**1. Introduction**

Frequent changes in operating conditions require the operating settings to change accordingly and appropriately, and unsuitable settings will bring about performance deterioration and disqualified products [1]. Therefore, operational optimization plays an essential role in industrial production since it ensures process safety and enhances economic benefit [2–4]. Generally, there are two kinds of operational optimization methods: modelbased methods and data-based methods. In particular, the model-based methods firstly build a process model with some basic operational laws, such as material conservation and energy conservation, and then construct a constrained optimization problem with the pre-established process model [5,6]. On this basis, global optimal solutions are obtained with some optimization algorithms, such as sequential quadratic programming (SQP) [7], the genetic algorithm (GA) [8], and particle swarm optimization (PSO) [9]. Although model-based methods have been successfully applied to many fields, their shortages are inevitable when the industrial process is extremely complex. In fact, it is difficult to build an accurate model if the process is featured by a large scale, long procedure, and changeable environments [10]. Moreover, it is challenging to select an appropriate optimization algorithm to balance the efficiency and the accuracy of a certain operational optimization problems [11].

In response to the drawbacks of model-based methods, data-based methods–which are free from prior knowledge on process mechanisms [12]–have attracted much attention

**Citation:** Peng, X.; Wang, Y.; Guan, L.; Xue, Y. A Local Density-Based Abnormal Case Removal Method for Industrial Operational Optimization under the CBR Framework. *Machines* **2022**, *10*, 471. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/machines10060471

Academic Editor: Benoit Eynard

Received: 4 May 2022 Accepted: 9 June 2022 Published: 12 June 2022

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

in both the academic and industrial community [13]. For example, Wang et al. designed an adaptive moving window convolutional neural network to extract useful information from the process time-series data, based on which the optimal decision is made according to the expected operational indices [14]. Ding et al. integrated the reinforcement learning strategy with Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) so that the optimal operational indices for a large mineral processing plant can be easily found [15]. Overall, data-based methods benefit from various kinds of sensors installed in modern industry, and they can make optimal decisions using plentiful historical data and operational experience.

Among the data-based methods, CBR does not rely on any process mechanism knowledge, so it is suitable for operational optimization problems where it is difficult to establish accurate process models. In detail, CBR solves the operational optimization problem by referring to previous operating experience, and it has been successfully applied to many processes. For example, Li et al. developed a principal component regression-based case reuse method under the CBR framework [16]. To be specific, the developed method could learn valuable experience from historical production data and finally obtain the global optimal operating settings for a coking flue gas denitration process. Ding et al. integrated a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm into the classic CBR, and the modified CBR was then employed to optimize some operating indexes of the largest hematite ore processing plant in western China [17]. Basically, since CBR could work out the optimal operating settings for certain conditions with some successful cases (also named historical optimal cases or case base), requirements of safety and stability are automatically satisfied for the acquired settings [18]. This is another advantage of CBR when it is employed to solve operational optimization problems in industry.

Conventionally, CBR includes the following steps: (1) Case retrieval; (2) Case reuse; (3) Case revision; and (4) Case retention [19]. Among them, case retrieval is one of the most important steps and its task is to retrieve the most useful cases from the pre-established case base to solve the target problem [20,21]. Currently, the majority of case retrieval is based on similarity [22], which is typically measured by various kinds of distances, such as the Euclidean distance, the Mahalanobis distance, the cosine angle distance, etc. [23]. However, similarity fails to consider the significance among different dimensions. Therefore, reference [24] employs the weighted Mahalanobis distance to measure the similarity, and reference [25] designed a new similarity measurement that combined the Euclidean distance and the cosine angle distance. To improve the accuracy of case retrieval facing nonlinearity, Li et al. introduced a new similarity index that can transfer traditional distance-based similarity into their corresponding Gaussian forms by Gaussian transformation [26]. In terms of industrial operational optimization, the Euclidean distance or the weighted Euclidean distance is adopted to calculate the similarity between two cases in most previous studies. Usually, the weights are allocated based on experience, and the allocation requires prior knowledge about the studied process. Moreover, the accuracy of case retrieval would be decreased if the process data include measuring error. Therefore, Zhang et al. utilized fuzzy logic to select the most suitable cases from a case base, and then obtained the global optimal solution for the target problem in an oil refinery [18].

