The policy framework in the Arab Gulf region places a strong emphasis on family well-being and values work-life reconciliation for women, rather than solely focusing on their economic success. Despite the provision of leaves and the availability of domestic workers and institutionalized care, working women in the region still struggle to balance their careers and family responsibilities, as shown by research in Qatar and the UAE (Al-Ansari, 2020; Marmenout & Lirio, 2014). This challenge extends to women in high-level and managerial positions, who face even greater time demands (Prager, 2020; Yaghi, 2016). As a result, the representation of women in the public sphere and their participation in leadership and decision-making positions is still limited in the Arab Gulf. The prevailing stereotype still views the home as a woman's primary priority, while men's involvement in household duties and childcare remains limited. This manifestation of gender-based discrimination in the region can be linked to cultural factors rooted in tribal heritage, a conservative lifestyle, and family pressures that impose male protection on women (Murray & Zhang-Zhang, 2018).

In this section, we have explored how the experiences of citizen women in the Arab Gulf serve as a lens through which to examine the limits of the 'universal' women's empowerment agenda. Our analysis has revealed the challenges of codifying and achieving empowerment that is relevant to and reflective of the local population's needs. By examining the circumstances of women's empowerment and disempowerment in the Arab Gulf policy space, we have highlighted the ways in which these 'universal' agendas perpetuate 'orientalist' discourses that undermine the rights of women in the region, for example by relying on incomplete labor force participation metrics. At the same time, we have emphasized the need to acknowledge and value the positive aspects of Gulf policies, such as work-life reconciliation initiatives. Given the growing demands for better work-life balance in Western nations, it is imperative to revisit the 'universal' women's empowerment agenda and question the

**Exhibit 7.21** Leaves of absence outlined in Arab Gulf Human Resources laws for the public sector (Leaves of absence related to work-life balance are highlighted in red)

oversimplified assumption that employment and managerial positions automatically equate to empowerment for women.

# **7.5 Conclusion**

The title of this chapter, 'Through the Eye of a Needle,' refers to a metaphor for the limited and unrealistic terms set by the normative capitalist women's empowerment agenda. This raises questions about who can truly be empowered under these narrow conditions. Despite more than 40 years of progress on the international women's empowerment agenda, the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the ongoing struggles faced by women seeking empowerment through neoliberal means. Meanwhile, the dominant narratives of women's empowerment ignore the perspectives of women who do not subscribe to these values, leaving Arab Gulf states caught between the demands of modern statecraft and the needs of their citizens.

It is crucial to note that these states are subjected to an orientalizing gaze by international women's empowerment agendas and their metrics, which present a biased and inaccurate picture of the progress made by citizen women. As a result, Arab Gulf states are doubly disadvantaged: first, by the expectation to conform to an agenda that is not in line with their values, and second, by the skewed reporting of statistics that perpetuates the objectifying narrative. This leads to Western analyses interpreting poor performance as a perpetuation of the essentialism script and perpetuating the idea that it is necessary to 'save brown women' from their communities, cultures, and states.

This chapter has called into question the universality of the international women's empowerment agenda in the post-COVID era. The Arab Gulf region provides a unique case study in the realm of work-life reconciliation policies, which demonstrate a multifaceted approach to women's engagement in economic, social, domestic, and political pursuits. The public policies in the Arab Gulf show a clear emphasis on supporting both women's work and family life, which may challenge the normative definitions of empowerment that are based on neoliberal principles. What does it mean to be empowered when empowerment is not limited to employment policies, or when supportive policies may increase time spent in childcare, or when discriminatory pension policies acknowledge women's domestic labor? Through examining the Arab Gulf's policy framework, this chapter offers a starting point for exploring these questions and considering how a deeper understanding of local context and values can broaden the scope of women's empowerment. Future research is needed to further examine these issues and how they can enhance women's complex agency and desires.

In conclusion, this chapter presents several policy implications based on its findings. Firstly, the international women's empowerment agenda needs to be rethought in the post-COVID era, as the pandemic has exposed its limitations. Secondly, essentializing narratives that perpetuate biases and inaccuracies about women's progress in Arab Gulf states should be avoided in future reporting and analysis. Thirdly, local context and values should be valued to broaden the scope of women's empowerment, particularly in the Arab Gulf region. Fourthly, policies that support both women's work and family life should be implemented, challenging normative definitions of empowerment based on neoliberal principles. Finally, future research is needed to examine the effectiveness of the Arab Gulf's policy framework in enhancing women's empowerment and the role of local context and values in this regard.

**Acknowledgments** This paper is based on a research project funded by Qatar National Research. Fund (QNRF) National Priorities Research Program (NPRP), Research Grant: NPRP10-0219– 170,478. The field study was undertaken under the IRB Protocol Number: DI-IRB-2017-F03. We also gratefully acknowledge the contribution of the researchers Amneh Tarkhan and Ayah Al-Oballi in gathering data pertaining to the GCC countries.

# **Bibliography**

Fattah, Z. (2021, September 12). *UAE to spend \$6.5 billion to boost private-sector jobs*.

