**2. Effects of exposure to idealized media images on body image**

In modern times, most people living in developed countries encounter some type of mass media (e.g. television, music videos, movies, and magazines) on a daily basis. Thin ideal images often accompany various advertised products, the pairing of which reinforces the idea that if you buy or use a particular product, you, too, can be beautiful. In the past two decades, there has been an abundance of empirical research concerning the impact of exposure to idealized bodies in the media on how people perceive and evaluate their own bodies. Most of this research has been on women, among whom the idea that 'thin is beautiful' is prevalent. Correlational studies typically examine the association between naturalistic media consumption and various body image con‐ structs, such as body perception, ideal body size, and body dissatisfaction. Experimental studies typically expose participants to photographs of very thin and attractive models under varying conditions and measure the participant's subsequent body image. The latter type of studies can advance our understanding of the causal effects of media on body image. Several meta‐ana‐ lytic reviews of such studies have been conducted with regard to these findings. The first meta‐ analysis of the effects of exposure to thin ideal media was conducted by Groesz et al. [2], who examined 25 experimental studies conducted between 1983 and 1998 involving a total of 2292 participants. They concluded that women's body image was significantly more negative after viewing thin media images, as compared to after viewing control images or images of average‐ sized or plus‐sized models, and that this effect was moderate in size.

Although the previous meta‐analysis was limited to experimental studies, Grabe et al. [3] conducted a meta‐analysis of both experimental and correlational studies examining the link between media exposure and body dissatisfaction, as well as internalization of the thin ideal—the extent to which someone believes that a very slender body type is beautiful—in women. They reviewed 90 studies and concluded that media exposure was associated with decreased body satisfaction in women and that this effect was moderate in size. They also concluded that media exposure was associated with increased internalization of the thin ideal across 23 studies and that the effect size was moderate.

media convey messages about body weight and shape ideals. For women in Western culture, a very common attitude is that thinness is beauty. We review the literature on the role of mass media—both traditional media and newer, online media—and how they interact with psy‐

Body image is a multidimensional construct that refers to one's perception of and attitudes about the size and shape of one's body. It has both a perceptual component that refers to how we see our body size, shape, weight, physical characteristics, performance, and movement, and an evaluative component, which refers to how we feel about these attributes and how those feelings influence our behaviors [1]. Body dissatisfaction is experienced when someone perceives that their body falls short of the societal ideal in terms of size and/or shape, regard‐ less of that person's objective size or shape. In other words, body dissatisfaction is influenced not only by how we interpret societal ideals, but by how we perceive ourselves. Therefore, body dissatisfaction and perceptions of beauty are inextricably linked. Body dissatisfaction is the number one risk factor for a number of unhealthy behaviors, including clinical eating disorders and chronic dieting. Therefore, a delineation of the origins of body dissatisfaction is important not just for theories of perceptions of beauty, but for clinical and practical purposes.

**2. Effects of exposure to idealized media images on body image**

sized or plus‐sized models, and that this effect was moderate in size.

In modern times, most people living in developed countries encounter some type of mass media (e.g. television, music videos, movies, and magazines) on a daily basis. Thin ideal images often accompany various advertised products, the pairing of which reinforces the idea that if you buy or use a particular product, you, too, can be beautiful. In the past two decades, there has been an abundance of empirical research concerning the impact of exposure to idealized bodies in the media on how people perceive and evaluate their own bodies. Most of this research has been on women, among whom the idea that 'thin is beautiful' is prevalent. Correlational studies typically examine the association between naturalistic media consumption and various body image con‐ structs, such as body perception, ideal body size, and body dissatisfaction. Experimental studies typically expose participants to photographs of very thin and attractive models under varying conditions and measure the participant's subsequent body image. The latter type of studies can advance our understanding of the causal effects of media on body image. Several meta‐ana‐ lytic reviews of such studies have been conducted with regard to these findings. The first meta‐ analysis of the effects of exposure to thin ideal media was conducted by Groesz et al. [2], who examined 25 experimental studies conducted between 1983 and 1998 involving a total of 2292 participants. They concluded that women's body image was significantly more negative after viewing thin media images, as compared to after viewing control images or images of average‐

Although the previous meta‐analysis was limited to experimental studies, Grabe et al. [3] conducted a meta‐analysis of both experimental and correlational studies examining the link between media exposure and body dissatisfaction, as well as internalization of the thin ideal—the extent to which someone believes that a very slender body type is beautiful—in

chological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image.

