3.5.4. Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay

The FRAP assay was conducted as recommended by Benzie and Strain [68] with slight adjustments. Firstly, the fresh blue FRAP reagent was achieved by mixing 30 mL of acetate buffer, 3 mL of 2,4,6-tris[2-pyridyl]-s-triazine (TPTZ) (Merck, Cat no. T1253) with 3 mL of FeCl3 solution and 6.6 mL of distilled water. Then, an L-ascorbic acid (Sigma-Aldrich®, Cat no. A5960) standard series of 50 μM, 100 μM, 200 μM, 500 μM, and 1000 μM was

prepared from a 1 mM of L-ascorbic acid stock in distilled water. Lastly, in a clear 96-well plate, 300 μL of the FRAP reagent was added to 10 μL of L-ascorbic acid working standard solutions and EO sample (2.0 mg/mL) in triplicate (n = 3). Gallic acid was used as a positive control. For the blank, the phosphate buffer (pH 3.6) was added instead of the sample. The total volume of the assay was 310 μL. The absorbance of TPTZ-Fe (II) in the samples was read at 593 nm at 37 ◦C for 30 min. The results were calculated using the linear regression (R2 = 0.9965) of the L-ascorbic acid (AA) standard series concentrations (μM) and absorbance signals expressed as mean (±SD) of triplicate measurements in μmol L-ascorbic acid equivalents per liter of the sample tested (μmol AAE/L).

#### *3.6. Antityrosinase Assay*

3.6.1. Essential Oils Samples and Positive Control Preparation

A total of 10 mg/mL of EO working solution was prepared with a DMSO: Tween®20 (1:1) solution to facilitate dispersion of the oils then further diluted to 1 mg/mL working solutions with methanol. A 10 mg/mL kojic acid working solution was made up with 100% DMSO and then diluted to 1 mg/mL with methanol.

### 3.6.2. Tyrosinase Inhibition Assay

The tyrosinase inhibition assay was performed as described previously by Popoola et al. [69] and Cui et al. [70] with slight modifications. The concentrations of EO sample and kojic acid chosen, 200 μg/mL and 50 μg/mL, were achieved by setting up the 96-well plate in the following order: 70 μL of the sample (1 mg/mL) then 30 μL of tyrosinase enzyme (500 U/mL). Each concentration of the sample and positive control was set up in two different wells, whereby one of the wells received enzyme and the other well had no enzyme volume added. All volume deficits were compensated by adding excess buffer. The negative controls, 10% *v*/*v* of 1:1 DMSO: Tween®20 in methanol for the EO and 10% *v*/*v* DMSO in methanol for kojic acid were treated the same way. Then, the plate was incubated at 37 ◦C (±2.0 ◦C) for 5 min. Thereafter, the reaction was initiated by adding 110 μL of L-tyrosine (2 mM) and subsequently incubated at 37 ◦C (±2.0 ◦C) for 30 min. The absorbance of L-DOPA was read at 490 nm on a Multiskan™ spectrum plate reader (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). Two independent experiments were carried out in triplicate and the percentage tyrosinase inhibition was calculated using Equation (2).

$$\text{Tyrosinase inhibition (\%)} = \frac{(A - B) - (C - D)}{(A - B)} \times 100,\tag{2}$$

where *A* is the negative control with an enzyme, *B* is the negative control without enzyme, *C* is the EO sample or kojic acid with enzyme and *D* is the EO sample or kojic acid without enzyme. The inhibition percentages were expressed as the mean (±standard deviation) of duplicate measurements. One-way ANOVA was used to compare the absorbance values of the two groups (*p* < 0.05).

#### *3.7. Sun Protection Factor (SPF)*

The protocol used for this assay was conducted as per Kaur and Saraf [71]. The solubility of the EO in different ratios of ethanol and water was tested by taking 10% to 50% of ethanol in distilled water. The maximum solubility was detected at ethanol: water in a 40:60 ratio above which turbidity developed. Thereafter, an initial stock solution of 1% *v*/*v* was prepared by making up 10 μL of the EO to 1 mL of ethanol: water (40:60). Then out of this stock, 0.1% *v*/*v* was prepared. Subsequently, 100 μL of the EO aliquot and the blank (ethanol: water, 40:60) were injected in the 96-well plate and read in triplicate (n = 3) over the 290–320 nm range at 5 nm interval. The SPF value of the essential oil was calculated following the method by Mansur et al. [43]. The mean of the observed absorbance values was multiplied by their respective erythemogenic effect times solar

intensity at wavelength *λ* values, *EE* (*λ*) × *I* (*λ*), then their summation was obtained and multiplied with the correction factor (=10). The calculation is described as Equation (3).

$$\text{SPF}\_{\text{spectrophic} \text{mometric}} = \text{CF} \times \sum\_{290}^{\\$20} \text{EE}\left(\lambda\right) \times I\left(\lambda\right) \times A \text{bs}\left(\lambda\right), \tag{3}$$

where *CF* is the correction factor (=10), *EE* (*λ*) is the erythemogenic effect of radiation at wavelength *λ*, *I* (*λ*) is the solar intensity at wavelength *λ,* and *Abs (λ*) represents the spectrometric absorbance value at wavelength *λ*. The values of *EE* (*λ*) × *I* (*λ*) are constant values that were determined by Sayre et al. [44] as shown in Table 6.

**Table 6.** Relationship between erythemogenic effect and radiation intensity.

#### **4. Conclusions**

The present work is the first report to investigate the chemical composition of *O. suffruticosum* essential oil and its biological activities to explore its cosmeceutical potential in selected biological activities of dermatological relevance. The GC-MS analysis served to identify sixteen constituents (**1**–**8**, **11**–**15**, **17**, **18**, **20**) totaling 85.09% of the composition. The monoterpenoids predominated the chemical composition of the essential oil by 84.64%. The major compounds were found to be ketone and alcohol monoterpenes, camphor (**12**) 31.21%, filifolone (**8**) 13.98%, chrysanthenone (**11**) 8.72%, 1,8-cineole (**6**) 7.85%, and terpinen-4-ol (**14**) 7.39%. According to the in vitro biological evaluations conducted, *O. suffruticosum* essential oil possessed low tyrosinase inhibitory activity, low to moderate antibacterial and antioxidant activity, but a promising sun protection ability as per the calculated SPF value. It is further proposed that the therapeutic properties of this essential oil can be improved by the application of nanotechnologies such as nanoencapsulation and nanostructured lipid carriers. This study establishes that the *O. suffruticosum* essential oil can be used as a complementary ingredient to boost the performance of cosmeceuticals with a prominent potential to be used in sunscreen formulations.

**Author Contributions:** All the authors have participated and contributed substantially to this manuscript. S.O.A.: methodology, investigation, data curation, writing the original draft. R.S.: supervision, validation, writing—review & editing. C.W.J.A.: methodology, validation, resourcesbiology-antioxidants. J.L.M.: methodology, validation, resources—biology-antioxidants. A.A.H.: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, resources, writing—review & editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This study was supported by National Research Foundation, South Africa (grant number 106055), and "The APC was funded by the Cape Peninsula University of Technology and University of the Western Cape".

**Acknowledgments:** Thanks to the Cape Flat Natural Reserve for the collection of the plant materials.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


*4.1. Synthesis*

Compounds (**1**) {[La2Cu3(μ-H2O)(ODA)6(H2O)3]·3H2O}n (LaCuODA) and (**2**) {[La2Co3(ODA)6 (H2O)6]·12H2O}n (LaCoODA)) have been previously reported [43,44] and were prepared accordingly, with slight modifications of the synthetic route. Complex (**1**) was synthesized by direct reaction of stoichiometric amounts of LaCl3·7H2O (0.37 g, 1.0 mmol), CuCl2·2H2O (0.20 g, 1.5 mmol), and oxydiacetic acid 0.40 g, 3.0 mmol). Reagents were dissolved in water (*ca*. 35 mL); pH was adjusted with diluted ammonia to 5–6. Light blue crystals of the complex appeared after 2–3 weeks. These were separated by filtration and washed twice with water. Complex (**2**) was prepared starting from La2O3 (98 mg, 0.3 mmol), Co(COOCH3)2·4H2O (224 mg, 0.9 mmol), and oxydiacetic acid (322 mg, 2.4 mmol). Then, 30 mL water was added, and the mixture was placed in a Teflon-lined 45 mL stainless steel acid digestion vessel and heated at 120 ◦C for 45 h. The resulting solution was filtered, and the filtrate was allowed to stand at room temperature. After five days, a pale red polycrystalline solid appeared. It was filtered and washed twice with water.