**Melissa Langworthy** is a Consulting Senior Gender Expert for the European Commission's "Enhanced EU-GCC Political Dialogue, Cooperation and Outreach" project. She holds a Ph.D. in International Development from Tulane University (USA). As a feminist economist specializing in inclusive and sustainable development, she has over 15 years of experience facilitating gender equality, decent work, and capacity building for NGO, government, and corporate social programs, including for Facebook, UN Women, and Oxfam. Through her journal articles, policy papers, and a forthcoming book, she pushes for better to define and argue the terms and supports needed to drive promotion of high quality, sustainable, and innovative women's enterprise.

**Rabia Naguib** is an Associate professor of Public Policy at Doha Institute for Graduate Studies. She holds a Ph.D. in Strategic management with a minor in Philosophy from HEC Montréal. She acted as Director of the Executive MBA in the University of Sharjah. She was recognized for her contributions to scientific research and teaching with the distinguished Faculty Member Award. Dr. Naguib also served as a Local Tutor for postgraduate students at the University of Leicester, and supervised DBA students as a Visiting Fellow at Nottingham Trent University. Her research on women's empowerment and female entrepreneurship has been well-funded, with competitive grants from GERPA (Gender Economic Research and Policy Analysis), and QNRF (Qatar National Research Fund) as LPI and PI. She has an established record of publications in academic books and in international peer reviewed journals.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# **Chapter 8 Advancing Women's Empowerment in the Gulf: Pathways, Challenges, and Policy Implications**

**Ahmed Aref and Angela Fallentine**

**Abstract** This final chapter of the book provides insightful concluding remarks based on the valuable evidence presented on women's empowerment and public policy. It emphasizes the need for evidence-based policies tailored to local values, collaboration between stakeholders, and gender-specific research to achieve sustainable progress in women's empowerment. The chapter examines pathways to increase women's empowerment, identifies challenges that need to be addressed, and offers recommendations for sustained engagement to promote women's empowerment in the Arab Gulf States.

**Keywords** Women's empowerment · Public policy · Pathways · Challenges · Arab Gulf states · Policy implications

# **8.1 Breaking Barriers: The Journey Toward Women's Empowerment in the Gulf Region**

The importance of empowering women in the Gulf region has been widely recognized as a crucial factor in promoting individual and family well-being, as well as fostering social and economic development. In recent decades, there has been notable progress in expanding women's roles and responsibilities in various contexts, such as education and labor participation. However, despite these advancements, there are still obstacles to overcome in creating and implementing effective policies that can improve the cultural, economic, and political status of women and their families in the Gulf. According to Abousleiman (2021), the implementation of gender policies has had mixed success, often lacking an evidence-based approach to determine when, how, and why policies are effective.

A. Aref (B) · A. Fallentine

Doha International Family Institute (DIFI), Doha, Qatar e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
A. Fallentine e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
This book provides valuable conceptual and empirical evidence on women's empowerment and public policy, offering insights for sustained high-level engagement and on-the-ground action in promoting women's empowerment in the Arab Gulf States. In these concluding remarks, we examine pathways to increase women's empowerment in the region, highlighting important advances made to date. We also identify key challenges that continue to impede progress in this area. Finally, we summarize the key findings and discuss policy implications, providing recommendations for future action.

# **8.2 Revisiting Commitments Toward Women's Empowerment**

As women empowerment and gender equality terminologies are contextual and multifaceted, Naguib's provided definition in Chap. 2 illustrates that approaching the topic holistically is an effective means of understanding women's empowerment in the Gulf region. Therefore, the following working definition, adopted in this book, is crucial for conceptual understanding within the context of social and cultural values and practices: "Women's empowerment is a dynamic and multi-faceted process that is rooted in local values, requiring agency, and necessitates the availability of resources to achieve well-being and positive changes both at the individual and social levels."

Women's empowerment has been consistently emphasized in various international conventions, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. The UDHR recognizes that human dignity and equal rights are crucial for social development, enhancing the quality of life and freedom (United Nations, 1948, preamble). The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995) define women's empowerment as the ability for women to have agency in pursuing their life aspirations, achieving their full potential (art. 12), working in full partnership with men (art. 15), and participating fully in all aspects of society through gender-sensitive policy and lawmaking (art. 19). In 2003, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 58/15, which recognized men and women as equal partners and called for measures to provide equal political, economic, social, and educational opportunities for women, as well as evaluating and assessing policies to support mothers and fathers in performing their essential roles. Furthermore, in 2015, the international community committed to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which include significant targets for improving gender equality for women worldwide. These resolutions and goals have urged member states to develop national strategies and action plans outlining how they will implement their commitments to women's advancement.

The commitment to women's empowerment is evident at the national level in many GCC countries. For instance, the Qatar National Vision (2008, pp. 19, 22) outlines that women will play a significant role in all aspects of life, particularly through participation in economic and political decision-making, and the government will enhance their capabilities and empower them to participate fully in decision-making positions. Additionally, Qatar's first National Development Strategy (2011–2016) aims to "enhance an integrated approach to sound social development capacities and empower them to participate more fully in the political and economic spheres" (p. 28), while the second NDS (2018–2022) emphasizes the need to establish "familyfriendly employment practices and encourage gender-sensitive work environments" (p. 175).

