 The eggs are laid in the masses about 4 × 7 mm and appear golden brown on the upper surface of leaves. Young larvae are light green in color. Full grown larvae are stout, cylindrical and pale greenish brown with dark markings. The pupae are reddish brown and are found in the soil close to the plant (Jasani, 2009).

**Life cycle and damage**: females lay around 2000 eggs on the abaxial surface of groundnut leaves, in batches of 200-300 each. The larval and pupal periods take about 20 and 7-10 days, respectively. Freshly hatched larvae feed gregariously, scraping the chlorophyll, and they disperse very soon. Larvae feed mostly during night time. Later stages feed voraciously on the foliage at night, hiding usually in the soil around the base of the plants during the day. Sometimes the feeding is so heavy that only petioles and branches are left behind. In light soil, caterpillar bores into the pods. The total life cycle is completed in 30 days and there may be as many as 12 generations annually in southern India (Jasani, 2009; Mallikarjuna et al., 2004). Peanut and its wild species have three flavonoids chlorogenic acid, quercetin and

Oilseed Pests 139

and 2 mm wide and the cocoons measure about 16 mm in length and 6 mm in width (Gill et

**Life cycle and damage**: The female deposits nearly all her eggs below the soil surface adjacent to plants. The eggs hatch in two to three days. The larvae live in the soil, constructing tunnels from soil and excrement tightly woven together with silk. Lesser cornstalk borers frequently attack seedlings emerging from the ground or shortly thereafter. It is an erratic pest with outbreaks and plant damage usually occurring during dry periods on sandy soils. The larvae also can be a severe problem from pegging time until harvest. They construct a cocoon of sand attached to the pod or stem at the point of penetration. Normally there are six instars, but the number of instars can range from five to nine depending on environmental conditions. At larval maturity, caterpillars construct pupal cells of sand and silk at the end of the tunnels. Pupa develops about 9 to 10 days, with a range of 7 to 13 days. *E. lignosellus* overwinter as larvae or pupae in the soil. This species has

**Monitoring:** monitor stems and lateral limbs for webbing and live larvae. For scouting the pest, monitor higher, drier parts of the field, plants on the end of rows, and those without adjacent plants. Also, determine the percentage of damage to the crop (Linker et al., n.d.). **Economic and action thresholds:** economic threshold is when 10% of the monitored

**Control:** Outbreaks occur during periods of hot and dry weather. Rainfall or irrigation will greatly reduce the threat of damage. Keeping the land free of weeds and grass for several weeks before planting; and earlier planting may prevent late season losses. Liquid insecticides directed at the base of host plants or granules applied to the soil can be effective but hot, dry conditions often reduce the longevity of registered insecticides (Gill et al., 2008). Groundnuts are stored both as unshelled pods and as kernels for different uses. Some of the groundnut pests may infest kernels in storages. The ones which attack whole kernels in storages usually develop and feed inside the kernels of grain. These pests are not usually capable of existence outside the grain kernel as immature insects. Examples of whole grain pests are the rice weevil, *Sitophilus oryzae* (L.); the granary weevil, *Sitophilus granarius* (L.); and the lesser grain borer, *Rhyzopertha dominica* (F.). Other insect pests which attack stored groundnut are usually unable to penetrate whole grain. These insect pests however, can attack grain after it has been either mechanically broken or attacked by whole grain insects. Examples of these secondary pests are the confused flour beetle, *Tribolium confusum* **(**Jacquelin du Val.); red flour beetles, *Tribolium castaneum* (Herbst); Indian meal moth, *Plodia interpunctella* (Hubner); almond moth, *Ephestia cautella* (Walker); and the sawtoothed grain beetle, *Oryzaephilus surinamensis* (L.) (Fig. 3) (Koehler, n.d.). *Caryedon serratus* (Olivier) is the

only major pest of groundnut that infests unshelled nuts (Ranga Rao et al., 2010).

of damage should be considered too (Koehler, n.d.; Ranga Rao et al., 2010).