The purity of the solids was checked by elemental analysis (C, H) and IR spectroscopy.

Calculated for La2Cu3C24H38O37 (1), C, 20.8; H, 2.8. Found, C, 21.2; H, 2.9%.

Calculated for La2Co3C24H60O48 (2): C, 18.3; H, 4.0. Found: C, 18.5; H, 4.2%.

IR spectra were almost identical for both complexes, and can be used as a quick control of the purity of the compounds. The shift of νCOO (1724, 1419 cm−1) of the free ligand to *ca.* 1600 and 1430 cm−1 is noticeable. Besides, upon complexation, νCOC ( 1149 cm−1 ) for the free ligand shifts to *ca.* 1120 cm−1 (see Supplementary Information Figure S1a,b).

#### *4.2. Surface Area Determination*

The specific surface area (SBET) was measured by CO2 sorption measurement at 273 K, using Micrometrics 3 Flex equipment. Prior to the measurements, the samples were outgassed at 250 ◦C for 2 h. The BET surface area was estimated from the adsorption branch of the isotherms in the range 0.05 ≤ P/P ≤ 0.15. Additionally, the surface area was also estimated using the Langmuir equation. The average pore diameter was calculated using the DFT method, applied to the CO2 adsorption isotherm (Figures S2 and S3).


**1. Introduction**

The 9 wt.% Cr creep strength enhanced ferritic (CSEF) steels (e.g., T/P91, T/P92, T/P911, C/FB2, MARBN, NPM1, etc.) represent advanced structural materials for application in high-efficiency power engineering. However, for constructing complex power generation equipment, fusion welding technologies are needed for joining individual functional parts. In accordance with the numerous research studies and ex-service experience, e.g., [1–5], it has been generally accepted that the fusion welded joints of ferritic steels represent the most critical component locations with respect to their preferential degradation and potential failure. Besides the regions of base material (BM) and weld metal (WM) within the structures of all welded joints, thermal effect of fusion welding on the welded ferritic steels' BMs typically results in the creation of a relatively wide heat-affected zone (HAZ) consisting of several, continuously created microstructural sub-regions, i.e., often called the "HAZ microstructural gradient". Its occurrence within the welded joint represents the primary, welding-induced microstructure degradation zone, since the individual HAZ sub-regions, such as the coarse-grained HAZ (CG-HAZ), fine-grained HAZ (FG-HAZ), inter-critical HAZ (IC-HAZ), and subcritical HAZ (SC-HAZ), possess mutually various microstructures and mechanical properties [6–8].

Depending on several factors including the welding metallurgy-related material properties and outer loading and/or environmental conditions, the fusion weldments can be susceptible to some of several typical failures [9]. The "Type I" and "Type II" failures, originating from intercrystalline cracks in weld metals, are generally related to the so-called "hot cracking" phenomena, typically occurring in weld solidified microstructures with higher impurity content. However, the occurrence of these failures has been considerably suppressed in the ferritic steels' weldments thanks to the recently developed ferritic filler materials of high metallurgical purity [10]. The "Type III" failure typically occurs within the CG-HAZ close to the weld fusion zone (FZ) of low alloy ferritic steel weldments. This failure type has been often related to the so-called "reheat cracking" due to either residual stress relief during the PWHT or superabundant secondary precipitation hardening in FZ/CG-HAZ during high temperature creep exposure [11–13]. In a specific case of dissimilar weldments, the considered failure type (sometimes referred to as "Type IIIa" failure [14]) is related to premature creep cracking within the area of soft, carbon-depleted CG-HAZ, created as a result of the decarburization processes driven by the carbon activity gradient at the interface between the lower grade ferritic steel and the higher grade weld metal. Last but not least, depending on acting environmental conditions, the "Type III" failure may also be related to so-called "cold cracking" phenomena, i.e., hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) or environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) [15,16]. This failure occurs due to exceeding the critical hydrogen concentration in locally hardened FZ/CG-HAZ areas with the highest degree of transformation (i.e., martensitic) hardening as a consequence of the welding thermal cycle. Under long-term creep conditions, the welded joints of ferritic heat-resistant steels are typically prone to the "Type IV" failure within their FG-/IC-HAZs because these regions exhibit the lowest creep strength within the whole weldment. This failure is generally related to severe degradation of transformation hardening mechanism and preferential coarsening of Fe2(W,Mo)-based Laves phase within the failure location [17,18]. The study by Albert et al. [19] showed that the "Type IV" failure is caused by preferential creep strain accumulation in the soft, fine-grained HAZ regions (FG-/IC-HAZs) due to the multiaxial stress state induced by microstructural heterogeneity throughout the weld-joint. A specific failure type is related to "cracking in over-tempered base material" which typically occurs within the softened region of SC-HAZ and is characterized by a highly ductile fracture [20,21]. This failure type is observed usually in welded joints after the high temperature tensile tests or after high-stress short-term creep tests [21,22]. The mechanism of microstructural and property degradation in SC-HAZ, i.e., within the over-tempered base material, is believed to arise from the coarsening of precipitates during the welding thermal cycle. After longer durations of low-stress creep tests, the failure commonly shifts from the over-tempered region to the "Type IV" failure region. However, unlike the short-term "over-tempered base metal cracking", the long-term "type IV cracking" is characterized by low-ductility creep failure [23].

In common industrial practice, the weldments of CSEF steels are necessarily subjected to conventional PWHT, i.e., the subcritical tempering below the steel Ac1 critical transformation temperature. The main aim of such PWHT is to relieve residual stresses and thermally stabilize the weld microstructure with secondary phase precipitates, typically the M23 C6 (M = Cr, Fe ... ) carbides and MX (M = V, Nb; X = C, N) carbo-nitrides. The direct consequence of performing the subcritical PWHT procedure is related to the decrease of unallowably high hardness in FZ/CG-HAZ and improvement of the overall weld fracture resistance [19,24]. However, it has been proved [19] that the occurrence of premature "Type IV" creep failure in ferritic steels' weldments cannot be avoided by any variation in the subcritical PWHT regime, since their HAZ microstructural gradients remain still preserved within subcritically tempered microstructures. On the other hand, several studies [25,26] suggested that the only way to enable the "Type IV" failure suppression in ferritic welds is associated with so-called "full heat treatment" which involves the weld renormalization (i.e., the weld complete reaustenitization and its subsequent cooling on still air), followed by conventional subcritical tempering.

Our previous investigations [27,28] were focused on investigation of the e ffects of both the conventional tempering and quenching-and-tempering PWHT procedures of T92/TP316H

martensitic/austenitic weldments on their microstructure and creep behavior. The results showed that the quenching-and-tempering PWHT led to "Type IV" failure elimination and thus notable creep life improvement as a result of significant homogenization of the T92 steel microstructure, i.e., complete suppression of the T92 HAZ microstructural gradient thanks to performed reaustenitization. Moreover, our separate study [29] on the T92 HAZ local mechanical properties of the T92/TP316H weldments indicated, that compared to the weldments subjected to only conventional PWHT, the T92 HAZ of quenched-and-tempered weldments exhibited lower hardness and higher impact toughness. The combined e ffects of quenching-and-tempering PWHT and subsequent electrochemical hydrogen charging on room-temperature tensile properties of the T92/TP316H weldments were investigated in [30]. It has been revealed that the applied electrochemical hydrogen charging did not a ffect the strength properties of the weldments significantly, but it resulted in quite serious deterioration of their deformation properties along with significant impact on their fracture behavior and final failure localization. The most critical region was found to be the interfacial weld region close to the T92 steel FZ.