Notably, Qatar's various national strategies use the term "women's empowerment" instead of "gender equality." In the Arab world, the concept of women's empowerment is associated with women's unique roles and responsibilities, equal partnership with men, and working within established gender norms (LiLoia, 2019). Conversely, in the West, gender equality is closely linked to women's empowerment, with the perspective that addressing power imbalances is key to achieving gender equality (UNFPA, 2005). Due to contextual differences, the term "women's empowerment" is sometimes preferred over "gender equality" in the Arab world at large. Regarding gender equality, Smith (1979) explains that "Westerners tend to evaluate the circumstances of Muslim women in terms of 'progress' or 'problems,' and little understanding can be achieved without attempting to view the male–female relationship from within the Islamic perspective." Therefore, as discussed by Abdelagafar in Chap. 3, "the Islamic perspective has yet to be adequately elucidated at the global level."

# **8.3 Reviewing Progress Toward Women's Empowerment in the GCC**

According to the World Bank, Gulf nations have made significant progress in empowering women in recent years. This progress has enabled reforming countries' economies to benefit from the productivity of 50% of their populations. It has also contributed to poverty reduction, sustainable growth, and most importantly, gender equity for women in both the public and private spheres. These positive changes have even had a spillover effect on neighboring countries (Abousleiman, 2021). The Global Gender Gap Report (2022) confirms that there have been considerable advances in the Economic Participation and Opportunity subindex in the region. Subindex scores have increased, with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait showing the greatest improvement. The report also indicates that the Educational Attainment Index has attained a 96.2% gender parity in the region, and the United Arab Emirates has achieved full gender equality in parliamentary representation.

Qatar has taken steps to empower women by introducing a new government policy aimed at improving work-family balance. This policy allows Qatari women to request part-time employment within the "Mawared" human resources system, reflecting the country's significant investment in women's education and employment aspirations, family cohesion, and the positive impact of flexible working hours on women's participation in the labor market (Qatar Foundation, 2021). These efforts are in line with the data presented by Barbar, Naguib & Abu Hilal in Chap. 5, which further explores the impact of such policies on women's empowerment.

In a similar vein, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) became the first country in the world to transition to a 4.5 workweek in 2021. The government initiative aimed to improve work-family balance, increase productivity, enhance social well-being, strengthen the UAE's economic competitiveness, and advance women's economic empowerment. The results of an evaluation study conducted by the Sharjah Executive Council (SEC, 2023) in 2023 indicate that this initiative has yielded positive outcomes. These include higher levels of job satisfaction (90%), happiness (91%), job performance (90%), mental health improvement (87%), and improved work-family balance (84%).

The Gulf region has made notable progress in various areas that have the potential to improve women's status and remove obstacles to their full and voluntary participation in all aspects of society. As Robinson (2021) points out, promoting cooperation and gender equality between men and women can further strengthen the Gulf's ability to effectively tackle the diverse range of challenges facing the region in the twenty-first century. Such cooperation and equality can pave the way for a more inclusive and prosperous future for all members of Gulf society.

# **8.4 Advancements in Women's Empowerment in the Gulf Region: Illustrating Examples**

Arab Gulf states have implemented various initiatives to empower women, such as the creation of women's councils, governmental organizations, and laws that promote the well-being of women and families. While Langworthy and Naguib in Chap. 7 delve further into this topic, we present below some illustrative examples.

**Bahrain**: The Kingdom established the Supreme Council for Women on August 22, 2001. The council is chaired by Her Royal Highness Princess Sabeeka Bint Ibrahim Al Khalifa and comprises at least 16 female public figures who are considered leaders in women's affairs and related activities. The council's main objective is to empower Bahraini women and ensure their inclusion in development programs, while also promoting cohesive family bonds and lives. The council operates under the principle of equal opportunities, fosters competitiveness among Bahraini women, and facilitates lifelong learning. It also promotes legislation and policies aimed at providing diverse opportunities for women to enhance the quality of their lives. As a specialized expert-led organization that supports women's affairs in line with global standards, the council collaborates with relevant institutions to elevate the status of women in Bahrain.1

**Qatar**: In the 77th Session of the United Nations General Assembly Third Committee on the Advancement of Women, the State of Qatar emphasized its priority

1 Retrieved from https://www.bahrain.bh/new/en/equality-women\_en.html.

on promoting human rights and equal participation of women in the country's sustainable development efforts, as aligned with Qatar National Vision 2030. Qatar has taken significant measures to ensure equal opportunities for women in education, employment, and care, including the highest rate of women's labor force participation, wage equality in the government sector, and the highest rate of female enrollment in universities. Women in Qatar have also achieved success in the highest administrative positions and hold various ministerial and high-ranking positions. Moreover, women's participation as candidates and voters in municipal and Shura Council elections allows them to become effective partners in decision-making processes at the highest levels. Qatar's legislation and policies aimed at achieving work-family balance have contributed significantly to women's empowerment and participation in the public and private sectors.2