Although plenty of works have improved the accuracy of case retrieval, it is still difficult to guarantee the quality of retrieved cases when applied to complex industrial processes when only using distance-based similarity. Firstly, measuring error is unavoidable in historical data [27], so it is hard to build the case base accurately. Secondly, industrial processes often run in many working conditions [28], so it is difficult to ensure the distancebased case retrieval would only retrieve cases from the same working conditions as the target problem. In this paper, these wrongly retrieved cases are named as abnormal cases because they are not helpful for the target problem. Furthermore, applying the operational settings of abnormal cases to the target problem is hazardous and may result in performance deterioration and disqualified products, or even stall the production of subsequent processes. Therefore, a local density-based abnormal case removal method is proposed in this paper to remove the abnormal cases in the case retrieval step, and finally

to improve the performance of CBR for industrial operational optimization. The main contributions of this paper are summarized as follows:

The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Some preliminaries of the CBR framework and the distance-based similarity measurements are briefly reviewed in Section 2, then the motivations, principles, and procedures of the local density-based abnormal case removal method are systematically presented in Section 3. Section 4 exhibits the operational optimization results of a numerical case study and an industrial case study. Finally, conclusions are given in Section 5.


*<IP_ADDRESS> Reactor modeling with anaerobic digestion model 1 (ADM1)*

The combination of CFD and a simple bioprocess was used to model an expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) reactor [21]. The biokinetics usually interact with each other. ADM1 is the widely applied model for modeling bioprocesses in anaerobic wastewater treatment. When calibrated, ADM1 can be integrated with hydrodynamic models to obtain an integrated model for reactor modeling. An integrated model can be obtained when a granular sludge bed reactor is treated as a connection of virtual CSTRs and PF reactors and by applying the ADM1 model to each of these virtual reactors. An integrated model was used to model an UASB reactor treating traditional Chinese medicine wastewater [22]. In the integrated model, values for nonsensitive parameters were adopted from public reports, while sensitive parameters were calibrated. Similarly, sensitive parameters were calibrated while modeling a UASB reactor treating wastewater from a molasses-based ethanol distillery [23]. In these two studies, the original form of ADM1 was maintained. However, the ADM1 can be extended to be more practicable. The ADM1 can be extended by extending the number of microbial species [7, 24] or by including new soluble fermentable substrates [25].

## *<IP_ADDRESS> Reactor modeling with a bioparticle model*

Strategies for reactor modeling based on a bioparticle model are reported. However, this reactor modeling strategy is case-specific, and relevant road maps of each strategy are not clearly stated [3, 4, 12]. By cross-checking these models, a general model strategy is summarized below:

**75**

Not clear

*loading rate.*

**Table 1.**

*Approaches for Modeling Anaerobic Granule-Based Reactors*

sub-models such as sludge concentration distribution along reactor height and sludge bed expansion at different upflow velocities [4]. Furthermore, the size of a representative granule is manually but carefully selected while applying a bioparticle model. The weakness of reactor modeling with a bioparticle model is that a reactor model cannot be obtained when a bioparticle model cannot be obtained. A bioparticle model has not been convincingly established for complex substrates. Therefore, reactor modeling with a bioparticle model for complex substrate is still

> alkalinity and VFA concentration, T, pH in the influent

> > TKN

HRT

−, S2−, pH,

−, NO2

3 Influent sulfide, nitrate concentration, S/N mole ratio, pH, and HRT

3 Influent COD, HRT, pH, COD loading rate

3 HRT, influent COD,

4 Influent, flow rate,

5 Influent COD, Q,

pH, T, alkalinity, VFA, dilution rate, organic load, TSS

inlet and outlet COD

TKN, effluent VFA and bicarbonate

influent–effluent alkalinity and pH, T

rate, influent alkalinity and pH, effluent pH

> effluent pH, T, alkalinity effluent COD and VFA concentrations

**Inputs Outputs Ref**

COD of effluent [30]

[29]

[31]

[32]

[35]

[37]

[38]

Effluent BOD and COD

Nitrate, nitrite, sulfide acetate

Sulfide, nitrate removal percentage, sulfate and nitrogen production percentage

Effluent COD [33]

COD removal [34]

Effluent COD [27]

Biogas production [36]

Biogas production rate

Biogas and methane production rates

Biogas and methane production rates

**No. of layers**

4 NO3

BP UASB, domestic 3 TSS, VSS, COD,

BP UASB, domestic 3 BOD, COD, NH4–N,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90201*

difficult.