146 Perception of Beauty

There is robust empirical support for the idea that exposure to idealized body images in tra‐ ditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and television) affects perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender female body type as ideal or beautiful. There is also support for the idea that exposure to the thin ideal is associ‐ ated with body dissatisfaction in the moment among women. While most of the research on this topic has been conducted with female participants, there is also some research on male participants. Men's and women's body ideals vary considerably in Western cultures, where most of this research has been conducted. While women's body ideal is slim, men's is lean, but well‐defined and muscular. Blond [4] conducted a meta‐analysis of experimental research concerning the effects of exposure to media featuring the male muscular ideal on men's body image. In her review of 15 studies with a total of 1085 participants, she concluded that expo‐ sure to images of idealized male bodies caused men to feel more dissatisfied with their own bodies and that the effect size was small. In sum, we can say that the association between exposure to idealized body images in the media and body dissatisfaction holds true for both men and women, with the effect in women being slightly stronger than in men. There is no established cause for this gender difference to date.

Although it has been established that exposure to idealized bodies in the media has signifi‐ cant effects on how both men and women want to look (and, sometimes, how they think they do look), it is important to emphasize that not all individuals respond to viewing idealized images in the same way. Research has revealed various individual differences that moderate the impact of exposure to idealized images on body image. For example, a person's psycho‐ logical motives for viewing thin ideal media images can determine whether and how they affect that individual's self‐perceptions of beauty.

Social comparison refers to an individual's tendency to compare oneself to other people and has been found to moderate the impact of exposure to idealized media. Tiggemann and McGill [5] found that the effects of thin‐ideal advertisements on mood and body dissatisfaction were mediated by social comparison in a sample of 126 female undergraduate students such that women who engaged in more social comparison experienced more negative mood and body dissatisfaction after exposure to magazine advertisements containing images of thin‐idealized female beauty. Indeed, social comparison, as either a psychological trait or state, is a reliable moderator of the impact of idealized media exposure on both men and women. For example, Galioto and Crowther [6] found that trait social comparison as measured by a self‐report ques‐ tionnaire predicted increased body dissatisfaction among male undergraduate students who viewed muscular idealized men in advertisements. Moreover, Tiggemann et al. [7] further investigated the role of cognitive processing in the impact of idealized images on mood and body dissatisfaction. They found that instructing women to engage in social comparison pro‐ cessing (e.g. asking the participant to rate how much she would like her body to look like that of a thin model) of thin‐ideal images led to greater negative mood and body dissatisfaction as compared to a control condition. Interestingly, they also found that giving women fantasy instructions to imagine themselves in the place of a thin model led to improved mood as compared to control. In sum, the way that idealized images are cognitively processed is a key determinant in terms of the impact those images have on an individual's self‐perceptions of attractiveness or beauty. But little is yet known about why some people are more at risk for comparing themselves to idealized images.

Trait, dietary restraint has been found to moderate individuals' responses to idealized body images found in the media. Mills et al. [8] found that restrained eaters (i.e. chronic dieters) are differentially impacted by exposure to thin ideal media as compared to unrestrained eaters. Restrained eaters frequently attempt to lose weight by restricting what they eat. We con‐ cluded that restrained eaters may be susceptible to a 'thin fantasy' when viewing ideal body images. Specifically, restrained eaters, but not unrestrained eaters, rated both their ideal and current body as thinner and felt more attractive as a result of viewing ideal body images in magazine advertisements. This effect was further moderated by thinness attainability beliefs. Specifically, the immediate enhancement of women's feelings of attractiveness fol‐ lowing exposure to the thin ideal was stronger when dieters were led to believe that they could lose weight through dieting, as compared to when they were told that losing weight is extremely difficult. In other words, under certain conditions, thin ideal media images can actually make women feel better about their appearance. These effects are presumed to be short‐lived, although no research to date has examined how long self‐enhancement lasts after exposure to thin ideal images.