**Saudi Arabia**: In 2019, the Kingdom made significant progress in promoting women's rights, resulting in the largest increase in ranking on the World Bank Group's Women, Business and the Law report compared to the previous year. The reforms introduced in July 2019 were aimed at expanding women's roles in Saudi society and granting them unprecedented economic freedoms. These included granting women the right to obtain passports on their own, allowing them to be heads of households and choose their place of residency, prohibiting the dismissal of pregnant women from the workplace, ensuring non-discrimination based on gender in access to credit, prohibiting gender-based discrimination in employment, equalizing retirement ages between women and men, and removing the obedience provision for women. A year later, amendments to the Labor Law were introduced, lifting restrictions on women's ability to work at night and opening all industries to women.3

**United Arab Emirates**: The UAE's Comprehensive Strategy for the Empowerment of Emirati Women 2015–2021 has paved the way for federal government institutions and organizations to develop work programs aimed at empowering women in all areas of sustainable development. The strategy focused on eight main areas: education, health, the economy, lawmaking, the environment, the social domain, information, political participation, and decision-making. To further promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls, the Gender Balance Council was established in the UAE to enhance the leadership role of Emirati women in the country's development and ensure that federal institutions implement best practices to achieve their gender equality goals. The UAE has also introduced laws and initiatives to protect women's rights, provide equal job opportunities, ensure decent living standards, and promote their creativity in sustainable and developmental domains.

Additionally, the UAE has taken significant steps to support women's labor force participation, including becoming the first country in the MENA region to introduce paid parental leave for employees in the private sector. The 2020 reform package builds on previous work done by the UAE to prioritize gender equality and women's

2 Retrieved from https://www.mofa.gov.qa/en/all-mofa-news/details/1444/03/11/qatar-affirmsthat-advancement-of-women-is-priority-of-its-policy.

3 Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/31327/WBL2019. pdf.

economic empowerment, including reforms enacted in 2019 to guarantee equality between men and women in applying for passports, allowing women to be heads of households, passing legislation to combat domestic violence and sexual harassment in the workplace, prohibiting gender-based discrimination in employment, and removing job restrictions for women in specific sectors. These reforms were recognized in the World Bank's Women, Business and the Law 2021 report, where the UAE was the highest-ranked country in the MENA region.4

# **8.5 Challenges to Women's Empowerment in the Gulf**

While there have been positive developments in gender equality in the Gulf region, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) noted in 2014 that these advancements have yet to result in increased empowerment and participation of women in public life. In a 2019 report by the MENA Gender Innovation Lab of the World Bank, it was revealed that women's empowerment in the region is still hindered by several challenges, including the need to enhance women's agency and effective representation in decision-making, enforcing equal opportunity laws and regulations, and addressing cultural and social norms that create barriers to women's participation in the economy. The report also emphasized the importance of involving men and boys in promoting gender equality.

These gaps are not exclusive to the Gulf region and gender equality is a common challenge for all nations. However, as pointed out by Hadad (2018), the nature and intensity of these challenges may vary due to ethnic and cultural diversity within each country. Therefore, experts in the region emphasize the need for constructive intercultural dialogue, international cooperation, and a culturally sensitive approach to promoting women's empowerment (DIFI, 2012). It is also essential to recognize the indispensable role that women play in policymaking. Research conducted in the past decade has shown that societies tend to be more peaceful and prosperous when women fully participate in civic and economic life. Women's empowerment is not solely a "feminist issue" but can also be a high-yielding tool for advancing peace and stability. Furthermore, there is a correlation between women's political inclusion and the durability of policies (Robinson, 2021).

Despite a wealth of literature on women's empowerment, there is a notable lack of research on the Gulf region, with the experiences of Arab women being underrepresented in academic literature. Existing research, including the findings presented in this book, highlights that challenges to women's empowerment in the Gulf predominantly stem from cultural, socioeconomic, and political factors.

4 Retrieved from https://www.moec.gov.ae/en/-/gender-equality-and-the-empowerment-ofwomen-and-girls.

# **8.6 Cultural Dimensions**

Women's empowerment in the Gulf region is influenced by various cultural factors that differ significantly between countries due to diverse historical and contextual backgrounds. Interpretations of women's roles within Islamic societies revolve around the complementarity of gender roles and responsibilities, which are crucial to understanding the cultural processes of societal organization (Metcalfe, 2011). Therefore, these differences have significant implications for women's empowerment, particularly in terms of gender stereotypes and subsequent roles and responsibilities. The following section provides a brief overview of these dimensions.

(d) **Divorce and diminished family cohesion**. Although the divorce rate in the Gulf is lower than in the Western world, experts suggest that "the growing divorce rates in the Gulf countries might be due to changes in social structures resulting from economic development, urbanization, education, employment, and globalization" (DIFI, 2022). These changes have a particularly significant negative impact on women and children, increasing the need for additional support in multiple economic and social contexts.