**Monitoring:** monitoring pests in silos and storages should be done once in fortnight; so remedial measures can be taken as soon as infestation is noticed. Insect traps (sticky traps, light traps, pitfall traps, and pheromones) are effective in detecting insects which are placed either indoors or outdoors. However, estimating insect's population is difficult from a trap because some of the insects are inside the kernels and cannot be trapped. So, the symptoms

three or four generations annually (Gill et al., 2008; Mossler & Aerts, 2009).

al., 2008; Mossler & Aerts, 2009).

samples are affected (Linker et al., n.d.).

rutin which are involved in the components of resistance to *Spodoptera* species (Mallikarjuna et al., 2004). They also severely damage other oilseeds such as sunflower.

**Monitoring:** pheromone trap can use for monitoring *S. littoralis* (5 per ha).

**Economic and action thresholds:** economic threshold for this pest is 20-25% defoliation of the crop (Bhubaneswar, 2008).

**Control**: some cultural techniques for controlling *S. litura* are: deep summer ploughing; early sowing to escape from insect pest damage; once irrigation to avoid prolonged midseason drought; planting castor or sunflower plants as trap crop for egg laying and destroying eggs or first stage larvae. Also, mechanical techniques are: installation of light traps; mechanical weeding at 15-20 days after sowing; collection of egg masses or early instars larvae from trap crops. *S. litura* can be controlled biologically by *Telenomus remus*  (Nixon), *Apanteles africanus* (Cameron)*, T. chilonis* and *B. hebetor* or by spraying SNPV, B.t., insect pathogenic fungus *Nomuraea rileyi* (Farlow). B.t is occasionally used to manage early instar lepidopteran larvae pests. If the insect population crosses ETL applying insecticides are advised. Methyl parathion 2% dust, Monochrotophos 36 SL, Quinolphos 25 EC, Endosulfan 35 EC, and Trizophos 40EC are effective against tobacco bud worm. Poison baits with Monocrotophos 36 SL or Carbaryl, rice bran, jaggery and water can use to control the grown up larvae (Jasani, 2009; Mossler & Aerts, 2009). Also, Sahayaraj & Martin (2003) stated that *Rhynocoris marginatus* (F.) significantly reduced *S.litura* population (85.89%).

#### **3.13** *Heliothis armigera* **(Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidea)**

**Identification:** refer to the section on identification of *H. armigera* for cotton.

**Life cycle and damage**: it is known as gram pod borer. Female lays the eggs singly on young leaves and flower buds. Larvae feed on the foliage, prefers flowers and buds. When tender leaf buds are eaten symmetrical holes or cuttings can be seen upon unfolding of leaflets. Pupate is formed in the soil (Jasani, 2009).

**Monitoring:** sex pheromone traps can use for monitoring adult male population (Jasani, 2009).

**Economic and action thresholds:** economic threshold is the presence of two eggs or one larva per plant (Chaturvedi, 2007).

**Control**: ploughing deeply in summer; releasing *T. chilonis*, *Chrysoperla carnea* (Stephens), and the reduviid predator *R. marginatus* are effective for protecting groundnut from pest infestations. Application of safe chemical insecticides is recommended only if the insect population crosses the ETL. Endosulfan, Monocrotophos, Quinolphos, or Chloropyriphos is found effective (Jasani, 2009; Sahayaraj & Martin, 2003).

