**1. Introduction: conceptualizing health promotion**

According to Tannahill [1], health promotion is an umbrella term covering overlapping fields of health education, prevention and attempts to protect public health through social engineering, legislations, fiscal measures and institutional policies which entail the combination of the best in terms of both theory and practice from a wide range of expert groups (educationists, behavioral scientists, medical practitioners) and non-professionals including the communities involved. For him, health promotion stems largely from a new focus for health services that recognize some basic facts: many contemporary health problems are preventable or avoidable through lifestyle change; modern technology is a bundle of mixed blessings bringing both benefits and risks to health; medical technology is at the phase of diminishing returns (losing efficacy and connection to ordinary people); such non-medical factors as better nutrition, improved living conditions and public health measures have contributed to both health and longevity even more than medical measures; that doctors can cause as well as cure disease; and increasing public desire to attain better or improved quality of life and at the same time demystifying and demedicalising the attainment (achievement) of good health [1].

For the World Health Organization (WHO), health promotion is essentially about engendering a context in which the health and well-being of whole populations or groups are owned mainly by the people concerned, i.e., enabling citizens of local communities to achieve political control and determination of their health [2, 3]. Therefore, health promotion goes beyond mere healthcare but puts health on the policymaking agenda in all sectors and at all levels, directing policymakers to be cognisant or conscious of the health consequences of their decisions and accept responsibilities for health.

Health promotion can be seen as the whole process of enabling or empowering people to increase control over and improve their overall health. It focuses on creating awareness of health issues, engendering behaviour modification consistent with prevention and attitudes to ill health and motivating increased usage of available health facilities. In the pursuit of good health (physical, mental and social wellbeing), individuals and groups through health promotion are enabled to identify and realize aspirations, satisfy needs and change or cope with the environment in manners consistent with complete good health.

Health promotion is expected to contribute to programme impact by enabling prevention of disease, reduction of the risk factors or behaviors associated with given diseases, promoting and fostering lifestyles and conditions that are conducive to good health and enabling increasing use of available health facilities. Therefore, health promotion creates both the awareness and conscientisation that leads to disease prevention, control of health situations and usage of health services and facilities. It implies individual and collective control and participation in health focusing on behavioral change, socio-economic lifestyles and the physical environment.

Without doubt the WHO's Ottawa Charter definition of health promotion is very comprehensive and encompasses the core values and guiding objectives of health promotions [3]. It summarily sees health promotion as the process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their health. In line with the above definition, Macdonald and Davies [4] contend that it calls attention to the critical role of the concepts of process and control as the real essence of health promotion. For them, "the key concepts in this definition are 'process' and 'control', and therefore effectiveness and quality assurance in health promotion must focus on enablement and empowerment. If the activity under consideration is not enabling and empowering it is not health promotion" [4], p. 6.

As the burgeoning literature on health promotion over the years indicate it is a community-driven (inspired), multifaceted and multidisciplinary area of concern that also involves critical sociopolitical, economic and environmental elements and dynamics (see [4, 5–10]).

It is important to also understand that even though one can make a distinction between public health and health promotion, in reality both are interconnected and hardly practically separable. In other words, public health is built on health promotion and health promotion is imperative for public health delivery. As has been argued, public health "is synonymous with health promotion in that it aims to implement co-ordinated community action to produce a healthier society" [11], p. 315.

There is no gainsaying the fact that health promotion nowadays has an overwhelming sociopolitical component that is really definitive. In fact, as has been posited, "health promotion activities are by their nature inherently politically based and driven, thus making it impossible to divorce them from the political arena" [11], p. 314. Health promotion becomes a dynamic area of interface between public policy institutions (the state and its agencies), the public (community/people) and the professionals (ranging from the media professionals, public health advocates, social workers to medical practitioners).

**53**

*Health Promotion and Its Challenges to Public Health Delivery System in Africa*

Online Resources were utilized in gathering materials for the chapter.

**2. Theories and models of health promotion**

Behaviour and the Social Cognitive Theory.

**2.1 The ecological models of health promotion**

The chapter depended on the desk review of extant literature and documents for its information. The main exclusionary criteria in this regard were materials not related to health promotion and materials published before 1984, which were considered extreme-dated. The inclusive criteria were determined by such concepts as public health, public health in Africa, health promotion, health education and awareness and theories and models in health promotion. Such prominent Internet information sites like the WHO, American Public Health Association (APHA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) and the Universitats Bibliothek Leipzig (UBL)

There is no gainsaying the fact that effective and result-oriented health promotion practice depends on sound theory [12]. In other words, theory becomes very informative of health promotion practice and activities. In recognition of the above, one would examine briefly the main theories that have implicated health promotion globally. It is important, however, to state here that the choice of a theory or model to guide health promotion should be determined largely by the specific nature of the health issue being addressed, the community or population in view and the sociopolitical context in question. This is because theories and models are simply used in practice in order to plan health programmes, explain and understand health behaviour as well as underpin the identification of appropriate intervention and implement such intervention in ways that are both effective and sustainable.

Despite a plethora of theories and models utilized in health promotion, I will only focus on five of the most popular and commonly used. These are ecological models of health promotion, the Health Belief Model (HBM), Stages of Change Model or the Trans-theoretical Model, Theory of Reasoned Action or Planned

As the name implies, these models focus on the interaction of people with their physical and sociocultural environments. The approach thus recognizes that there are multiple levels of influence on health and health behaviour especially the health seeking behaviour and choices that people make. The ecological models are anchored on five overriding influences which determine and guide health behaviour and response to health issues [13–16]. These influences are intrapersonal or individual factors (these impact on individual behaviour, e.g., beliefs, knowledge, attitude, etc.); interpersonal factors (these are produced through living with and interacting with other people, e.g., family, friends and social groups/networks; these other people can function as both the source of solidarity and support as well as sources of barriers and constraints to health-promoting behaviour of the individual, e.g., dwelling among chronic smokers or having intense interaction with them may expose one to the dangers of either smoking or the influence of second-hand smoke); community factors (these make reference to social norms that are shared by groups or communities, and such norms whether formal or informal can influence health behaviour and health seeking behaviour of the individual and group members, e.g., relationship between institutions, groups and organizations); institutional factors (policies, rules, regulations and institutional structures that may constrain or even promote healthy behaviour in a given society, e.g., the workplace and voluntary organizations to which the individual belongs are prime examples); public policy factors (policies at different level of governance that regulate, structure or support

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91859*

*Health Promotion and Its Challenges to Public Health Delivery System in Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91859*

The chapter depended on the desk review of extant literature and documents for its information. The main exclusionary criteria in this regard were materials not related to health promotion and materials published before 1984, which were considered extreme-dated. The inclusive criteria were determined by such concepts as public health, public health in Africa, health promotion, health education and awareness and theories and models in health promotion. Such prominent Internet information sites like the WHO, American Public Health Association (APHA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) and the Universitats Bibliothek Leipzig (UBL) Online Resources were utilized in gathering materials for the chapter.

## **2. Theories and models of health promotion**

There is no gainsaying the fact that effective and result-oriented health promotion practice depends on sound theory [12]. In other words, theory becomes very informative of health promotion practice and activities. In recognition of the above, one would examine briefly the main theories that have implicated health promotion globally. It is important, however, to state here that the choice of a theory or model to guide health promotion should be determined largely by the specific nature of the health issue being addressed, the community or population in view and the sociopolitical context in question. This is because theories and models are simply used in practice in order to plan health programmes, explain and understand health behaviour as well as underpin the identification of appropriate intervention and implement such intervention in ways that are both effective and sustainable.

Despite a plethora of theories and models utilized in health promotion, I will only focus on five of the most popular and commonly used. These are ecological models of health promotion, the Health Belief Model (HBM), Stages of Change Model or the Trans-theoretical Model, Theory of Reasoned Action or Planned Behaviour and the Social Cognitive Theory.

#### **2.1 The ecological models of health promotion**

As the name implies, these models focus on the interaction of people with their physical and sociocultural environments. The approach thus recognizes that there are multiple levels of influence on health and health behaviour especially the health seeking behaviour and choices that people make. The ecological models are anchored on five overriding influences which determine and guide health behaviour and response to health issues [13–16]. These influences are intrapersonal or individual factors (these impact on individual behaviour, e.g., beliefs, knowledge, attitude, etc.); interpersonal factors (these are produced through living with and interacting with other people, e.g., family, friends and social groups/networks; these other people can function as both the source of solidarity and support as well as sources of barriers and constraints to health-promoting behaviour of the individual, e.g., dwelling among chronic smokers or having intense interaction with them may expose one to the dangers of either smoking or the influence of second-hand smoke); community factors (these make reference to social norms that are shared by groups or communities, and such norms whether formal or informal can influence health behaviour and health seeking behaviour of the individual and group members, e.g., relationship between institutions, groups and organizations); institutional factors (policies, rules, regulations and institutional structures that may constrain or even promote healthy behaviour in a given society, e.g., the workplace and voluntary organizations to which the individual belongs are prime examples); public policy factors (policies at different level of governance that regulate, structure or support

*Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities*

responsibilities for health.

manners consistent with complete good health.

ering it is not health promotion" [4], p. 6.

social workers to medical practitioners).

dynamics (see [4, 5–10]).

society" [11], p. 315.

For the World Health Organization (WHO), health promotion is essentially about engendering a context in which the health and well-being of whole populations or groups are owned mainly by the people concerned, i.e., enabling citizens of local communities to achieve political control and determination of their health [2, 3]. Therefore, health promotion goes beyond mere healthcare but puts health on the policymaking agenda in all sectors and at all levels, directing policymakers to be cognisant or conscious of the health consequences of their decisions and accept

Health promotion can be seen as the whole process of enabling or empowering people to increase control over and improve their overall health. It focuses on creating awareness of health issues, engendering behaviour modification consistent with prevention and attitudes to ill health and motivating increased usage of available health facilities. In the pursuit of good health (physical, mental and social wellbeing), individuals and groups through health promotion are enabled to identify and realize aspirations, satisfy needs and change or cope with the environment in

Health promotion is expected to contribute to programme impact by enabling prevention of disease, reduction of the risk factors or behaviors associated with given diseases, promoting and fostering lifestyles and conditions that are conducive to good health and enabling increasing use of available health facilities. Therefore, health promotion creates both the awareness and conscientisation that leads to disease prevention, control of health situations and usage of health services and facilities. It implies individual and collective control and participation in health focusing on behavioral change, socio-economic lifestyles and the physical environment.

Without doubt the WHO's Ottawa Charter definition of health promotion is very comprehensive and encompasses the core values and guiding objectives of health promotions [3]. It summarily sees health promotion as the process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their health. In line with the above definition, Macdonald and Davies [4] contend that it calls attention to the critical role of the concepts of process and control as the real essence of health promotion. For them, "the key concepts in this definition are 'process' and 'control', and therefore effectiveness and quality assurance in health promotion must focus on enablement and empowerment. If the activity under consideration is not enabling and empow-

As the burgeoning literature on health promotion over the years indicate it is a community-driven (inspired), multifaceted and multidisciplinary area of concern that also involves critical sociopolitical, economic and environmental elements and

It is important to also understand that even though one can make a distinction between public health and health promotion, in reality both are interconnected and hardly practically separable. In other words, public health is built on health promotion and health promotion is imperative for public health delivery. As has been argued, public health "is synonymous with health promotion in that it aims to implement co-ordinated community action to produce a healthier

There is no gainsaying the fact that health promotion nowadays has an overwhelming sociopolitical component that is really definitive. In fact, as has been posited, "health promotion activities are by their nature inherently politically based and driven, thus making it impossible to divorce them from the political arena" [11], p. 314. Health promotion becomes a dynamic area of interface between public policy institutions (the state and its agencies), the public (community/people) and the professionals (ranging from the media professionals, public health advocates,

**52**

**Figure 1.** *Ecological models of health promotion (simplified).*

actions and practices targeted at health outcomes like disease prevention policies and structures enabling early detection, control or response and management of health crisis in the society; these stem from the position of the government and are critical in achieving the goals of public health delivery) (**Figure 1**).

As the above pyramid, suggests the individual, interpersonal and community factors are at the base. These factors therefore exert more influence and pressure over the individual's health behaviour than the institutional and public policy factors as these are more important. In other words, the institutional and public policy factors are literally far from the individual and do not exert as much pressure on his behaviour as those factors that are very close to him both spatially and otherwise. In an age of increasing pessimism in government, people are much driven by interpersonal and community factors than what comes from a typical further off entity.

Given the above, it is obvious that the ecological approach is very pertinent in the understanding of the range of factors that influence people's health. Its main strength is that it can provide what is called a complete perspective on factors that affect health behaviour and response to health issues especially the role of social and cultural factors or normative patterns on health in the society. It is perhaps very well suited to health intervention and practice in developing societies with an overbearing influence of sociocultural factors on behaviour, attitudes and practice of the people.

#### **2.2 The health belief model (HBM)**

This is a theoretical model that has been found useful in guiding both health promotion and strategies for disease prevention. As the name suggests, it focuses on individual beliefs about specific health conditions which predict or direct individual health behaviour [17, 18]. The specific components of this belief that influence health behaviour include perceived susceptibility to the disease; perceived severity of the disease in question; perceived benefits of action (positive benefits of such action) as well as cues to action (awareness of factors that engender action); self-efficacy (belief that action would lead to success); and perceived barriers or obstacles to action (especially if such obstacles are seen as daunting or insurmountable or otherwise).

**55**

community.

**Figure 2.**

*Health belief model (HBM).*

*Health Promotion and Its Challenges to Public Health Delivery System in Africa*

In the utilization of the HBM in health promotion, there are five main actionrelated segments that would help in identifying key decision-making points and thus facilitate the utilization of knowledge in guiding health intervention. These are: collection of information (through needs assessments; rapid rural appraisal, etc. in order to determine those at risk of the disease or affliction and specify which population or component of the population to be targeted in the intervention); conveying in unambiguous and clear terms the likely consequences of the health issue in question and its associated risk behaviors in order to facilitate a clear apprehension of its severity; communication (getting information to the target population on the recommended steps to take and the perceived or likely benefits of the recommended action); provision of needed assistance (help the people in both the identification of and reduction of barriers or constraints to action); and demonstration (actions and activities that enable skill development and support aimed at enhancing self-efficacy and increased chances of successful behaviour modification

In Africa, the HBM has been very useful in understanding people's response and behaviour to HIV/AIDS and other chronic diseases. Being a society very flushed with beliefs, the degree of responsiveness to a health situation is often the direct product of a set of beliefs held by the individual and/or by his immediate

This model is focused on examining and explaining the individual's readiness to change his behaviour and sees such change as occurring or happening in successive stages. It therefore adopts a quasi-evolutionary framing of behaviour change in which behaviour change, sustenance and termination are encompassed in six stages. These stages are pre-contemplation (existence of no intention to take any action by the individual); contemplation (thinking about taking action and ruminating on

targeted at the health issue in question) (**Figure 2**).

**2.3 Stages of change model (aka trans-theoretical model)**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91859*

*Health Promotion and Its Challenges to Public Health Delivery System in Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91859*

**Figure 2.** *Health belief model (HBM).*

*Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities*

actions and practices targeted at health outcomes like disease prevention policies and structures enabling early detection, control or response and management of health crisis in the society; these stem from the position of the government and are critical

As the above pyramid, suggests the individual, interpersonal and community factors are at the base. These factors therefore exert more influence and pressure over the individual's health behaviour than the institutional and public policy factors as these are more important. In other words, the institutional and public policy factors are literally far from the individual and do not exert as much pressure on his behaviour as those factors that are very close to him both spatially and otherwise. In an age of increasing pessimism in government, people are much driven by interpersonal and

Given the above, it is obvious that the ecological approach is very pertinent in the understanding of the range of factors that influence people's health. Its main strength is that it can provide what is called a complete perspective on factors that affect health behaviour and response to health issues especially the role of social and cultural factors or normative patterns on health in the society. It is perhaps very well suited to health intervention and practice in developing societies with an overbearing influence of sociocultural factors on behaviour, attitudes and practice of the people.

This is a theoretical model that has been found useful in guiding both health promotion and strategies for disease prevention. As the name suggests, it focuses on individual beliefs about specific health conditions which predict or direct individual health behaviour [17, 18]. The specific components of this belief that influence health behaviour include perceived susceptibility to the disease; perceived severity of the disease in question; perceived benefits of action (positive benefits of such action) as well as cues to action (awareness of factors that engender action); self-efficacy (belief that action would lead to success); and perceived barriers or obstacles to action (especially if such obstacles are seen as daunting or

in achieving the goals of public health delivery) (**Figure 1**).

*Ecological models of health promotion (simplified).*

**2.2 The health belief model (HBM)**

insurmountable or otherwise).

community factors than what comes from a typical further off entity.

**54**

**Figure 1.**

In the utilization of the HBM in health promotion, there are five main actionrelated segments that would help in identifying key decision-making points and thus facilitate the utilization of knowledge in guiding health intervention. These are: collection of information (through needs assessments; rapid rural appraisal, etc. in order to determine those at risk of the disease or affliction and specify which population or component of the population to be targeted in the intervention); conveying in unambiguous and clear terms the likely consequences of the health issue in question and its associated risk behaviors in order to facilitate a clear apprehension of its severity; communication (getting information to the target population on the recommended steps to take and the perceived or likely benefits of the recommended action); provision of needed assistance (help the people in both the identification of and reduction of barriers or constraints to action); and demonstration (actions and activities that enable skill development and support aimed at enhancing self-efficacy and increased chances of successful behaviour modification targeted at the health issue in question) (**Figure 2**).

In Africa, the HBM has been very useful in understanding people's response and behaviour to HIV/AIDS and other chronic diseases. Being a society very flushed with beliefs, the degree of responsiveness to a health situation is often the direct product of a set of beliefs held by the individual and/or by his immediate community.

#### **2.3 Stages of change model (aka trans-theoretical model)**

This model is focused on examining and explaining the individual's readiness to change his behaviour and sees such change as occurring or happening in successive stages. It therefore adopts a quasi-evolutionary framing of behaviour change in which behaviour change, sustenance and termination are encompassed in six stages. These stages are pre-contemplation (existence of no intention to take any action by the individual); contemplation (thinking about taking action and ruminating on

plans to do this soon); preparation (signifies intention to take action and includes the possibility that some steps or preliminary steps to action have been taken already); action (discernible change in behaviour for a brief period of time); maintenance (sustenance of the action taken; behaviour change that is maintained in the long run or long-term behaviour change); and termination (the expressed and discernible desire never to return to prior negative behaviour by the individual concerned).

The above stages are very important in planning behaviour change or modification and recognize that behaviour change is both gradual and takes time. What is needed from the health promoter is that at each of these stages specific interventions or programmes are devised to help the individual progress to the next stage. Also, the recognition that the model may in reality be cyclical rather than lineal, i.e., individuals may progress to the next stage or even regress to previous or lower stages, is important in planning health promotion interventions utilizing this model. It also calls attention to understanding that there are individual differences in the adoption of change, i.e., some people may be swift in behaviour modification, while others may take longer time; but each needs support in order to pull through.