Our present study represents a continuous research work to our aforementioned former studies. It deals with investigation of the e ffects of initial PWHT conditions and subsequent electrochemical hydrogenation on the resulting room-temperature tensile properties and fracture behavior of T92/T92 welded joints. Mutual correlations between varying microstructural characteristics induced by di fferent initial PWHT regimes and resulting mechanical properties of the weldments in either hydrogen-free or hydrogen-charged conditions are discussed.

### **2. Materials and Methods**

Four segments of industrially normalized and tempered T92 tubes (outer diameter 38 mm, wall thickness 5.6 mm, approx. tube segment length 130 mm) were circumferentially welded in the company SES a.s. Tlmaˇce, Slovakia. The welded joints were produced by gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) technique using T92-based filler metal Thermanit MTS 616 to prepare two equivalent T92/T92 weldments. The T92/T92 welds geometry was the same as also used in our previous study about long-term ageing e ffects on room-temperature tensile behavior of quenched and tempered T92/TP316H dissimilar weldments [31]. Specifically, the 60◦ groove angle and 2–3 mm root gap was used. Welding parameters for the preparation of T92/T92 welded joints were the following ones: welding current 120–160 A, voltage 12–17 V and heat input 9–12 kJ/cm. The diameter of TIG electrode was 2.4 mm and the negative polarity on the electrode was used. Table 1 shows chemical compositions of the T92 steel base material (T92 BM) and T92 steel-based filler metal (T92 FM) Thermanit MTS 616.

**Table 1.** Chemical composition (wt.%) of T92 base material (T92 BM) and T92-based filler metal (T92 FM) used for fabrication of T92/T92 weldments.

The chemical compositions in Table 1 represent certified alloy compositions by the material producers Tenaris Dalmine (Dalmine—BG, Italy) and Voestalpine Böhler Welding (Düsseldorf, Germany), respectively.

The two prepared weldments were individually subjected to mutually di ffering post-welding heat treatment (PWHT) procedures. Figure 1 shows schematic illustration of both these PWHT procedures in context with the equilibrium phase diagram including isoplethal section for T92 BM, computed by thermodynamic software ThermoCalc (version S, Thermo-Calc Software AB, Solna, Sweden) using thermodynamic database TCFE6.

**Figure 1.** Calculated equilibrium phase diagram with schematic illustrations of individual post-welding heat treatment (PWHT) regimes applied in the present study for T92/T92 weldments (The T92 steel composition is indicated in the diagram by vertical dashed line at 0.11 wt.% C).

The first T92/T92 weldment was conventionally tempered at 760 ◦C (i.e., below the Ac1 temperature of T92 steel) for 60 min and then slowly cooled within the tempering furnace (see the PWHT-1 in Figure 1). On the other hand, the second T92/T92 weldment was subjected to its full renormalization consisting of the complete reaustenitization at 1060 ◦C (i.e., well above the Ac3 temperature of T92 steel) for 20 min and subsequently cooled on still air, followed by its conventional subcritical tempering (see the PWHT-2 in Figure 1). From both weldments, twelve cylindrical tensile test specimens of cross-weld (c-w) configuration with partly discontinuous M6 thread (due to the above specified tube wall thickness) within their head portions were machined. A schematic illustration of the tensile test specimen is shown in Figure 2.

**Figure 2.** The tensile test specimen for cross-weld tensile testing of T92/T92 weldments (All dimensions are in mm), gauge length diameter 4 mm, gauge length 38 mm.

Electrolytic hydrogenation, i.e., cathodic hydrogen charging of prepared cylindrical c-w tensile specimens was performed in electrolytic solution of 1M HCl with 0.1N N2H6SO4 at a current density of 300 A/m2. The hydrogenation was realized at room temperature for 24 h. This procedure has been optimized and used in our several former studies [15,30,32] which indicated full saturation of tensile specimens by hydrogen after 24 h of their electrolytic hydrogenation. Similar findings, supported by hydrogen concentration measurements indicated the same or even shorter hydrogenation time for achieving the hydrogen concentration saturation in electrochemically hydrogen-charged alloy steels, as reported in other studies, e.g., [33–35]. Yin et al. [36] indicated that the content of diffusible hydrogen tends to be the saturation state when the hydrogen charging time reaches 48 h. However, they showed that the difference in diffusible hydrogen concentration for 24 and 48 h of hydrogen charging was

already rather small (i.e., within experimental value scattering). A schematic illustration of the whole experimental setup is visualized in Figure 3.

**Figure 3.** Schematic illustration of electrolytic hydrogenation.

The room-temperature tensile tests were performed for individual welds' PWHT states in both hydrogen-free and hydrogen-charged conditions. The tensile testing was carried out using TIRATEST 2300 universal testing machine (TIRA GmbH, Schalkau, Germany) at a crosshead speed of 0.05 mm/min. Three tensile test specimens per each state (i.e., "PWHT-1", "PWHT-2", "PWHT-1 + hydrogen", and "PWHT-2 + hydrogen") were investigated. The hydrogen-charged samples were tested immediately after the electrolytic hydrogen charging. The evaluation of c-w tensile properties (i.e., yield stress "YS" estimated as 0.2% proof stress, ultimate tensile strength "UTS", total elongation at fracture "EL", and reduction of area at fracture "RA") involved the calculation of their average values and corresponding standard deviations.

Local mechanical properties of studied weldments were characterized by means of hardness measurements which were performed using a Vickers 432 SVD hardness tester (Wolpert Wilson Instruments, division of Instron Deutschland GmbH, Aachen, Germany) on plain surfaces of longitudinal sections of fractured tensile specimens. This procedure was also helpful for indication of local strain hardening effects within the studied weldments during the tensile tests. The referential, i.e., un-deformed samples corresponding to both initial PWHT states were also tested for hardness. All the hardness measurements were performed at 98 N loading for 10 s per measurement.

Microstructural analyses of the studied weldments were performed on the conventionally prepared metallographic samples (i.e., wet grinding on SiC papers with granularity from 500 to 1200 grit, cloth polishing with a diamond paste suspension of a particle size ranging from 1 to 0.25 μm and final etching in a solution consisting of 120 mL CH3COOH, 20 mL HCl, 3 g picric acid, and 144 mL CH3OH) using the light optical microscope OLYMPUS GX71 (OLYMPUS Europa Holding GmbH, Hamburg, Germany) and the scanning electron microscope (SEM) JEOL JSM-7000F (Jeol Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Fractographic analyses were carried out using the SEM Tescan Vega-3 LMU (TESCAN Brno, s.r.o., Czech Republic).

### **3. Results and Discussion**


Meet the editors

Dr. Işıl Var is a professor in food engineering at Çukurova University, Turkey. She received her BSc in 1981 at Hacettepe University, and MSc in 1987 and PhD in 1993 at Çukurova University. She had a postdoctoral visit to the University of Sussex in the UK between 1993 and 1995. She has published 70 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals in the field of food microbiology, and filed a patent with Dr. Sinan Uzunlu on

modified atmosphere packaging. She has graduated several MSc and PhD students. She is a member of numerous national and international societies. She received several awards from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland in 2007.

Dr. Sinan Uzunlu is a lecturer in food engineering at Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, Turkey. He received his BSc in 1999 at Çukurova University, and MSc in 2002 and PhD in 2012 at Akdeniz and Çukurova universities, respectively. He had postdoctoral visits to the University of Reading in the UK between 2014 and 2017. He has published 13 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals in the field of food micro-

biology and food packaging, and filed a patent with Professor Işıl Var on modified atmosphere packaging. He is a member of national and international societies. He has received awards from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, the Council of Higher Education (Turkey), and the Society of Chemical Industry (UK).