Further evidence that the context of the idealized images is important in terms of their psychological impact comes from a recent study by Veldhuis et al. [9]. The authors found that when self‐improvement messages accompanied images of idealized bodies, exposure increased body satisfaction in a sample of undergraduate men and women, as compared to self‐evaluation messages or control. Knobloch‐Westerwick [10] also found that women, who made self‐improvement (versus self‐evaluation) social comparisons in response to thin‐ideal images, had improved body satisfaction as opposed to decreased body satisfaction. In other words, the messages that accompany idealized body images commonly found in the media make a difference in terms of how people feel about their bodies after looking at them.

Lastly, the psychological construct of body appreciation, or the extent to which one allows negative body‐related information to be rejected and positive information to be accepted, is an individual difference variable that has been found to be protective against some of the negative psychological impacts that stem from exposure to idealized media images. Andrew et al. [11] found that, in a sample of university women, participants with low body appreciation experi‐ enced increased body dissatisfaction after exposure to thin‐ideal advertisements whereas indi‐ viduals with high body appreciation did not. This lends support to the idea that women, who have a positive bias in their perceptions of their body, are less likely to experience a negative shift in body image in response to exposure to thin ideal media images.

Body dissatisfaction is a major predictor of the development of clinically disordered eating. While it oversimplifies the psychopathology of eating disorders to suggest that exposure to thin ideal images causes eating disorders, thin ideal images do have significant health implications. For both women and men, the development of unhealthy weight control practices can result from body dissatisfaction, such as strict or chronic dieting, excessive exercise, and steroid use. To mitigate the negative effects of thin ideal exposure on the health and well‐being of their viewers, it has been suggested that magazines should contain disclaimer labels if a photo has been retouched. In 2009, Australia's National Advisory Group on Body Image endorsed the use of warning labels by the advertising, media, and fashion industries to indicate digitally altered images. Other countries have considered a similar public policy. Retouching of magazine photos can include enhancements of skin tone or texture, hair, or make‐up, but most attention has been paid to retouching related to models' weight and shape. Photos are often altered by magazines so that flesh is trimmed off in areas like the stomach and thighs, giving the appearance of a slimmer body. The idea is that if women were aware that media images are not real, they could distance themselves psychologically from unrealistic beauty standards and not be influenced by them. Unfortunately, results from this line of research suggest that disclaimer labels are generally not very effective in terms of minimizing the negative effects of thin ideal images on viewers' body image, mood/ confidence, or intention to diet [12, 13]. In addition, a popular media literacy campaign aimed at diminishing the negative effects of exposure to the thin ideal (i.e. a 75‐second Dove Evolution video, showing all of the effort that goes into producing a photo of a model who looks flawless) did not improve how women feel about their own appearance [14]. Clearly, cultural beauty standards as communicated by the media are powerful messages. Even knowing that thin ideal images are not real does not stop women from wanting to achieve that standard of beauty.


**2. Urban design in the Turkish planning system**

The planning can be described as the process of preparing systematic action plans in order to achieve the desired goals. The plan is defined over two components constituting it. These components are:

In planning, which refers to systematically implementing the theoretical knowledge, it is necessary to determine both the target of the plan and the ways to follow in order to achieve the target. Within its widest meaning, the planning has three characteristics:

The planning is to systematically implement theoretical knowledge. It is a process extending from the current time to the future. The main sub-processes are as follows: preparing the research, planning, implementing, monitoring, and assessing [5, 6].

Urban planning is defined as a science, art, and discipline aiming to shape the physical development of the cities by considering the social and economic necessities. Besides that, it is also considered to be a way of directing the change of urban areas [7].