#### **3.14** *Elasmopalpus lignosellus* **(Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)**

**Identification:** The lesser cornstalk borer is small and slender with alternating green and brown bands on its body. The eggs are oval about 0.6 mm long and 0.4 mm wide. When first deposited, they are greenish, soon turning pinkish, and eventually reddish. The larvae have brown and blue (or tan) alternating rings down the body. The pupae are yellowish initially turning brown and then almost black just before adults emerge. Pupae are about 8 mm long

rutin which are involved in the components of resistance to *Spodoptera* species (Mallikarjuna

**Economic and action thresholds:** economic threshold for this pest is 20-25% defoliation of

**Control**: some cultural techniques for controlling *S. litura* are: deep summer ploughing; early sowing to escape from insect pest damage; once irrigation to avoid prolonged midseason drought; planting castor or sunflower plants as trap crop for egg laying and destroying eggs or first stage larvae. Also, mechanical techniques are: installation of light traps; mechanical weeding at 15-20 days after sowing; collection of egg masses or early instars larvae from trap crops. *S. litura* can be controlled biologically by *Telenomus remus*  (Nixon), *Apanteles africanus* (Cameron)*, T. chilonis* and *B. hebetor* or by spraying SNPV, B.t., insect pathogenic fungus *Nomuraea rileyi* (Farlow). B.t is occasionally used to manage early instar lepidopteran larvae pests. If the insect population crosses ETL applying insecticides are advised. Methyl parathion 2% dust, Monochrotophos 36 SL, Quinolphos 25 EC, Endosulfan 35 EC, and Trizophos 40EC are effective against tobacco bud worm. Poison baits with Monocrotophos 36 SL or Carbaryl, rice bran, jaggery and water can use to control the grown up larvae (Jasani, 2009; Mossler & Aerts, 2009). Also, Sahayaraj & Martin (2003) stated that *Rhynocoris marginatus* (F.) significantly reduced *S.litura* population (85.89%).

et al., 2004). They also severely damage other oilseeds such as sunflower. **Monitoring:** pheromone trap can use for monitoring *S. littoralis* (5 per ha).

**3.13** *Heliothis armigera* **(Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidea)**

leaflets. Pupate is formed in the soil (Jasani, 2009).

found effective (Jasani, 2009; Sahayaraj & Martin, 2003).

**3.14** *Elasmopalpus lignosellus* **(Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)**

larva per plant (Chaturvedi, 2007).

**Identification:** refer to the section on identification of *H. armigera* for cotton.

**Life cycle and damage**: it is known as gram pod borer. Female lays the eggs singly on young leaves and flower buds. Larvae feed on the foliage, prefers flowers and buds. When tender leaf buds are eaten symmetrical holes or cuttings can be seen upon unfolding of

**Monitoring:** sex pheromone traps can use for monitoring adult male population (Jasani, 2009). **Economic and action thresholds:** economic threshold is the presence of two eggs or one

**Control**: ploughing deeply in summer; releasing *T. chilonis*, *Chrysoperla carnea* (Stephens), and the reduviid predator *R. marginatus* are effective for protecting groundnut from pest infestations. Application of safe chemical insecticides is recommended only if the insect population crosses the ETL. Endosulfan, Monocrotophos, Quinolphos, or Chloropyriphos is

**Identification:** The lesser cornstalk borer is small and slender with alternating green and brown bands on its body. The eggs are oval about 0.6 mm long and 0.4 mm wide. When first deposited, they are greenish, soon turning pinkish, and eventually reddish. The larvae have brown and blue (or tan) alternating rings down the body. The pupae are yellowish initially turning brown and then almost black just before adults emerge. Pupae are about 8 mm long

the crop (Bhubaneswar, 2008).

and 2 mm wide and the cocoons measure about 16 mm in length and 6 mm in width (Gill et al., 2008; Mossler & Aerts, 2009).

**Life cycle and damage**: The female deposits nearly all her eggs below the soil surface adjacent to plants. The eggs hatch in two to three days. The larvae live in the soil, constructing tunnels from soil and excrement tightly woven together with silk. Lesser cornstalk borers frequently attack seedlings emerging from the ground or shortly thereafter. It is an erratic pest with outbreaks and plant damage usually occurring during dry periods on sandy soils. The larvae also can be a severe problem from pegging time until harvest. They construct a cocoon of sand attached to the pod or stem at the point of penetration. Normally there are six instars, but the number of instars can range from five to nine depending on environmental conditions. At larval maturity, caterpillars construct pupal cells of sand and silk at the end of the tunnels. Pupa develops about 9 to 10 days, with a range of 7 to 13 days. *E. lignosellus* overwinter as larvae or pupae in the soil. This species has three or four generations annually (Gill et al., 2008; Mossler & Aerts, 2009).