**Preface III**

**Chapter 1 1**

**Chapter 2 7**

**Chapter 3 25**

**Chapter 4 53**

**Chapter 5 71**

Introductory Chapter: Active Antimicrobial Food Packaging

Use of Natural Antimicrobial Agents: A Safe Preservation Approach *by Farhan Saeed, Muhammad Afzaal, Tabussam Tufail and Aftab Ahmad*

Using Native Plants of the Northeast of Mexico for Developing Active

Protein-Based Active Film as Antimicrobial Food Packaging: A Review

Edible Films Incorporated with Active Compounds: Their Properties and

*by Cecilia Rojas de Gante, Judith A. Rocha and Carlos P. Sáenz Collins*

*by Sinan Uzunlu and Işıl Var*

Contents

Antimicrobial Food Packaging Films

Application

*by Saroat Rawdkuen*

*by Nurul Saadah Said and Norizah Mhd Sarbon*

## Contents

Preface

Food packaging is an essential process to obtain a durable good for both producers and consumers. The primary function of packaging is to protect foods from physical, chemical, and biological spoilage during their shelf life. The shelf life period is very much dependent on the conditions of the packaging and storage conditions of the foodstuffs. This period determines not only the stability of the foods but also affects their safety, because marketed foods must be ready to consume in terms of food safety conditions. If the safety of foods isn't sufficient to comply with the quality standards, then public health will be at risk. To overcome such problems the food industry has been implementing many solutions to provide the best marketed foodstuffs. Packaging is one of these attempts. In the current hi-tech world, packaging is experiencing a renewing process to stand up to trends. Therefore, active and intelligent packaging is being researched and marketed by the global packaging community. Active food packaging refers to actively changing the conditions of the packaging within the atmospheric gas composition of the inner and/or outer surface of the package to extend the shelf life of packed foods. Specifically, active antimicrobial packaging uses packaging materials to carry antimicrobials to the food to provide bioactivity in the packaging atmosphere. Intelligent packaging can sense environmental changes and inform the retailer or consumer of the new conditions of the package atmosphere because the conditions might be negatively changed during the transportation or storage periods, for example temperature fluctuation, gas exchange, microbial growth, or off-flavor release. Therefore, this kind of packaging communicates with the end user to display knowledge of ingredients, production,

The current book is composed of five chapters and is aimed at enlightening readers of the adaptation of active food packaging applications. Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter written by the editors of the book, Sinan Uzunlu and Işıl Var. Chapter 2 is written by Farhan Saeed, Muhammad Afzaal, Tabussam Tufail, and Aftab Ahmad. The authors have extensively reviewed the use of natural antimicrobial agents for active packaging applications. Related with that chapter, authors Cecilia Rojas de Gante, Judith A. Rocha, and Carlos P. Saenz Collins have provided their research in Chapter 3. A review by Nurul Saadah Said and Norizah Mhd Sarbon is provided on protein-based active film as antimicrobial food packaging in Chapter 4. The edibility of protective films has been known since the ancient era of human society. Chapter 5 is on edible films incorporated with active compounds, including their properties and application and is authored by Rawdkuen Saroat. We are grateful to all the contributors who made this book possible, and it is our expectation that this book will be beneficial for students, academicians, and professionals in the field of food and materials science, and in the packaging

We would like to express our special thanks to Ms. Romina Skomersic, who served as Publishing Process Manager, for her timeless support to finalize the book project.

and expiry date.

community.


**3. Results**

#### *3.1. Yield, Biometric and Physiological Traits of the Pea Plants*

The effects of the biostimulators and foliar fertilizers on the pea plants were variable between years and depended on weather conditions (Table 4). In 2016, which was characterized by average precipitation levels during the growing season, the greatest increase in yield (compared to the control) was observed after application of Bolero Mo or Adob Zn IDHA and amounted to 0.36 and 0.28 t ha−1, respectively. In 2017, which was characterized by good water availability throughout the entire growing season, a significant increase in seed yield (compared to the control) was observed after the application of Rooter, Adob 2.0 Mo, and Optysil, and amounted to 0.39, 0.62 and 0.80 t ha−1 respectively. In 2018, which was characterized by very poor water supply during the critical period for pea development, seed yields were very low. In the event of drought stress, none of the tested biostimulators and fertilizers contributed to a significant increase in yield (Table 4).

**Table 4.** The influence of biostimulator and fertilizer treatments on crop yield (t ha−1).

> Different letters denote significant differences at level α = 0.05.

Features such as seed moisture content at harvest (Table 5), pod weight per plant and seed weight in one pod were affected more by weather conditions during the study period than by the application of biostimulators and fertilizers. A significant reduction or increase (compared to the control) in the values of these features was not found across years as a result of the use of a biostimulator or foliar fertilizer, therefore, tables with these results are not included in the paper.

**Table 5.** The influence of biostimulator and fertilizer treatments on seed moisture content (%).

> Different letters denote significant differences at level α = 0.05.

Similarly, the 1000 seed weight changed more strongly under the influence of weather conditions during the study period than from the treatments (Table 6). In 2016, a significantly higher 1000 seed weight value was observed after the pea crop was fertilized with Adob Zn IDHA, with an increase in yield of 11.5 g (compared to the control). In 2017, the increase in yield was 18.1 g, after application of Bolero Mo, while no differences were observed between treatments in the drier 2018.

Different letters denote significant differences at level α = 0.05.

In 2016, seed weight per plant was significantly greater than in the control treatment after the application of Metalosate Potassium, Optysil and Rooter. In the drier 2018, seed weight per plant was significantly greater after the application of Bolero Mo and Optysil, while in 2017, when the plants were supplied with sufficient water, seed weight per plant increased after application of the treatments, although none were statistically significant (Table 7).

The share of seed in whole plant weight changed significantly under the influence of the biostimulators and fertilizers in two (2017 and 2018) of the three years (Table 8). In the wetter 2017, no differences were found after the application of any of the treatments (compared to the control), while in the drier 2018, a significant increase of 20.2 percentage points occurred only after the application of Bolero Mo. Plant height was another feature that changed more between years than from the influence of the treatments (Table 9). A significant increase in plant height was only found in 2016, which followed the application of Adob Zn IDHA, Adob B, and Metalosate potassium, and was 10.3, 10.8 and 13.5 cm respectively. Plant dry mass was significantly greater in 2016 after Adob B application, in 2017 after Adob Zn IDHA application, Adob B, and Metalosate potassium applications, and in the drier 2018 after spraying with Optysil (Table 10).

**Table 7.** The influence of biostimulator and fertilizer treatments on seed weight per plant (g).

> Different letters denote significant differences at level α = 0.05.

**Table 8.** The influence of biostimulator and fertilizer treatments on the share of seed in whole plant weight (%).

Different letters denote significant differences at level α = 0.05.

**Table 9.** The influence of biostimulator and fertilizer treatments on plant height (cm).

Different letters denote significant differences at level α = 0.05.

Application of biostimulators and foliar fertilizers significantly changed the CCI (Table 11). In 2016 and 2017, the Rooter, Optysil and Bolero Mo treatments significantly stimulated CCI compared to the control treatment, while in the drier conditions of 2018, the application of all treatments, except Rooter and Adob B, significantly increased the CCI value. It should also be noted that the CCI was slightly modified by the weather conditions between years.

**Table 10.** The influence of biostimulator and fertilizer treatments on plant dry mass (g).

> Different letters denote significant differences at level α = 0.05.

**Table 11.** The influence of biostimulator and fertilizer treatments on the Chlorophyll Content Index (CCI).

Different letters denote significant differences at level α = 0.05.

Chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm parameter) describes the physiological state of a plant and provides a measure of its stress level. In the measurements carried out at the beginning of the maturation phase (BBCH 78) in 2016, plants fertilized with Adob Zn IDHA or Adob B were in a significantly better condition than the control plants. In 2017, plants fertilised with Bolero Mo or Metalosate potassium or were also less stressed, as were the plants that received an application of Optysil, Rooter or Bolero Mo in 2018 (Table 12).

**Table 12.** The influence of the biostimulator and fertilizer treatments on chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm).

Different letters denote significant differences at level α = 0.05.

The LAI value was also significantly modified following the application of the biostimulators and fertilizers, and also differed between years, with the highest values observed in 2017 (Table 13), which was characterized by good water availability throughout the entire growing season. The use of Optysil and Adob 2.0 Mo in each of the years of the study significantly increased the LAI value compared to the control. In 2016, the use of all treatments, with the exception of Adob Zn, IDHA and Adob B, resulted in significantly increased LAI values compared to the control, and the largest increase in LAI in the study was observed after application of Optysil. In 2017, Adob 2.0 Mo performed even better than Optysil.