The construction and design of the urban built environment are performed with a systematic approach in countries having a national planning system. The urban design should be a part of this system. The core of the planning system is the urban plans prepared at specific levels. Accordingly, the urban plans offer a framework for directing all the construction activities in the cities. The success of the framework offered by these plans depends on their relationship with the urban design in terms of the spatial dimension of the plans. The position of urban design in the planning system of Turkey is controversial. Urban design could not be positioned in Turkey's planning system in the form specified in the literature, being nothing but a technical implementation carried out because of the legal obligations. For this reason, it would be very useful to discuss the concept of planning.

Urban design is a comprehensive and multidimensional concept. In general, it reveals the ways of creating ideas and putting them into practice. All the long-run social, economic, administrative, and spatial change factors related to the use of sources in the habitat are considered within the scope of planning.

In urban science, planning is discussed at four levels: the city, the environmental, the regional, and the national. As for the topic of urban spaces, it can be defined as the process of determining the land use, transportation, and physical structure within a mutual interaction with the social relationship, including the investigation

of the positions of cities in the region [8]. Urban planning is a comprehensive process with economic, social, and esthetical dimensions, as well as the directing of the physical formation developments. The steps of this complex process are as follows:

a regulation instrument shaping the physical environment. Even though the landuse plan (physical plan) is an important input for managing the quality of the environment, the land-use plan alone without comprehensive urban design plan/ project may not ensure and maintain a high-quality environment [10, 14].

urban design should be involved in the entire planning process.

similarity from the aspect of urban design.

*Assessing the Urban Design Quality of Turkish Cities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89779*

*de Zone*) are used [15].

nized fashion (**Figure 2**).

**331**

**3. Urban planning and urban design approaches and relations**

countries. The main reason for this is thought to be that the planning system starting from the upper scales moves together with the urban design approaches to the lower scales. Thus, everything in the city that people have contact with is provided using various instruments developed together with the plans. These instruments, playing an important role in shaping the urban space, also show

The spatial quality of urban spaces in developed countries is better than other

For instance, in England, the *design codes*, *design briefs*, *design guidelines*, and *development briefs* named as *supplementary planning guidance* are prepared for this purpose. In the USA, however, this process is generally named as *design review*, and the design auditing instruments such as *urban design guideline* are prepared. In France, the urban plans (*Schéma Directeur* master plan) and the "land-use plans" (*Plan d'occupationdessols-POS*) are not alone considered sufficient for managing the change in the urban space, and therefore the instruments such as "planning zone" (*ZAC-Zoned'AménagementConcerte*) and *"*zoning plan" (*PAZ-Plan d'Aménagement*

In the different planning approaches and legal regulations worldwide, both the central and local administrations use urban planning and urban design together in ensuring urban quality. Even though the framework offered by the zoning plans in Turkey seems enough from the quantitative aspect, the plans are not sufficient in the process controlling and directing the urban design in different countries, and the urban design instruments are used together with the plans. This is the hint for

Since the nineteenth century, the concept of urban design has been considered in different contexts and scopes within urban planning. In this process, practitioners and theoreticians such as Kevin Lynch, David Mackay, Francis Tibbalds, etc. have offered different definitions. In parallel with the works and discussions of the theoreticians and practitioners, urban design has been conceptualized in an orga-

In this conceptualization, urban design is close to urban planning at a high scale. Besides that, considering urban design as the design of small urban spaces at a low scale, it is close to the esthetic and spatial points of interest of the architecture and arts. Moreover, urban design is interested in the interaction between public and private development and its effect on the form of the city, the relationships between people and locations, movement and urban form, nature, building structure, and

creating high-quality spaces and a successful outcome [16–18].

the processes providing successful cities and towns [1, 2, 19].