# **8.7 Socioeconomic Dimensions**

The pursuit of women's empowerment through research and policy often focuses on increasing the number of women in the workforce and promoting economic growth through structural and organizational changes (Kemp & Rodriguez, 2019). Unfortunately, this discourse has also perpetuated negative stereotypes about women who prioritize caring for their children, nurturing them, and socializing them (DIFI, 2019, p. 39). Therefore, Naguib and Aref (Chap. 4) emphasize the need for a culturally sensitive and integrative multi-level lens to identify the factors that promote or hinder women's economic empowerment. Additional identified challenges are outlined below:

in Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia aim to reduce the gender pay gap by promoting equal pay for equal work, it is crucial for the private sector to implement these laws into their workplace policies and make necessary changes to ensure compliance (Matthews-Taylor et al., 2020).

# **8.8 Political Dimensions**

The political dimensions of women's empowerment in the Gulf region are rooted in a combination of socio-cultural, structural, and institutional factors, which often result in women's underrepresentation in policymaking positions (Dauletova et al., 2022). This lack of representation can lead to policies and laws that overlook the importance of gender-sensitive perspectives in areas that directly affect women and their families. Therefore, without active engagement in these critical arenas, gender equity may remain elusive in the region.

on short-term work visas with their employers as sponsors. Additionally, Kuwait provides wage, social, and child allowances exclusively for its nationals, and not for expatriates on long-term employment contracts, as noted by Haak-Saheem et al. (2021). These policies further highlight the disparity between national and expatriate workers in the region, which can have negative implications for expatriate women's opportunities and access to resources.

(c) **Insufficient judicial protection in family relations***.* While Gulf countries have made significant progress in closing legal gaps for women and their families, there is still a long way to go in areas such as custody, marriage, inheritance, gender-based violence, and access to the justice system. Despite domestic laws being passed by GCC states, gaps remain in investigating and holding individuals accountable for gender-based violence, and few studies address the issue. For example, although Qatar's second National Development Strategy (2018– 2022) emphasized the "urgent need to review and develop family protection legislations and policies" (p. 220), there is still a need for legislation specifically addressing domestic violence (World Bank, 2019). Furthermore, improving women's empowerment in the judicial arena requires addressing complex legal frameworks in the Gulf region.

# **8.9 Conclusion and Policy Recommendations**

Women play a crucial role in families, politics, the economy, and the overall peace and security of nations. To address the challenges outlined in this policy brief, the following recommendations are proposed5 :

5 Adapted from Robinson, N. (2021, November 23). Women, peace, and security initiative: Advancing U.S. interests through women's empowerment. The Heritage Foundation; and Doha International Family Institute. (2012). *Empowerment of Women in Arab Countries*. Special series volume 5.

The emergence of a new post-pandemic era presents an unprecedented opportunity to renew the commitment to a more sustainable future for women and their families in the Gulf region. This book has shown that long-term progress in women's empowerment requires policies that are tailored to the unique cultural and religious values of the region. Effective policy implementation and monitoring must involve collaboration between government agencies, civil society, and families.

To ensure evidence-based policy development and evaluation, academia and other research institutions should produce gender-specific research. A family-centered approach that empowers women while recognizing the important roles of men and boys is crucial for promoting individual and collective well-being and achieving sustainable progress in women's empowerment.

In summary, achieving sustainable progress in women's empowerment in the Gulf region requires a holistic approach that includes evidence-based gender policies, collaboration between stakeholders, and gender-specific research. The postpandemic era presents an unparalleled opportunity to renew the commitment to a more sustainable future for women and their families.

# **References**

*Qatar National Vision 2030*. (2008). https://www.gco.gov.qa/en/about-qatar/national-vision2030/

**Dr. Ahmed Aref** is a Policy Research Expert, currently working as Planning and Content Manager at Doha International Family Institute (DIFI), a member of Qatar Foundation (QF). He is a PhD holder from the Institute for Policy Research, University of Bath (UK). Prior to joining QF, Ahmed worked for UNFPA Arab States Regional Office, EU Program on Family and Child Rights and the Egyptian Prime Minister's Office. He led strategic initiatives and managed impactoriented projects in various fields. He contributed to numerous national, regional and international conferences and EGMs.

**Angela Fallentine** is a freelance family policy advisor and research analyst at the United Nations. She received a bachelor's degree in journalism from Utah State University and a master's degree from Harvard University. Her public policy research focused on strengthening families in humanitarian settings in the Middle East. Her research interests include public international law, family advocacy, and family skills programs in conflict and post-conflict countries.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# **Chapter 9 Epilogue—Epistemic Healing: Reclaiming Women's Empowerment in Islamic Sources**

**Rabia Naguib**

**Abstract** This epilogue concludes the journey towards a thorough and contextualized understanding of women's empowerment in Arab and Muslim-majority societies, as presented in this book. The study debunks the narrow view and prevailing discourse from Western ideologies, offering a fresh outlook rooted in local values and Islamic teachings. It delves into the Islamic sources and teachings that inform women's empowerment, exploring the policy implications and promoting inclusiveness in such policies. Additionally, the chapter seeks to reconcile the epistemological and cultural tensions in the discourse on women's empowerment.