**Table 13.** The influence of the biostimulator and fertilizer treatments on leaf area index (LAI).

> Different letters denote significant differences at level α = 0.05.

The two-way analysis of variance showed that the application of foliar fertilization/bio-stimulants had a significant influence on enzymatic activity and on BIF values. Only the term of the study (development phase, based on BBCH scale) had a highly significant influence on enzymatic activity and on BIF. Two-way analysis of variance showed that the application of foliar fertilization/bio-stimulants had a significant influence on nitrogenase activity.


**OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER - THE OLD AND THE NEW PROBLEMS**

Edited by **Vladimir Kalinin**

#### **Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - The Old and the New Problems**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56999 Edited by Vladimir Kalinin

#### **Contributors**

Gaikwad Tukaram Uday, María-José Martín-Vázquez, Zena Al-Sharbati, Elisa Krackow, Mushtaq Margoob, Marc Lavoie, Geneviève Sauvé, Simon Morand-Beaulieu, Kieron O'Connor, Elana Harris, Milena Korostenskaja, Vladimir Kalinin

#### **© The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2014**

The moral rights of the and the author(s) have been asserted.

All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECH. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECH's written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECH rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com).

Violations are liable to prosecution under the governing Copyright Law.

Individual chapters of this publication are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License which permits commercial use, distribution and reproduction of the individual chapters, provided the original author(s) and source publication are appropriately acknowledged. If so indicated, certain images may not be included under the Creative Commons license. In such cases users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. More details and guidelines concerning content reuse and adaptation can be foundat http://www.intechopen.com/copyright-policy.html.

#### **Notice**

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in Croatia, 2014 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia

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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - The Old and the New Problems Edited by Vladimir Kalinin p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-1238-9 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-953-51-7199-7


**3. Results**

#### **3.1 Socioeconomic attributes**

The main occupation of the indigenous communities of the sampled villages in and around JNP is subsistence farming and collecting/harvesting NTFPs supplemented with some temporary activities like daily paid manual labor or petty business. According to our classification made on the basis of total monthly household income, there were only two income groups. Almost all the respondents, that is, 95.33%, were in the low-income group living on USD 2–10 daily, and the rest were in the mediumincome group living on 10–20 USD daily. The contribution of NTFP toward the total monthly household income varied widely in the range of 1–70% with an average of 45%. Around 60% of the respondents in the study area were literate, had spent at least two years in formal education, and had a tendency to search for an alternate occupation other than farming or collecting NTFP.

#### **3.2 NTFPs diversity/richness**

Documented NTFPs were listed as plant, fungus, and animal origin. A total of 146 NTFP species representing 126 genera and 76 families were documented, which were used by the indigenous communities of JNP (**Figure 1**; **Table 1**). Of these documented species, 95 were collected from the wild, 24 were cultivated, and 27 were either collected from the wild or cultivated (**Table 1**). Out of these documented NTFP species, 125 were plants, 14 animals, and seven fungi. Among the plants, trees dominated the list with 70 species, followed by herbs with 32 species, shrubs with 16 species, and climbers the least with seven species. Fishes with 13 species dominated the list of animals with one species of honeybee. Family *Fabaceae* among plants dominated the list with six species and six genera followed by *Euphorbiaceae* and *Malvaceae* each with five genera and five species. In animals, family *Cyprinidae* dominated with five genera and five species. In fungus, *Pleurotaceae* and *Lyophyllaceae* dominated with two species each.

Sn- scientific name; Vn- vernacular name; F- family; Lf- life form (C- climber; Fifish; Fu- fungus; H- herb; I- insect; S- shrub; T- tree); Is- IUCN status (DD-Data deficient; NA-Not yet assessed; LC-Least concern); Toc- time of collection (Whole year- Wy); Pu- part used (B- bark; Br- branch; Ds- dry seed; Fl-flower; Fr-fruit;

**Figure 1.** *NTFP diversity/richness used by fringe communities of JNP.*

**Sl. No. Sn/Vn/F/Lf Is Toc/Pu Mou RFC** 13 *Rita rita* (Ham.) *Rita*; Bagridae LC Wy Cooked and consumed 0.93 Animal origin- insect 14 *Trigona Sp. Putka*; Apidae — Sep-Jan/ Ho Cooked and consumed as medicine. 0.92 Plant origin- climber 15 *Coccinia grandis* (L.) Voigt *Telakucha*; Cucurbitaceae NA May-Aug/ L, Fr Cooked as vegetable 0.82 16 *Cissusrepanda* Vahl. *Panilahara*; Vitaceae NA Wy/Tw Whole plant is used to make rope and as fodder. 0.88 17 *Dioscorea bulbifera* L. *Githa*; Dioscoreaceae NA Wy/B, L Dried powder of tuber is applied to cure ulcer and cooked as vegetable. 0.73 18 *Dioscorea pentaphylla* L. *Bhegur*; Dioscoreaceae NA Jun-Jan/ Rh Extract is applied on infected portion to cure boil and cooked as vegetable. 0.73 19 *Momordicadioica* Roxb. Ex willd. *Ban karela*; Cucurbitaceae NA May-Jul/ Fr, R Fruits cooked as vegetable and also consumed to cure stomach disorder. Leaf extract administered orally (250 ml) twice a day for two days during fever. 0.72 20 *Piper thomsonii* Linn. *Pipla*; Piperaceae NA Nov-Mar/ Fr Fruits are boiled in water with salt. This mixture is consumed to cure cough & cold. 0.96 21 *Plumbagozeylanica* L. *Chita*; Plumbaginaceae NA Wy/L, R, B Leaf extracts are mixed with rice for making rice beer. Rhizomes are crushed and boiled and consumed empty stomach during early morning to treat fever. 0.71 Plant origin- herb 22 *Achyranthusarpera* L. *Apang*; Amaranthaceae NA Jan-Dec/R, Sd Root powder mixed with black salt or root and seed crushed together and consumed with water to get relief from indigestion and dysentery. 0.44 23 *Ageratum conyzoides* L. *Bhusuri*; Asteraceae NA Wy/L Fresh leaf extracts are applied on cut and wound and bandaged to stop bleeding and for healing. 0.82 24 *Artemisia vulgaris* L. *Titepate*; Asteraceae NA Wy/L, Fl, R Leaves, flowers, and roots are crushed together with fresh water and consumed to control dysentery. 0.20 25 *Asparagus racemosus* Willd. *Satamuli*; Asparagaceae NA Jan-Dec/Fl, R Dried root powder is consumed to get relief from diabetes and dysentery. Leaves are eaten to get relief from fever. 0.60 26 *Bambusa bamboos* (L.) Voss *Bans*; Poaceae NA Wy/Wp Used for fencing and making small bridge and ladder. 0.83 27 *Bambusa vulgaris* Schrad ex J.C Wendl. *Baans*; Poaceae NA Wy/Ys, L, St Young and tender shoots are cooked as vegetable and processed as pickle. Leaves are used as fodder and clumps as fencing. 0.09 28 *Basella alba* L. *Pui sag*; Basellaceae NA May-Jul/L Decoction of root relieves vomiting. Tender twigs are used as vegetables. 0.22

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

**Table 1.**

*Utilization pattern of NTFP species in JNP.*

Ho- honey; Hw-Hardwood; L-leaf; Lt-latex; Mu- mushroom; P- pod; R- root; Rh- rhizome; Rs- resin; Sd- seed; Sh-shoot; St-stem; Tu-Tuber; Tw-twigs; Wp- whole plant; Ys- young shoot); Mou- mode of utilization; RFC- Relative Frequency citation.

### **3.3 Relative frequency citation**

The RFC value ranged from 0.2 to 0.96 for all categories of NTFPs with an average of 0.78. In overall categories, the NTFP species collected most were *Piper thomsonii*, *Diplazium esculatum*, and *Ziziphus mauritiana*. All most all of the respondents (96%) cited these species. This is because these plant species have higher sale value in the local market. Among the 13 fish species, the RFC value ranged from 0.73 to 0.94 and the most collected fish species were *Heterepneutesfossiles, Penaeus monodon,* and *Labeorohita*and *Catla- catla* (0.94) and the least collected species was *Channa strictus* (0.73). Among fungus, the value ranged from 0.64 to 0.94 and the most collected species was *Pleurotusostreatus* and and the least was *Termitomycesclypeatus*, while the RFC value for single species of Bee *Trigona Sp.* was 0.92 (**Figure 2**).

**Figure 3.** *Plant parts used.*

### **3.4 Parts used, harvesting pattern, and time**

Plant parts of NTFPs used by the indigenous communities of JNP and their mode of harvesting and utilization pattern are presented in **Table 1** and **Figure 3**. It was recorded that leaves/foliage were the most used plant part harvested/collected from 70 species, followed by fruits of 36 species, branches of 30 species, barks of 23 species, roots and rhizomes of 21 species, flowers of 17 species, seeds of 16 species, and shoots, twigs, and tender stem of 10 species. Latex and resin were extracted from three plant species. More than 60% of the documented NTFP species were collected or harvested throughout the year, and prominent among these is fuel wood. About 25% species

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

were collected or harvested during the rainy season, which include fodder, wild vegetable, medicinal plants, mushroom, honey, and fish. Fourteen species were collected or harvested during winter season, and the rest of the species were collected or harvested during the summer season. Generally, leaves were harvested during the profuse growth period of plant, that is, rainy season, which included fodder and leafy vegetable.

#### **3.5 Utilization**

The various uses of the NTFP species are for medicine, food, fruit, vegetables, spice, fodder, fuel wood, decoration/craft, fencing, and religious purposes as well as for construction, agriculture implements, soap/shampoo, rope, furniture, plate, and mosquito repellent (**Table 1** and **Figure 4**). The maximum number of species were documented with single use (75 species), and *Mangifera indica* is used for six purposes.

#### **3.6 Medicine**

Of the total documented NTFPs, 73 species were used for ethnomedicinal purposes, and among these species, 28 species were solely used for medicinal purpose (**Table 1**). The important species used as medicine are *Acacia catechu, Azadirachta indica, Aegle marmelos, Artocarpus lakoocha, Bauhinia malabarica, Bauhinia purpurea, Bombax ceiba, Castanopsis indica, Oroxylum indicum, Syzygium cuminii,Terminalia chebula,Terminalia bellerica,Trewianudiflora*, *and Ziziphus mauritiana*, which are usually administered against bleeding, urine infection, indigestion/stomach disorder, diarrhea/dysentery, diabetes, ulcer, gastroenteritis, rheumatism, fever, control body temperature, skin disease, allergy, stomach pain, jaundice, cuts/wound, could, cough, vomiting, nausea, and blood pressure. *Azadirachta indica*was is used round the year for treating various diseases like eye infection, allergy, and skin infection and also used as tooth stick. *Oroxylum indicum* is also used round the year to control jaundice and blood pressure.

**Figure 4.** *Relative frequency citation (RFC) value.*

The indigenous communities of JNP were rich in ethnopharmacological knowledge to properly use NTFPs. A total of 49 diseases/ailments were cured with the help of locally available plant resources. Fever, cough, and cold were documented as the most common disease suffered by the community. For remedy, the community used 12 different plant species. Another common disease was dysentery, and 10 plant species were used for its treatment. Skin and stomach problems were treated with eight and seven species, respectively. Diabetes, vomiting, and diarrhea were treated with five species each, while four species each were used for treating indigestion, mouth ulcer, rheumatism, and blood pressure. Similarly, three species each were used to treat asthma and allergy, while two species each were used as remedy for urine infection, jaundice, kidney problem, heart problem, eye problem, and burns. Treatment of cut and wound, snake bite, fracture, swelling/pain, body pain, arthritis, pneumonia, loss of appetite, liver aliments, stomach worm, cholera, gastroenteritis, ring worm, boil, sexual disorder, hypertension, conjunctivitis, tooth pain, small pox, reducing weight, leprosy, bleeding control, cystitis, hiccup, and nerve disorder was done by using only one plant species. Young twigs of *Azadirachta indica* and *Pongamia pinnata* are used for dental care. Honey secreted by *Trigona* spp. is mixed with black pepper powder and consumed for relief against cold and cough. Even mouth disease of domestic animals was documented to be treated, and *Ficus racemosa* was used for it.

Proper selection of species, parts, as well as preparation and administration methods was very important in traditional healthcare systems. Generally, fresh part of the plant is used for the preparation of medicine except for the underground parts, which were used in dried form. Ethnomedicinal formulations were administered both externally (skin, nasal, eye, and dental) and internally as oral doses. Most of the preparations were a mixture of different plant species, and in a few cases, only one plant species was used. Different parts of a single species were also used to cure different diseases. Almost all plant parts were used to prepare different medicinal formulations: roots, rhizomes, tubers, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, young shoots, whole plants, and gum and latex. Doses of these preparations were not standardized but administered on the basis of age, physical appearance, and intensity of the illness. Children were usually administered with smaller doses than adults. The course of frequency of treatment is decided by the type of disease and its severity. The majority of formulations were prepared as juice followed by paste and decoction. The mode of preparation included juice, paste, decoction, powder, infusion, and chewing raw plant parts. The administration of the therapy is done as a raw, dried form in small pieces or powder, solution, or mixed with water/milk/honey and paste/lotion. Roots and rhizomes were preferred to prepare traditional remedies.

#### **3.7 Food and nutrition**

Many plant-, animal- and fungus-based NTFPs were collected by the indigenous communities from JNP for food and nutrition (**Table 1**). Plant-based resources used for food and nutrition was represented by 42 species. Animal-based resources used for food were represented by fish with 13 species and a honey bee species. Fruiting bodies of seven species of fungus were also used as food. Among the plant resources, more than 50% of the species were used as vegetable and fruits. Honey and fungus collected were mostly used for food and medicine purposes. All the mushrooms were used for culinary purposes and sometimes as snacks and added value to pickle as well. Fish supplements protein in the diets of the collectors. Leaves/foliage, root, rhizome, tuber, fruit, and flower/inflorescence of the plants were collected from the forest and either

### *Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*

cooked or consumed fresh. The communities were collecting these plant resources round the year or when available. Fruits are also consumed ripe as dessert or as vegetable and also processed as pickle or chutney. Herbs are generally consumed as leafy vegetables. Some tubers, rhizomes, pods, and fruits are also consumed as vegetable. Edible plants are generally important for both humans and domestic animals during the time of scarcity.

The indigenous communities of JNP were collecting different type of wild edible and cultivated fruits from the forest for both self-consumption and sale for cash income. The community collects fruits of 17 species for food, vegetable, and spice and also add value to products like pickles (**Table 1**). The maximum amount of fruits collected were consumed directly either raw or ripe. Fruits of *Artocarpus hetrophyllus* were either used as vegetable and pickle or consumed ripe. Fruits of *Mangifera indica* were also consumed as both ripe and raw after preparation of chutney. Fruits of *Syzygium cuminii*, *Baccaureasapida, Aegle* marmelos, and *Artocarpus lakoocha* were consumed as ripe only, whereas *Ziziphus mauritiana* and *Dillenia indica* were used for the preparation of pickle or "*chutney*".

Wild vegetables were collected for self-consumption and also sold in the local market to earn cash income. A total of 26 NTFP species were used as vegetable (**Table 1**). Among these, 19 were plants and seven mushrooms. NTFPs for vegetable purpose were daily collected for household needs. Leafy parts of the species were mostly preferred by the communities as vegetable and collected round the year from the forest. Some of the common species used as vegetable for both home consumption and sale were *Diplazium esculentum*, *Basella alba*, *Mussaendatreutleri*, and *Colocasia esculenta*. Rhizome and tender shoots of the *Colocasia* and *Basella* were collected during the rainy season for self-consumption, and a bulk of the amount was sold at the local market. Flower of *Mussaendatreutleri* is used for culinary purposes and consumed with rice. This cuisine is locally known as "*Mocha*" and consumed for supplementing the iron deficiency. Tender upper leafy part of *Chenopodium album* is cooked as vegetable and consumed with "*chapatti*" during winter season. Young shoots of *Bambusa vulgaris* were either consumed as vegetable or processed as pickle.