**Types Reactors and**

BP EGSB, denitrifying

BP UASB, denitrifying

BP UASB,

BP UASB, cotton

NARX UASB, bagasse

ANFIS EGSB, corn

**wastewater**

sulfide removal

sulfide removal

pharmaceutical

textile

wash

processing

BP UASB, molasses 3 OLR, VFA of effluent,

AMIMO UASB, molasses — OLR, TCOD removal

*Overview of neural networks applying to sludge bed reactor modeling.*

UASB, molasses 3 OLR, influent and

*ANFIS, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system; OLR, volumetric organic loading rate; TCOD, volumetric total chemical oxygen demand; AMIMO, multiple inputs and multiple outputs; TSS, total suspended solids; VSS, volatile suspended solids; COD, chemical oxygen demand; VFA, volatile fatty acid; T, temperature; BOD, biological oxygen demand; TKN, total Kjeldahl nitrogen; HRT, hydraulic retention time; Q, reactor flow rate; and OLR, organic*

The bioparticle model applied here is a diffusion-reaction model rather than an IBM because the implementation of an IBM will encounter a huge computational workload. In addition, this strategy can be enriched by including other

*Approaches for Modeling Anaerobic Granule-Based Reactors DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90201*

*Bacterial Biofilms*

*3.1.2 Applied biokinetics*

soluble fermentable substrates [25].

the model.

virtual reactor.

lar sludge bed.

*<IP_ADDRESS> Reactor modeling with a bioparticle model*

a general model strategy is summarized below:

The biokinetics regarding wastewater treatment are nicely represented by a series of mathematical equations. Either the RC strategy or the CFD strategy is ready to be combined with the equations to model bioprocesses in a bioreactor.

The combination of CFD and a simple bioprocess was used to model an expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) reactor [21]. The biokinetics usually interact with each other. ADM1 is the widely applied model for modeling bioprocesses in anaerobic wastewater treatment. When calibrated, ADM1 can be integrated with hydrodynamic models to obtain an integrated model for reactor modeling. An integrated model can be obtained when a granular sludge bed reactor is treated as a connection of virtual CSTRs and PF reactors and by applying the ADM1 model to each of these virtual reactors. An integrated model was used to model an UASB reactor treating traditional Chinese medicine wastewater [22]. In the integrated model, values for nonsensitive parameters were adopted from public reports, while sensitive parameters were calibrated. Similarly, sensitive parameters were calibrated while modeling a UASB reactor treating wastewater from a molasses-based ethanol distillery [23]. In these two studies, the original form of ADM1 was maintained. However, the ADM1 can be extended to be more practicable. The ADM1 can be extended by extending the number of microbial species [7, 24] or by including new

Strategies for reactor modeling based on a bioparticle model are reported. However, this reactor modeling strategy is case-specific, and relevant road maps of each strategy are not clearly stated [3, 4, 12]. By cross-checking these models,

i.First, a representative granular size is assumed and applied to all granules in

ii.Second, a RC strategy is applied to divides a real reactor into a single or a

iii.Then, the number of representative granules can be obtained in each virtual reactor in the model by measuring the total sludge mass in a real reactor and

iv.Fourth, the substrate degradation rates in each virtual reactor are obtained by adding substrate degradation rates of all representative granules in each

v.Finally, the substrate degradation rates in each virtual reactor can be added together to obtain a reactor model that models the operation of a real granu-

The bioparticle model applied here is a diffusion-reaction model rather than an IBM because the implementation of an IBM will encounter a huge computational workload. In addition, this strategy can be enriched by including other

series of virtual reactors, that is, CSTRs and/or PF reactors.

calculating the mass of the representative granule.

*<IP_ADDRESS> Reactor modeling with anaerobic digestion model 1 (ADM1)*

**74**

sub-models such as sludge concentration distribution along reactor height and sludge bed expansion at different upflow velocities [4]. Furthermore, the size of a representative granule is manually but carefully selected while applying a bioparticle model. The weakness of reactor modeling with a bioparticle model is that a reactor model cannot be obtained when a bioparticle model cannot be obtained. A bioparticle model has not been convincingly established for complex substrates. Therefore, reactor modeling with a bioparticle model for complex substrate is still difficult.