**Keywords** Women empowerment · Muslim-majority societies · Western ideology · Islamic teachings · Policy learning

# **9.1 Breaking the Mirror: Insight into the Islamic Teachings on Women's Empowerment**

This book advocates for a more nuanced approach to women's empowerment, one that prioritizes policy learning over policy borrowing. Given the complex and sensitive nature of this issue, policymakers must take into account the unique cultural, institutional, and moral frameworks of the local context. The author calls for an "epistemic healing" (Khan & Naguib, 2019) 1 to counteract any potential harm caused by a one-size-fits-all approach and to instead empower local women and men as agents of change, capable of producing knowledge that is relevant and aligned with their own worldview.

R. Naguib (B)

1 "Epistemic healing requires identifying and then calling back to the center of discussion knowledge traditions of the other that it has excluded and made peripheral" (Khan and Naguib, 2019, p. 89).

Department of Public Policy, Doha Institute for Graduate Studies, Doha, Qatar e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
R. Naguib (ed.), *Women's Empowerment and Public Policy in the Arab Gulf States*, Gulf Studies 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6006-4\_9

Hence, it is imperative for the Arab nations to "break the mirror" and embark on their own distinctive journey towards development and progress. Adopting a passive approach of mimicking others is no longer sufficient to preserve cultural heritage and identity or to solve the unique challenges that each nation faces. The process must be guided by a comprehensive understanding of the Arab history, culture, and Islamic worldview, and upheld by ethical and moral principles. This mindset shift will enable the Arab nations to pursue a more genuine and sustainable form of development that reflects their rich and diverse cultural traditions. The benefits of this approach will not only be felt by the people of these nations but also by the global community at large.

As emphasized by the prominent sociologist and futurist, Mahdi Elmandjra (1990, p. 10), "there is no prospect for any Muslim society without effective involvement of women in the community's affairs and the provision of the rights granted to them by Islam." He calls for "self-criticism" and a self-reflective approach within the Islamic world, especially in Arab countries, to find solutions based on their own values and resources instead of copying the West. This scholar draws on the Islamic teachings of the Quran and Sunnah to highlight the need for just and respectful treatment of women, citing the Prophet Muhammad's Farewell pilgrimage sermon,2 as well as the Quranic verse (13:11), which states that change must come from within. Therefore, Elmandjra (1990, p. 3) views change as "an essential ingredient for a better future," and encourages both men and women to adopt a proactive stance in their political, economic, social, and cultural endeavors while taking control of their own destiny, considering both the present and afterlife, and encompassing both the earthly and spiritual realms.

In line with this perspective, the author suggests exploring the source of Islamic principles, Sharia'a, to gain a deeper understanding of women's empowerment. This approach allows policymakers to develop empowerment pathways that are rooted in local values and traditions, rather than solely relying on external models. This recognition of the diverse perspectives and experiences in the discussion on women's empowerment aims to create solutions that are respectful of local norms and values.

2 The "Farewell Sermon" took place in 632 AD, during which the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) addressed various aspects of Islamic faith and also spoke about the rights and responsibilities of women in Islam. In this sermon, he emphasized the equality of all Muslims, regardless of gender. He said, "All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over black nor a black has any superiority over white except by piety and good action.".

# **9.2 Revisiting the Roots of Women's Empowerment in Islamic Traditions**

In order to gain useful insights for the future, we need to trace back to the source. Hence, the teachings of the Quran and Sunnah provide valuable guidance for the promotion of women's rights and empowerment. These lessons can be summarized around several key themes, including:

3 "Whoever does a good deed, whether male or female, and is a believer, those shall enter the Garden, and they shall not be wronged (the equivalent of) so much as a dent in a date-stone" (*Women*, 4:124). "Whoever does a bad deed will only be repaid its equivalent, while whoever does a

importance of truth and fairness in the evaluation of people's actions regardless of gender.

good deed and believes, whether male or female, shall enter the Garden where they will be rewarded without measure" (Forgiver, 40:40); "And God created the heavens and the earth with truth, and so that each soul may be rewarded what it has earned. And they will not be wronged" (Kneeling, 45:22).

4 It is reported that Aisha taught 232 men and 67 women; Umm Salama (Hind) taught 78 men and 23 women; Umm Habiba (Ramla) taught 18 men and 2 women; Hafsa taught 17 men and 3 women. (El Ali, 2022, p. 83).

#### 9 Epilogue—Epistemic Healing: Reclaiming Women's Empowerment … 205

7. Right to Political Participation and Leadership Positions: Such right is enshrined in Islam for both women and men. In the early days of Islam, women were actively involved in the *bay'ah*, or the allegiance to the political system led by the Prophet Mohammed (pbuh). Hence, women in the early Islamic tradition were granted the right to vote much earlier than in the West, where women did not gain this right until the twentieth century. As a testament to the leadership capabilities of women, Omar appointed a literate woman named Al-Shifa' as the minister of trade and commerce, giving her the important task of overseeing the commercial marketplaces. Furthermore, the example of the Queen of Sheba serves as a demonstration of the ability of women to hold influential positions and participate actively in political life.