**Monitoring:** monitor stems and lateral limbs for webbing and live larvae. For scouting the pest, monitor higher, drier parts of the field, plants on the end of rows, and those without adjacent plants. Also, determine the percentage of damage to the crop (Linker et al., n.d.).

**Economic and action thresholds:** economic threshold is when 10% of the monitored samples are affected (Linker et al., n.d.).

**Control:** Outbreaks occur during periods of hot and dry weather. Rainfall or irrigation will greatly reduce the threat of damage. Keeping the land free of weeds and grass for several weeks before planting; and earlier planting may prevent late season losses. Liquid insecticides directed at the base of host plants or granules applied to the soil can be effective but hot, dry conditions often reduce the longevity of registered insecticides (Gill et al., 2008).

Groundnuts are stored both as unshelled pods and as kernels for different uses. Some of the groundnut pests may infest kernels in storages. The ones which attack whole kernels in storages usually develop and feed inside the kernels of grain. These pests are not usually capable of existence outside the grain kernel as immature insects. Examples of whole grain pests are the rice weevil, *Sitophilus oryzae* (L.); the granary weevil, *Sitophilus granarius* (L.); and the lesser grain borer, *Rhyzopertha dominica* (F.). Other insect pests which attack stored groundnut are usually unable to penetrate whole grain. These insect pests however, can attack grain after it has been either mechanically broken or attacked by whole grain insects. Examples of these secondary pests are the confused flour beetle, *Tribolium confusum* **(**Jacquelin du Val.); red flour beetles, *Tribolium castaneum* (Herbst); Indian meal moth, *Plodia interpunctella* (Hubner); almond moth, *Ephestia cautella* (Walker); and the sawtoothed grain beetle, *Oryzaephilus surinamensis* (L.) (Fig. 3) (Koehler, n.d.). *Caryedon serratus* (Olivier) is the only major pest of groundnut that infests unshelled nuts (Ranga Rao et al., 2010).

**Monitoring:** monitoring pests in silos and storages should be done once in fortnight; so remedial measures can be taken as soon as infestation is noticed. Insect traps (sticky traps, light traps, pitfall traps, and pheromones) are effective in detecting insects which are placed either indoors or outdoors. However, estimating insect's population is difficult from a trap because some of the insects are inside the kernels and cannot be trapped. So, the symptoms of damage should be considered too (Koehler, n.d.; Ranga Rao et al., 2010).

Oilseed Pests 141

magnesium phosphide is recommended if the entire mass of the product is infested

**Identification:** Groundnut borer adult is 4 to 7 mm long, with small black markings on the elytra. It is readily distinguished from other pests of groundnuts by its very broad hind femur, serrate antennae and elytra that do not completely cover the abdomen (Ranga Rao et al., 2010). **Life cycle and damage**: It is the only species that can penetrate intact pods to infest the kernels. Infestation of the harvested groundnuts can occur while the crop is being dried in the field, stored near infested stocks or crop residues. Females attach their eggs to the outside of pods or kernels and incubation period is about 4 to 6 days. The first instar larva hatches and burrows directly through the pod wall to reach the kernel, where the larva feeds and develops. Each larva feeds solely within a single kernel. A single larva can make a large excavation in the cotyledons, but no sign of damage is visible externally at this stage. Mature larvae emerge partially or completely from the pod and construct an oval papery cocoon. The life cycle of *C.*

*Caryedon serratus* is probably the major pests of stored groundnuts introduced here:

**3.15** *Caryedon serratus* **(Oliver) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)**

*serratus* is about 60 days under optimum conditions of 30°C and 70% r.h.