Products from six species of plants were used as spices or aroma for the preparation of locally made pickles for either self-consumption or sale (**Table 1**). These species are *Capsicum annum*, *Cinchona officinalis*, *Cinnamomum camphora*, *Cinnamomum tamala*, *Flumaria indica*, *and Murrayakoenigii*. Leaves of *C. tamala* and bark of *C. camphora* are used for making black tea and also used with rice. Leaves of *M. koenigii* were used for aroma and as condiment. Fish and mushroom were collected for both self-consumption and sale. Fishes like *Cirrhinamrigala*, *Labeorohita*, *Mystusvittatus*, and *Puntius ticto* were caught from the river, ponds, and other perennial water sources round the year except *Catlacatla*, which is caught during the rainy season only. The species is costly and used generally during ceremonial occasions. The fringe communities are highly dependent on these fishes for nutrition and energy along with cash income from sale in the local market. Seven types of mushrooms were also collected from the forest during the rainy season to prepare different culinary items for consumption with rice.

### **3.8 Animal feed**

Plant leaves/foliage, fern, herb, and leaves of shrubs are collected from the forest as a supplement to the conventional fodder for domestic animals, and for this

purpose, 36 plant species were used (**Table 1**). Some of the preferred species as fodder were *Artocarpus*, *Ficus*, and *Dillenia sp*. as these species are available almost round the year. Leaves of *Ziziphus mauritiana* and *Syzygium cuminii* were also used as fodder, especially for goat. Leaves and foliage were mainly collected as fodder during summer and winter seasons when there is acute shortage of normal fodder. Fruits of *Dillenia indica* were also collected as feed for animals.

#### **3.9 Other uses**

The inhabitants of JNP largely depend for their domestic energy consumption on fuel wood collection from the forest, and they mainly use dead and dried wood of 26 species collected from the forest (**Table 1**). Apart from using it as domestic energy, firewood is sold in the local market and is a major contributor in the household income. The maximum consumption of firewood was documented during winter and rainy seasons as compared to during summer season. The area experiences cold temperature during the winter season, which necessitates firewood burning for heat. The firewood species preferred were *Albizia lebbeck*, *Anthocephalus cadamba*, *Pongamia pinnata*, *Schima wallichii*, *Lagerstroemia parviflora*, and *Mangifera indica* as compared to other documented species. Dried leaves of *Tectona grandis* are also collected during summer and used as fuel.

The fringe communities also make different types of craft and decorative items from the plant resources for decorating houses during festival, marriages, and other traditional rituals. Eighteen plant species were listed that were in use for this purpose (**Table 1**). The decorative or craft items were also sold in the local market for earning money. Some of the common species for this purpose are *Cassia fistula*, *Delonix regia*, *Oroxylum indicum*, and *Sterculia villosa*. Leaves, foliage, flowers, fruits, and twigs of six plant species were used for religious purposes (**Table 1**). Leaves of *Aegle Marmelos* and *Mangifera indica* were sacred and used as offering to God during rituals. Fruits of *Datura metal*, *Saussurealappa* flower, and seeds of *Elaeocarpus sphaericus* were also used while performing a religious ritual. *Ficus religiosa* is considered sacred by the fringe community. Three plant species were used to fence the homestead for protection against stray animals (**Table 1**). *Bambusa vulgaris* and *Bambusa bamboos* and *Lantana camara* were used for fencing around the animal shed and in crop fields. Bamboo thatching is also commonly used for fencing the house and animal shed.

NTFPs were also used for other purposes like agricultural implements, construction work (bridge, house, and animal shed), furniture, flosses, gum, honey, katha, ladder, pole, mosquito repellent, plate, rope, soap, and shampoo (**Table 1**). The branches of *Tetramelesnudiflora* and *Anthocephalus kadamba* were used for making small agricultural implements (handle of spade, plow). *Shorea robusta* is used for furniture and house construction, while its dried leaves are burned as mosquito repellent. Its leaves are also used for making plates. Small root pieces of *C. camphora* are also burned along with firewood as mosquito repellent. B*ambusa bamboos* and *Dendrocalamus strictus* are used for making ladder and construction of small temporary bridge. Twigs of *Cissus repanda* are used for making rope, heart wood of *Acacia catechu* for katha, and leaves of *Dilleniapentagyna* for plate, *Ficus elastica* for gum, *Bombax ceiba* for floss (floss of *Bombax* is locally known as "*Tula"*), and *Sapindus rarak* for soap and shampoo.

*Non-Timber Forest Products: Diversity, Utilization, and Dependency in Fringe Areas… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113271*


**3.3. Spectroradiometer measurements**

of vegetation heterogeneity related to species distribution, phenological stage, and leaf

Depending on the size and shape of the leaf, different cork borers of variable size between 2.5 and 8.5 cm diameter were used to clip a leaf disk from the central and widest portion of the

**Figure 3.** Photographs of leaf sampling process. (a) Collecting leaves using the telescopic pruner (b) climbing trees (c)

All leaf disks were clipped from the midpoint of the leaves since it has been documented that it is the best position from which to take chlorophyll readings [37]. Three readings were taken from each disk using a portable SPAD-502 chlorophyll meter at different positions of each leaf

telescopic pruner 9 m long (d) climbing trees techniques and (e) canopy towers in the study area.

disk, and a mean index value was used in further analysis.

structure. (Detailed information about the sampled process can be found in Ref. [62].)

58 Tropical Forests - The Challenges of Maintaining Ecosystem Services while Managing the Landscape

**3.2. Chlorophyll meter readings**

leaf blade, avoiding the major veins (**Figure 3**).

Reflectance and "trans‐flectance" (a term used in this study to describe the measurement of "double" transmittance) were measured for each leaf disk using an ASD FieldSpec Hand‐ Held‐2 spectroradiometer (Analytical Spectral Devices Inc., Boulder, CO, USA). This instru‐ ment provides a wavelength range of 325–1075 nm with a resolution of full width at half maximum of 3.5 nm and sampling interval of 1 nm. The spectrometer is attached with a plant probe to an internal 4.05 W halogen light source and a leaf clip that includes rotating head with both white and black reference panels (**Figure 4**).

**Figure 4.** Leaf samples and clipped disks from plants of different species and health status. The last photo shows the SPAD‐502 meter.


**1. Introduction**

It is becoming evident that both environmental and genetic factors may influence the development of many diseases [1–7]. It is therefore important to consider gene-environment interactions when studying diseases related to exposure to different hazards and lifestyle factors.

Environmental and lifestyle factors have been investigated in many epidemiological studies using self-reported information obtained by questionnaires, interviews, records or measurements of exposure. However, very few epidemiological studies included the information on genetic risk factors. Similarly, many studies investigating genetic factors obtained little information on environmental factors and lifestyle. Genetic predisposition can be presumed from family history, from phenotypic characteristics (e.g. metabolic capacity) or, most importantly, from an analysis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence [8].

The research into gene-environment interactions requires the information on both environmental/lifestyle and genetic factors [7, 8]. Primary candidates for gene-environment interaction studies have been mostly genes coding for xenobiotic-metabolising enzymes [3]. Genetic variability in these genes may lead to interindividual differences in the capacity for xenobiotic metabolism, thus modifying an individual's susceptibility to the development of disease [3].

The approach to the analysis of gene-environment interactions is presented using the example of our study into asbestosis, which is one of the most frequent asbestos-related diseases. According to the model of causation, asbestos exposure, genetic factors and possibly also unknown causes have a crucial role in the occurrence of asbestosis [9]. Although asbestosrelated diseases are among the most extensively studied occupational diseases, and the causal relationship between asbestos exposure and asbestosis has been well proved [10–14], relatively little has been known about the genetic factors that might modify an individual's susceptibility to the development of this disease [6, 15–17].


**6.3 Data analysis software**

The data were entered using SPSS 20.0 on Windows 10 and analyzed. The analysis supported with SPSS software much contributed to the finding. It had

**35**

**Table 2.**

*Research Design and Methodology*

solutions.

**7.1 Reliability of data**

shown in **Table 2**.

**7.2 Reliability analysis**

range for this research.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85731*

contributed to the data validation and correctness of the SPSS results. The software analyzed and compared the results of different variables used in the research questionnaires. Excel is also used to draw the pictures and calculate some analytical

The reliability of measurements specifies the amount to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument [8]. In reliability analysis, it has been checked for the stability and consistency of the data. In the case of reliability analysis, the researcher checked the accuracy and precision of the procedure of measurement. Reliability has numerous definitions and approaches, but in several environments, the concept comes to be consistent [8]. The measurement fulfills the requirements of reliability when it produces consistent results during data analysis procedure. The reliability is determined through Cranach's alpha as

Cronbach's alpha is a measure of internal consistency, i.e., how closely related a set of items are as a group [11]. It is considered to be a measure of scale reliability. The reliability of internal consistency most of the time is measured based on the Cronbach's alpha value. Reliability coefficient of 0.70 and above is considered "acceptable" in most research situations [12]. In this study, reliability analysis for internal consistency of Likert-scale measurement after deleting 13 items was found similar; the reliability coefficients were found for 76 items were 0.964 and for the individual groupings made shown in **Table 2**. It was also found internally consistent using the Cronbach's alpha test. **Table 2** shows the internal consistency of the seven major instruments in which their reliability falls in the acceptable

*K stands for knowledge; M, management; T, technology; C, collaboration; P, policy, standards, and regulation;*

*H, hazards and accident conditions; PPE, personal protective equipment.*

*Internal consistency and reliability test of questionnaires items.*

**7. The reliability and validity analysis of the quantitative data**

contributed to the data validation and correctness of the SPSS results. The software analyzed and compared the results of different variables used in the research questionnaires. Excel is also used to draw the pictures and calculate some analytical solutions.


**5. Non-surgical treatment**

consists of a careful examination of the bony and cartilaginous skeleton, anterior rhinoscopy evaluating the appearance of the nasal mucosa and the position of the anterior part of the septum is necessary. The problems present in a patient with a cleft lip nasal deformity must be recognized just as any other rhinoplasty patient and clearly defined in order to formulate

**e 4: Preoperative views A: Frontal view B: lateral view**

In order to treat CLND, clinical diagnosis and complete knowledge of

anatomy, pathology and physiology of the nasal pyramid, maxilla, and lip is

imperative. Clinical examination consists of a careful examination of the

bony and cartilaginous skeleton, anterior rhinoscopy evaluating the

appearance of the nasal mucosa and the position of the anterior part of the

septum is necessary. The problems present in a patient with a cleft lip nasal

deformity must be recognized just as any other rhinoplasty patient and

clearly defined in order to formulate a successful treatment plan. In fully

Significant improvement in growth , function and esthetics has been

achieved by almost normal reconstruction of alveolar clefts .To establish

the nasal skeletal base , three dimensional reconstruction of alveolar

defects with bone grafting has been advocated by clinicians; different

approaches at the different stages of life have been suggested [**Figure 4**].

Significant improvement in growth, function and esthetics has been achieved by almost normal reconstruction of alveolar clefts.To establish the nasal skeletal base, three dimensional reconstruction of alveolar defects with bone grafting has been advocated by clinicians;

Proper jaw relationship plays an important role in the skeletal base of the nose; obviously, final rhinoplasty must be postponed until completion of orthognathic surgeries. Although some authors suggested performing orthognathic surgery on growing cleft patients when mandated by psychological and / or functional concerns; but, because of postsurgical outcome the consensus of most clinicians is to delay orthognathic surgery until growth is completed. Different kinds of distraction procedures such as intraoral and extraoral devices may be used as an alternative to the orthognathic approaches in cleft patients; a proper position of the maxilla is mandatory before performing rhinoplasty in adults with cleft lip and nose deformity. Supposedly, the skeletal support enhances the projection of the lip and nose on the cleft side.

CT scan of paranasal sinuses in axial and coronal views may be helpful to define the defor‐ mation of the septum as well as other intranasal structures. It is important to identify both aesthetic and functional problems associated with the cleft nose deformity. Each component

different approaches at the different stages of life have been suggested (Figure 4).

a successful treatment plan. In fully grown adult we need to evaluate:

grown adult we need to evaluate:

1‐The nose and lip

790 A Textbook of Advanced Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Volume 2

2‐ Midface deficiency

**Figure 5.** Intraoperative view of 3D reconstruction of alveolar cleft

3‐ Oro‐ nasal fistula

4‐Occlusion and

**1.** The nose and lip

**2.** Midface deficiency

5‐ Speech.

**4‐ Diagnosis**

**3.** Oro- nasal fistula

**4.** Occlusion and

**5.** Speech.

Before correction of the soft tissues, it is important to make sure if there are any dental problems that needs to be corrected first. Soft tissue correction before dental treatment can result in very embarrassing situation that may not be correctable later [22].


**4. Discussion**

Based on the analysis of the current situation of domestic pure electric bus, the road operation test is selected as the test method, the composition and responsibility of the road operation test organization are clarified, the test process with the outline of "determine the test conditions—data Collection—data collection" is determined, and the format of relevant record forms is given. According to the evaluation and the discussions of experts and the opinion of the bus company, on the basis of direct and indirect test data, and through observing Tables 8 and 9, it is evident that V8-1 and V8-2 are equally matched in Group A and that V10-2 is the best choice in all aspects, and V10-1 is considered good choice in Group B.

It was confirmed that the manufacturers who provided the V8-1, V8-2, V10-1and the V10-2 were ready to adjust to the conditions in Nanjing regarding the transition to fully electric bus fleets. As a result, the bus company has purchased a batch of pure electric buses of these brands. They have achieved positive operation effects as of the date of this paper.

Also, it should be noted that some limitations still exist in the current study. First, the selection indicators used are primarily objective. The subjective feelings of the drivers and passengers are not considered in the analysis. Second, the differences in battery attenuation and in other aspects of battery performance are ignored for this paper because they meet national standards. Third, the selection process was performed through observation and expert opinion only. Therefore, using different weighting methods, such as an analytic hierarchy process, is suggested to facilitate the selection of more acceptable and justifiable weighting methods [18] and to make the selection method more scientific. Besides, since the buses being completely new, their future performance is uncertain. It would be useful to analyze the performance of the bus throughout its operation life-cycle.


**4. Conclusions**

In our study, the plasma concentration-time profile of tadalafil was significantly changed by co-administration with ticagrelor. A ticagrelor-inhibited CYP3A-mediated tadalafil metabolism and the systemic exposure of tadalafil increased by pretreatment with ticagrelor. Co-administration of tadalafil with ticagrelor increased the AUC of tadalafil by approximately 61% and decreased the clearance of tadalafil by 37%. These results suggest that the co-administration of tadalafil and ticagrelor may need dose control and specific drug therapy to avoid side e ffects from drug-drug interactions. Therefore, CAD patients receiving ticagrelor should be closely monitored when administering tadalafil concomitantly. For further studies, an additional experiment is expected to identify the variation of clinical e fficacy of tadalafil by co-administration with ticagrelor, a CYP3A4 inhibitor.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, Y.-G.N.; methodology, Y.-G.N. and J.-J.B.; software, Y.-G.N. and J.-J.B.; validation, H.-W.H. and J.-J.B.; formal analysis, J.-J.B. and H.-W.H.; investigation, Y.-G.N. and J.-J.B.; resources, M.-K.K.; data curation, Y.-G.N.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.-G.N. and J.-J.B.; writing—review and editing, Y.-G.S., H.-K.L., and C.-W.C.; supervision, C.-W.C.

**Funding:** This work was supported by the Basic Science Research Program (2016R1A2B4011294) through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology.

**Acknowledgments:** The materials were kindly supported by Korea United Pharma Inc.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.