From this aspect, the framework offered by the zoning approach and practice is a regulatory system based on high-level accuracy and offering uniformity at the national level. The zoning plan, which is the expression of this framework, is to create and audit the urban built environment qualitatively. In this process, the main auditing subject of the zoning plans is the parcel [15]. This structure, not including the urban design processes but offering a strict frame, may fall short in providing a qualified urban space. Urban planning and urban design are two important phenomena complementing each other. For this reason, excluding the urban design from the planning process prevents the plans from achieving their targets. Hence,

Since the outcomes of the urban planning processes were different, various assessments were developed. Especially in keeping with the understanding that the city is a multidimensional and complex case, urban planning has shown advancement towards becoming an interdisciplinary and inter-specialty field of implementation. Urban design has an important role in urban planning's process of gaining an identity, and, as one of the peoples' activities of organizing the environment in which they live, it cannot be separated from the planning [10–12]. From this aspect, different actors also play a role together with the components of the planning system in this process. The urban spaces, which are constructed by the sociopolitical dimension, are the spaces in which the discussions and reconciliations between the actors having different interests and expectations occur. The area in which the process occurs defines the participation styles, effects, and activity forms of the actors.

From the aspect of planning and urban design, the main reason for the problems observed in Turkey is the "zoning approach and practice" [13]. Being the main guideline of the legal foundation of the Turkish planning system, Zoning Law Nr.3194 can be summarized as follows: the zoning plans can be defined as the "master plan" and the "implementary development plan"; the "master plan" is the plans prepared in order to lay the foundation of the preparation of the implementary development plans and to show subjects such as general usage types, main region types, future population densities, building density (when necessary), size and principles of the development of various residential areas, transportation systems, and solutions for the problems on the existing maps prepared in accordance with the regional or environmental plans. The "implementary development plan" is, however, drawn up based on the principles of the master plan drawn on the existing maps showing the cadastral statuses, and these plans show the building blocks, the intensity and order of these blocks and roads, and all the implementation steps and information to form the basis of the development implementation programs in detail.

As can be seen here, the zoning planning aiming to achieve a legal document generally defines how a building can be constructed on a parcel, but it falls short as

#### *Assessing the Urban Design Quality of Turkish Cities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89779*

of the positions of cities in the region [8]. Urban planning is a comprehensive process with economic, social, and esthetical dimensions, as well as the directing of the physical formation developments. The steps of this complex process are as

Since the outcomes of the urban planning processes were different, various assessments were developed. Especially in keeping with the understanding that the city is a multidimensional and complex case, urban planning has shown advancement towards becoming an interdisciplinary and inter-specialty field of implementation. Urban design has an important role in urban planning's process of gaining an identity, and, as one of the peoples' activities of organizing the environment in which they live, it cannot be separated from the planning [10–12]. From this aspect, different actors also play a role together with the components of the planning system in this process. The urban spaces, which are constructed by the sociopolitical dimension, are the spaces in which the discussions and reconciliations between the

actors having different interests and expectations occur. The area in which the process occurs defines the participation styles, effects, and activity forms

observed in Turkey is the "zoning approach and practice" [13]. Being the main guideline of the legal foundation of the Turkish planning system, Zoning Law Nr.3194 can be summarized as follows: the zoning plans can be defined as the "master plan" and the "implementary development plan"; the "master plan" is the

plans prepared in order to lay the foundation of the preparation of the

From the aspect of planning and urban design, the main reason for the problems

implementary development plans and to show subjects such as general usage types, main region types, future population densities, building density (when necessary), size and principles of the development of various residential areas, transportation systems, and solutions for the problems on the existing maps prepared in accordance with the regional or environmental plans. The "implementary development plan" is, however, drawn up based on the principles of the master plan drawn on the existing maps showing the cadastral statuses, and these plans show the building blocks, the intensity and order of these blocks and roads, and all the implementation steps and information to form the basis of the development implementation

As can be seen here, the zoning planning aiming to achieve a legal document generally defines how a building can be constructed on a parcel, but it falls short as

follows:

• Defining the problem

• Assessment, synthesis

• Feedback and control

• Implementing [9, 10].

• Assessment

• Projecting

of the actors.

programs in detail.

**330**

• Determining the objectives ad targets

*Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design*

• Designing the options (suitable plans)

• Collecting and constructing the knowledge

a regulation instrument shaping the physical environment. Even though the landuse plan (physical plan) is an important input for managing the quality of the environment, the land-use plan alone without comprehensive urban design plan/ project may not ensure and maintain a high-quality environment [10, 14].

From this aspect, the framework offered by the zoning approach and practice is a regulatory system based on high-level accuracy and offering uniformity at the national level. The zoning plan, which is the expression of this framework, is to create and audit the urban built environment qualitatively. In this process, the main auditing subject of the zoning plans is the parcel [15]. This structure, not including the urban design processes but offering a strict frame, may fall short in providing a qualified urban space. Urban planning and urban design are two important phenomena complementing each other. For this reason, excluding the urban design from the planning process prevents the plans from achieving their targets. Hence, urban design should be involved in the entire planning process.


**9. Lymphoid tissue of oral cavity of goat**

Lymphoid tissue comprises mainly of lymphocytes within the oral cavity and is responsible for maintaining immunity. Such tissues are arranged in diffused and nodular form also called as lymphoid patches. There are two types of lymphoid organs, the primary lymphoid organs comprise of bone marrow and thymus where the development and schooling of the lymphocytes occurs, and secondary lymphoid organs include spleen, lymph nodes, and associated tissues of skin, mucosa, gut, and bronchi,. where the mature naive T and B lymphocytes identify the antigen where they get activated, proliferated and differentiated into effectors and memory types. The tonsils comprise of lymphoid cells (diffuse and nodular), including lingual and palatine, lined by keratinized stratified squamous epithelium [48]. On the other hand, para-epiglottic, pharyngeal, and tubal mucosae are lined by pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium on major areas contributing largely to immunity [51].


*Article* **GPM-Based Multitemporal Weighted Precipitation Analysis Using GPM\_IMERGDF Product and ASTER DEM in EDBF Algorithm**

**Sana Ullah 1,2, Zhengkang Zuo 1, Feizhou Zhang 1, Jianghua Zheng 3, Shifeng Huang 4, Yi Lin 1, Imran Iqbal 5, Yiyuan Sun 1,6, Ming Yang 1 and Lei Yan 1,2,\***

Received: 13 August 2020; Accepted: 21 September 2020; Published: 26 September 2020

**Abstract:** To obtain the high-resolution multitemporal precipitation using spatial downscaling technique on a precipitation dataset may provide a better representation of the spatial variability of precipitation to be used for different purposes. In this research, a new downscaling methodology such as the global precipitation mission (GPM)-based multitemporal weighted precipitation analysis (GMWPA) at 0.05◦ resolution is developed and applied in the humid region of Mainland China by employing the GPM dataset at 0.1◦ and the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) 30 m DEM-based geospatial predictors, i.e., elevation, longitude, and latitude in empirical distribution-based framework (EDBF) algorithm. The proposed methodology is a two-stepped process in which a scale-dependent regression analysis between each individual precipitation variable and the EDBF-based weighted precipitation with geospatial predictor(s), and to downscale the predicted multitemporal weighted precipitation at a refined scale is developed for the downscaling of GMWPA. While comparing results, it shows that the weighted precipitation outperformed all precipitation variables in terms of the coefficient of determination (R2) value, whereas they outperformed the annual precipitation variables and underperformed as compared to the seasonal and the monthly variables in terms of the calculated root mean square error (RMSE) value. Based on the achieved results, the weighted precipitation at the low-resolution (e.g., at 0.75◦ resolution) along-with the original resolution (e.g., at 0.1◦ resolution) is employed in the downscaling process to predict the average multitemporal precipitation, the annual total precipitation for the year 2001 and 2004, and the average annual precipitation (2001–2015) at 0.05◦ resolution, respectively. The downscaling approach resulting through proposed methodology captured the spatial patterns with greater accuracy at higher spatial resolution. This work showed that it is feasible to increase the spatial resolution of a precipitation variable(s) with greater accuracy on an annual basis or as an average from the multitemporal precipitation dataset using a geospatial predictor as the proxy of precipitation through the weighted precipitation in EDBF environment.

**Keywords:** downscaling; EDBF algorithm; GPM; geospatial predictor; spatial pattern; weighted precipitation

#### **1. Introduction**

Precipitation is the major component of the global water cycle. It is a key parameter of the ecological, hydrological, meteorological and agriculture systems [1,2]. It plays an important role in the energy exchange and material circulation of the Earth surface system [3]. It is of significant importance to understand the characteristics of precipitation, because it shows great variability both in space and time as compared to other climatic variables. Therefore, its spatial and temporal variability greatly influence vegetation distribution, soil moisture and surface runoff [4,5]. In addition, a high-quality precipitation dataset is very important in the development of different ecological and hydrological models at corresponding scales. On top of that, due to certain limiting factors, it is difficult to develop such high-quality dataset(s) from point measurements based on the traditional precipitation, which are as follows: first, the data derived from point measurements heavily depends on field observations [5,6]. Second, field observation stations are not uniformly distributed in space and limited mostly to low and medium altitude areas, with the exception of a few precipitation stations at high altitudes. Moreover, their operational capability is relative for a shorter period. Even if longer precipitation records exist from ground-based stations, they are not sufficient to provide coverage for the global/regional applications, due to deficiencies in reliability of the spatial distribution of precipitation [7], especially over ocean, desert and mountainous areas. Third, a true spatial coverage of precipitation based on the traditional rain gauge observations cannot be obtained [8], because many river basins around the world are still poorly gauged [9], or ungauged [10]. Fourth, it is difficult to effectively reflect the spatial variability of precipitation based on the observation from a finite number of rainfall stations, especially in areas where rainfall stations are sparsely distributed [11–13]. Fifth, rain gauge observations can only reflect the point rainfall within a radius around the location of instruments, and the effectiveness of such data is often under question, and adequate validation is further needed [14,15].

Recently, the development in remote sensing and geographic information technology has given a new dimension to present precipitation observations [16–18], almost at the global scale over a long period, which also reflects the spatial patterns and temporal variability of precipitation [19]. In this regard, various research institutions and government organizations have developed a series of gridded global precipitation datasets, including Earth observations, in situ datasets and models at both regional and global scales, i.e., the Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) [2,20–22], the Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation (GSMaP) project [23], the Multi-Source Weighted-Ensemble Precipitation (MSWEP) [24], the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) [25], the Precipitation Estimation from Remotely-Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks-Climate Record (PERSIANN-CDR) [26], the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) [27–29], the TRMM Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA) [30], and the Global Precipitation Mission (GPM) [31–33].

Spatial downscaling is a recently developed approach to obtain the high spatial resolution of a variable based on conjugation between the variable at a coarse scale and geospatial predictor(s) at the low resolution [34,35]. In this regard, using spatial downscaling techniques on a precipitation dataset may provide a better representation of the spatial variability of precipitation to be used for different purposes. Several authors have used downscaling methodologies to increase the spatial resolution of satellite-based precipitation, often in combination with Earth observations data available on hydro-meteorological variables related to precipitation, including normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) [30,35–42], digital elevation model [30,38,43,44], land surface temperature [30], soil moisture [37], in situ rain gauged precipitation [37,38], slope [38], aspect [38], and wind [31]. Moreover, few authors have used different satellite-based precipitation datasets for

TRMM products [30,42]. Additionally, some studies used regression analysis with model parameters spatially constant (multiple linear, polynomial, exponential, regression kriging, etc.), assuming a spatial stationarity of the relationship between precipitation and the predicting variables [34,35,38,41,44–48]. On top of that, some studies limited their analysis only to satellite-based precipitation datasets and did not take full advantage of all available data sources, combining remotely sensed and in situ observations [42,49,50].

In this research work, a new downscaling methodology (Figure 1), based on the earlier work of [3,38,39], such as the GMWPA is developed using DEM (Figure 2a) to delineate into three geospatial predictors, i.e., elevation, longitude, and latitude [44], in EDBF algorithm. Two different satellite-based precipitation datasets, such as the GPM-based multitemporal precipitation data (Figure 2b–i) for the prediction of high-resolution downscaled weighted precipitation from 0.1◦ to 0.05◦ resolution, and the GPM (Figure 2j,k) and the TRMM (Figure 2l–o) datasets for the verification of proposed methodology is used over the humid (the Southern) region of Mainland China. During the execution, certain objectives are set to achieve the required results, which are as follows [51]: to evaluate the multitemporal precipitation (2001–2015) dataset through regression analysis, i.e., polynomial regression at different upscaled resolutions, e.g., 0.25◦, 0.5◦, 0.75◦, 1.0◦, 1.25◦, 1.50◦; (2) based on the regression output, EDBF algorithm is run to evaluate the multitemporal precipitation at each upscaled resolution by assigning weight to each temporal component; (3) to verify the output of EDBF algorithm through the TRMM and the GPM datasets; and (4) to generate the high-resolution downscaled weighted precipitation at 0.05◦ resolution based on the best performing upscaled resolution. This research can have practical implications, particularly for climate change, drought assessment, and water resources planning, which require long-term precipitation estimates at finer resolution.

**Figure 1.** Proposed methodology to predict the high-resolution downscaled weighted precipitation.

**Figure 2.** The dataset required for downscaling of the multitemporal precipitation: (**a**) the DEM of study area; (**b**) the GPM-based average winter precipitation; (**c**) the GPM-based average spring precipitation; (**d**) the GPM-based average summer precipitation; (**e**) the GPM-based average autumn precipitation; (**f**) the GPM-based average monthly precipitation; (**g**) the GPM-based average annual (2001–2015) precipitation; (**h**) the GPM-based wet year (2004) precipitation; (**i**) the GPM-based dry year (2001) precipitation, (**j**) the GPM-based annual (2006) precipitation; (**k**) the GPM-based annual (2012) precipitation; (**l**) the TRMM-based annual (2001) precipitation; (**m**) the TRMM-based annual (2006) precipitation; (**n**) the TRMM-based annual (2012) precipitation; (**o**) the TRMM-based average annual (2001–2015) precipitation, respectively.


**2. Requirements for a Successful Geothermal Well (EGS)**

Simple calculations suggest that proximal and interconnected fracture systems, natural or otherwise, are required for economic viability in all but the hottest geothermal scenarios. Currently, geothermally derived power is associated with "natural" hydrothermal sys‐ tems. These are reasonably permeable and have equilibrated fluid circulation systems, with heat delivered by deep convection. They are characteristically naturally fractured and/or faulted, at least to some extent. Stimulation of fractured wells to enhance fracture conductivity is an opportunity for engineering massively stimulated systems – engi‐ neered geothermal prospects – using hydraulic fracturing. Pritchett, 2012 [1], cautions that the practicality of these scenarios depends on fractures that are conductive enough to support the required high geothermal flow rates. "Performance will be significantly impaired if the average fracture separation is greater than 50 meters or so. … The crea‐ tion of such extensive and pervasive artificial fracture networks at costs that will prove acceptable … is the fundamental challenge for EGS. … New stimulation paradigms may be required." These fractures need to be close enough together and appropriately orient‐ ed to encourage heat sweep and thermal energy recovery.

Following Pritchett's logic, for a very specialized generic reservoir analysis, assume 100 kg/s are required for an economic system. To adequately delay thermal breakthrough (on the order of 30 years), required fracture spacing varies from 20 to 70 m.The time to breakthrough decreases as the fracture spacing becomes larger. Wu et al., 2012 [59] demonstrate fracture spacing issues numerically.

What non-specialists don't always realize is the throughput that is required to ensure an economic geothermal prospect. If there is a single producer, the criterion for economic throughput is colloquially expressed as 100 kg/s by some; 2000 gal/minute by others. In any case, at 200°C this is between 62,000 and 69,000 BWPD at the sand face. To accommodate such high rates with nominal friction, large diameter casing is conventionally used with large diameter barefoot sections. This philosophy may be acceptable in conventional systems. If EGS is planned, large contact between one or more fractures and the wellbore is essential. Without effective diversion, multiple fracturing in an open hole is extremely difficult. Extended fracture contact with the well and/or multiple fracture intersections seem to be essential for EGS. This brings up the contentious topic of whether cased and perforated completions would be acceptable in geothermal environments.