**3.16** *Bandicota bengalensis* **(Kok.);** *Rattus meltada pallidior* **(gray);** *Tatera indica*

Among the oil seed crops groundnut often suffers severe attack by rodents. Rodents damage both the standing crop and stored products. They damage the whole or the branches of the plant during burrowing and remove the pods at the mature and harvesting stages and take them into their burrows. *B. bengalensis* is the most predominant and widespread pest of agriculture in wet and irrigated soils. In dry land *T. indica* and then *R. meltada* are the predominant rodent pests. The chronic damage ranging from 2% to 15% persists throughout the country and severe damage, sometimes even up to 100% loss of the field crop

**Control:** clean cultivation; proper soil tillage; crop scheduling; barriers; repellents and proofing are cultural techniques which may reduce rodent damages. Control weeds, which are an important component of the rodents diet. Apply rodenticides like poison baiting of rodents with zinc phosphide; and fumigation with aluminium phosphide are common in

**3.17 Crows (***Corvus splandens* **Viellot), Pigeons (***Columba livia* **Gmelin) and Black ibis**

Birds are relatively less important as pests of groundnut except pigeons and crows, which eat the freshly sown seeds leading to large gaps in the field (Ghewande & Nandagop, 1997). Brooks et al., (1988) assess 164 fields selected along road transects in Pakistan for vertebrate pests loss of groundnut. Lesser bandicoot rat (*Bandicota bengalensis* Gray) and the shorttailed mole rat (*Nesokia indica* Gray) were the most important. They often remove groundnut pods below ground without killing or otherwise damaging the plants. Also, the wild boar (*Sus scrofa* L.), desert hares (*Lepus nigricollis* Blanford); crested porcupines (*Hystrix indica*

Kerr) and house crows (*Corvus splendens* Vieillot) cause damage and loss to the crop.

(Koehler, n.d.; Ranga Rao et al., 2010).

**(Hardwicke)**

(Ghewande & Nandagop, 1997).

agricultural fields (Parshad, 1999).

**(***Psaubis papillasa* **Temminck)**

Fig. 3. Stored product insect pests of ground nut (Ranga Rao et al., 2010).

**Control:** sanitize and clean up the empty storage bins by spraying Malathion, or Cyfluthrin thoroughly of waste materials such as old grain, trash, or feed sacks that may furnish living quarters for insects. Clean dry grain may be protected with Pirimiphos-methyl or (S)- Methoprene (DIACON II). Grain treated with protectants should be inspected at monthly intervals to guard against the possibility of infestation. Also, after storing the grain the surface would be treated with Diatomaceous Earth, Diacon II, Pirimiphos-methyl, or Dipel Dust. Fumigation of stored grain with different insecticides such as Detia, Fumitoxin, Gastion, Gastoxin, Phostek, Phostoxin, Quick Phos, carbon dioxide, chloropicrin, or

Fig. 3. Stored product insect pests of ground nut (Ranga Rao et al., 2010).

**Control:** sanitize and clean up the empty storage bins by spraying Malathion, or Cyfluthrin thoroughly of waste materials such as old grain, trash, or feed sacks that may furnish living quarters for insects. Clean dry grain may be protected with Pirimiphos-methyl or (S)- Methoprene (DIACON II). Grain treated with protectants should be inspected at monthly intervals to guard against the possibility of infestation. Also, after storing the grain the surface would be treated with Diatomaceous Earth, Diacon II, Pirimiphos-methyl, or Dipel Dust. Fumigation of stored grain with different insecticides such as Detia, Fumitoxin, Gastion, Gastoxin, Phostek, Phostoxin, Quick Phos, carbon dioxide, chloropicrin, or magnesium phosphide is recommended if the entire mass of the product is infested (Koehler, n.d.; Ranga Rao et al., 2010).

*Caryedon serratus* is probably the major pests of stored groundnuts introduced here: