With the global integration that is defined as globalization, territorial limits disappeared, economic, political, and social relations have accelerated and capital circulation moved beyond national borders. Beyond doubt, cities were affected mostly from the quick spread of globalization [1]. In other words, in the context of global intercity competition, cities' major goal is to increase their competitiveness, in which the positioning and attractiveness of a city have a critical function [65]. As a result of these, many of the most known cities in the world struggle to be a center of attraction and try to develop successful strategies in order to be the best man-

When the competitive pressure both in local and foreign markets is taken into account, the growing importance of adaptation of branding techniques to cities in theoretical and practice dimensions can be understood better [2]. Moreover, even if there are some unique features of city branding which differ from product branding, strategies devoted to product branding can be applied to cities to a great extent and those concepts of branding form a basis for branding of cities [3]. Accordingly, nowadays marketing and brand management are not only proper for products and services, but also they are handled for city marketing and city branding [4].

findings regarding residents, visitors, and entrepreneurs' attitudes.

aged and liveable city and to be capable of competing with others.

at the same time.

158 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

and to do business."

**2. City branding**

One of the most comprehensive definitions was suggested by Zenker and Braun as *"all associations which are visually, verbally and behaviorally formed in the minds of consumers and shaped by general design of the city through the aims, communications, values and culture of its stakeholders"* (p. 5) [11]. As seen in the definitions, it is quite clear and common that city branding is generated in the minds of people [12].

Once a city has created its own brand, it can achieve various advantages like serving as an attractive place for visitors, a peaceful urban life for residents, and an accelerating industrial and trading area for investors and entrepreneurs [13]. For this reason, the importance and meaning of creating a city brand must be addressed through the stakeholders in a city.

**Table 1.** Different definitions in the literature regarding city branding.

#### **2.1. Stakeholders in city branding**

Core of the marketing underlies understanding of needs and wants of (potential) consumers. Aaker [14] states that the most important obstacle is to define the consumers with the products and services of the organization instead of consumers' needs and wants. Levitt [15] describes this with the concept of "marketing myopia." The philosophy of city branding also corresponds with "customer-orientation" [13]. Besides, according to Kavaratzis and Hatch [12], the most essential part of city branding is the stakeholders of city. Satisfying the varying needs of stakeholders in an optimum way—the primary objective of city branding—accords with this as well [16]. Moreover, every city embodies different "capitals," which give strategic strength to the city and carry it a step further. These are intellectual and social, environmental, technical, financial, culture and leisure, and democratic capitals [17]. Integration of these capitals in the city has transformed city branding to very interactive field for stakeholders rather than handling the city solely to create an attractive place for visitors [18].

Defining the stakeholders in city branding as *"all the people and organizations that are important for the functioning of the city"* (p. 49) is the easiest answer but not the most satisfying one [5]. Depending on "Stakeholder Theory" of Freeman [19], stakeholders can be described as parties who affect the city brand and also affected by it. Even if stakeholders are labeled as "city's customers" [5], "city's owners," "city's users," and "city's managers" [20], what's certain that the complexity and the quantity of city branding stakeholder groups are more multifaceted in comparison to product branding. What is meant by the quantity and the complexity challenge of city branding is the large number of stakeholders and the limited understanding of branding among key stakeholders [64]. Accordingly, the stakeholders grouped with various labels and different categories are shown in **Table 2** [5].

**Table 2.** Stakeholder groups in city branding.

As shown in **Table 2**, it is possible in city branding to refer to several meanings and different levels of involvement for stakeholders. According to Işık and Erdem [59], the success of city branding is associated particularly with the efforts of local administration (municipalities), nongovernmental organizations, and volunteers. In addition, Oğuztimur and Akturan [60] state that cities compete with one another to meet the needs of their target groups like citizens, investors, and tourists and try to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. Moreover, Hultman et al. [62] suggest examining brand administrators' attitudes because it constitutes an important first step in defining the extent of advocacy that should accompany city branding. Hence, research on city branding should focus on various stakeholder groups as possible in order to develop strategies for cities how to build an advantageous brand [21]. At that rate, the more diverse research group related to stakeholders in city branding, the more successful city brand positioning. When the basic functions of a city as "to live, to do business, and to visit" is taken into account, three significant stakeholder groups become prominent: residents, entrepreneurs, and visitors [22]. In other words, cities struggle for attracting residents, visitors, and businesses more than ever [23]. Moreover, within consumer-based approach, it is worth to examine the relations and interactions that sometimes create synergy and sometimes conflict among these three stakeholder groups [5].

#### *2.1.1. Residents*

**2.1. Stakeholders in city branding**

160 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

for visitors [18].

**City's users** (Van den Berg et al., 1990; Ashworth and Voogd, 1990)

**Target markets of city marketers** (Kotler et al.,1993;

**City customers** (Rainisto, 2003; Kotler et al., 2002)

**General customer groups** (Braun et al.,

**Table 2.** Stakeholder groups in city branding.

1999)

2003)

Core of the marketing underlies understanding of needs and wants of (potential) consumers. Aaker [14] states that the most important obstacle is to define the consumers with the products and services of the organization instead of consumers' needs and wants. Levitt [15] describes this with the concept of "marketing myopia." The philosophy of city branding also corresponds with "customer-orientation" [13]. Besides, according to Kavaratzis and Hatch [12], the most essential part of city branding is the stakeholders of city. Satisfying the varying needs of stakeholders in an optimum way—the primary objective of city branding—accords with this as well [16]. Moreover, every city embodies different "capitals," which give strategic strength to the city and carry it a step further. These are intellectual and social, environmental, technical, financial, culture and leisure, and democratic capitals [17]. Integration of these capitals in the city has transformed city branding to very interactive field for stakeholders rather than handling the city solely to create an attractive place

Defining the stakeholders in city branding as *"all the people and organizations that are important for the functioning of the city"* (p. 49) is the easiest answer but not the most satisfying one [5]. Depending on "Stakeholder Theory" of Freeman [19], stakeholders can be described as parties who affect the city brand and also affected by it. Even if stakeholders are labeled as "city's customers" [5], "city's owners," "city's users," and "city's managers" [20], what's certain that the complexity and the quantity of city branding stakeholder groups are more multifaceted in comparison to product branding. What is meant by the quantity and the complexity challenge of city branding is the large number of stakeholders and the limited understanding of branding among key stakeholders [64]. Accordingly, the stakeholders grouped with various

labels and different categories are shown in **Table 2** [5].

Residents and employees

**Categories I II III IV**

New residents Producers of

Residents Companies Visitors

Business and industry

goods and services, corporate headquarters and regional offices

Visitors Export markets

Outside investment and export markets

Tourism and hospitality

(Potential) residents (Potential) companies (Potential) visitors (Potential) investors

Residents, one the stakeholder group, are often pointed out as an important target market in city branding [22–26]. If consumer-orientation is regarded as the core philosophy in marketing science, resident-oriented city brand should pay attention to the way residents create an image of the city, how they perceive and assign a meaning to it, and what kind of physical, symbolic and other elements they attach to it when they are evaluating the city [7]. According to Braun et al. [22], resident in a city have four different roles while they are interacting with others:

Besides economic contributions to "residential consumers," cities offer many social and emotional benefits like information sharing, social bonding with others, and involvement in activities [28]. One of the basic branding dimensions for cities is to pride of residents upon the city, which is convenient for living and available for opportunities [18]. Accordingly, a general answer for the question "What kind of expectations the residents have concerning the city?" is "a suitable place to live in."  Moreover, most of the residents embrace the city as a "belonging matter." Thereby, residents expect to live in "an attractive living environment" that meets their needs and wants [22]. The attributes that make the city attractive for residents to live in or meet residents' needs and wants can vary. According to a global research, liveability of a city depends on "cultural movements, standard of living, convenience of traffic flow, and the working age population" [29].

Kemp et al. [25] state that one of the most necessary points in building successful city branding strategy is analysis of residents' needs. Moreover, when residents show loyalty to city brand, they establish a bond between themselves and city branding efforts, yet more they attach city brand with their self-identity, ultimately, they promote the city through word-ofmouth by serving as an "ambassador." So, residents who have positive attitude toward city convey the uniqueness of city brand to other stakeholders [30]. Freire [4] contributes that city people is the most important component of city branding, and visitors are affected by resident stakeholders while they are deciding on destination to visit.

#### *2.1.2. Visitors*

The power of cities in attracting visitors is one of the significant economic, social, and cultural health indicators of the region [29]. This brings the visitors, who visit the city with any reason, into prominence as a stakeholder group in city branding [5, 31, 32]. Tourism researches that regard city branding as "an effort to increase the number of visits to the city" focus on visitors [33–39, 61, 63].

According to tourism literature, the place visited is named as "destination," and destinations are visited by two types of visitors: business tourists and leisure tourists [32]. With a more general classification, Kotler et al. categorize the visitors as business visitors and nonbusiness visitors. Business visitors are people who participate in business meetings, look through the lands and properties, buy or sell the products, whereas nonbusiness visitors are called "tourist" and they constitute the group who wants to see the city's landmarks and center of attractions, historic buildings, or to visit their families and friends [31]. As it is found, this stakeholder group is not composed of tourists; hence, the groups should be titled as "visitors."

A more detailed classification of visitors can be listed as follows [40]:

• Stopovers for shopping while having a touristic trip

Besides economic contributions to "residential consumers," cities offer many social and emotional benefits like information sharing, social bonding with others, and involvement in activities [28]. One of the basic branding dimensions for cities is to pride of residents upon the city, which is convenient for living and available for opportunities [18]. Accordingly, a general answer for the question "What kind of expectations the residents have concerning the city?" is "a suitable place to live in."  Moreover, most of the residents embrace the city as a "belonging matter." Thereby, residents expect to live in "an attractive living environment" that meets their needs and wants [22]. The attributes that make the city attractive for residents to live in or meet residents' needs and wants can vary. According to a global research, liveability of a city depends on "cultural movements, standard

Kemp et al. [25] state that one of the most necessary points in building successful city branding strategy is analysis of residents' needs. Moreover, when residents show loyalty to city brand, they establish a bond between themselves and city branding efforts, yet more they attach city brand with their self-identity, ultimately, they promote the city through word-ofmouth by serving as an "ambassador." So, residents who have positive attitude toward city convey the uniqueness of city brand to other stakeholders [30]. Freire [4] contributes that city people is the most important component of city branding, and visitors are affected by resident

The power of cities in attracting visitors is one of the significant economic, social, and cultural health indicators of the region [29]. This brings the visitors, who visit the city with any reason, into prominence as a stakeholder group in city branding [5, 31, 32]. Tourism researches that regard city branding as "an effort to increase the number of visits to the city" focus on visitors

According to tourism literature, the place visited is named as "destination," and destinations are visited by two types of visitors: business tourists and leisure tourists [32]. With a more general classification, Kotler et al. categorize the visitors as business visitors and nonbusiness visitors. Business visitors are people who participate in business meetings, look through the lands and properties, buy or sell the products, whereas nonbusiness visitors are called "tourist" and they constitute the group who wants to see the city's landmarks and center of attractions, historic buildings, or to visit their families and friends [31]. As it is found, this stakeholder group is not composed of tourists; hence, the groups should be titled as "visitors."

of living, convenience of traffic flow, and the working age population" [29].

stakeholders while they are deciding on destination to visit.

A more detailed classification of visitors can be listed as follows [40]:

*2.1.2. Visitors*

162 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

[33–39, 61, 63].

• Conference and fair participants

• Stopovers in the city by visitors during a long trip

• Short-term visitors

• Daily travelers

• Long-term visitors who want to visit the place around the city

The attributes that visitors look for in a city vary depending on the reason of their visits. In other words, the motivation for destination choice is affected by expected benefits from the city and passes through five phases as illustrated in **Figure 1** [41]:

Irrespective of the visitors' reason for being in the city, their spending on diverse products and services contribute to the city directly or indirectly. Therefore, to enhance these, spending must be targeted by increasing the number of visits and extending the period of stay because every marginal visit lowers the unit cost [40].

Moreover, even if visitors are expected to stay temporarily and not to reside in the city, Braun [5] points out that visitors may turn into a resident if they are satisfied from the visit. Depending on the visitor's potential for being a resident, it is necessary and important to understand the expectations of visitors from a city. Tourism managers and marketers frequently face the question "What are the factors affective on city choice to visit?" For this reason, it is essential

**Figure 1.** City brand benefit pyramid.

to know how visitors decide a city to visit among the other alternatives. City marketers must order the factors and benefits, which the targeted visitors look for while they are making their minds concerning city choice [42]. Besides, the factors affecting that decision vary according to the purpose of visit [5]. The reason is that there may be many brand attributes presented by the city to visitors who expect diverse benefits and value from their visits. For example, elder visitors may give importance to safety of the city, whereas young visitors may want to enjoy a vibrant nightlife [42]. And business visitors may look for potential of conference hotels and nonbusiness visitors decide by a variety of leisure time activities in the city. The cities that have high attractiveness in terms of touristic visits are examined, it is seen that some of them are preferred by its historical sites, some are visited due to its natural beauties, and some are chosen by the artifacts in the city [38].

#### *2.1.3. Entrepreneurs*

The cities that recognize with each other as a rival and adopt a competition based on a knowledge-based economy want to attract capable and qualified workforce, new investments, and lucrative businesses to the city as well as visitors and residents [43]. In this sense, within city branding, entrepreneurs and business owners constitute another stakeholder group that must be analyzed in terms of their needs and wants [3, 5, 31, 44].

Cities develop some strategies in order to preserve their economic structures concerning the business people and entrepreneurs in the city. The purposes in developing these strategies are to keep existing businesses in the city, to produce plans and services for the contribution to the expansion of businesses, to encourage entrepreneurs in the city for creating new businesses and to attract new entrepreneurs to the city [16]. In this way, cities may achieve "entrepreneurial look." Thus, they gain entrepreneurship culture that gives them a sustainable competitive advantage over other cities [43]. If a city has an entrepreneurial culture, it can offer a lucrative business environment for both national and international businesses [16]. Indeed, these kinds of cities are remembered by successful enterprises within its scope: Munich is remembered with BMW and Atlanta is called with Coca Cola. Such kinds of successful entrepreneurships serve for attracting foreign investors and visitors, and generating income to the city, taking pride in city, and developing local businesses. This situation paves the way for new enterprises and attracts the itinerant work power from national and international markets [45].

The businesses and enterprises in the city assist cities to gain and sustain competitive advantage [43]. Therefore, one of the branding strategies concerning places is to build a city brand as "a place to do business" [46]. In that case, as residents put city's attributes ahead in terms "living," so entrepreneurs evaluate the city from the view of "running business." In other words, entrepreneurs expect to find a business environment that gives the chance of success from the city they do business. The attractiveness of a city in terms of businesses depends on its being "entrepreneur friendly." Such environment includes tax incentives, qualified labor force, economic development, succeeding enterprises, availability of procurements, easy access to markets, and high living standards [47].

Garcia et al. [3] state that entrepreneur stakeholders are ignored in the city branding literature in comparison to the others, especially when compared to visitors. Furthermore, within the city branding context, the studies that focus on entrepreneur stakeholders only handle the entrepreneurs in the tourism industry [44]. However, the competition among cities of today requires not only to limit entrepreneurs in the tourism industry but also to enhance the scope of stakeholders and to include entrepreneurs from other industries. Ritchie and Crouch [48] indicate that entrepreneurship in modern cities contribute to the development and competitiveness of places by strengthening competition, specialization, innovation, investments, growth, willingness to take risk, and production in the city.

Cities, which promise economic development for individuals and institutions, are at the forefront with their cheap land opportunities, easy accessibility, qualified work force, stable, and secure environment. Silicon Valley, Detroit, or cities in which techno parks are found call for entrepreneurs from all around the world. In Turkey, Bursa, and İzmit in the automobile industry, Denizli and Adana in textile and chemical industries, Eskişehir, Konya, Gaziantep in the food industry, İzmir-Aliağa and İzmit in the petroleum chemicals industry, and Manisa in electronic and white appliance industries have power to attract entrepreneurs [49].

## **3. Methodology**

to know how visitors decide a city to visit among the other alternatives. City marketers must order the factors and benefits, which the targeted visitors look for while they are making their minds concerning city choice [42]. Besides, the factors affecting that decision vary according to the purpose of visit [5]. The reason is that there may be many brand attributes presented by the city to visitors who expect diverse benefits and value from their visits. For example, elder visitors may give importance to safety of the city, whereas young visitors may want to enjoy a vibrant nightlife [42]. And business visitors may look for potential of conference hotels and nonbusiness visitors decide by a variety of leisure time activities in the city. The cities that have high attractiveness in terms of touristic visits are examined, it is seen that some of them are preferred by its historical sites, some are visited due to its natural beauties, and some are

The cities that recognize with each other as a rival and adopt a competition based on a knowledge-based economy want to attract capable and qualified workforce, new investments, and lucrative businesses to the city as well as visitors and residents [43]. In this sense, within city branding, entrepreneurs and business owners constitute another stakeholder group that must

Cities develop some strategies in order to preserve their economic structures concerning the business people and entrepreneurs in the city. The purposes in developing these strategies are to keep existing businesses in the city, to produce plans and services for the contribution to the expansion of businesses, to encourage entrepreneurs in the city for creating new businesses and to attract new entrepreneurs to the city [16]. In this way, cities may achieve "entrepreneurial look." Thus, they gain entrepreneurship culture that gives them a sustainable competitive advantage over other cities [43]. If a city has an entrepreneurial culture, it can offer a lucrative business environment for both national and international businesses [16]. Indeed, these kinds of cities are remembered by successful enterprises within its scope: Munich is remembered with BMW and Atlanta is called with Coca Cola. Such kinds of successful entrepreneurships serve for attracting foreign investors and visitors, and generating income to the city, taking pride in city, and developing local businesses. This situation paves the way for new enterprises and attracts the itinerant work power from national and

The businesses and enterprises in the city assist cities to gain and sustain competitive advantage [43]. Therefore, one of the branding strategies concerning places is to build a city brand as "a place to do business" [46]. In that case, as residents put city's attributes ahead in terms "living," so entrepreneurs evaluate the city from the view of "running business." In other words, entrepreneurs expect to find a business environment that gives the chance of success from the city they do business. The attractiveness of a city in terms of businesses depends on its being "entrepreneur friendly." Such environment includes tax incentives, qualified labor force, economic development, succeeding enterprises, availability of procurements, easy access to mar-

chosen by the artifacts in the city [38].

164 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

be analyzed in terms of their needs and wants [3, 5, 31, 44].

*2.1.3. Entrepreneurs*

international markets [45].

kets, and high living standards [47].

Even if the competition among cities dates back to old times, adaptation of planned and scientific branding strategies has been developing for most cities in the world. Within city branding, seen as an effort to increase visits at first, a comprehensive examination regarding various stakeholders who interact with the city is demanded over time. Besides, because of the three basic functions of a city as "to live, to visit and to do business," the main stakeholder groups are found as residents, visitors, and entrepreneurs within city branding. In this context, the present study aims at examining the attitudes of resident, visitor, and entrepreneur groups toward Muğla city, which is located in southwest of Turkey and known by its touristic destinations like Bodrum, Marmaris Fethiye and so on.

According to the aim of the study, universe is composed of residents (866,665), entrepreneurs (14,025), and visitors (3,222,315) in Muğla. When considering the universe, with 95% confidence interval, the statistically targeted sample size is 384. For three stakeholder groups, totally 481 residents, 342 entrepreneurs, and 322 visitors responded to the face-toface questionnaire. Questionnaire used for data collection is composed of two parts: demographics concerning related stakeholder group in the first and second, attitudinal items toward city brand elements take part. The items concerning city brand elements are identical in survey forms for all types of stakeholder groups and taken from the related literature [4, 32, 36, 50–52].

A research model of the study designed for each stakeholder group separately is illustrated in **Figure 2**. City brand elements constitute independent variables, whereas stakeholders' attitudes stand for dependent variable of research model.

Hypothesis of the study is presented below:

**H1** : The attitudes of stakeholder groups to city brand elements vary.

For data analysis, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed. The reason of choosing SEM, in comparison to common statistical methods like variance analysis, MANOVA, factor analysis, regression analysis, etc., lies behind its strength of modeling the relation among multivariables [53]. Moreover, SEM can be analyzed through various softwares such as AMOS, EQS, LISREL, and Mplus [54]. Nevertheless, AMOS differs from other software with its userfriendly structure and powerful solution offers [55]. Therefore, AMOS 20.0 was employed for structural equation analysis in the research.

To test the validity of city brand element scale and stakeholders' attitude scale, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted. The results of CFA for both scales fit with commonly used fit indices in SEM research. Fit indices for city brand elements scale are χ<sup>2</sup> /df = 3.241(acceptable fit), RMSEA = 0.044 (good fit), SRMR = 0.051 (acceptable fit), GFI = 0.904 (good fit), and AGFI = 0.887 (acceptable fit). Indices for stakeholders' attitude scale show all good fit as χ<sup>2</sup> /df = 2.857, RMSEA = 0.040, SRMR = 0.009, GFI = 0.997, and AGFI = 0.985 see Ref. [55].

**Figure 2.** Research model.

## **4. Findings**

/df =

Hypothesis of the study is presented below:

166 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

structural equation analysis in the research.

: The attitudes of stakeholder groups to city brand elements vary.

For data analysis, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed. The reason of choosing SEM, in comparison to common statistical methods like variance analysis, MANOVA, factor analysis, regression analysis, etc., lies behind its strength of modeling the relation among multivariables [53]. Moreover, SEM can be analyzed through various softwares such as AMOS, EQS, LISREL, and Mplus [54]. Nevertheless, AMOS differs from other software with its userfriendly structure and powerful solution offers [55]. Therefore, AMOS 20.0 was employed for

To test the validity of city brand element scale and stakeholders' attitude scale, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted. The results of CFA for both scales fit with commonly used fit indices in SEM research. Fit indices for city brand elements scale are χ<sup>2</sup>

3.241(acceptable fit), RMSEA = 0.044 (good fit), SRMR = 0.051 (acceptable fit), GFI = 0.904 (good fit), and AGFI = 0.887 (acceptable fit). Indices for stakeholders' attitude scale show all

/df = 2.857, RMSEA = 0.040, SRMR = 0.009, GFI = 0.997, and AGFI = 0.985 see

**H1**

good fit as χ<sup>2</sup>

**Figure 2.** Research model.

Ref. [55].

According to the findings of study and **Figure 3**, nature, social bonding, cultural, and shopping activities are the elements that affect positively residents' attitudes toward Muğla city (*p* < 0.011 and *p* < 0.052 ).

General environmental cleaning, parks, and outdoor recreational areas of city affect the attitudes of residents toward city as well as livableness of it. The positive effect of social bonding on residents' attitudes can be commented with social relation between residents—even with other stakeholders see Refs. [4, 22, 56]—in the city from where people utilize more than just living. This is because cities satisfy socialization need of people. The positive effect of cultural and shopping activities on attitudes of residents can be explained by the orientation of people to leisure activities. According to Braun [5], the existence and accessibility of spare time activities have influence on liveability of a city. In this meaning, if city has shopping alternatives, various cultural activities and festivals, or ambulatories, residents are tend to have positive attitudes toward a city brand.

As shown in **Figure 4**, concerning the findings about entrepreneurs, nature, business opportunities, and networking, governmental services influence the attitudes of these stakeholders positively (*p* < 0.011 and *p* < 0.052 ).

The positive effect of business opportunities and networking on attitudes is an expected result. In this direction, business opportunities like easy access to resources while doing business, sufficient commercial support, and services concerning business and networking possibilities that make cooperation easier between entrepreneurs have an impact on the attitudes within business opportunities and networking. Another effective city brand element on the attitudes of entrepreneurs is nature. It may be difficult to reasonably correlate between this element and attitudes at first, but natural wonders in the city, many touristic districts such as Fethiye, Bodrum, Marmaris, and Datça, known by their nature and majority of tourism sector in the sample, clarify the relation. Moreover, the city has huge marble reserve capacity

**Figure 3.** Findings of SEM concerning resident stakeholders.

<sup>1</sup> Statistically significant at *p-*value of 0.01.

<sup>2</sup> Statistically significant at *p*-value of 0.05.

**Figure 4.** Findings of SEM concerning entrepreneur stakeholders.

that is nature-related source for entrepreneurs. It is assumed that nature's being effective city brand element is just because of the reason above. The last effective element on the attitudes of entrepreneurs is governmental services. According to İlgüner and Asplund [57], services provided by the government interest residents more than other stakeholders. Furthermore, entrepreneurs in the city are residents at the same time, so governmental services' effect on the attitudes of these stakeholders is very reasonable. In addition, governmental services include items as energy supply and security of the city that may be assumed necessary elements while doing business.

The attitudes of visitors, last stakeholder group, are affected by accessibility of city, nature, business opportunities, and networking, social bonding, cultural and shopping activities, governmental services significantly (*p* < 0.011 and *p* < 0.052 ).

As shown in **Figure 5**, only local transportation does not have any significant effect on visitors' attitudes. Nature has the major effect on these stakeholders. It is so reasonable because Muğla, especially destinations such as Fethiye, Marmaris, Bodrum, and Datça, is an attraction center for visitors condensed on sea-sun-sand besides natural beauties that enable nature tourism and alternative tourism opportunities as agro-tourism. Accessibility of city, meaning how visitors reach the city and how easy it is to come, has positive effect on the attitudes. This is because the city has two national and international airports, nine harbors, and advanced highways. Although business opportunities and networking affect the attitudes of visitors significantly, this effect is negative. This negative effect highlights the need for improvement

**Figure 5.** Findings of SEM concerning visitor stakeholders.

works in the city in terms of business opportunities and networking. In order to convert these negative attitudes to positive, convention centers and business centers may be built and some promotional efforts in national and international scales must be done to announce them. Social bonding has a positive effect on visitors' attitudes as so residents. Social bonding's effect on both visitors and residents clears the relation between these two stakeholder groups. Many studies justify that residents play a key role on visitors' satisfaction [4, 5, 26, 56]. Therefore, social conditions like helpful and friendly people in the city, relations with others, tolerance to different cultures, and ways of living affect positively the attitudes of visitors toward Muğla city brand. Another city brand element effective on visitors' attitudes is cultural and shopping activities. National and international organizations as cultural events, fairs, and festivals lead positive attitudes of visitors. International Gümüşlük Classical Music Festival, Yörük Culture and Art Festival, Traditional Bull Fighting and Camel Wrestling, Film and Culture Festival are just some of those. Moreover, when the findings of "Cluster Analysis in Tourism Industry in Muğla and Macro Level Strategic Planning" are considered, strong position in demand concerning shopping tourism in the city draws the attention [58]. The final element effective on visitors' attitudes is governmental services. Especially, issues as accessibility of those services and general safety of city affect opinions of visitors toward governmental services. So, it is possible to conclude that Muğla city brand meets the visitors' expectations from governmental services.

## **5. Conclusion and implications**

that is nature-related source for entrepreneurs. It is assumed that nature's being effective city brand element is just because of the reason above. The last effective element on the attitudes of entrepreneurs is governmental services. According to İlgüner and Asplund [57], services provided by the government interest residents more than other stakeholders. Furthermore, entrepreneurs in the city are residents at the same time, so governmental services' effect on the attitudes of these stakeholders is very reasonable. In addition, governmental services include items as energy supply and security of the city that may be assumed necessary ele-

The attitudes of visitors, last stakeholder group, are affected by accessibility of city, nature, business opportunities, and networking, social bonding, cultural and shopping activities,

As shown in **Figure 5**, only local transportation does not have any significant effect on visitors' attitudes. Nature has the major effect on these stakeholders. It is so reasonable because Muğla, especially destinations such as Fethiye, Marmaris, Bodrum, and Datça, is an attraction center for visitors condensed on sea-sun-sand besides natural beauties that enable nature tourism and alternative tourism opportunities as agro-tourism. Accessibility of city, meaning how visitors reach the city and how easy it is to come, has positive effect on the attitudes. This is because the city has two national and international airports, nine harbors, and advanced highways. Although business opportunities and networking affect the attitudes of visitors significantly, this effect is negative. This negative effect highlights the need for improvement

and *p* < 0.052

).

ments while doing business.

168 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

governmental services significantly (*p* < 0.011

**Figure 5.** Findings of SEM concerning visitor stakeholders.

**Figure 4.** Findings of SEM concerning entrepreneur stakeholders.

Competitiveness does not pertain to just products and services; it has also become efficient in city scale. Competition between places makes the application of brand management to cities possible. Furthermore, nowadays, brand equity of cities can be calculated. Accordingly, city branding has become one of the popular fields of present time.

When departed from three functions of a city like empowering the position of city as a destination, offering a place to set up a business and to continue one's life, it is easily seen that three main stakeholder groups consist of residents, visitors, and entrepreneurs. In addition, these groups "consume" the same city attributes with different expectations and aims. The reason is that every stakeholder group uses its own lens and develops an attitude toward city brand.

Findings of the present study clarify that different city brand elements are effective on the attitudes of various stakeholders examined in study. Hereunder, every stakeholder group interprets the city brand in terms of own purpose of existence in the city and develops an attitude accordingly. The most salient point of the study is nature's being the only effective city brand element on all stakeholder groups. On this basis, recommended city brand element is nature in order to attract all stakeholder groups within city brand management of Muğla. While designing slogan and logo that play significant role on city management and on brand awareness of city, natural wonders of Muğla must be highlighted. Moreover, when the contribution of products special to city is considered, it is suggested that products like honeydew honey and marble, due to city's nature, must be promoted with videos and so on. Besides, in order to attract new residents or to increase existing residents' quality of life, social bonding, and cultural and shopping activities must be enhanced. If the target is new entrepreneurs, city brand elements like nature, business opportunities, and networking, governmental services need to be improved. New visitors—as a stakeholder group—is in focus, city managers can make arrangements about accessibility of city, business opportunities and networking, social bonding, cultural and shopping activities.

This study has some limitations that provide opportunities for future research. The prominent limitation of the study is exclusion of some significant target groups in a city. Forthcoming research can include groups as students, nongovernmental organizations, and local administrations and confirm the findings with more empirical studies in different cities which have unique structure with the dominance of different stakeholders.

## **Author details**

Funda Bayrakdaroğlu Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Turkey

## **References**

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order to attract new residents or to increase existing residents' quality of life, social bonding, and cultural and shopping activities must be enhanced. If the target is new entrepreneurs, city brand elements like nature, business opportunities, and networking, governmental services need to be improved. New visitors—as a stakeholder group—is in focus, city managers can make arrangements about accessibility of city, business opportunities and networking, social

This study has some limitations that provide opportunities for future research. The prominent limitation of the study is exclusion of some significant target groups in a city. Forthcoming research can include groups as students, nongovernmental organizations, and local administrations and confirm the findings with more empirical studies in different cities which have

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**Provisional chapter**

## **Celebrity Endorsement: Developing A Brand Image in Housing Ads Housing Ads**

**Celebrity Endorsement: Developing A Brand Image in**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.69651

Füsun Çizmeci Yöreş Füsun Çizmeci Yöreş

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Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69651

#### **Abstract**

This article aims to analyze the celebrity endorsement strategy used to communicate brand image messages in housing advertisements. Even though there is a lot of literature about celebrity endorsement, no research has been made up to now about how this method is used in the housing market. Within the scope of the study, first housing advertisements published from 2001 to 2016 have been scanned. Hurriyet newspaper was selected as the source as it is the newspaper with the highest circulation. After all the advertisements published on Hurriyet newspaper have been scanned, advertisement where a celebrity was the spokesperson was determined. This research, which tries to explain celebrity endorsement widely used for marketing of housings with the "meaning transfer model" of McCracken, showed that in transferring cultural meaning of the celebrity to the product or housing, traits of attractiveness or credibility is exploited in general. However, it was seen that other meanings of the celebrity—modern, traditional, etc.—along with his/her credibility and attractiveness are effective in determining the image of the housing project marketed.

**Keywords:** housing adds, brand image, celebrity endorsement, meaning transfer model

## **1. Introduction**

Many products or services launched for sale in today's market conditions are similar to one another in terms of their functional properties and thus it becomes harder to determine the properties that set a brand apart from the others. Under these circumstances, it is possible to say that when consumers are purchasing a product, they are charmed up by the image of the brand rather than its functional benefits.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The brand image plays a crucial role in creating a brand in terms of the privileged position of the brand in the minds of consumers, the ability to easily distinguish it from the other brands in the market and eventually in terms of influencing the purchasing decision of consumers. In this sense, the process of building a brand image is considered as one of the basic steps of the marketing communication.

In our day, from sponsorships to social responsibility projects various methods are used to deliver the messages that build the brand image in the minds of consumers. However, one of the most common and oldest methods is to deliver the messages building the brand image through advertisements.

Advertisements use striking mottos to communicate messages regarding the image of the brand, intriguing visuals, interesting scenarios or scripts, and they play an active role in making the publicized brand stand out among its peers in the market and turn it into a brand that is on demand. Apart from these, communicating messages regarding the brand image via advertising spokesperson is a very common method. Advertising spokesperson can either be anonymous people or celebrities that consumers can identify themselves with much easily. In literature, communicating advertising messages through celebrities is referred to as celebrity endorsement. Researches made show that a celebrity endorser is more effective in convincing consumers and communicating the symbolic meanings associated with a brand to the target audience [1].

During the recent years, there is a common practice of using this concept in advertisements of housing projects in Istanbul. Celebrity endorsement strategy is being applied in housing pro ject advertisings to build a brand image and attract attention of potential consumer groups. Whether being constructed in or around the city, all these projects are "gated communities" and are being marketed with the "promise of a privileged accommodation." This "privilege" promised is being described over the lives of celebrities, which seems attractive and unreachable by most people [2].

This exclusive accommodation opportunity is defined in many different ways: a privileged station, prestigious social identity, the chance to live together with elites, etc. Living in gated communities means having a privileged lifestyle rather than just owning a new house.

The gated community concept marketed with the promise of a privileged lifestyle is based on spatial boundaries that separate the inhabitants from the rest of the city. A border is drawn around the housings with walls, gates, doors and similar structures and social reinforcement areas like sport centers, shopping areas, entertainment, and similar services and facilities are constructed within these borders that only the residents can benefit from. This setup gives the residents opportunity to meet most of their daily needs without even getting outside these borders, but at the same time this causes them to shut themselves off from the rest of the society [3]. This shows that gated community concept builds a limited world both in spatial and social terms and creates a "privileged living environment" for a specific segment of society [2].

Privileges offered to specific segments of society by gated communities are highly criticized on the ground that they cause spatial and social segregation within the urban texture [4, 5]. Whereas the producers of gated communities develop their marketing strategies based precisely on these critics and they market these communities with the promise of a "privileged life." Such that, in the advertisements of these communities, instead of referring to the qualities of these housings, striking slogans are used like "people who have a different perspective," "people who want to make a difference," "life choice of elites," "opportunity to be neighbors of the elite," and "reserve your spot at first class."

It is possible to give more examples to the way these privileges promised by gated communities are defined during the marketing process. However, for the purpose of this study, it would be better to rather emphasize two matters. First, it is observed that these housings, which in fact are not very different from one another in terms of the accommodation opportunities they offer, are assigned different symbolic meanings during the marketing process, which would set them apart from others. In other words, we can say that the purpose is to create brand images that consumers can distinguish. Another important point is that almost one-third of these housing projects deliver their brand image message to potential consumer through celebrities.

Even though there is a lot of literature about celebrity endorsement, no research has been made up to now about how this method is used in the housing market. In this regard, the objective of this article is to examine the celebrity endorsement strategy used to communicate brand image messages in housing advertisements.

McCracken's meaning transfer model is used as the research method as it is one of the most explanatory models regarding "celebrity endorsement." In the meaning transfer model, celebrity endorsement is defined as the process where cultural meanings that a celebrity represents are transferred to first the product/brand and from the product/brand to the consumer. So it is possible to say that this research tries to answer the following questions: First question for which an answer is sought was what properties caused the celebrity to be selected for endorsement. In other words, to begin with, the cultural meanings that celebrity possesses are examined. In the second stage, we tried to examine the meaning transferred from celebrity to the product and the type of connection established between the housing projects and the celebrity. In the third and last stage what was promised to the consumer with the meaning transferred from celebrity to the product and the brand image that will be created in the minds of consumers was questioned.

Section 1 of the article is the introduction section. In Section 2, brand image and the role of advertisement in communicating brand image messages are discussed. In Section 3, celebrity endorsement strategy that is widely used in communicating brand image message and different product endorsement models are examined. In Section 4, information is given about research model and sampling. Sections 5–7 discuss the findings, discuss their evaluation, and conclude the paper, respectively.

## **2. Developing brand images in ads**

The brand image plays a crucial role in creating a brand in terms of the privileged position of the brand in the minds of consumers, the ability to easily distinguish it from the other brands in the market and eventually in terms of influencing the purchasing decision of consumers. In this sense, the process of building a brand image is considered as one of the basic steps of the

In our day, from sponsorships to social responsibility projects various methods are used to deliver the messages that build the brand image in the minds of consumers. However, one of the most common and oldest methods is to deliver the messages building the brand image

Advertisements use striking mottos to communicate messages regarding the image of the brand, intriguing visuals, interesting scenarios or scripts, and they play an active role in making the publicized brand stand out among its peers in the market and turn it into a brand that is on demand. Apart from these, communicating messages regarding the brand image via advertising spokesperson is a very common method. Advertising spokesperson can either be anonymous people or celebrities that consumers can identify themselves with much easily. In literature, communicating advertising messages through celebrities is referred to as celebrity endorsement. Researches made show that a celebrity endorser is more effective in convincing consumers and communicating the symbolic meanings associated with a brand to the target

During the recent years, there is a common practice of using this concept in advertisements of housing projects in Istanbul. Celebrity endorsement strategy is being applied in housing pro ject advertisings to build a brand image and attract attention of potential consumer groups. Whether being constructed in or around the city, all these projects are "gated communities" and are being marketed with the "promise of a privileged accommodation." This "privilege" promised is being described over the lives of celebrities, which seems attractive and unreach-

This exclusive accommodation opportunity is defined in many different ways: a privileged station, prestigious social identity, the chance to live together with elites, etc. Living in gated communities means having a privileged lifestyle rather than just owning a new house.

The gated community concept marketed with the promise of a privileged lifestyle is based on spatial boundaries that separate the inhabitants from the rest of the city. A border is drawn around the housings with walls, gates, doors and similar structures and social reinforcement areas like sport centers, shopping areas, entertainment, and similar services and facilities are constructed within these borders that only the residents can benefit from. This setup gives the residents opportunity to meet most of their daily needs without even getting outside these borders, but at the same time this causes them to shut themselves off from the rest of the society [3]. This shows that gated community concept builds a limited world both in spatial and social terms and creates a "privileged living environment" for a specific segment of society [2]. Privileges offered to specific segments of society by gated communities are highly criticized on the ground that they cause spatial and social segregation within the urban texture [4, 5]. Whereas the producers of gated communities develop their marketing strategies based precisely on these critics and they market these communities with the promise of a "privileged

marketing communication.

176 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

through advertisements.

audience [1].

able by most people [2].

Emotions and ideas evoked about the brand in the minds of consumers as the result of marketing communication activities is defined as the brand image. In this respect, even though brand image is designed by producers and marketing teams, it is still a subjective phenomenon shaped in the mind of the consumer.

Subjectivity of brand image is also highlighted in definitions provided in literatures. Dobni and Zinkhan [6] define brand image as impressions of a brand in consumer's mind whereas Pickton and Broderick [7] define it as the brand perception created in the minds of the consumer as the result of marketing activities. Similarly, Kavas [8] defined the brand image as the emotion and ideas of a consumer about a brand and the meaning that the consumer recalls when he thinks of that brand.

In this respect, it is possible to say that subjective conditions play an important role in development of the brand image and that brand image may vary from one individual to another. Marketing activities are the efforts made to create a positive brand image in the mind of the consumer. However, this is not easy to accomplish and it requires effectively identifying the target audience and analyzing the expectations of this audience.

Because a brand is not just a name or logo it is in fact the promise, the commitment made. This promise may make sense to the consumer thanks to a well-designed and effective brand image.

Kotler [9] stated that an efficient brand image has three basic functions:

It takes time and intense effort to create these messages regarding the brand image. Having a strong brand image brings many advantages with it in the long term. First and foremost, it facilitates communication with consumers and helps the brand become the choice of preference of the consumer. Accordingly, the brand becomes popular in the market and gains competitive advantage. On the other side, a positive brand image gives advantages in terms of satisfaction of the consumer and brand loyalty.

In our day, from sponsorships to social responsibility projects various methods are used to deliver the messages that build the brand image in the minds of consumers. However, one of the most common and oldest methods is to deliver the messages building the brand image through advertisements. Oglivy, one of the most experienced experts in the advertising sector, expressed that the primary objective of advertisements is to develop the image of the brand [10].

In conclusion, the primary objective of advertising is to create a brand image in the minds of consumers that will motivate them in purchasing the product. According to Williamson [11], in order for advertising to achieve its purpose depends on their capacity to make and communicate a meaning. So the role of advertisements in delivering the messages that constitute the brand image is not just about promoting the inherent qualities of the brand they market. Advertisements feature the symbolic values attributed to the brand in order to create a positive brand image and aim to make sure that the brand means something for the potential consumers.

Ascribing symbolic values to the brand, in other words providing that a brand means something for the consumer is achieved through highlighting the identity and status that consumer will gain by preferring this brand. Because in today's world, individuals or social stratums differentiate based on what and how individuals consume. The brands they use turn into indicators that determine their position in social hierarchy. This is one of the most important things described by the brand image in our day.

In this context, it is possible to say that advertisements do not highlight just the need for a specific consumer good; they also highlight the symbolic meaning of that consumer good. And all needs that this symbolic meaning indicates makes a reference to a wide range of desires and values and enables this meaning to be understood not only by its target audience but also by all segments of society. In that case, advertisements are not just about impressive visuals or words; they are also important marketing communication tools where the meaning attributed to the brand is embedded in a cultural coding system with a scenario that the society understands [12].

Based on their skills of creating a meaning, advertisers try to create an image for the brands they market and try to make sure that the brand is distinguished from other brands in the market that caters for similar requirements. In other words, the purpose is to convince the consumer by creating a consistent brand image.

Williamson [11] explains that when communicating the meaning, the product or brand is associated with an object, person or an image that does not potentially exist. One of the most effective methods applied in the process of creating a meaning and communicating this meaning to the society, that is to say the process of building a brand image, is to associate the brand with a "celebrity," in other words to market the brand using the image of the celebrity [13]. In this respect, in order to communicate the advertising messages, advertisements take advantage of the popular culture and characters that are part of this popular culture. Especially in our day when it gets harder to distinguish products and services in terms of the qualities they possess, "*celebrities play an increasingly important role in advertising as a tool for creating and enhancing brand image…*" [14, p. 639]. Celebrities used in advertisements are usually widely known and respected celebrities in cinema, music, sports and business world, and similar fields.

## **3. Celebrity endorsement**

Subjectivity of brand image is also highlighted in definitions provided in literatures. Dobni and Zinkhan [6] define brand image as impressions of a brand in consumer's mind whereas Pickton and Broderick [7] define it as the brand perception created in the minds of the consumer as the result of marketing activities. Similarly, Kavas [8] defined the brand image as the emotion and ideas of a consumer about a brand and the meaning that the consumer recalls

In this respect, it is possible to say that subjective conditions play an important role in development of the brand image and that brand image may vary from one individual to another. Marketing activities are the efforts made to create a positive brand image in the mind of the consumer. However, this is not easy to accomplish and it requires effectively identifying the

Because a brand is not just a name or logo it is in fact the promise, the commitment made. This promise may make sense to the consumer thanks to a well-designed and effective brand

• The brand should have a single message that well defines the promise and properties of the

• At the same time, this message should evoke emotions of consumers as well as their minds. It takes time and intense effort to create these messages regarding the brand image. Having a strong brand image brings many advantages with it in the long term. First and foremost, it facilitates communication with consumers and helps the brand become the choice of preference of the consumer. Accordingly, the brand becomes popular in the market and gains competitive advantage. On the other side, a positive brand image gives advantages in terms

In our day, from sponsorships to social responsibility projects various methods are used to deliver the messages that build the brand image in the minds of consumers. However, one of the most common and oldest methods is to deliver the messages building the brand image through advertisements. Oglivy, one of the most experienced experts in the advertising sector, expressed that the primary objective of advertisements is to develop the image of the

In conclusion, the primary objective of advertising is to create a brand image in the minds of consumers that will motivate them in purchasing the product. According to Williamson [11], in order for advertising to achieve its purpose depends on their capacity to make and communicate a meaning. So the role of advertisements in delivering the messages that constitute the brand image is not just about promoting the inherent qualities of the brand they market. Advertisements feature the symbolic values attributed to the brand in order to create a positive brand image and aim to make sure that the brand means something for the potential

• This message should not be confused with messages of competitors in the market.

target audience and analyzing the expectations of this audience.

Kotler [9] stated that an efficient brand image has three basic functions:

when he thinks of that brand.

178 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

brand in the minds of consumers.

of satisfaction of the consumer and brand loyalty.

image.

brand [10].

consumers.

Celebrity endorsement is a very old marketing communication strategy whereby popular culture and celebrities that are part of this popular culture are used to create a brand image and to deliver the messages regarding the brand image. Roy [15] explains that this is a centuries old marketing method, which is being widely used today. Such that celebrity endorsement is used to deliver advertisement messages in 30% of the advertisements published in Western countries [16], 60% of the advertisements published in Asian countries [17], and around 25% of the adds published on TVs in the United States [18].

Schlecht [19] mentioned that one of the most common methods used to deliver the advertising messages and to convince the consumers to buy their brands is taking advantage of a spokesperson. Spokesperson can be anonymous; however, the most common method is to use celebrities as spokesperson of brands, and in literature this is referred to as "*celebrity endorsement*."

Zamudio [20] defines celebrity endorsement as brand alliance between a corporate brand and a human brand, which is the celebrity and expressed that celebrity endorsement is important to enhance value of the corporate brand or its products and turn it into a brand that is preferred by consumers.

The main motivation behind turning to celebrities in advertisements is to transfer public's perceived positive meaning of a celebrity to the product. This way, an advertisement to attain its goal, in other words ensuring that a product has a meaning for the potential consumers, becomes much easier.

Generally, celebrities are recognized as "role models" by a major part of the society and they turn into objects of desire that many people take as an example in regards to their eating and drinking habits and the way they dress. It is becoming more and more important to look and live like celebrities and have the things they have. For this reason, identifying a product with a celebrity to make a product more popular helps the product to become popular in a very short time and turns the celebrity into an essential marketing communication tool.

According to Choi and Rifon [14], consumers prefer specific products and brands in order to shape themselves and their world. Products used in advertisements turn into inspiring figures that may be a role model for the consumer in the process of shaping and building themselves and their world. The reason for this is that celebrities possess different cultural meanings that may contribute to the self-realization process of the consumer. Consumers that buy a product, which has been endorsed by a celebrity, try to take credit for the meaning that such celebrity possesses. To put it differently it can be said that consumers try to create their personal images being inspired by the image of the celebrity in the light of information they obtain through advertisements or other communication tools of the popular culture and they use these products to reflect their new images.

McCracken ([1], p. 310) defined celebrity endorser as "*any individual who enjoys public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it in an advertisement*," because when celebrities are used as spokesperson of a brand they convey to the marketing communication process both their roles in the advertisement and the cultural meanings they possess [21]. In this respect, it is possible to say that celebrity endorsement is in fact a meaning transfer process.

According to Ohanian [22], theoretical researches and practice demonstrated that using celebrities in advertisements manages to attract attention and interest of the society. The impact of the person endorsing the brand depends on the meaning such person conveys to the process of endorsement. Celebrities are associated with various and diversified meanings. As McCracken [1] said "*even the celebrity that is stereotyped for his specific quality represents not just a single meaning but instead a series of interdependent meanings... and this makes them a very valuable communication tool*."

Status, class, gender and age differences, personality, and lifestyle types that celebrities in the current celebrity pool represent offers an extensive range in terms of variety during the phase where marketing communication is established.

Different models have been developed to analyze how the meaning that a celebrity possess is transferred to the product and consumer, in other words to explain in detail the celebrity endorsement which is a very complex process. The following section explains these models that are referred to in literatures.

## **4. Models on celebrity endorsement**

Schlecht [19] mentioned that one of the most common methods used to deliver the advertising messages and to convince the consumers to buy their brands is taking advantage of a spokesperson. Spokesperson can be anonymous; however, the most common method is to use celebrities as spokesperson of brands, and in literature this is referred to as "*celebrity endorsement*." Zamudio [20] defines celebrity endorsement as brand alliance between a corporate brand and a human brand, which is the celebrity and expressed that celebrity endorsement is important to enhance value of the corporate brand or its products and turn it into a brand that is pre-

The main motivation behind turning to celebrities in advertisements is to transfer public's perceived positive meaning of a celebrity to the product. This way, an advertisement to attain its goal, in other words ensuring that a product has a meaning for the potential consumers,

Generally, celebrities are recognized as "role models" by a major part of the society and they turn into objects of desire that many people take as an example in regards to their eating and drinking habits and the way they dress. It is becoming more and more important to look and live like celebrities and have the things they have. For this reason, identifying a product with a celebrity to make a product more popular helps the product to become popular in a very short

According to Choi and Rifon [14], consumers prefer specific products and brands in order to shape themselves and their world. Products used in advertisements turn into inspiring figures that may be a role model for the consumer in the process of shaping and building themselves and their world. The reason for this is that celebrities possess different cultural meanings that may contribute to the self-realization process of the consumer. Consumers that buy a product, which has been endorsed by a celebrity, try to take credit for the meaning that such celebrity possesses. To put it differently it can be said that consumers try to create their personal images being inspired by the image of the celebrity in the light of information they obtain through advertisements or other communication tools of the popular culture and they

McCracken ([1], p. 310) defined celebrity endorser as "*any individual who enjoys public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it in an advertisement*," because when celebrities are used as spokesperson of a brand they convey to the marketing communication process both their roles in the advertisement and the cultural meanings they possess [21]. In this respect, it is possible to say that celebrity endorsement is

According to Ohanian [22], theoretical researches and practice demonstrated that using celebrities in advertisements manages to attract attention and interest of the society. The impact of the person endorsing the brand depends on the meaning such person conveys to the process of endorsement. Celebrities are associated with various and diversified meanings. As McCracken [1] said "*even the celebrity that is stereotyped for his specific quality represents not just a single meaning but instead a series of interdependent meanings... and this makes them a very valuable*

time and turns the celebrity into an essential marketing communication tool.

use these products to reflect their new images.

in fact a meaning transfer process.

*communication tool*."

ferred by consumers.

180 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

becomes much easier.

Even though people who make researches about celebrity endorsement criticize this by stating the inadequacies of the studies in this respect, celebrity endorsement is explained very extensively in literatures. Especially the definition of celebrity endorsement features four models that have guided the subsequent works—the source credibility model, the source attractiveness model, the product match-up hypothesis and the meaning transfer model [15].

The source credibility model and the source attractiveness model are categorized under the title source models. McCracken [1] explained that these two source models are designed for communication works but later adapted to the endorsement process. Both source models claim that specific qualities of spokesperson as a communication source may positively affect the potential consumers and convince them to buy the product in advertisements.

#### **4.1. The source credibility model**

This model claims that messages from a credible source are more successful in convincing the target audience. In other words according to this model, advertising messages communicated by an endorser who is highly credible makes a positive impact on purchasing behavior.

Many studies that have been carried out using the source credibility model reveals that celebrity endorsers have more influence on the purchasing behavior of the consumer than the spokespersons that are not celebrities [21, 22]. According to Choi and Rifon [14], popularity of celebrities and recognition of celebrities by consumers are the reasons why celebrity endorsers are perceived as a credible source.

When defining the source credibility model, Erdogan [21] points out two basic features that a credible source should have: The source credibility model argues, "that the effectiveness of a message depends on perceived level of *expertise* and *trustworthiness* in an endorser."

*Trustworthiness* signifies the qualities of the endorser like honesty and integrity [21]. At this point, the identity of the endorser, the person who delivers the advertising message and how his identity is perceived by the society plays a role. According to Smith [23], consumers respect endorsers who they consider as honest and credible and ignore the endorsers that they see as unreliable.

*Expertise* represents the knowledge, experience, or skills of the endorsers. Knowledge here does not mean the knowledge about the product or brand that the person endorses; it is the perception of expertise that is created in the minds of the target group. Even though the endorser may have nothing to do with the product he is endorsing, his accomplishments in his career, and the quality of communication he builds during the marketing phase may cause the endorser to be perceived as an expert [24].

## **4.2. The source attractiveness model**

This model claims that messages communicated by an attractive source positively guide the consumer behavior [25]. According to this model, the attractiveness of the endorser plays a crucial role on the effectiveness of the message he delivers. However, attractiveness should not be interpreted only as physical qualities, it also arises from the significant meanings that the consumer finds attractive and useful [1, 21].

Qualities like "familiarity," "likability," and/or "similarity" are the features that describe the attractiveness of the product used during the endorsement process. "Familiarity is defined as knowledge of the source through exposure, likability as affection for the source as a result of the source's physical appearance and behavior, and similarity as a supposed resemblance between the source and the receiver of the message" [1].

#### **4.3. The celebrity-brand congruence model**

In literatures, the congruence model or the model called match-up hypothesis claims that the success of a spokesperson does not come only from that person's physical qualities or fame [26] and that there must be congruence between the endorsed brand and the endorser in order to execute a successful endorsement phase [27]. In other words, it is claimed that if there is a congruency between the image of the celebrity used in the endorsement process and the image of the brand being marketed, this positively affects the consumers [28].

Also Choi and Rifon [14] claim that studies regarding congruence neglect a very important matter while focusing on product/celebrity congruence and one has to pay attention to the congruence of celebrity endorser and consumer in order to carry out a successful endorsement process. In other words, writers explain that if the "right" celebrity endorser is selected, the image of the endorser will play an inspiring role in building the identity of consumers and this will positively influence the purchasing behavior of the consumers.

Source models, congruence or match-up models are being criticized, as they are unable to or inadequate in explaining some matters about the celebrity endorsement. One of the most important criticisms made about source models is that such models perceive celebrities only as a group made of attractive and credible individuals and cannot fully define the world of celebrities that involves complex and various meanings. From this point of view, source models fall short of discovering the meanings that celebrity represents and how these meanings serve to the purpose of endorsement process [1].

Another critique is the ambiguity of the factors that constitute credibility of the source and which factors are more important than the others [21]. Finally, source models cannot explain why some celebrities are convincing for some brands whereas not for others, and they remain incapable of defining the congruence or incongruence of the celebrity and the brand [15]. One of the main reasons for this is that source models focus only one some qualities of the celebrity and disregard the product/brand [1].

McCracken in article "*Who is the celebrity endorser? Cultural foundations of the Endorsement Process*" explains in detail the inadequacy of source and congruence models and holds forth the new celebrity endorsement model called "the meaning transfer model" [1].

#### **4.4. The meaning transfer model**

*Expertise* represents the knowledge, experience, or skills of the endorsers. Knowledge here does not mean the knowledge about the product or brand that the person endorses; it is the perception of expertise that is created in the minds of the target group. Even though the endorser may have nothing to do with the product he is endorsing, his accomplishments in his career, and the quality of communication he builds during the marketing phase may cause

This model claims that messages communicated by an attractive source positively guide the consumer behavior [25]. According to this model, the attractiveness of the endorser plays a crucial role on the effectiveness of the message he delivers. However, attractiveness should not be interpreted only as physical qualities, it also arises from the significant meanings that

Qualities like "familiarity," "likability," and/or "similarity" are the features that describe the attractiveness of the product used during the endorsement process. "Familiarity is defined as knowledge of the source through exposure, likability as affection for the source as a result of the source's physical appearance and behavior, and similarity as a supposed resemblance

In literatures, the congruence model or the model called match-up hypothesis claims that the success of a spokesperson does not come only from that person's physical qualities or fame [26] and that there must be congruence between the endorsed brand and the endorser in order to execute a successful endorsement phase [27]. In other words, it is claimed that if there is a congruency between the image of the celebrity used in the endorsement process and the

Also Choi and Rifon [14] claim that studies regarding congruence neglect a very important matter while focusing on product/celebrity congruence and one has to pay attention to the congruence of celebrity endorser and consumer in order to carry out a successful endorsement process. In other words, writers explain that if the "right" celebrity endorser is selected, the image of the endorser will play an inspiring role in building the identity of consumers and

Source models, congruence or match-up models are being criticized, as they are unable to or inadequate in explaining some matters about the celebrity endorsement. One of the most important criticisms made about source models is that such models perceive celebrities only as a group made of attractive and credible individuals and cannot fully define the world of celebrities that involves complex and various meanings. From this point of view, source models fall short of discovering the meanings that celebrity represents and how these meanings

Another critique is the ambiguity of the factors that constitute credibility of the source and which factors are more important than the others [21]. Finally, source models cannot explain

image of the brand being marketed, this positively affects the consumers [28].

this will positively influence the purchasing behavior of the consumers.

the endorser to be perceived as an expert [24].

the consumer finds attractive and useful [1, 21].

**4.3. The celebrity-brand congruence model**

serve to the purpose of endorsement process [1].

between the source and the receiver of the message" [1].

**4.2. The source attractiveness model**

182 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

McCracken [1] stated that cultural meanings that a celebrity possesses are what make celebrities useful in the endorsement process widely used in marketing communication. According to him, the success of the endorsement process depends on establishing a connection between the cultural meanings that a celebrity possesses and the product endorsed. In this respect, he defined celebrity endorsement as the process where cultural meanings of a celebrity is first transferred to the product and then from the product to the consumer and this definition describes intellectual infrastructure of "the meaning transfer model" he developed to explain his version of celebrity endorsement.

In the celebrity endorsement model of McCracken, meaning transfer is realized at three stages:

*First stage* is the phase where cultural meanings associated with the celebrities are created in the minds of the society. A celebrity's stage performance, acting in movies, accomplishments in sports, and other personality traits he/she unfolds before public determine the cultural meaning of the celebrity. Meanings that a celebrity has do not depend on the persons' personality traits; they are symbolic meanings that arise from their accomplishments in their career.

In this sense, in the endorsement process, the way celebrities are perceived is quite different from the way anonymous people are perceived. As celebrities are well known by the society, the meanings they have are displayed in a very clear and precise way and this enables easier communication with the consumers.

In the *second stage* symbolic meaning of the celebrity is transferred to the products. At this point, it is necessary to be wary about congruence of product and celebrity. Advertising agencies first determine the symbolic properties of the product and then choose the celebrity that best suits to that symbolic value. In other words, advertising is designed to imply the main similarity between the celebrity and the product. Developing the advertisement in a way that will serve best to the congruency of the product and celebrity, and to create a content that supports this idea facilitates transferring to the product the symbolic meaning of the celebrity in the minds of consumers.

*Third stage* is the time when meanings of the celebrity created in time as the result of all performances of the celebrity before public meets with the consumer via the product. The better the images of celebrities on screen are built, the stronger symbolic meanings these images involve and the better the product-celebrity match-up is, the easier it will be for the consumer to embrace the product.

These meanings transferred from the celebrity to the product and from product to the consumer are used by consumers in building their own images. In other words through products they purchase, consumers try to identify themselves with the celebrity endorsement of that product. As a result the celebrity endorser is the representative of the new identity that the consumer can use. In this regard consumer goods are not objects that meet the needs of consumers and serve to specific functions, they are tools used to form the social identities of consumers.

## **5. Methodology**

This article aims to analyze the celebrity endorsement strategy used to communicate brand image messages in housing advertisements. Housing advertisements that are used as the research sample are prepared for marketing large-scale housing projects constructed in Istanbul as of 2000. Brand image is very important in marketing of these projects because almost all the projects are launched for sale based on small models and project visuals even before construction works have been started.

Within the scope of the study, first housing advertisements published from 2001 to 2016 have been scanned. Hurriyet newspaper was selected as the source, as it is the newspaper with highest circulation. After all advertisements published on Hurriyet newspaper have been scanned, advertisement where a celebrity was the spokesperson was determined. It was determined that in almost 30% of housing advertisements, messages were communicated through celebrities.

It was determined that 40% of 85 advertisements selected were commercial films and these have been accessed from web pages of the companies that produce houses marketed in these commercial films or from web sites where news on property are published.

McCracken's meaning transfer model is used as the research method as it is one of the most explanatory models regarding "celebrity endorsement" [1]. Meaning transfer model was explained in detail in the previous section; however, it is necessary to add a few comments in this section as well about the way these are used in the analysis process.

According to the meaning transfer model, celebrity endorsement is defined as a three stage process where cultural meanings that a celebrity represents are transferred to first the product/brand and from the product/brand to the consumer. Accordingly analysis is configured as a three-stage process. First question for which an answer is sought was what properties caused the celebrity to be selected for endorsement. In other words, to begin with, the cultural meanings that celebrity possesses are examined. In the second stage, we tried to examine the meaning transferred from celebrity to the product and the type of connection established between the housing projects and the celebrity. In the third and last stage what was promised to the consumer with the meaning transferred from celebrity to the product and the brand image that will be created in the minds of consumers was questioned.

## **6. Results**

These meanings transferred from the celebrity to the product and from product to the consumer are used by consumers in building their own images. In other words through products they purchase, consumers try to identify themselves with the celebrity endorsement of that product. As a result the celebrity endorser is the representative of the new identity that the consumer can use. In this regard consumer goods are not objects that meet the needs of consumers and serve to specific functions, they are tools used to form the social identities of

This article aims to analyze the celebrity endorsement strategy used to communicate brand image messages in housing advertisements. Housing advertisements that are used as the research sample are prepared for marketing large-scale housing projects constructed in Istanbul as of 2000. Brand image is very important in marketing of these projects because almost all the projects are launched for sale based on small models and project visuals even

Within the scope of the study, first housing advertisements published from 2001 to 2016 have been scanned. Hurriyet newspaper was selected as the source, as it is the newspaper with highest circulation. After all advertisements published on Hurriyet newspaper have been scanned, advertisement where a celebrity was the spokesperson was determined. It was determined that in almost 30% of housing advertisements, messages were communicated

It was determined that 40% of 85 advertisements selected were commercial films and these have been accessed from web pages of the companies that produce houses marketed in these

McCracken's meaning transfer model is used as the research method as it is one of the most explanatory models regarding "celebrity endorsement" [1]. Meaning transfer model was explained in detail in the previous section; however, it is necessary to add a few comments in

According to the meaning transfer model, celebrity endorsement is defined as a three stage process where cultural meanings that a celebrity represents are transferred to first the product/brand and from the product/brand to the consumer. Accordingly analysis is configured as a three-stage process. First question for which an answer is sought was what properties caused the celebrity to be selected for endorsement. In other words, to begin with, the cultural meanings that celebrity possesses are examined. In the second stage, we tried to examine the meaning transferred from celebrity to the product and the type of connection established between the housing projects and the celebrity. In the third and last stage what was promised to the consumer with the meaning transferred from celebrity to the product and the brand image that will be created in the minds of consumers was

commercial films or from web sites where news on property are published.

this section as well about the way these are used in the analysis process.

consumers.

**5. Methodology**

184 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

through celebrities.

questioned.

before construction works have been started.

Celebrity endorsement strategy has been widely used in housing advertisements. In 30% of the advertisements examined within the scope of the research, celebrity endorsement was used and in recent years, a serious increase is observed in the number of advertisements where celebrity endorsement is used.

We can say that in general advertisements that use celebrity endorsement exploit *attractiveness* of the celebrities and their *credibility* based on their trait of trustworthiness and expertise.

Most of the celebrities used in housing advertisements due to their quality of attractiveness are mostly actors-actresses, models, or vocal artists. Some of them are celebrities that are locally recognized and some are worldwide famous. Also celebrities used in advertisements due to their attractiveness are 80% women.

Generally celebrities used in housing advertisements based on their credibility trait like trustworthiness and expertise have very different professions but remarkably, most are known by their careers in football. Probably it is believed that in marketing communications, celebrities of the football arena are more effective and credible compared to other celebrities. This is not very surprising considering the fact that football has an important place in cultural structure of the society and that these people appear somehow on mass media or printed media almost every day. Also it is seen that only a small part of the celebrities used in housing advertisements due to their credibility are experts in the fields that are partly or directly related with the construction sector—like architects, engineers, finance experts, etc.

#### **6.1. Attractiveness of celebrity endorsers in housing ads**

Spokesperson for the housing project "Metropol-İstanbul" was the worldwide known singer Jennifer Lopez. She has a distinctive image in the minds of consumers by her concerts, videos she shoots or magazine programs that she attended. One of the most important elements of this image is related with, without any doubt, the attractiveness of the singer. Also, it is not that easy to reach that level of attractiveness because not only women but also men aspire the beauty, youth, and dynamism of this worldwide star, Jennifer Lopez.

Jennifer Lopez has personally attended the launching event of "Metropol-İstanbul" housing project and she posed with a key in her hand and announced that she bought a house at this residence (**Figures 1** and **2**). Also in the commercial film, she explains the reasons for her choice as follows: "*…When it comes to investment*, *I just try to be smart about it. I try to pick places, first of all that I love. That I want to come back to.*" Without a doubt the fact that Jennifer Lopez bought a house in this residence, makes the potential consumer dream about being her neighbor and this privilege increases the attractiveness of the residence. As Williamson says advertisements associate unreachable things with reachable ones and make consumers believe that they can reach the unreachable [11].

In housing advertisements where attractiveness trait of celebrity endorsement is exploited, not only worldwide popular people are preferred. For example in the project "İstanbul Sarayları"

**Figure 1.** The image of a gated community in İstanbul named Metropol-İstanbul. Source: Varyap Construction Company, Developer of Metropol-İstanbul Project.

(*Palaces of Istanbul*) instead of a worldwide star like Jeniffer Lopez, one of the unforgettable actress of Turkish cinema, Nebahat Çehre appeared. Even though Nebahat Çehre appeared in national movies and series that highlight our traditional values, she has the image of a modern woman in the eye of the public. She became famous after the beauty pageant she entered and then she continued her career as an actress. Even though she is in her seventies, she is still a popular figure on screens with her beauty and attractiveness.

**Figure 2.** Launching event of the Metropol-İstanbul Project where the spokesperson was Jennifer Lopez. Source: http:// www.varyap.com/bizden-haberler/bizden-size/detay/j-lo-metropol-istanbulda-15.

At the time of the advertisement for the housing project "*İstanbul Sarayları*" (*Palaces of Istanbul*), Nebahat Çehre was appearing in the series named "*Muhteşem Yüzyıl*" (*Magnificient Century*) broadcasted on a national TV channel and had a quiet high rating. The topic of the series was about the life and success of "Suleyman the Magnificient" that ruled during Rise of the Ottoman Empire. In this series, Nebahat Çehre played the role of the mother of the sultan who was highly influential in the management of the palace and country.

Advertisers promoted housing project called "İstanbul Sarayları" (*Palaces of Istanbul*) using the popularity of the series and introduced the project with "magnificent project" slogan and used the following text in the advertisement: "*if you want to live like sultans we invite you to the modern palaces of Istanbul*." Also advertisers wanted to emphasize both the beauty and attractiveness of Nebahat Çehre and the gorgeousness of the project with the "magnificent" word used in the slogan (**Figures 3** and **4**).

#### **6.2. Credibility of celebrity endorsers in housing ads**

(*Palaces of Istanbul*) instead of a worldwide star like Jeniffer Lopez, one of the unforgettable actress of Turkish cinema, Nebahat Çehre appeared. Even though Nebahat Çehre appeared in national movies and series that highlight our traditional values, she has the image of a modern woman in the eye of the public. She became famous after the beauty pageant she entered and then she continued her career as an actress. Even though she is in her seventies, she is still

**Figure 2.** Launching event of the Metropol-İstanbul Project where the spokesperson was Jennifer Lopez. Source: http://

**Figure 1.** The image of a gated community in İstanbul named Metropol-İstanbul. Source: Varyap Construction Company,

a popular figure on screens with her beauty and attractiveness.

www.varyap.com/bizden-haberler/bizden-size/detay/j-lo-metropol-istanbulda-15.

Developer of Metropol-İstanbul Project.

186 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

In housing advertisement where the credibility trait of the celebrity endorser is emphasized, it is possible to run across examples where celebrities have expertise in fields that are directly or indirectly related with construction sector like engineers, architects, and investment specialists.

**Figure 3.** The image of a gated community in İstanbul named "İstanbul Sarayları" (palaces of Istanbul). Source: www. sinpasgyo.com.tr.

For example during one of the greatest earthquakes in our country, 1999 Marmara Earthquake, geophysics engineer Professor Ahmet Mete Işıkara was the manager of Kandilli Observatory, the National Earthquake Observation Center. Işıkara appeared on TV frequently following Marmara earthquake and tried to raise awareness of the public. He persistently explained the severity of earthquakes and measures that should be taken, and the way he spoke and his efforts to calm down the society caused him to quickly become a figure that the public likes very much and takes seriously and respects his knowledge and experience. This love and respect lead everyone to call him "grandpa earthquake."

**Figure 4.** Advertisement visual of "İstanbul Sarayları" (palaces of Istanbul). Source: From April 10, 2011 dated supplement of newspaper "Hürriyet," pp. 24–25.

To sum up, we can say that Ahmet Mete Işıkara is a celebrity that has credibility, expertise, and the public trusts. In this respect, it was not surprising that he was chosen to appear in the advertisements for the housing project "*Isthanbul Evleri*" (*Houses of Isthanbul*). In advertising visuals the fact that the project was executed by consulting to Ahmet Mete Işıkara was highlighted. We can say that the earthquake, which was on the top of the agenda during those days when the project was being promoted, was the determinant in selection of celebrity endorser. Advertisers thought that a housing project led under consultancy of Ahmet Mete Işıkara will cause the consumers to consider this as a durable, earthquake-resistant, and reliable project and that this perception will have positive effect on their purchasing behavior. The phrase "leaving behind permanent works instead of creating temporary solutions" used in the advertising text explains this well.

In housing advertisements where the credibility trait of the source is emphasized, it is possible to run across examples where celebrities are used who, profession-wise, do not have any connection with this sector. Even though celebrities used in advertisements do not have any expertise about the product they endorse, their accomplishments in their professional career causes the society to trust them and supports their credibility. As mentioned above, it is possible to say that most of the celebrities under this category are people famous on account of their accomplishments in football.

Turkey's one of the most famous football player Rıdvan Dilmen appears on TV as sports commentator for many years and is considered to be very successful in this profession as he was when he was a football player. In this respect Dilmen has gained public's trust both as a football player and sports commentator and he is highly credible. From this viewpoint, advertisers chose Rıdvan Dilmen to be the spokesperson of the advertisement for "*Solarkent Evleri*" (*Solarkent Residence*). The slogan was "*I will sign my name under this project*" and a photo of Rıdvan Dilmen signing the papers was used in the visuals (**Figures 5** and **6**). Two points mattered when selecting the slogan. The first was the fact that who the players make an agreement with, which team they sign a contract with is on the top of agenda in our country most of the time. So it was not a coincidence here that the word "sign" was used. On the other hand, it was thought that it would be easier for an endorser who had been successful in the team he signed contract with or in another business he has done to persuade consumers and that consumer groups would take Rıdvan Dilmen's word and would be interested in a housing project that he prefers.

Another example to that is "*Avrupa Bahçekent*" housing project where the spokesperson was Mustafa Denizli, popular, respected and experienced football coach of one of the biggest team of the country. The football coach appears on the advertisement while scouting a boy playing football on field and he says that "*Stars are not that far*, *they are right before us waiting to be discovered. And this is what I do. To discover them and envision their future.*" In the later part of the advertisement, the narrator says that "*Avrupark Bahçekent*" residence is a place like this with its infrastructure, social facilities, and location and will be the star of Istanbul in a very near future. So here, advertisers aimed to exploit credibility of a football coach who is very successful in his profession and who built a reputation of discovering talents in a different area of expertise. Advertisers showed that Mustafa Denizli, who discovers young and successful talents, endorses this residence and aimed to positively affect the consumers.

Worldwide known soccer coach José Mourinho also appeared on housing project advertisements. Even though he did not coach a team in Turkey before, a real estate company worked with José Mourinho in its advertisements, as he was a very popular figure in the country. The advertisement slogan was "*First rule of success is to be happy at home*" and we hear Mourinho's words: "*… If I coach a Turkish team one day, I know where my house will be: Sinpaş GYO.*"

To sum up, we can say that Ahmet Mete Işıkara is a celebrity that has credibility, expertise, and the public trusts. In this respect, it was not surprising that he was chosen to appear in the advertisements for the housing project "*Isthanbul Evleri*" (*Houses of Isthanbul*). In advertising visuals the fact that the project was executed by consulting to Ahmet Mete Işıkara was highlighted. We can say that the earthquake, which was on the top of the agenda during those days when the project was being promoted, was the determinant in selection of celebrity endorser. Advertisers thought that a housing project led under consultancy of Ahmet Mete Işıkara will cause the consumers to consider this as a durable, earthquake-resistant, and reliable project and that this perception will have positive effect on their purchasing behavior. The phrase "leaving behind permanent works instead of creating temporary solutions" used

**Figure 4.** Advertisement visual of "İstanbul Sarayları" (palaces of Istanbul). Source: From April 10, 2011 dated

In housing advertisements where the credibility trait of the source is emphasized, it is possible to run across examples where celebrities are used who, profession-wise, do not have any connection with this sector. Even though celebrities used in advertisements do not have any expertise about the product they endorse, their accomplishments in their professional career causes the society to trust them and supports their credibility. As mentioned above, it is possible to say that most of the celebrities under this category are people famous on account of

Turkey's one of the most famous football player Rıdvan Dilmen appears on TV as sports commentator for many years and is considered to be very successful in this profession as he was when he was a football player. In this respect Dilmen has gained public's trust both as a football player and sports commentator and he is highly credible. From this viewpoint, advertisers chose Rıdvan Dilmen to be the spokesperson of the advertisement for "*Solarkent Evleri*" (*Solarkent Residence*). The slogan was "*I will sign my name under this project*" and a photo of Rıdvan Dilmen signing the papers was used in the visuals (**Figures 5** and **6**). Two points mattered when selecting the slogan. The first was the fact that who the players make an agreement with, which team

in the advertising text explains this well.

supplement of newspaper "Hürriyet," pp. 24–25.

188 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

their accomplishments in football.

Even though attractiveness and credibility of the celebrity is exploited in housing advertisements, we see that other meanings that the celebrity possesses are important in terms of

**Figure 5.** The image of a gated community in İstanbul named "Solarkent Evleri"—Solarkent Residence. Source: Aydinli Construction Company, Developer of Solarkent Project.

**Figure 6.** Launching event of the Solarkent Project where the spokesperson was Rıdvan Dilmen Source: From January 31, 2010 dated supplement of newspaper "Hürriyet," p. 18.

product-celebrity congruence and effective in creating the brand image. This matches with the theory of McCracken [1] that source models are useful but inadequate in defining the complex world of celebrities that involve various meanings as it sees the celebrities as a group of attractive and credible people. This point will be discussed further in the next section.

## **7. Discussion**

This research that tries to explain celebrity endorsement widely used for marketing of housings with the "meaning transfer model" of McCracken showed that in transferring cultural meaning of the celebrity to the product or housing, traits of attractiveness or credibility is exploited in general. However it was seen that other meanings of the celebrity along with his/her credibility and attractiveness are effective in determining the image of the housing project marketed.

This resembles to other examples from different sectors and does not describe a structure that is exclusive to the housing sector. However based on the results of the research it can be said that specific for the housing sector, there are few different points in transfer of cultural meaning of the celebrity to the product. First, the conclusion that attractiveness trait of celebrities cannot be handled under a single category and that attractiveness trait of each celebrity has different perspectives and this difference is the determinant in emphasizing the modern or conventional features of the housing project. Attractiveness trait of celebrities who appear in advertisements of housing projects developed with a modern design language and/or designed for a modern target audience is much different than the attractiveness of the celebrities that appear on housing projects designed with a conventional design language and/or for a target audience who has a conventional lifestyle.

In the advertisement of the housing project called Metropol-İstanbul, where the emphasis is made on the word modern as can be understood from its title, attractiveness trait of the worldwide famous singer Jenifer Lopez was exploited. Jennifer Lopez gives the impression of both an attractive and modern women in this advertisement.

However in another advertisement that exploited the same trait of attractiveness in transferring meaning from celebrity to product, Nebahat Çehre, one of the unforgettable actresses of Turkish Cinema, is chosen instead of a worldwide singer like Jennifer Lopez. Even though Nebahat Çehre appeared in national movies that highlights our traditional values, she has the image of a modern woman in the eye of the public. In this sense, it is not surprising that she was chosen as the face of the project called "İstanbul Sarayları" (Palaces of Istanbul), which claims to rebuild the conventional texture of Istanbul with a modern concept.

Housing residence called "İstanbul Sarayları" is one of the most interesting examples of regenerating traditional values. The word "palace" used in the name of the residence makes a reference to almost the unreachable, glorious, and deluxe lifestyle that past rulers enjoyed and it implies that this lifestyle is regenerated and modernized. However, the word "palace" used in İstanbul Sarayları project does not appear just as a marketing image. In İstanbul Sarayları residence project, Bosporus with its historical palaces, waterside mansions, summerhouses, and avenues is reconstructed at the outskirts of the city. In this project, we see that not only some type of structures but also traditional avenues of the city and ports are regenerated with indoor and outdoor facilities [29].

product-celebrity congruence and effective in creating the brand image. This matches with the theory of McCracken [1] that source models are useful but inadequate in defining the complex world of celebrities that involve various meanings as it sees the celebrities as a group of attractive and credible people. This point will be discussed further in the next section.

**Figure 6.** Launching event of the Solarkent Project where the spokesperson was Rıdvan Dilmen Source: From January 31,

This research that tries to explain celebrity endorsement widely used for marketing of housings with the "meaning transfer model" of McCracken showed that in transferring cultural meaning of the celebrity to the product or housing, traits of attractiveness or credibility is

**7. Discussion**

2010 dated supplement of newspaper "Hürriyet," p. 18.

190 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

In both advertisements, the transfer of meaning is built on the theme attractiveness; however, there are different categories of attractiveness. In the first advertisement, the attractiveness of a western woman was used whereas in the second one there is an image of a woman who is modern but who respects our traditional values and reflects our culture and all elements of our heritage with grace. Both of these different attractiveness category fits with the image or design language of the brand they represent. In this respect, it is possible to say that images of these brands are configured on the promise of a modern or modernized traditional lifestyle.

This also explains the importance of one element that McCracken emphasized while explaining the meaning transfer model distinct from other celebrity endorsement models. "Meaning of celebrity is shaped within the cultural structure of the society" [1].

The conclusion that attractiveness traits of celebrities are different from one another and that this difference is determinant in emphasizing the modern or conventional qualities of the housing residence arises from the cultural fabric of the society we are part of. As we are located between the "western" and "eastern" world, we have always been stuck between the value judgment of the west and east [29]. This dilemma is implicated directly or indirectly in advertisement of housing projects and expressed such as "modern residence," "the residence where traditional living spaces are modernized."

Specific to the housing sector but may be more specific to the cultural structure of the society, the second most important difference is the preference of celebrities popular in the football arena in advertisements that exploit the credibility trait. In advertisements where football celebrity endorsement is preferred, it is emphasized that buying a house from these project shall be a "good investment." When compared with many other products, property is a longterm investment both in terms of its use and rather high price. So it is not surprising that "investment" value is emphasized in advertisement of housing projects. However the interesting thing is the choice of celebrities in football field to emphasize the "investment value" of a house, except a few examples. These people try to highlight the value of the investment with words like "*I never missed an opportunity investment in my life*," "*too bad if you miss it*." In some examples, it is seen that investment value is expressed with very widely used sentence patterns. "*I will sign my name under it*," "*too bad to miss it*," etc.

Also it is believed that in housing advertisements that takes advantage of the credibility attribute of the celebrity, the quality highlighted in the running text plays an indicative role in selection of the celebrity. For example in the running text of "*İsthanbul Evleri*" *Project*, *there are expressions like* "*Premium life safety with a sound infrastructure*" and "*supporting formwork used globally in residential constructions*" and these expressions highlight the fact that construction techniques used in this residence is advanced and the residence is earthquake-resistant and this is explained to the consumers by a spokesperson, an earthquake expert that almost the whole society knows very well.

On the other hand in the advertisement for the Solarkent Project, the following expressions are used: "*I can own a house by installments of just TL 500 and my house converts solar energy to electricity energy and I can save as much as I pay. Who would miss that chance?*" and the project is introduced as "*first recycling housing Project of Turkey*." These expressions used in the advertisement emphasize the technological infrastructure of the residence and relatively superior qualities in technical terms. We can say that in this example, marketing experts chose an expert of football techniques as a spokesperson instead of an expert on the subject, in order to better highlight the technical superiorities of the residence.

In this respect in housing advertisements where credibility trait is exploited, it is possible to say that endorsement by people who the public is interested in is preferred depending on the cultural fabric of the society. It is thought that the opinions of a celebrity who gained the trust and love of the society due to his/her success in his/her own field would be convincing.

Finally, even though housings are not very different from one another in terms of architectural aspect, specific qualities of housings are highlighted in advertisements or specific qualities are attributed to them in order to create a brand image. It is determined that when the architectural setup of the housing, social venues provided, modern or modernized conventional living conditions promised are being highlighted in the advertisement, generally attractiveness of the celebrity is used in endorsement process. However if more technical features like technological infrastructure of the housing—smart home technologies, green buildings, energy-saving buildings, etc.—construction techniques, and investment opportunities are being highlighted in the advertisement, it is determined that credibility attribute of the celebrity is exploited during the endorsement process.

## **8. Conclusion**

This also explains the importance of one element that McCracken emphasized while explaining the meaning transfer model distinct from other celebrity endorsement models. "Meaning

The conclusion that attractiveness traits of celebrities are different from one another and that this difference is determinant in emphasizing the modern or conventional qualities of the housing residence arises from the cultural fabric of the society we are part of. As we are located between the "western" and "eastern" world, we have always been stuck between the value judgment of the west and east [29]. This dilemma is implicated directly or indirectly in advertisement of housing projects and expressed such as "modern residence," "the residence

Specific to the housing sector but may be more specific to the cultural structure of the society, the second most important difference is the preference of celebrities popular in the football arena in advertisements that exploit the credibility trait. In advertisements where football celebrity endorsement is preferred, it is emphasized that buying a house from these project shall be a "good investment." When compared with many other products, property is a longterm investment both in terms of its use and rather high price. So it is not surprising that "investment" value is emphasized in advertisement of housing projects. However the interesting thing is the choice of celebrities in football field to emphasize the "investment value" of a house, except a few examples. These people try to highlight the value of the investment with words like "*I never missed an opportunity investment in my life*," "*too bad if you miss it*." In some examples, it is seen that investment value is expressed with very widely used sentence

Also it is believed that in housing advertisements that takes advantage of the credibility attribute of the celebrity, the quality highlighted in the running text plays an indicative role in selection of the celebrity. For example in the running text of "*İsthanbul Evleri*" *Project*, *there are expressions like* "*Premium life safety with a sound infrastructure*" and "*supporting formwork used globally in residential constructions*" and these expressions highlight the fact that construction techniques used in this residence is advanced and the residence is earthquake-resistant and this is explained to the consumers by a spokesperson, an earthquake expert that almost the

On the other hand in the advertisement for the Solarkent Project, the following expressions are used: "*I can own a house by installments of just TL 500 and my house converts solar energy to electricity energy and I can save as much as I pay. Who would miss that chance?*" and the project is introduced as "*first recycling housing Project of Turkey*." These expressions used in the advertisement emphasize the technological infrastructure of the residence and relatively superior qualities in technical terms. We can say that in this example, marketing experts chose an expert of football techniques as a spokesperson instead of an expert on the subject, in order to

In this respect in housing advertisements where credibility trait is exploited, it is possible to say that endorsement by people who the public is interested in is preferred depending on the cultural fabric of the society. It is thought that the opinions of a celebrity who gained the trust and love of the society due to his/her success in his/her own field would be convincing.

of celebrity is shaped within the cultural structure of the society" [1].

where traditional living spaces are modernized."

192 Advancing Insights on Brand Management

patterns. "*I will sign my name under it*," "*too bad to miss it*," etc.

better highlight the technical superiorities of the residence.

whole society knows very well.

The main objective of this research is to examine the celebrity endorsement strategy that is widely used in housing advertisements. Based on the result of the research, it is possible to say that this strategy is not used to describe the qualities of the house and in fact that there is not even a single clue in such advertisements about the utilization value of these houses. On the contrary, it is seen that celebrity endorsement in housing projects is used to give a meaning to the product and to promise a new identity to potential consumers through this meaning. This matches up with the theories generated to describe the consumer society.

It is known that today more importance is attached to the "identity value" of consumption goods rather than their "value of use" [30]. Warde [31] defined identity value as the value that enables social communication and that determines whether a consumer will be accepted to a social environment or not. Baudrillard [32] named it as an indicator value and interpreted as a coded difference obtained by the individual within the social hierarchy. In this respect, it is possible that marketing experts try to add identity value to the housing through celebrity endorsement and build their messages defining the image of the brand in a way to emphasize this value.

All projects are launched for sale based on their models and project visuals even before construction phase starts, so the messages that define the image of the brand are designed together with the product. Arvidsson [33] interprets this process as developing the product and consumer identity together and attributing material and symbolic values to the product so that the product is identified with the consumer. Accordingly, it is seen that consumption phase is preplanned and organized in housing projects just like any product that is produced in masses, in other words that production and consumption process are configured at the same time. This explains the market dynamics where the messages about the brand image are created together with the design of the house and that the marketing experts are involved in the housing production process right from the start.