cf).

$$\mathbb{C}\_{\text{ov}} = \mathbb{C}\_{\text{ox}} \times L\_D \tag{A3}$$

$$C\_f = \frac{2\varepsilon\_{ox}}{\pi} \ln\left(1 + \frac{T\_{poly}}{t\_{ox}}\right) \tag{A4}$$

$$\mathbb{C}\_{ol} = \mathbb{C}\_{ov} + \mathbb{C}\_{f} \tag{A5}$$

Table A1 illustrates the summary of the parasitic capacitances in a MOSFET at different operating zones. Moreover, Figure A1 depicts graphically the parasitic capacitance model of the CMOS devices.

**Figure A1.** The parasitic capacitance model of the CMOS transistors.

#### *Appendix A.2. Temperature Model and the Influence of Temperature in the Conceptual Design*

In CMOS technology the influence of temperature in device conceptual designs is reflected mainly in the transconductance parameter and the threshold voltage, which can be evaluated using the Excel methods and validated using the ".temp" command in SPICE. The transconductance parameter changes with temperature as follows:

$$k(T) = k(T\_0)[T/T\_0]^{-1.5} \tag{A6}$$

The threshold voltage changes with temperature as follows:

$$V\_T(T) \cong V\_T(T\_0) + \infty \ (T - T\_0) \tag{A7}$$

Typically for NMOS transistors, ∝*NMOS* varies from − 2 mV/◦C to − 3 mV/◦C from 200 ◦K to 400 ◦K and for PMOS transistors the sign is reversed as one may expect. Therefore, the overall evaluations and calculations performed using the Excel method at room temperature would need to be re-calculated to account for the temperature range of operation. This can be validated using SPICE simulation as mentioned above.

For example, assume that we want to determine how the drain-source operating current of a CMOS 0.500 μm NMOS transistor varies from 27 ◦C to 100 ◦C. The device has *W*/*L* = 5 μ/1 μ, *k*(*T*0) = 117 μA/V2, *VGS* = 2 V, *VT*(*T*0) = 0.8 and *T*0 = 27 ◦C. The following calculations are performed:

(a) At room temperature:

$$I\_{DS}(27^{\circ}\text{C}) = \frac{117\mu\text{A}/\text{V}^{2}\cdot5\mu}{2\cdot1\mu}(2 - 0.8)^{2} = 421.2\text{ }\mu\text{A}$$

(b) At 100 ◦C (373 ◦K):

$$k(100 \, ^\circ \text{C}) = 117 \mu \text{A} / V^2 (373/300)^{-1.5} = 84.39 \, \mu\text{A} / \text{V}^2$$

$$V\_T (100 \, ^\circ \text{C}) = 0.8 - 0.002 (73 \, ^\circ \text{C}) = 0.654 \, \text{V}$$

$$I\_{DS} (100 \, ^\circ \text{C}) = \frac{84.39 \, \mu\text{A} / \text{V}^2 \cdot 5 \mu}{2 \cdot 1 \, \mu} (2 - 0.654)^2 = 382.23 \, \mu\text{A}$$

The previous example illustrates that a change of +73 ◦C in temperature produces a drop of 9.3% in the operating drain-source current of this device. Those calculations can be developed in the Excel methods to find the influence of temperature in the amplifier design. Those changes can also be verified by SPICE simulation using the temperature sweep accordingly.


**2. Body**

Main hypotheses of this multicentric study are:

mellitus, which is a well known risk factor in development of occlusive disease of blood

There are two current therapeutic approaches. The first one is surgery and the other is endovascular (Endovascular Aortic Repair – EVAR). In about half of the patients with intact aneurysm, as well as in those with ruptured one, endovascular approach can be applied. Advantages of endovasular treatment are avoiding general anesthesia, laparotomy and clamping the aorta. The procedure lasts shorter and recovery is fast. However, there are some disadvantages or technical limitations of this procedure. It is not possible to place the graft if proximal neck of the anuerysm is smaller than 15mm and conical in shape (21,22), because origins of renal arteries could be covered. Also, the neck of the aneurysm should be orientated at the angle no smaller than 60º towards the sagittal plane of the aorta, iliac arteries must not be tortuous and must measure at least 9 mm in diameter (23,24). During relatively short period of clinical application and development of EVAR (from 1991) the problem of frequently inadequate commercially available aortic stent-grafts for yellow race and patients with low BMI (21) has arised. The appliation of EVAR in yellow race patients showed that only 23-42% grafts, with fabrically defined dimensions, are adequate, in 23-46% they need certain corrections, while in about 30% of patients there is a contraindication for stent placement (25,26,27,28). Contemporary experience in the application of EVAR showed that overall number of complications is relatively high, even up to 30-40%. Also, one of the reasons is a not precise enough preprocedural morphologic evaluation of AAA and early

Modern generations od multidetector CT units (generation 16 slice, 2004 to 64 slice detectors-2007), offered a new visualisation quality and possibility to obtain more relevant diagnostic information compared to DSA. MDCT aortography reaffirmed the significance of preprocedural evaluation which ensures obtaining numerous and high quality information in each and every situation, considering the place of graft insertion, graft design and overall indication for EVAR, as well as relevant postprocedural evaluation and early diagnstics of

During last 3 years, MDCT units with 10-times lower exponential doses per examination were constructed (29-35). At the same time, routine use of high-resolution ultrasonography as non-ionizing morphologic imaging enabled screening programmes for AAA in elderly and high-risk populaton, that are conducted and in progress in many countries (36,37,38).

1. Positive family anamnesis for AAA, as well as trauma, personal history of diabetes mellitus and hypertension, smoking, elevated LDL cholesterol, which are risk-factors

2. There are significant anatomic-morphologic differences in aneurysmatic infrarenal aorta

vessels, in terms of aneurysm development remains controversial (15-20).

diagnostics of postprocedural complications.

Main hypotheses of this multicentric study are:

between Caucasian and Asian patients

possible complications.

**2. Body**

for AAA

5. The possibility of graft design in individual case is enabled by integrating measurements obtained by MDCT aortography in selective programme

The study was conducted in Clinical center of Serbia - Center for radiology and magnetic resonance and Institute for radiology, University Hospital Saporro (Japan), in period 2009- 2011. In thiis study 31 Asian and 30 Caucasian patients with the infrarenal aortic aneurysm were included, as well as 130 Asian and 126 Caucasian patients with indication for CT aortography (CTA), which confirmed the absence of AAA. Election of patients of both races before referred to CT examination, was performed according to medical history, and definite indication for CT exam was set according to clinical findings and sonographic findings in distal aorta. Exclusion criteria were: rupture of aneurysm, aneurysm that exceeded infrarenal segment, discrete dilatation of aorta and finding of rough intramural and extraluminal calcifications in longer segment.

Data about risk factors for development of AAA (smoking, hypertension, elevated blood cholesterol level) were collected. One of the questions included the presence of diabetes mellitus in personal history. Questionnaire icluded demographic parameters (sex, age, race, education), antropometric data (body weight, body height, body surface, body mass index), personal history (diabetes, trauma, other) and family medical history (presence of AAA in relatives).

For classifying patients according to the level of nutrition, we used international classification recomended by World Health Organization (WHO) and US Institutes of Health: underweighted-BMI<18,4, normal weighted BMI between 18,5 and 24,9; overweighted BMI 25-29,9 and obese BMI>30. According to body height, all the patients were divided in 4 subgroups: shorter than 160 cm, between 160 cm and 170 cm, between 170-180 cm and taller than 180 cm.

Considering smoking, patients were divided into 3 subgroups according to duration of this habit: 10 years, between 10-20 years and over 20 years. Level of blood cholesterol over 3,4 mmol/l was considered elevated. For calculation of body surface (SA) we used Dubois & Dubois formula: SA= 0.20247 x height (m)0.725 x weight (kg)0.425. Considering that it is a complex logarithmic formula, we used software (calculator) for SA recommended by US National institutes of health (http://www.nih.gov). For the calculation of BMI we used established formula: BMI= body weight (kg) : body surface (m2).

#### **3. 64-slice MDCT protocol and measurements used in the study**

CTA examination in both centers was performed on the same CT unit of the same generation, type and model of the machine. We performed examinations on 64-slice VCT

Lightspeed unit (GE, Milwaukee, IL, US). In all cases we used non-ionic contrast agent in concentration of 320-370 (1 ml – 370 mg iodine) applied by automatic injector in cubital vein reaching flow rate of 5 ml/sec.

Taking into account heterogeneity of selected population by constitution, sex, race and age, and expected heterogeneity in "delay time" of the examination start, we used programme mode "SmartPrep" for defining the appropriate time, by selecting the spot in aorta where appearance of contrast agent triggers the acquisition. Helical mode was used in SmartPrep protocol, 120 kV, 250-700 mAs, rotation speed of the tube 0,35 with slice thickness of 1,25 mm with 64 slice detector in 0.625mm reconstruction.

Postprocessing was performed with the same selected applications in both centers:

Volume Viwer Analysis-CTA Aorta and Advanced Vessel Analysis. Interobserver variability was avoided by the fact that examinations in both centers were performed by a single radiologist.

Number of global selected mathematic variables which define morphology at CTA examination usen in this study is 11. Overall number of methodologically defined transverse measurements is 36 (12 for infrarenal aorta and 24 for iliac arteries), overall number of linear measurements is 36 and volumetric measurements 3. All together, these measurements represent methodologic protocol used in the study for defining the morphology of aneurysmatic infrarenal aorta.

Linear, transverse and volumetric measurements were performed according to the protocol defined aforehead, which consisted of following parameters (Figure 1). All linear measurements were performed in 3 characteristic 2D and 3 characteristic 3D reconstructions (AP, PA and semi-oblique) and mean value was used as definite. We used software ruler tool which is a part of every Analysis-CTA Aorta. Proximal point for measuring aneurysmatic neck, linear distances of aorta, angle between AAA and all the other calculations were positioned in the orifice level of main renal artery. We performed following linear measurements:

Calculations of aortic and iliac arteries volumes represent a part of the basic package of Analysis-CTA Aorta programme. Start and end point are defined (Figure 1). Computer calculates only the lumen of blood vessel that contains contrast agent with no calcium deposits, and without wall structures in cases of thrombosed extraluminal mass; if AAA contains only the dilated vessel wall, the lumen is calculated in total.

Transverse measurements were performed using Advanced Vessel CT Aorta Analysis programme which enables linear differentiating the lumen of contrast agent that fills the vessel from intramural and endoluminal calcifications, considering the similar attenuation values of calcium and contrast agent which cannot be differentiated visually (there is a possibility of misinterpreting calcified plaque as vessel lumen). We performed 6 typical measurements in the same plane, for the lumen of circulating blood (total of 12 "flow" diameters)(F.d.) and 6 measurements in the same plane for diameters of circulating blood together with thrombosed blood, aneurysm content and thickness of the vessel wall (total of 12 "real"diameters)(R.d)(Figure 5, Figure 7).

112 Aneurysm

reaching flow rate of 5 ml/sec.

single radiologist.

aneurysmatic infrarenal aorta.

following linear measurements:

contains only the dilated vessel wall, the lumen is calculated in total.

mm with 64 slice detector in 0.625mm reconstruction.

Lightspeed unit (GE, Milwaukee, IL, US). In all cases we used non-ionic contrast agent in concentration of 320-370 (1 ml – 370 mg iodine) applied by automatic injector in cubital vein

Taking into account heterogeneity of selected population by constitution, sex, race and age, and expected heterogeneity in "delay time" of the examination start, we used programme mode "SmartPrep" for defining the appropriate time, by selecting the spot in aorta where appearance of contrast agent triggers the acquisition. Helical mode was used in SmartPrep protocol, 120 kV, 250-700 mAs, rotation speed of the tube 0,35 with slice thickness of 1,25

Volume Viwer Analysis-CTA Aorta and Advanced Vessel Analysis. Interobserver variability was avoided by the fact that examinations in both centers were performed by a

Number of global selected mathematic variables which define morphology at CTA examination usen in this study is 11. Overall number of methodologically defined transverse measurements is 36 (12 for infrarenal aorta and 24 for iliac arteries), overall number of linear measurements is 36 and volumetric measurements 3. All together, these measurements represent methodologic protocol used in the study for defining the morphology of

Linear, transverse and volumetric measurements were performed according to the protocol defined aforehead, which consisted of following parameters (Figure 1). All linear measurements were performed in 3 characteristic 2D and 3 characteristic 3D reconstructions (AP, PA and semi-oblique) and mean value was used as definite. We used software ruler tool which is a part of every Analysis-CTA Aorta. Proximal point for measuring aneurysmatic neck, linear distances of aorta, angle between AAA and all the other calculations were positioned in the orifice level of main renal artery. We performed

Calculations of aortic and iliac arteries volumes represent a part of the basic package of Analysis-CTA Aorta programme. Start and end point are defined (Figure 1). Computer calculates only the lumen of blood vessel that contains contrast agent with no calcium deposits, and without wall structures in cases of thrombosed extraluminal mass; if AAA

Transverse measurements were performed using Advanced Vessel CT Aorta Analysis programme which enables linear differentiating the lumen of contrast agent that fills the

Postprocessing was performed with the same selected applications in both centers:

**Figure 1.** Characteristic points of interest to mark the CT angiographic analysis in Figure 2D.

**Figure 2.** CT linear measurements of the aorta in the 2D image: mean length of abdominal aorta, mean linear distance from renal artery to aortic bifurcation and AAA angle

**Figure 3.** AAA neck length in 3 characteristic measurements in 2D (a-c) and 3D image (d-f).

The points of transverse measurements of abdominal aorta (a.a.) and common iliac artery (a.i.c.) performed in this study were following:

The precise localization of transverse measurements was defined according to the linear reconstruction of aorta and iliac arteries.

**Figure 4.** Measuring the length of the c.i.a in characteristic 3 position (AP, PA and oblique) in 2D (a-c) and 3D image (d-f)

**Figure 5.** Transverse measurement of infrarenal aortic aneurysms (diameters Rd and Fd)

As a variable part of the protocol of morphologic measurements in this study, depending on the individual case, we performed other diagnostic explorations enabled by selected computer application, such as:

114 Aneurysm

**Figure 3.** AAA neck length in 3 characteristic measurements in 2D (a-c) and 3D image (d-f).

(a.i.c.) performed in this study were following:

R.d. (F.d.a.a 1, F.d. a.a 2, R.d. a.a 1 and R.d. a.a. 2)

(F.d. a.a 3, F.d. a.a 4, R.d. a.a 3 and R.d. a.a. 4)

a.a 5, F.d. a.a 6, R.d. a.a 5 and R.d. a.a. 6);

reconstruction of aorta and iliac arteries.

2);

a.i.c 4);

The points of transverse measurements of abdominal aorta (a.a.) and common iliac artery

a. infrarenal, in the level of the neck of the aneurysm, the largest and the smallest F.d. and

b. in the middle part of abdominal aorta, largest and the smallest F.d and R.d diameter

c. just above the aortic bifurcation, the largest and the smallest F.d and R.d diameter (F.d.

d. proximal parts of both common iliac arteries distally from aortic bifurcation, the largest and the smallest F.d and R.d diameter (F.d. a.i.c 1, F.d. a.i.c 2, R.d. a.i.c 1 and R.d. a.i.c

e. middle parts of both common iliac arteries below aortic bifurcation, the largest and the smallest F.d and R.d diameter (F.d. a.i.c 3, F.d. a.i.c 4, R.d. a.i.c 3 and R.d.

f. distal parts of both common iliac arteries above their bifurcations, the largest and the smallest F.d and R.d diameter (F.d. a.i.c 5, F.d. a.i.c 6, R.d. a.i.c 5 and R.d. a.i.c 6);

The precise localization of transverse measurements was defined according to the linear

f. Coronal or sagittal 3D reconstruction (Figure 12)

**Figure 6.** MD CT volumetric measurement of infrarenal aorta and aa.iliace comm bill in patients with calcium channel intraluminal nodular induration (a,b) patients with AAA and without calcium induration in the wall (c,d).

a) Defining tissue structure (attenuation) in the region of interest in different planes (most often transverse and sagittal). Using this exploration, known as "color mapping" it is possible to determine the density of the tissue in ROI or mean tissue density in the wider region. According to the attenuation distribution, it is possible to determine the structure or density of thrombotic aneurysmatic blood as well as differentiate contrast agent from calcified plaques which are pointed intraluminally. Every color represents a range of some interval of tissue density from 20-800 HU. Contrast agent is always represent by color green, low-density strustures (thrombus, blood, fat) by blue, atherosclerotic deposits by yellow and calcified indurations by red.

Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm in Different Races Epidemiologic Features and Morphologic-Clinical Implications Evaluated by CT Aortography 117

116 Aneurysm

induration in the wall (c,d).

calcified indurations by red.

**Figure 6.** MD CT volumetric measurement of infrarenal aorta and aa.iliace comm bill in patients with calcium channel intraluminal nodular induration (a,b) patients with AAA and without calcium

a) Defining tissue structure (attenuation) in the region of interest in different planes (most often transverse and sagittal). Using this exploration, known as "color mapping" it is possible to determine the density of the tissue in ROI or mean tissue density in the wider region. According to the attenuation distribution, it is possible to determine the structure or density of thrombotic aneurysmatic blood as well as differentiate contrast agent from calcified plaques which are pointed intraluminally. Every color represents a range of some interval of tissue density from 20-800 HU. Contrast agent is always represent by color green, low-density strustures (thrombus, blood, fat) by blue, atherosclerotic deposits by yellow and

**Figure 7.** Transverse measurement of infrarenal aortic aneurysms (diameters Rd and Fd)(b-d) compared to the linear angiographic image (a) (a)

**Figure 8.** Defining tissue structure (attenuation) in the region of interest in the transverse (a) and coronary reconstruction (b,c)

b) Defining the configuration of the blood vessel enables precise visualization in cases of suspected dissection of the vessel wall and enables defining the wall thickness in all planes. Furthermore, it enables clear graphic demarcation of the lesions of aortic wall and

differentiating from the extraluminal lesions. Additional option is definition of calcified indurations inside the "contoured" picture.

**Figure 9.** Contouring infrarenal aorta: linear (a) and with intramural calcifications (b)

c) Isolated defining extraluminal calcifications (Figure 3.21. a), intramural calcifications and altogether in frontal reconstruction along the aortic segment, in selected planes and positions. This exploration may imply on therapeutic approach in two projections at the level of c.i.a

d) Dynamic analysis of contrast agent flow represents the review of video-recording in selected plane, most often transverse or frontal, where dynamic of the contrast agent flow in aortic lumen can be analysed in real time mode.This exploration has a specific value in postprocedural evaluation and diagnostics of early complications of EVAR, most of all the proximal endoleak as a frequent complication. It is more sensitive than conventional digital aortography video -recording

e) MDCT aortoscopy, known also as "virtual aortography", is a special visualization option in "advanced" options of MD CT aortography, which is offered in standard postprocessing units of 16-64 slice MDCT units from the year 2007. It is a relatively simple, but powerful method of endoluminal examination in all planes, that enables optical presentation of the aortic wall inner surface, lesions of the aortic walls, the extent of anuerysmatic dilatation, endoluminal plaques and vessel arborization.

level of c.i.a

aortography video -recording

endoluminal plaques and vessel arborization.

indurations inside the "contoured" picture.

differentiating from the extraluminal lesions. Additional option is definition of calcified

**Figure 9.** Contouring infrarenal aorta: linear (a) and with intramural calcifications (b)

c) Isolated defining extraluminal calcifications (Figure 3.21. a), intramural calcifications and altogether in frontal reconstruction along the aortic segment, in selected planes and positions. This exploration may imply on therapeutic approach in two projections at the

d) Dynamic analysis of contrast agent flow represents the review of video-recording in selected plane, most often transverse or frontal, where dynamic of the contrast agent flow in aortic lumen can be analysed in real time mode.This exploration has a specific value in postprocedural evaluation and diagnostics of early complications of EVAR, most of all the proximal endoleak as a frequent complication. It is more sensitive than conventional digital

e) MDCT aortoscopy, known also as "virtual aortography", is a special visualization option in "advanced" options of MD CT aortography, which is offered in standard postprocessing units of 16-64 slice MDCT units from the year 2007. It is a relatively simple, but powerful method of endoluminal examination in all planes, that enables optical presentation of the aortic wall inner surface, lesions of the aortic walls, the extent of anuerysmatic dilatation,

**Figure 10.** Defining calcifications of AAA - the level of the aortic extraluminarly (a) and intramural (b)

**Figure 11.** MDCT aortoscopy the level of renal arteries (a), middle third of a.a (b) and before the bifurcation (c)

f) Coronal or sagittal 3D reconstruction (VR 3D cut). It is a postprocessing option from the standard group which is more often used in diagnostics of parenchymatous organs and heart, and represents "listing" slices at selected distance (0,625 mm at least) in 3D presentation of the organ or lesion. In AAA, it can be used for visualization of thromobotic mass and its structure considering heterogeneity and the presence of calcified indurations. The analysis can be preformed in 6 standard planes: AP – anteroposterior; PA – posteroanterior; L –left lateral, R – right lateral, I – inferior-superior; S – superior-anterior, and additionally in every non-standard plane of rotated 3D image, which defines 4D visualization in terms of movement.

**Figure 12.**VR 3D cut option in coronary reconstuction in the antero-posterior direction (a) in 3 planes (b,c,d)

### **4. Statistic methodology**

Considering the heterogeneity of the population included, as well as the number of analyzed variables, we used several statistical models for data analysis in this study:

Univariant and multivariant staistical methods **–** for testing statistic significance of difference between parameters for qualitative variables, as well as quantitative variables, univariant methods were used

χ² test –for testing the relationship between non-parametric variabes.

ANOVA - one-sample analysis of variance- univariant analysis of the effect of one selected factor on dependent variable. Comparing mean values, standard deviations in development of aneurysm between races and in the same race compared to control subjects, was performed using this method.

Median Test, Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z-test analysis of the mutual influence (of the selected variable among the groups), testing the compatibility of controls and patients in terms of developing the aneurysm, between races, and in the same race compared to the controls.

We determined the correlation coefficient (Pearson correlation) related to groups, smoking habit, and smoking history of all the subjects included, subjects according to sex (in males and females seperately).

According to univariant logistic regression analysis (ULRA) we tested the influence of selected variable (risk factors) and their correlation on the aneurysm development at the probability level p ≤ 0,01.

Regression analysis (logistic model) In the model of MLRA we included all variables (risk factors) that were confirmed by univariant logistic regression analysis (ULRA) to be connected to the aneurysm development at the level of p ≤ 0,01, so we determined the independent risk factors for development of aneurysm in all the subjects, and then seperately for male and female groups. All the variables were additionally tested in terms of age.

Odds Ratio (OR) or (expB) with confidence interval of 95%- chance ratio, or the possibility of the selected happening, the assessment of the correlation of risk factors (happening) and disease occurrence (development of aneurysm).

Statistic significance was determined at the level of probability of the null hypothesis p ≤ 0.05 to p<0.0001. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS ver.20, while graphs and tables were edited using MICROSOFT OFFICE (EXCEL and WORD).


**Author details**

Jacob A. Bauer\* and Vladena Bauerová-Hlinková Institute of Molecular Biology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**6. Conclusions**

358 Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits

treated and untreated). Because no forager was present at site 1 (treated bait added on 25 September) on sampling dates from 26 October to 30 November, all baits were replaced with new ones on 20 November as previously noted: toxic baits were added at sites 2 and 3 and a blank bait was added at site 1. Foraging termites were seen at site 1 on 30 December, and foraging termites were observed at site 2. One possible explanation for the decreased foraging population and disappearance of foragers from site 1 is feeding deterrence by bistrifluron, as previously suggested in the two-choice test described in section 2.2. Although it is unclear why foragers came back to the toxic bait at site 2, the shuffle of treated bait sites might lead to reinfestation of the treated bait by foragers at site 2 where termites previously fed on untreated bait. Dead workers and soldiers were found at site 1 and site 2 several days after the last collection (31 January 2008), and no live termite was present at these sites. Author concluded that the colony was eliminated because no live termites were found over half a year after application of toxic baits. Although the current study demonstrated that *C. formosanus* colonies could be eliminated by application of bistrifluron,

Bistrifluron amounts recovered from each termites collected from each site are shown in Fig. 10. The recovered amounts of bistrifluron ranged from 101 to 1026 ng/termite when five foragers were collected from site 1 (with toxic bait) on 28 September (day 3) and 1 October (day 7). On the other hand, when blank baits were present at sites 2 and 3, only two of 17 foragers contained bistrifluron, and the quantities detected were small (45 and 57 ng/termite). Between 10 October and 30 November 2007 (toxic bait at site 1 and blank baits at sites 2 and 3), bistrifluron was detected from seven foragers collected from site 1, and the amounts ranged from 31 – 477 ng/termite. During this same period, analyses of 28 foraging workers from sites 2 and 3 indicated that 17 termites contained bistrifluron (22 – 196 ng/termite) and 11 termites did not. These results appear to demonstrate that up to a few hundred milligrams of

Because much smaller amounts of bistrifluron were recovered from workers collected at sites 2 and 3 than site 1, it is uncertain whether those workers were donors or recipients of bistrifluron among colony members. If they were recipients, they received some bistrifluron from donors that originally took bistrifluron at site 1. This was quite possible because only a small portion of materials taken up by donors would be transferred to recipients (Sùarez & Thorne 2000; Haagsma & Rust 2005; Buczkowski et al., 2007). If they were donors, they consumed bistrifluron at site 1 and were caught at sites 2 or 3 after losing some portion of the bistrifluron through trophallaxis and metabolism. Unfortunately, distinguishing between donors and recipients will be difficult until foraging behaviour of termites is better understood: after feeding at one site, whether do foragers feed at other sites on their way

the results clearly supported the importance of placement of baits.

**5.4 Manner of the uptake of bait toxicant by foraging termites**

bistrifluron was taken up by an individual worker through foraging activities.

back to the nest? And how frequently do they go the rounds of their feeding sites?

were killed by the insecticidal effect of noviflumuron (Su, 2005).

Analyses of eight termites collected on 31 January 2008 (several days before colony elimination) revealed that these termites consumed sufficient amounts of bistrifluron (483 – 1380 ng/termite) to cause death by 31 January 2008. Because of the lack of data describing the temporal change in the quantity of bistrifluron taken up by termites during this period, we were unable to delineate how bistrifluron spread within the colony, although the results clearly showed that almost all foragers acquired a lethal dose of bistrifluron. Slow mortality will allow the foragers to move too far to identify source of toxin and is therefore essential if the bait is to eliminate colonies of subterranean termites like *C. formosanus*. Workers of *C. formosanus* exposed to 0.5% (w/w) noviflumuron bait could move as far as 50 m before they It can be concluded as below by a series of experiments:

Colony Elimination of Subterranean Termites by Bait Application

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**Abstract**

We show a new technology to manage solid waste services through optimization methods (on sectoring, routing costs, and resources). This technology is called optimized planning and integrated logistics management (OPILM). It is being applied to Brazilian municipalities as it attends to their major natural features. The technology is formed by a framework of computational systems that uses optimization methods from sector arc routing and scheduling, fleet and staff scheduling, using also mobile smartphone apps. We present some of the results of real cases evaluated for residential refuse collection and selective waste collection in two Brazilian cities (Petrópolis/RJ and Bom Jesus dos Perdões/ SP). The plan implementations achieved 17.9% from actual fixed and variable cost savings for sectors (vehicles and workers) and routes (time and distances) for residential refuse collection in Petrópolis/RJ. For the selective waste collection, we detail how we made our project to Bom Jesus dos Perdões/SP. We also present the returns considering costs involved in the management of the operational level and amortized by the investment required to use and apply the proposed technology for Petrópolis/SP.

**Keywords:** domiciliary waste collection, street sweeping, sector arc routing problem, spatial DSS, ERP


*3.4. Nitrogen Productivity*

Nitrogen productivity refers to the yield per applied N fertilizer (ton kg−1). This value also implicitly depends on the interaction of the given water dose to the fertigation and, as a result, the harvested yield (Figure 4). The main nitrogen addition was due to fertigation and therefore the F0% treatments are not included in Figure 4 due to uncertainty regarding the release dynamics and concentrations of soluble nitrogen from the soil-compost solid phase. Nitrogen productivity decreases with an increasing water dose, which indicates an efficient usage of nitrogen fertilizer. Similar to the results for water productivity, Figure 4 shows that much more nitrogen was applied as compared to the yield with increasing water dose.

**Figure 4.** Nitrogen productivity (ton kg−1 N) as a function of irrigation and fertigation regime. Values with the same letter are not significantly different (*p* < 0.05).


**4. Polymerization of Inulin**

**4. Polymerization of Inulin**  Inulin is categorized as a fructan carbohydrate, which functions as a primary ingredient in industrial food processing. Inulin hydrogels have been employed as carriers for colonic drug targeting; such processes are fundamental to prebiotic fermentation, chocolate, and cheese production [63–65], as noted in the preceding sections. From a nutritional perspective, the functional properties of inulin and health beneficial effects include prebiotic effects, high dietary fiber content, and lower calorie value [65]. The physiological benefits linked to the consumption of inulin-rich foods are presented in Table 2.  The observations made by Karimi et al. [65] are in agreement with Aidoo et al. [63], who reported the incorporation of inulin in Inulin is categorized as a fructan carbohydrate, which functions as a primary ingredient in industrial food processing. Inulin hydrogels have been employed as carriers for colonic drug targeting; such processes are fundamental to prebiotic fermentation, chocolate, and cheese production [63–65], as noted in the preceding sections. From a nutritional perspective, the functional properties of inulin and health beneficial effects include prebiotic effects, high dietary fiber content, and lower calorie value [65]. The physiological benefits linked to the consumption of inulin-rich foods are presented in Table 2.  The observations made by Karimi et al. [65] are in agreement with Aidoo et al. [63], who reported the incorporation of inulin in sugar-free chocolate production (inulin functions as an alternative sweetener),

sugar-free chocolate production (inulin functions as an alternative sweetener), and Guimarães et al. [64] research on inulin's role in prebiotic fermentation (especially in bev-

The potential applications of inulin are not confined to food production, given that inulin has been proven to be an ideal in vitro drug carrier of lignin derivatives. Vervoot et al. [67] noted that inulin was an ideal carrier for colonic drug targeting [67]; this is achieved through the surface functionalization of inulin with N, N, N′, N′-tetramethylethylenediamine, and ammonium persulphate [67]. Colonic drug delivery is critical to the and Guimarães et al. [64] research on inulin's role in prebiotic fermentation (especially in beverage stabilization). In other cases, inulin has been proven useful in the retro-gradation and gelatinization of wheat starch [66].

The potential applications of inulin are not confined to food production, given that inulin has been proven to be an ideal in vitro drug carrier of lignin derivatives. Vervoot et al. [67] noted that inulin was an ideal carrier for colonic drug targeting [67]; this is achieved through the surface functionalization of inulin with N, N, N0 , N0 -tetramethylethylenediamine, and ammonium persulphate [67]. Colonic drug delivery is critical to the treatment of colon cancer and metabolic/bowel complications. Similar to Vervoot et al. [67], Kumar et al. [68] noted that inulin was a suitable bioactive polymer for pathogen-mimicking vaccine delivery systems. The biomedical applications of inulin in targeted drug delivery offer promising prospects in the treatment and management of life-threatening conditions, including cancer, Ebola, HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis. The biomedical application of inulin is mediated by free-radical polymerization—a process that contributes to the incorporation of vinyl functional groups on the surface of inulin [67].

Beyond industrial applications, the polymerization of inulin has broader implications on the health of mammals. Wada et al. observed that the fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates in the diet by bowel microflora predicts the formation of short-chain fatty acids [69]. Acetate, propionate, and butyrate are the primary short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) derived from the digestion and fermentation of undigested carbohydrates and inulin in the human colon [70].

The formation of both short-chain and long-chain fatty acids has long-term effects on bowel physiology. The observations reflect long-standing beliefs and evidence concerning the relationship between improved health outcomes and high-fiber diets, causal epidemiological evidence, and metagenomics studies linking metabolic diseases to variations in the gut microbe and molecular signaling [71].

Even though there is growing use of inulin in biomedical and food-related industries, the extent of application depends on a broad range of factors, including the polymerization of inulin; this underscores the need for customized synthetic processes, including the reaction between N,N-dimethylformamide with glycidyl methacrylate in the presence of a catalyst (4-dimethylaminopyridine) [67]. The polymerization of inulin is integral to industrial application, primarily in the food and biomedical sectors, but there are critical technical constraints that impede successful polymerization.


**Author details**

Filipa Sousa1,2\*, Domingos Ferreira1,2, Salette Reis3 and Paulo Costa1,2

1 Faculty of Pharmacy, UCIBIO – Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, MedTech-Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Porto, Portugal

2 Faculty of Pharmacy, Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, University of Porto, Portugal

3 Faculty of Pharmacy, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Porto, Portugal

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*3.2. Results of Simple Ventilated Practices for The Improvement of IAQ*

Based on the measurements for the entire year, CO2 was the parameter that most obviously exceeded the comfortable standard and there was no obvious method of solving this problem, which did not involve reconstruction and the installation of a ventilation system. Therefore, this was the chosen parameter for the experiment to test the performance of simple ventilation practices. The results for the IAQ improvement in June 2017 between Cases A, B, and C that are shown in Table 1 corresponding to Cases 2–4 in Section 2.3, respectively, and Case 1 (normal case) are presented in Table 2.

**Table 2.** Measurement results in the operational practices for the improvement of indoor air quality (IAQ).

Reductions of 19.9%, 22.5%, and 58.2% of the maximum CO2 concentrations were found by turning off the AC during lunchtime (12:00–13:00, Case 2); in the morning (9:00–13:00, Case 3); and. during the full working time (9:00–17:00, Case 4), respectively, as can be deduced from Table 2. In all cases, the concentrations of CO2 were reduced below the comfortable standard (1000 ppm) [4,11,12]. Cases 2 and 3 were able to reduce the maximum concentration of CO2 by almost the same amount. The concentration of CO2 was being reduced when the air conditioning was more time inactive because the air inside and outside the room could be exchanged due to the door leading to the opened corridor. More time opening the door resulted in more time for air to be exchanged. Higher CO2 in the room was released into the ambient air then plants could lower CO2 in the ambient air through photosynthesis process.

The measured values are in agreement with research that was conducted in 21 offices, in Taiwan in which the CO2 levels were measured while using a Q-TRAK indoor air quality tester (Model 7575, TSI Corporation, Bangkok, Thailand)) with an average level of 708.2 ± 190.5 ppm, a maximum level of 1193.6 ppm, and a minimum level 464.0 ppm [11]. The normal case results were consistent with the indoor CO2 level in Thai classrooms, which was measured by the similar method using Indoor Air Quality Meters (IAQ-CALCTM) Model 8760/876, a real time monitoring device that used a dual wavelength non-dispersive infrared sensor (NDIR) for CO2 and Electro chemical sensor for CO by frequency of five minutes. The average CO2 concentration in classroom 1 (carpet) was 711 ± 272 ppm and classroom 2 (wooden) was 1332 ± 609 ppm [41].

The statistical analysis results by One-Way ANOVA found that the result was significant at *p* = 0.002223 (*p* < 0.05) and the *f*-ratio value was 5.18726. This result means concentrations of CO2 were different among four cases.

The T and RH were also measured to check whether they aligned with the comfort standards. Figures 7 and 8 present the results of T and RH, respectively.

**Figure 8.** Diurnal relative humidity in the ambient air and in the room during experiments.

From Figure 7, case 2 would be the optimum choice if the occupants of the room preferred not to work under hot condition. The T in Case 3 exceeded the comfortable standard, but it did not reach 28 ◦C, the level with which 80% of Thai workers have been found to be comfortable [42]. Thus, the adoption of Case 3 would have to be based upon the agreement of all the occupants of the room. The values of T between Cases 3 and 4 are visibly different because the ambient T in the afternoon is higher than that in the morning. Certainly, the greatest saving of electricity can be achieved by not using AC at all during working hours, but it is not a realistic option with a working temperature of over 30 ◦C for 7–8 hours [35], which would be likely to affect work performance. From Figure 8, the RH was lower in the air conditioned room, so the skin would be dried when you stayed for a long time. If the door was opened in Case 2–4, the RH was increased in the room to be more comfortable. The monitored wind velocity in front of the room was 0.05 ± 0.04 m/s, which was calm wind that mostly blew from southwest and west direction. The door was in the west, so the mild wind entered the room to comfort people and exchanged the air between inside and outside the room to reduce CO2.

Energy saving from turning off air conditioner was calculated. The air conditioner size 36,000 BTU/Hour (international) was converted into 10.55056 kWh. For case 2, the air conditioner was turned off one hour for 238 working days (not including special holiday 24 days and weekend 104 days in Thailand 2020). The conversion factor of Thailand grid mixed electricity year 2016–2018 was 0.5986 kg CO2eq/kWh (LCIA method IPCC 2013 GWP 100a V1.03, Thai National LCI Database, TIIS-MTEC-NSTDA (with TGO, Electricity 2016–2018) updated in December 2019) [43]. Therefore, we can reduce CO2eq emission for 1503.10 CO2eq per year.


**1.2 Bioelectrochemistry**

Many microorganisms are exoelectrogenic. This means that they can generate an electrical current by connecting their electron transport system outside of their cell membranes either directly to an electrode or indirectly through added mediators or electron shuttles. Some microorganisms are electrotrophic, which means that they can harvest electrons to grow [12]. Bioelectrochemistry studies show how these microorganisms can be used in electrochemical cells to remove organic matter from wastewater and generate electricity.

There is a wide variety of bioelectrochemical systems. Some of the most studied, are the microbial fuel cells, illustrated in **Figure 2** (left). These devices generate electricity by using an exoelectrogenic biofilm-coated anode, also called bioanode, to oxidize organic matter and spontaneously generate a current that reduces oxygen at the cathode. [8]. On some occasions, electrotrophic biofilm-coated cathodes, also called biocathodes, can be implemented instead of regular counter electrodes to drive other reactions such as ammonia oxidation and nitrate reduction to nitrogen [13]. Another widely studied form of bioelectrochemical system is the microbial electrolysis cells. These devices have the same components as microbial fuel cells, with the difference that there is no oxygen in the cathodic side of the cell, which allows for other chemical species such as hydrogen ions to be reduced. The main drawback of these systems is that they need an applied voltage to drive the reduction reaction [8].

Exoelectrogenic and electrotrophic microorganisms are so diverse that they can be used to build bioelectrochemical systems with many applications for wastewater and

### **Figure 2.**

*Microbial fuel cell (left) and microbial electrolysis cell (right).*

saltwater treatment such as removal of organic compounds, water desalination, denitrification, and sulfate removal while generating electricity or storing chemical energy in the form of hydrogen or other high-value compounds such as methane [8, 12, 13].