In conclusion, the teachings of the Quran and Sunnah offer a rich source of guidance for advancing women's rights and empowerment. The core principles of Equality and complementarity, free will, equal responsibilities and rewards, education, property ownership, earnings, political participation, and leadership all affirm the inherent dignity and worth of women in Islamic traditions. These foundational concepts provide the framework for the protection of women's rights in Islam, and it is important to advocate for these rights in Arab societies where cultural and political factors have at times led to deviations from the ideals set forth in Islamic teachings. Policymakers can utilize these principles to enact laws and policies that empower and protect women and ensure that they have access to the necessary resources and support to actively participate in society.

# **9.3 Women in Power: Lessons from the Queen of Sheba in the Quranic Text**

Given the controversies regarding women's political participation and leadership in Muslim communities, we turn to the example of the Queen of Sheba, as portrayed in the Quran, for insightful lessons and policy recommendations. The Queen of Sheba, who presided over a wealthy and influential kingdom in Yemen, was renowned for her wisdom and fairness as a leader. The story of the encounter between Queen Belquis and King-Prophet Solomon is recorded in the Quran (Surah Al-Naml, 27: 15–44) and provides a fascinating and educational account of their interactions. From both the Queen's and King's perspectives, the story offers valuable insights into the dynamics of leadership and decision-making. When King Solomon sent a letter demanding her submission, Queen Belquis consulted with her advisors, who acknowledged her authority and awaited her command. Instead of submitting to King Solomon's demand, the Queen chose to send a gift, which he rejected and threatened military action if her people did not submit. Eventually, Queen Belquis was invited to King Solomon's palace and was impressed by its magnificence, ultimately submitting to God along with King Solomon. This story underlines the significant role that women can play in decision-making and demonstrates the positive results that can come from female leadership. It can serve as valuable source of inspiration and guidance for policymakers, offering important policy implications and lessons to consider, which can be succinctly summarized as follows:

5 This sentence has two potential interpretations: (1) It could be part of the speech delivered by the Queen of Sheba, used to reinforce her previous statements, and (2) It could be a parenthetical statement from God, added in support of the Queen's words, and thus asserting her wisdom and sound judgment.

6. **Acknowledgements of truth and submission to God**: She said: "*O my Lord, I have certainly wronged myself, and I submit with Solomon to Allah, Lord of the worlds*" (27:44). The submission of the Queen of Sheba to God and her admission of her wrongdoing demonstrate her virtuous character, humility, and dedication to justice. This event highlights the spiritual equality between men and women, as she submitted directly to God and not to King Solomon, showcasing the monotheistic belief and rejection of submission or subordination to any human being. Policymakers can take inspiration from this by advancing ethical leadership and combating discrimination to ensure equality for all individuals, regardless of gender.

In conclusion, the account of the Queen of Sheba in Islamic literature offers a powerful illustration of the role of women in political leadership and decisionmaking.6 This story provides valuable insights into the importance of clear problem identification, consultation-based decision-making, trust in female leadership, diplomatic strategies, opposition to wars and imperialism, and submission to Allah (God). These lessons can serve as a source of inspiration for policymakers, promoting ethical leadership, combating discrimination, and ensuring equality for all individuals regardless of gender. Furthermore, this example highlights the potential of Islamic teachings to be a rich resource in better understanding the concept of empowerment and shaping locally relevant policies. The story also showcases the empowering narrative style of allowing the women's voice to be heard rather than having someone speak on their behalf.7

# **9.4** *Tamkeen***: The Islamic Path to Empowerment**

The book posits the idea that empowerment cannot be granted by external forces or a third party. This belief is in line with the Islamic perspective that the source of all power and success lies solely with God, the Almighty. The verse Al Imran (3, 26), which states,

6 The story of the Queen of Sheba in the Quran contradicts the authenticity and validity of certain falsely attributed sayings to Prophet Mohammed (pbuh), such as the one instructing men to not consult with women and ignore their advice. This also calls into question the legitimacy of the saying that "those who entrust their affairs to a woman will never know prosperity." Despite agreement among many prominent Muslim scholars that these statements are either completely false, weak (da'if), isolated (ahad) or specific to a particular situation, they are still culturally used by some as religious arguments to prevent women from taking leadership positions and making decisions.

7 This book adopts a similar approach by granting women the opportunity to define key concepts based on their personal perceptions and experiences. It draws on the voices and narratives of women to construct a context-sensitive and well-founded understanding of women's empowerment in the GCC region.

"*Say, 'O Allah! Lord of all power, You grant power to whomever You will and take it away from whomever You please, and confer honor and dignity on whomever You will and disgrace whomever You please.  Verily, You are the Possessor of full power to do all You will*,"

affirms the ultimate power and control that Allah holds over everything, including empowerment. This means that individuals can be empowered through the grace and will of Allah. The Arabic term used for empowerment in the Quran is "Tamkeen," which is applied at both the individual and collective levels.

The Quran offers numerous examples of empowerment, such as the story of Prophet Yusuf (12:56), which states: "*We empowered Yusuf in the land to live where he chose. We bestow Our blessings on anyone We please and do not waste the rewards of the righteous,*" and Dhul qarnayn in Surah Alkahf (18:84), who was "*empowered throughout the land and given access to all things*." These verses stress the importance of being deserving and righteous in order to gain power and emphasize that this is ultimately determined by Allah's will and provision, rather than solely by one's own efforts.