#### **2.4 Theory of reasoned action (theory of planned action)**

The main contention of this theory is that an individual's health behaviour is usually determined by his intention to exhibit or display a given behaviour. Therefore, the intention to exhibit a given behaviour (or behaviour intention) is predicated upon or predicted by two main factors, viz. personal attitude to the behaviour in question and subjective or personal norms (an individual's social and environmental context and the perception the individual has over that behaviour) related to that behaviour.

The basic assumption here is that both positive attitudes and positive subjective norms will generate greater perceived control of behaviour and increase the chances of intentions towards changes in behaviour. The theory generally provides information that can be used in predicting people's health behaviour and thus in planning and driving through health interventions. It anchors in recognizing the predictors of behaviour-oriented action and the need for supportive social and environmental contexts that facilitate and sustain desirable health behaviour.

#### **2.5 The social cognitive theory (SCT)**

This theory combines both the cognition of the individual and the social context of the individual in offering explanation and understanding of health behaviour and response. It seeks to describe the influence of the experience of the individual, his perception of the actions of other people near him and the factors in the person's immediate environment on health behaviour of the individual. It moves from this general perspective to provide opportunities for social support (defined as conducive to healthy behaviour) and reinforcements that generate behaviour change or modification. In this sense, the SCT depends on the idea of *reciprocal determinism* which denotes the continuing or uninterrupted interaction among the person's characteristics, his behaviour and the social context or environment in which the behaviour takes place.

However, the best way to appreciate the SCT is to examine the main components the theory isolates as related to behaviour change at the individual level. These are selfefficacy (belief in one's ability to control and execute behaviour within a given context); behaviour capability (thorough comprehension of behaviour and the ability to exhibit or perform it); expectations (outcomes or outputs of the behaviour change in question); expectancies (the assignation of value to the above outcome of behaviour

**57**

**Figure 3.**

*Health Promotion and Its Challenges to Public Health Delivery System in Africa*

and which is important in sustaining the behaviour); self- control (the regulation and monitoring of behaviour of the individual); observational learning (the act of watching others performing the desired behaviour and the outcomes therein as well as modeling that behaviour in question); and reinforcements (incentives and rewards seen as eliciting, encouraging and sustaining behaviour change in the individual) [19]. The three components as the above diagram shows reinforce each other and in the process condition and determine behaviour of the individual even in the context of health as well as choices made therein (**Figure 3**). The SCT is very pertinent in contexts where desirable health outcomes can be achieved by behaviour modification or change. For instance, certain chronic diseases or health conditions can be tackled through healthy lifestyles and dieting that reduce risk factors and chances of individuals succumbing to such conditions. Therefore, the theory can help frame intervention programmes in this area that focus on changing people's behaviour and

Theories and perspectives or models as already indicated are critical in providing explanations of a problem or issue (broadening our understanding and perspective as it were) and also very important in the effort to tackle a given problem or issue in the society especially by way of developing and implementing programmes and interventions. Perhaps, the above underscores why some scholars [20–22] would highlight the difference between the so-called theories of the problem and theories of action, meaning that while the former aids our apprehension of a given issue or social reality, the latter is important in terms of taking actions or evolving activities

Health promotion generally implicates a huge element of politics and power dynamics in the sense that only political will and cognition can build discernible changes in health. Lobbying and advocacy are critical tools of health promotion and function within the political arena. The sociopolitical contexts and influences are especially recognizable in the public health sector in the developing world where political will and doggedness are often necessary to drive through even the most salutary change or innovation in the health sector. Also, political forces are equally dominant in the provision of crucial health infrastructure and facilities as

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91859*

*Illustration of the social cognitive theory (SCT).*

in the process achieve desirable health outcomes.

**3. Health promotion as sociopolitical engagement**

to tackle the issue in question.

*Health Promotion and Its Challenges to Public Health Delivery System in Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91859*

**Figure 3.** *Illustration of the social cognitive theory (SCT).*

*Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities*

**2.4 Theory of reasoned action (theory of planned action)**

contexts that facilitate and sustain desirable health behaviour.

related to that behaviour.

behaviour takes place.

**2.5 The social cognitive theory (SCT)**

The main contention of this theory is that an individual's health behaviour is usually determined by his intention to exhibit or display a given behaviour. Therefore, the intention to exhibit a given behaviour (or behaviour intention) is predicated upon or predicted by two main factors, viz. personal attitude to the behaviour in question and subjective or personal norms (an individual's social and environmental context and the perception the individual has over that behaviour)

The basic assumption here is that both positive attitudes and positive subjective norms will generate greater perceived control of behaviour and increase the chances of intentions towards changes in behaviour. The theory generally provides information that can be used in predicting people's health behaviour and thus in planning and driving through health interventions. It anchors in recognizing the predictors of behaviour-oriented action and the need for supportive social and environmental

This theory combines both the cognition of the individual and the social context of the individual in offering explanation and understanding of health behaviour and response. It seeks to describe the influence of the experience of the individual, his perception of the actions of other people near him and the factors in the person's immediate environment on health behaviour of the individual. It moves from this general perspective to provide opportunities for social support (defined as conducive to healthy behaviour) and reinforcements that generate behaviour change or modification. In this sense, the SCT depends on the idea of *reciprocal determinism* which denotes the continuing or uninterrupted interaction among the person's characteristics, his behaviour and the social context or environment in which the

However, the best way to appreciate the SCT is to examine the main components the theory isolates as related to behaviour change at the individual level. These are selfefficacy (belief in one's ability to control and execute behaviour within a given context); behaviour capability (thorough comprehension of behaviour and the ability to exhibit or perform it); expectations (outcomes or outputs of the behaviour change in question); expectancies (the assignation of value to the above outcome of behaviour

plans to do this soon); preparation (signifies intention to take action and includes the possibility that some steps or preliminary steps to action have been taken already); action (discernible change in behaviour for a brief period of time); maintenance (sustenance of the action taken; behaviour change that is maintained in the long run or long-term behaviour change); and termination (the expressed and discernible desire never to return to prior negative behaviour by the individual concerned). The above stages are very important in planning behaviour change or modification and recognize that behaviour change is both gradual and takes time. What is needed from the health promoter is that at each of these stages specific interventions or programmes are devised to help the individual progress to the next stage. Also, the recognition that the model may in reality be cyclical rather than lineal, i.e., individuals may progress to the next stage or even regress to previous or lower stages, is important in planning health promotion interventions utilizing this model. It also calls attention to understanding that there are individual differences in the adoption of change, i.e., some people may be swift in behaviour modification, while others may take longer time; but each needs support in order to pull through.

**56**

and which is important in sustaining the behaviour); self- control (the regulation and monitoring of behaviour of the individual); observational learning (the act of watching others performing the desired behaviour and the outcomes therein as well as modeling that behaviour in question); and reinforcements (incentives and rewards seen as eliciting, encouraging and sustaining behaviour change in the individual) [19].

The three components as the above diagram shows reinforce each other and in the process condition and determine behaviour of the individual even in the context of health as well as choices made therein (**Figure 3**). The SCT is very pertinent in contexts where desirable health outcomes can be achieved by behaviour modification or change. For instance, certain chronic diseases or health conditions can be tackled through healthy lifestyles and dieting that reduce risk factors and chances of individuals succumbing to such conditions. Therefore, the theory can help frame intervention programmes in this area that focus on changing people's behaviour and in the process achieve desirable health outcomes.

Theories and perspectives or models as already indicated are critical in providing explanations of a problem or issue (broadening our understanding and perspective as it were) and also very important in the effort to tackle a given problem or issue in the society especially by way of developing and implementing programmes and interventions. Perhaps, the above underscores why some scholars [20–22] would highlight the difference between the so-called theories of the problem and theories of action, meaning that while the former aids our apprehension of a given issue or social reality, the latter is important in terms of taking actions or evolving activities to tackle the issue in question.


**2. Profile of solid waste landfills in the Mediterranean region**

Numerous waste tips in the central Iberian Peninsula capped with soil over the 1980s and 90s have been widely described from an interdisciplinary perspective in [1]. Research efforts have focused on the pollutants present in the soils used to seal 20 of these landfills and on factors inducing the spread of pollutants. These studies have been aimed at designing measures to remediate the visual impacts of solid waste landfills (Figure 1).

**Figure 1.** Based on [7]

The figure shows the main impacts (not only visual) produced by a landfill sealed with soil. The most important impact is pollution produced by surface and deep leachates of polluting substances generated by surface run off and rainwater infiltration [2-6]. This type of pollution especially affects ecosystems in the main areas of leachates discharge i.e., the foots of landfill slopes grazed by domestic and wild animals [5]. Effects are nevertheless also produced on crops, particularly cereals such as barley, which are sometimes grown on the landfill itself (usually on its platforms). We have noted that this cereal accumulates heavy metals (unpub‐ lished data). In addition, soil pollution may spread to nearby rivers, on which these mountains of waste seem to hang, or to streams, which transport pollutants to areas beyond the landfill.

For all these reasons, the purposes of this chapter are: i) to describe the profile of solid waste landfills sealed with soil in the Mediterranean setting; ii) to focus on the study of a given case in order to present a research methodology that can be used in other scenarios with a similar problem. In the sections detailing this case study, we describe the methods and techniques employed for studying landfill's remediation and discuss the data obtained to give an

Numerous waste tips in the central Iberian Peninsula capped with soil over the 1980s and 90s have been widely described from an interdisciplinary perspective in [1]. Research efforts have focused on the pollutants present in the soils used to seal 20 of these landfills and on factors inducing the spread of pollutants. These studies have been aimed at designing measures to

The figure shows the main impacts (not only visual) produced by a landfill sealed with soil. The most important impact is pollution produced by surface and deep leachates of polluting

**2. Profile of solid waste landfills in the Mediterranean region**

remediate the visual impacts of solid waste landfills (Figure 1).

overview of the topic examined.

200 Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination

**Figure 1.** Based on [7]

Table 1 summarizes the main plant communities detected at the 20 landfill sites examined, along with a summary of their main characteristics according to [8]. Despite the 20 years passed since the landfills were closed, plant cover generally lacks a bush stratum. Existing commun‐ ities are those classified as ruderals and nitrophiles with a dominance of annual species whose life cycle is typical of the Mediterranean region. Many of these landfills still show large expanses of soil unable to sustain plant growth while other areas boast good plant cover, though with a low diversity. In general, all landfill sites are grazed by itinerant herds of sheep.

**Table 1.** Phytosociological classes and mean characteristics of the main species found at the landfills.

Most of the capped landfills are mixed dumps containing both domestic and industrial waste. Besides mitigating the visual impacts of a landfill, the plant cover prevents its collapse and the pollution of other ecosystems by deposited waste materials.

However, in such scenarios the stability of plant communities that become established from the seed bank of the capping soil layer is threatened. Among others, the factors that give rise to this situation are continued waste disposal after the landfill's initial sealing, the scarce volume of capping soil present and land use projects implemented without a priori planning.


*2.2. Relative Conductivity and Mass Loss*

Relative conductivity was measured as described by Li et al. [9] with some modifications. Thirty tuberous root disks (10 mm diameter and 2 mm thickness) were put in 100 mL of deionized water and shake at 150 cycles min−1 for 1 h on a lab plate shaker. The solution conductivity was measured using a Model EC 215 conductivity meter (HANNA Instruments, Beijing, China). The total conductivity was obtained after each sample was boiled for 15 min and the relative electrolyte leakage was expressed as a percentage of the total conductivity. The results were calculated using the following Equation (1):

$$\text{Relative conductivity} = (\text{P}\_1/\text{P}\_0) \times 100\% \tag{1}$$

where P1 is the conductivity after vibration; P0 is the conductivity after boiling.

Ten marked tuberous roots were weighted, and the mass loss was calculated as follows Equation (2):

$$\text{Mass loss} = \left[ (\text{W}\_1 - \text{W}\_2) / \text{W}\_1 \right] \times 100\text{\%} \tag{2}$$

where W1 is the fresh mass; W2 is the mass after storage.


**Author details**

transistors from integrating circuits CD4007 during irradiation without gate bias (*V*irr = 0 V) pre‐ sented the sensitivity 4.6 mV/Gy with a very good linear behavior of the threshold voltage shift compared to the radiation dose. Moreover, with the possibility of applying thermal compensa‐

**Figure 15.** Threshold voltage shift *Δ V*T in p‐channel MOSFETs 3N163 as a function of gamma‐ray radiation dose *D* in

D (Gy) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

10 20 30

D (Gy)

**Figure 16.** Threshold voltage shift *Δ V*T in DMOS ZVP3306 as a function of 6 MeV electron beam radiation dose *D* in

tion, this transistor may be a promising candidate in radiotherapy.

the 0–58 Gy range. Gate bias during irradiation was *V*irr = 0 V.

120

V (V) T 2.0

246 Radiotherapy

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

100

80

60

V

(mV) T

40

20

the 0–25 Gy range.

Momčilo M. Pejović\* and Milić M. Pejović \*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Faculty of Electronic Engineering, University of Niš, Niš, Serbia


**4. Results and Discussion**

11, we can obtain a complete triangular mesh model.

We use C++ to implement the relevant algorithms of the modeling method based on the Coons surface interpolation and test them on a 64-bit computer with Windows 10 professional edition. This computer has 3.70 Ghz Intel (R) Core (TM) i7-8700u, 32GB ram, and NVIDIA GeForce RTX 2080 GPU. In this paper, five groups of different data are used to test the modeling method proposed in this work. These data are from the orebody of a tin mine in Yunnan, China, and are obtained in production and exploration. Based on these data, the original contour polylines can be produced through geological logging. The following experimental figures clearly show the process and the result of single closed-loop modeling and sub-mesh combination.

#### **4. Results and Discussion**  *4.1. Examples*

In this paper, five groups of different data are used to test the modeling method proposed in this work. These data are from the orebody of a tin mine in Yunnan, China, and are obtained in production and exploration. Based on these data, the original contour polylines can be produced through geological logging. The following experimental figures clearly show the process and the result of single closed-loop modeling and submesh combination. Figure 12 shows the processes of closed-loop division, single closed-loop modeling, and sub-mesh combination of the first group of cross-contour polylines. Figure 12a shows the original cross contour polylines of the orebody, each of which is in the same plane within the tolerance range. Then, the contour polylines are cut with the approximate planes. As shown in Figure 12b, each contour polyline is divided and grouped. After that, single closed-loop modeling is carried out on the contour polylines through the Coons surface interpolation, and the results are shown in Figure 12c. It can be seen that every closed loop has been modeled, but the sub-meshes are separate from each other. Finally, the sub-meshes are combined into a complete orebody model using polygon data merging technology, as shown in Figure 12d.

Figure 12 shows the processes of closed-loop division, single closed-loop modeling, and sub-mesh combination of the first group of cross-contour polylines. Figure 12a shows the original cross contour polylines of the orebody, each of which is in the same plane within the tolerance range. Then, the contour polylines are cut with the approximate Figures 13 and 14 show the modeling process on contour polylines with different shapes. It can be seen that the algorithm implemented here can still carry out closedloop division, single closed-loop modeling, and sub-mesh combination on more complex contour lines with good effects.

planes. As shown in Figure 12b, each contour polyline is divided and grouped. After that, single closed-loop modeling is carried out on the contour polylines through the Coons technology, as shown in Figure 12d.

technology, as shown in Figure 12d.

surface interpolation, and the results are shown in Figure 12c. It can be seen that every closed loop has been modeled, but the sub-meshes are separate from each other. Finally,

surface interpolation, and the results are shown in Figure 12c. It can be seen that every closed loop has been modeled, but the sub-meshes are separate from each other. Finally, the sub-meshes are combined into a complete orebody model using polygon data merging

*Minerals* **2022**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20

**Figure 12.** Experimental results of the first set of contour polylines: (**a**) the original contour polylines; (**b**) closed-loop division; (**c**) single closed-loop modeling; (**d**) sub-mesh combination. **Figure 12.** Experimental results of the first set of contour polylines: (**a**) the original contour polylines; (**b**) closed-loop division; (**c**) single closed-loop modeling; (**d**) sub-mesh combination. division, single closed-loop modeling, and sub-mesh combination on more complex contour lines with good effects.

123,660.0 1,640.0 **Figure 13.** Experimental results of the second set of contour polylines: (**a**) the original contour polylines; (**b**) closed-loop division; (**c**) single closed-loop modeling; (**d**) sub-mesh combination. **Figure 13.** Experimental results of the second set of contour polylines: (**a**) the original contour polylines; (**b**) closed-loop division; (**c**) single closed-loop modeling; (**d**) sub-mesh combination.

2,580,020.0

(d)

123,560.0

2,580,120.0

:20

1,540.0

2,579,920.0

123,560.0

(c)

**Figure 14.** Experimental results of the third set of contour polylines: (**a**) the original contour polylines; (**b**) closed-loop division; (**c**) single closed-loop modeling; (**d**) sub-mesh combination. **Figure 14.** Experimental results of the third set of contour polylines: (**a**) the original contour polylines; (**b**) closed-loop division; (**c**) single closed-loop modeling; (**d**) sub-mesh combination.

Figure 15 shows the modeling process of more complex contour polylines, in which most of the contour polylines do not strictly intersect. Figure 15a shows the original contour polylines. First, search the original intersections of the contour polylines, and the result is shown in Figure 15b. The green points are the original intersections that need no further processing. It can be seen that only a few polylines possess the original intersections. Red points are isolated points that have no other contour polylines within the specified scope. Then, the contour polylines are moved to intersect within the tolerance range. Figure 15c shows the intersections after processing, and most of the contour polylines have intersected with each other. After that, the closed-loop division is carried out based on the intersected contour polylines, and the result is shown in Figure 15d. Based on the closed loops, sub-meshes can be constructed through the Coons surface Figure 15 shows the modeling process of more complex contour polylines, in which most of the contour polylines do not strictly intersect. Figure 15a shows the original contour polylines. First, search the original intersections of the contour polylines, and the result is shown in Figure 15b. The green points are the original intersections that need no further processing. It can be seen that only a few polylines possess the original intersections. Red points are isolated points that have no other contour polylines within the specified scope. Then, the contour polylines are moved to intersect within the tolerance range. Figure 15c shows the intersections after processing, and most of the contour polylines have intersected with each other. After that, the closed-loop division is carried out based on the intersected contour polylines, and the result is shown in Figure 15d. Based on the closed loops, submeshes can be constructed through the Coons surface interpolation. Figure 15e shows the modeling result of every closed loop. The sub-meshes are smooth but split from each other. Finally, the sub-meshes are combined to obtain a complete orebody model, as shown in Figure 15f.

interpolation. Figure 15e shows the modeling result of every closed loop. The sub-meshes are smooth but split from each other. Finally, the sub-meshes are combined to obtain a As shown in Figure 16, the method is applied to complex orebodies with different shapes, and good orebody models are obtained, showing that this method has strong adaptability.

#### complete orebody model, as shown in Figure 15f. *4.2. Discussion*

The above experimental results show that the proposed method can deal with the contour polylines obtained by geological logging in mine production with good effects. Firstly, the constructed model conforms to the geological trend and is smooth in every mesh. Secondly, the closed-loop division can be carried out automatically, which will greatly improve the efficiency of modeling. Thirdly, since modeling between different regions will not affect each other, it can be carried out at the same time, which will greatly reduce the overall modeling time. However, this method still has some limitations that need to be further studied and solved. Firstly, due to the inherent limitations of the Coons technology, the model constructed by Coons surface interpolation is difficult to update,

adaptability.

and it is difficult to take faulting crosscutting into account, which will affect the accuracy of the model. In mine production, many orebodies are cross-cut by faults. For these orebodies, we should choose other modeling methods. Secondly, due to the complexity of the data in actual production, when this method is applied to some complex contour polylines, as shown in Figure 15, it can not complete all closed-loop divisions well, which needs to be specified manually. Finally, before Coons surface interpolation, all regions except simple single-sided regions need to be transformed into four-sided regions, which may affect the final modeling results by introducing numerical instability issues when adding virtual edges and vertexes. Therefore, to further improve the efficiency and accuracy of the modeling of cross-contour polylines, it is necessary to develop a closed-loop division method with higher precision and an n-sided regions expansion method with less effect on interpolation modeling in the future. *Minerals* **2022**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 20

**Figure 15.** Experimental results of the fourth set of contour polylines: (**a**) the original contour polylines; (**b**) original intersections; (**c**) processed intersections; (**d**) closed-loop division; (**e**) single closed-loop modeling; (**f**) sub-mesh combination. **Figure 15.** Experimental results of the fourth set of contour polylines: (**a**) the original contour polylines; (**b**) original intersections; (**c**) processed intersections; (**d**) closed-loop division; (**e**) single closed-loop modeling; (**f**) sub-mesh combination.

As shown in Figure 16, the method is applied to complex orebodies with different

shapes, and good orebody models are obtained, showing that this method has strong

**Figure 16.** Experimental results of the fifth set of contour polylines: (**a**–**c**) the orebody models with different complex shapes. **Figure 16.** Experimental results of the fifth set of contour polylines: (**a**–**c**) the orebody models with different complex shapes.


3.4.1. O2 and CO2

Table 3 summarizes the monitoring of the O2 contents and production of CO2 in the lettuce bags over the 10 days of cold storage. While oxygen was practically kept constant around 19% for the reference samples treated with water, for shredded lettuce sanitized with fermented whey, a reduction from 19 to 18% on the first day was observed, and then it remained practically constant. With chlorine, the reduction continued until the third day to values around 16%.

**Table 3.** Oxygen and carbon dioxide measurements for packed sanitized shredded lettuce with different sanitizer treatments, over 10 days in cold storage.

For the CO2 production, more pronounced differences are shown, becoming apparent that the bags treated with chlorine showed a higher reduction in O2 levels and a larger production of CO2 compared to the reference and whey treated bags. Consumption of O2 and production of CO2 could come from the respiration of the lettuce leaves and AM, as well as further production of CO2 from anaerobic fermenting microorganisms. Although results suggest that water- and whey-treated samples have lower biological activity, the higher changes detected in the samples treated with chlorine could be due to the response of the lettuce cell leaves to the chemical stress of the chlorinated compounds.


*3.7. Assessment of the Evolution of the Anaerobic Process*

Figure 6 represents the biogas, methane and hydrogen generation curves, along with the pH evolution recorded during the CrM residue AD process, and the process as a whole, can be evaluated. It is observed that:

**Figure 6.** Evolution of the digestion process of residue CrM. Comparison of the generation of biogas, methane and hydrogen together with the evolution of pH.

During the first day (day 0–day 1), there is a delay in the generations without a trace of methane or hydrogen, so it is assumed that the phase of disintegration + hydrolysis occurs during the first day.

Between days 1 and 3 hydrogen generation begins until it reaches a peak on day 3. This means that during days 1 to 3 the phases of acidogenesis and acetogenesis occur. In fact, it is associated with a reduction in pH, indicating that acidic elements such as acetic acid and VFA have formed. At that point biogas and methane begin to appear. The growth of methane is slower (with a lower slope) as it is formed only by acetoclastic route.

During days 3–4 hydrogen disappears at a steady rate as methane and biogas continue to grow, indicating that methane is also generated by acetoclastic methanogenesis.

Between days 4 and 5 the reduction of hydrogen stops, and so do biogas and methane, so it is assumed that there is a slowdown of the process and not an inhibition, since it is subsequently resumed. In addition, being associated with a decrease in pH is assumed to be a slowdown by accumulation of acid elements, which is subsequently resumed when the pH is increased again during days 5 to 6. This is due to the small content in AN that is released and acts as a buffer, as expected as studied in Section 3.1.

From day 6 the second peak of generation and hydrogen appears, which is accompanied by a decrease in pH, so it is understood that the phases of acidogenesis and acetogenesis are resumed and the process of digestion resumes, In fact generations of biogas and methane are also resumed, which occurs mainly by acetoclastic route as the pH is increased by the transformation of the acid elements into methane.

From day 9 hydrogen reduction begins, so it is understood that hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis begins. This is confirmed by the generations of biogas and methane increasing its speed and slope, so methanogenesis is two-way, acetoclastic (pH increases) and hydrogenotrophic (hydrogen content is reduced).

On day 11 hydrogen is completely consumed, continuous methanogenesis by acetoclastic, pH is progressively increased to neutral values.

The process is stabilized on day 12–13 and ends without any inhibition, with correct pH parameters and with an evolution as expected and studied.

For all of the above, the process develops correctly, with a slight acidification by accumulation of acidic elements, but without impacts when it is dampened by the buffer effect of the AN released during the degradation of the small percentage of proteins. There are two phases of digestion, clearly identified by hydrogen peaks and the two pH changes. It is therefore assumed that during the first phase the organic matter is digested directly accessible, and during the second stage part of the non-soluble organic matter begins to hydrolyze.

## *3.8. Determinations and Mathematical Adjustment of The Anaerobic Process*

Depending on the COD values determined before the BMP test and once it has been completed, therefore the degraded COD values are known, along with the values obtained in terms of methane generation, the process can be mathematically adjusted (Table 4) as studied in Section 2.5, to extrapolate and compare it with other scenarios.

Based on the initial and final COD values in the reactor mixture, the theoretical production of methane is determined, that is, what is expected to be obtained if the process had been developed correctly and all that degraded COD would have been transformed into methane. This is estimated at 487.879 NmL of methane per 100 g of CrM residue introduced into the digester. The theoretical generation is only 6.396% higher than the average generation obtained, so it is understood that, within the degraded COD, the process has been complete since virtually all the COD consumed in methane has been transformed.

By adjusting the methane generation process to a kinetics of the first order, the maximum generation of methane obtained in all trials, quantified at 458.820 (±106.029%) is obtained. NmL of methane per 100 g of CrM residue, practically identical to the average generation of methane obtained. The disintegration constant, which provides information on the speed of the process and especially hydrolysis, can also be determined. In this case it is estimated at 0.164 days−1 , a fairly fast constant compared to other constants of disintegration of other elements, and that allows to compare the speed of the process with that of other substrates. This disintegration constant is an indication of the speed of hydrolysis, but not the depth of the process, for this it is necessary to go to another parameter.

It has been seen that of all the COD digested, almost everything has been transformed into methane, so the process has been robust, and has also been rapid according to the hydrolysis constant, but now arises the question of whether the process has been deep and complete, that is, whether much of the organic matter available in the substrate has been degraded in the substrate, or only a small part has been degraded. To do this, the degradation coefficient of the substrate that provides information on how much COD of the substrate has been biodegraded in the anaerobic process is analyzed. In this case it has been determined at 15.282%, that is, although almost all the degraded COD has been transformed into methane, with respect to the total COD available on the CrM substrate only 15.282%. This indicates that the CODf which is directly accessible to microorganisms has probably been degraded, and subsequently, in the second stage of digestion, part of the COD that is encapsulated in the substrate is digested. It should be remembered that because of its high content of hemicellulose and lignin is a particulate substrate with strong outer membranes that makes it difficult to hydrolysate and release OM. In addition, it should be borne in mind that the nature of UASB sludge is granular, specially thought for wet digestion, combining two factors, that the substrate is strongly particulate by the high content of hemicellulose and lignin, and the granular nature of the inoculum, which complicates the adhesion of hydrolytic enzymes to the substrate. These low levels of degradation would also explain the methane content below 60%. These results open the door to process improvement through techniques such as pre-treated, which improve accessibility to the substrate, breaking the barriers created by lignocellulose and making the particulate and encapsulated COD solubilized and therefore directly accessible.

## *3.9. Comparison of Results with Previous Literature*

This section compares the results obtained with some of previous research. This is intended to check whether the test conditions have been adequate, whether the use of the new process indicators can be reliable, and whether the methodology applied is valid. They also serve to leave the main innovations developed in this manuscript marked. Publications with a considerable time lapse and similar test characteristics have been selected, however they are not the same, since precisely one of the novelties introduced is the use of UASB sludge as an inoculum. The approach of most research is microbiological, not process development, so it is also another point in favor of innovation and original input.

Table 5 shows the results of other research, and in the variables that can be checked, the results are quite similar. It is then confirmed that the new methodology used can be assumed as correct, that the changes introduced are valid and that new information is provided about:


**1. Introduction**

Historically, economic growth proved to be linked to levels of energy consumption. Tugcu, Ozturk, and Aslan argued that this is the case for both renewable and non-renewable energy consumption [1]. At the same time, rising energy consumption results in excessive carbon dioxide (CO2) emission as the most prevalent long-lasting greenhouse gas [2] and the most important greenhouse gas with regards to human activity. In effect, climate change may be positioned among crucial challenges of modern times. Energy efficiency (EE) is highlighted as the largest emissions growth restraint [3] and one of the widely acknowledged measures to meet the goal of keeping the increase in average global temperature well below 2 ◦C above pre-industrial levels according to the Paris Agreement [4]. Thus, societies put considerable hopes on it to mitigate the negative environmental impact and achieve sustainable economic development in the long run [5].

EE may be considered a distinctive feature of the products concerned [6], as well as a habitat preservation method that does not incur excessive costs, and at the same time, it provides companies with the opportunities for positive publicity [2]. The decision to take action to improve EE might be internal and resulting from purely economic reasons. That said, the pressure to shift towards more energy-efficient products, services, solutions, and behavioral patterns in terms of energy savings achieved is also likely to be enacted by governing bodies and institutions through energy efficiency policies (EEPs) [7]. Meeting the objectives of an EEP has a direct impact on the activity of companies operating within particular industries. All the actions taken by managers and employees of a given company to implement the rules and measures enforced by an EEP requires a properly developed

business model [8]. On top of that, the results of these actions need to be monitored in order to verify whether the intended effects are achieved or not, and corrective actions are undertaken when necessary [9]. By tailoring business models, adapting business processes, rehauling, and deploying new IT solutions that support day-to-day EE-oriented management practices, the companies effectively establish energy efficiency management (EEM). The motivation behind this research was to extend the EE body of knowledge by understanding how consideration of EEPs and management practices necessary to implement them affects business models of real-world organizations.

Involving companies in EE programs is likely to exert influence on most components of their business models, regardless of the transformation strategies in place [10]. As implementing EEPs may come with substantial risks regarding the cash flow and bottom line of a company [11], such transition requires a good understanding of the constraints in place and demands on specific companies, as well as the core processes. Having a model of EEM tailored to the organization requires designing and implementing a process that features exploratory work and experiments. In our experience, all stages towards EEM—from the initial idea, through to evaluation, ensuring cost-effectiveness, actual financing, and implementation—should be considered. Therefore, the goal of this paper is to design and formalize the reference process of a pilot EEM implementation that involves external business partners in a multi-facility organization. The empirical study is fueled by three research questions:

After the introduction, related research is discussed and the method is presented in Sections 2 and 3, respectively. Subsequently, the artifact as understood within the design science research is introduced, particularized, introduced to a real-life business organization, and validated. Section 5 discusses some best practices regarding post-pilot EE-focused activities between parties involved in setting up EEM based on the feedback collected during the study. Section 6 introduces the implications and limitations of the study, which are followed by conclusions.

## **2. Research Background**


**Abstract**

The rise of cryptocurrencies based on Blockchain platforms have provided multiple solutions for social and nature projects supported by concerned investors with sustainable development initiatives. Speculation and unclear uses of a cryptocurrency plays a negative role for the projects they claim to support. A positive relationship between coin investors and supported projects must position the coin value on the scale of the community involvement among the coin and project issues, thus placing the project results above speculative moves. Coin nature and social based projects may include a decentralized autonomous organization (DAO), combined with a digital currency to contribute to social and nature improvements. This organization provides a framework for the engagement of investors, beneficiaries, and implementation partners, with results measured by reliable third parties. The potential funding from non fiduciary sources for sustainable development targets may be framed under the fundraising and financial solutions models, addressing the cryptocurrency volatility risks with responsible tokenomics in attention to transaction and regulatory issues. Overall, the more clear are the object and transaction issues of a nature conservation project supported by a currency, the more successful it will be in terms of nature and social improvements and the currency valuation for all parties involved.

**Keywords:** blockchain, cryptocurrencies, tokens, tokenomics, nature conservation