At the collective level, Surah Al-Hajj (22:41) says, "*Those whom, if We empower on earth, they establish prayer and give zakat, and command with kindness and abstain from the abominable,*8 *and to Allah belongs the outcome of all matters*." This verse calls for individuals to live a life of God-consciousness and fulfill their moral and social responsibilities by promoting kindness, avoiding harmful actions, and observing religious duties like prayer and zakat. This message applies to everyone regardless of gender, highlighting the significance of balancing moral responsibility and accountability in building a harmonious community. By fulfilling these obligations, people can remain mindful of their relationship with God and their responsibility to care for others and to behave ethically, working towards establishing a just society that is guided by moral values.

The Islamic vision of empowerment, as outlined in the Quran, recognizes the role of divine will in granting empowerment and the importance of personal faith and morality in achieving it. Policymakers can play a significant role in promoting this vision by creating educational programs that emphasize religious understanding and moral values, acknowledging the role of divine will, and adopting the Arabic term "Tamkeen" in national initiatives to raise awareness of the Islamic perspective on empowerment. By doing so, they can work towards creating a virtuous and just society where individuals can cultivate a closer relationship with God and be accountable for their actions in both the worldly and transcendental realms. This perspective diverges from the Western perspective and model of empowerment, resulting in an epistemological discord and a collision of values.

8 " "المنكر عن وينهون بالمعروف يأمرون " "is oftentimes translated as "enjoin what is right or just and forbid what is wrong or evil", or "to honour and forbid dishonour." It is directed to others, but it has also a reflexive meaning. *Maarouf* in Arabic is "what is known as such" and *Munkar* meaning "senseless" (El Ali, 2022, p.109).

# **9.5 Towards More Inclusive Pathways: A Call to Action**

It is crucial to understand the different cultural, philosophical, and ideological foundations of women's empowerment and how they shape the way it is perceived and practiced. Western perspectives are predominantly shaping the understanding of women's empowerment and framing the policies diffused globally. These perspectives are often influenced by liberal values, neoliberal ideologies, and modernist philosophical ideas. The Western-oriented conception of empowerment emphasizes self-reliance and autonomy, promoting a self-determined and Promethean self. However, this approach may not align with Islamic teachings and philosophy, which stress the importance of submission to God and obedience to His commands. This emphasis on community and spiritual values over individualism and personal gain sets Islamic philosophy apart from Western-oriented perspectives. The clash between these two value systems can lead to a cultural and worldview conflict.

In his extensive body of work, ElMandjra examined the tension between Western and Islamic values and the issues arising from their interaction. He posited that the West's cultural and political dominance over the Islamic world has caused a collision of values. He argued that Western modernity conflicts with the cultural and religious practices of Islam, and that Western values such as individualism, consumerism, and materialism, are incompatible with Islamic values that stress the importance of community, spiritual fulfillment, and the well-being of the collective. In his book "The Clash of Civilizations" (1996, p. 246), Samuel Huntington acknowledges ElMandjra as the first scholar to use the expression "Civilizational War" in reference to the 1991 Gulf War. However, ElMandjra (2005) presents a contrasting view from Huntington's perspective. His thesis is fundamentally preventive, emphasizing that most future armed conflicts will stem from cultural differences and that the only solution to prevent them is through better cultural communication. On the other hand, Huntington's thesis is inherently prescriptive, identifying non-Judeo-Christian civilizations as the potential source of future dangers.

It is imperative to acknowledge the influence of Western ideologies on our understanding of women's empowerment and to consider alternative perspectives and cultural values. By embracing the diversity of worldviews and value systems, we can broaden our understanding of women's empowerment and develop policies that are more culturally sensitive and inclusive. In this vein, this book strives to offer a unique contribution by highlighting the significance of a nuanced and contextspecific approach to women's empowerment in Arab and Muslim-majority societies. It advocates for the adoption of locally conceived policies that involve the participation of local stakeholders and invites scholars and students to conduct further research that amplifies the voices of underrepresented groups. By fostering a more inclusive conversation on the topic, we can move beyond a narrow, monolithic view and develop a deeper appreciation of the complexities surrounding women's empowerment and other critical topics.

# **References**

**Rabia Naguib** is an Associate professor of Public Policy at Doha Institute for Graduate Studies. She holds a PhD in Strategic management with a minor in Philosophy from HEC Montréal. She acted as Director of the Executive MBA at the University of Sharjah. She was recognized for her contributions to scientific research and teaching with the distinguished Faculty Member Award. Dr. Naguib also served as a Local Tutor for postgraduate students at the University of Leicester, and supervised DBA students as a Visiting Fellow at Nottingham Trent University. Her research on women's empowerment and female entrepreneurship has been well-funded, with competitive grants from GERPA (Gender Economic Research and Policy Analysis), and QNRF (Qatar National Research Fund) as LPI and PI. She has an established record of publications in academic books and in international peer-reviewed journals.

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.