*ANFIS, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system; OLR, volumetric organic loading rate; TCOD, volumetric total chemical oxygen demand; AMIMO, multiple inputs and multiple outputs; TSS, total suspended solids; VSS, volatile suspended solids; COD, chemical oxygen demand; VFA, volatile fatty acid; T, temperature; BOD, biological oxygen demand; TKN, total Kjeldahl nitrogen; HRT, hydraulic retention time; Q, reactor flow rate; and OLR, organic loading rate.*


Preface

Remote sensing is an important tool in environmental management, providing up-todate, detailed information about the environment condition and use. The integrated use of remote sensing with other established technologies or tools, such as GIS, provides a complementary capability for cost-effective means of assessing characteristics over landscape-scale areas and also periodically updating basic data. The combined use of remote sensing with other methods has proved increasingly valuable for the analysis and interpretation of the remotely sensed data acquired from airborne, space-borne or ground remote sensing sensors.

This book covers the latest developments in remote sensing theory and applications by numerous researchers, experts and collaborators of the Remote Sensing and Geo-Environment Lab of the Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics of the Cyprus University of Technology. All the Chapter contributions are selected outcomes from funded research projects from the Remote Sensing and Geo-Environment Lab. Seven chapters have been selected with the objective of exploring the beneficial use of remote sensing for environmental monitoring applications. The main highlight of this book is the integration of several techniques such as satellite remote sensing, field spectroscopy, smart sensors, ground techniques for achieving an integrated method for the systematic monitoring of the environment.

Chapter 1 contains detailed contents of how Earth observation data along with ground meteorological data are used for the study of the urban heat island (UHI) phenomenon in Cyprus.

Chapter 2 discusses the implementation of the most widely used models for estimating evapotranspiration and irrigation demand using satellite imagery.

Chapter 3 presents a brief overview of the evolution of remote sensing in archaeological research as well as several applications of applied remote sensing techniques through different case studies in Cyprus and Greece. In this chapter, several techniques of remote sensing have been presented including earth observation from satellite, airborne low altitude systems, archived aerial imagery, geophysical surveys, 3D terrestrial laser scanners, field spectroscopy and GIS analysis.

#### XII Preface

Chapter 4 shows how the integrated use of satellite remote sensing and GIS technology can contribute substantially to the sustainable management of a watershed basin. Interpretation of multi-spectral satellite sensor data were able to examine the development of updated land use and land cover maps and record of the urban sprawl phenomenon in a catchment area.

Chapter 5 describes how remote sensing has been used to monitor water quality in inland waters such as dams in Cyprus using spectro-radiometric measurements, smart-platforms and satellite imagery. The use of an innovative, energy-autonomous floating sensor platform (buoy) is introduced for the wireless monitoring of turbidity data. The use of field spectroscopy for defining the appropriate spectral region in which water quality parameters are retrieved prior to the use of satellite imagery has been introduced.

Chapter 6 shows how remote sensing techniques are able to detect areas of the pipelines with water leakages. Indeed, ground spectro-radiometric data along with the low altitude system provided a useful tool for the detection of water leakages.

Chapter 7 contains detailed contents of how Earth observation, sun-photometric, Lidar techniques and particulate matter measurements are integrated to monitor air pollution. Finally, this chapter highlights of how model simulation is used to retrieve aerosol optical thickness values.

I would like to express my sincere thanks, gratitude and appreciation to my team members at the Remote Sensing and Geo-Environment Lab as well to my collaborators who have contributed to this book. Without their strong commitment, this book would not have been possible. I am also thankful to InTech editorial team who has provided the opportunity to publish this book.

> **Diofantos G. Hadjimitsis**  Chair of the Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics Head of the Remote Sensing and Geo-Environment Research Lab Faculty of Engineering and Technology Cyprus University of Technology Cyprus

X Preface

been introduced.

aerosol optical thickness values.

the opportunity to publish this book.

sprawl phenomenon in a catchment area.

Chapter 4 shows how the integrated use of satellite remote sensing and GIS technology can contribute substantially to the sustainable management of a watershed basin. Interpretation of multi-spectral satellite sensor data were able to examine the development of updated land use and land cover maps and record of the urban

Chapter 5 describes how remote sensing has been used to monitor water quality in inland waters such as dams in Cyprus using spectro-radiometric measurements, smart-platforms and satellite imagery. The use of an innovative, energy-autonomous floating sensor platform (buoy) is introduced for the wireless monitoring of turbidity data. The use of field spectroscopy for defining the appropriate spectral region in which water quality parameters are retrieved prior to the use of satellite imagery has

Chapter 6 shows how remote sensing techniques are able to detect areas of the pipelines with water leakages. Indeed, ground spectro-radiometric data along with the

Chapter 7 contains detailed contents of how Earth observation, sun-photometric, Lidar techniques and particulate matter measurements are integrated to monitor air pollution. Finally, this chapter highlights of how model simulation is used to retrieve

I would like to express my sincere thanks, gratitude and appreciation to my team members at the Remote Sensing and Geo-Environment Lab as well to my collaborators who have contributed to this book. Without their strong commitment, this book would not have been possible. I am also thankful to InTech editorial team who has provided

**Diofantos G. Hadjimitsis**

Cyprus

Faculty of Engineering and Technology Cyprus University of Technology

Chair of the Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics Head of the Remote Sensing and Geo-Environment Research Lab

low altitude system provided a useful tool for the detection of water leakages.

**Chapter 1**

**Satellite and Ground Measurements**

Diofantos G. Hadjimitsis, Adrianos Retalis,

Dimitrios Paronis, Kyriacos Themistocleous and

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Silas Michaelides, Filippos Tymvios,

Athos Agapiou

**1. Introduction**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/39313

**for Studying the Urban Heat Island Effect in Cyprus**

An urban heat island (UHI) is a phenomenon whereby an urban area experiences elevated air temperatures due to anthropogenic modification of the environment and is usually more evident at night. During heat waves the local effect of an UHI is superimposed on the re‐ gional temperature field and as a result heat stress is enhanced. Both the intensity and the spatial structure of the observed thermal contrast of the UHI depend on various parameters, such as the structure of the urban tissue, the population density and its associated heat re‐ lease, the land use patterns, the vegetation cover, the surface topography and relief etc. In general terms, the UHI is becoming more intense as city sizes increase. Traditional measure‐ ments of the near-surface UHI are based on measurements of the air temperature using ur‐ ban and rural weather stations or air temperature transects. Thermal satellite sensors, which primarily measure the radiance at the top of the atmosphere in the thermal infrared, retrieve the so called land surface temperature (LST) which is the temperature measured at the Earth's surface and is regarded as its skin temperature. Given that LST is different from the surface air temperature, a distinction is made in remote sensing studies between surface ur‐

Several studies published in the literature have focused on the use of remotely sensed data for studying the urban heat island effect (Dousset & Gourmelon, 2003; Kato & Yamaguchi, 2005; Lo & Quattrochi, 2003; Streutker, 2002; Tran et al., 2006; Xiao et al., 2007; Yuanbo et al., 2007). Other relevant studies are focusing on the validation of satellite LST retrievals with

> © 2013 Hadjimitsis et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Hadjimitsis et al.; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

ban heat island (SUHI) and atmospheric heat island (e.g., Nichol, 1996).


**2. Safety of nuclear reactor and breeding**

Passive safety features are preferred for advanced reactor design, such as Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor (ESBWR) [2], Advanced Passive 1000 (AP1000) [2], and European Pressurized water Reactor (EPR) [3], to enhance safety and reliability and to reduce human intervention. In Fukushima Daiichi accident on March 11, 2011, passive safety features were desired especially for isolation condenser (IC) systems in unit 1 [4].

In addition, high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) attracts attention after the accident due to the inherent safety features for all safety functions of "shutdown," "cooling," and "containment" [5]. As a result, the development of HTGR was recommended in "strategic energy plan," which is formulated by the government of Japan on April 11, 2014 [6].

The fundamental safety features are composed of the three functions of control of reactivity (shutdown), removal of heat from the reactor (cooling), and confinement of radioactive material (containment). In the Fukushima Daiichi accident, the first function "shutdown" was successfully performed. However, the second function "cooling" failed even with the IC systems, which have enough heat removal function for 8 hours per IC system. For the IC systems, passive safety features were desired as described in the previous section. As a result, the final function of "containment" was lost as well.

The first feature of "shutdown" was performed as the automatic scram by detecting the earthquake. For light water reactor (LWR), if the scram would be failed, the reactor power settles down to zero power by moderator reactivity feedback due to the reduced density of the moderator and the Doppler effect due to the increased fuel temperature when heat removal from core is lost.

That is equivalent to inherent safety feature due to self-regulation of power of LWR for normal operation condition. The negative reactivity feedback is caused by expansion of moderator. The moderator temperature coefficient, void coefficient for boiling water reactor (BWR), is designed to be negative as it depends only on the degree of moderation and not on the core size. In other words, the LWR core is designed to be under-moderated [7] such that the neutron moderation is not sufficient to obtain a maximum multiplication factor. At the same time, the multiplication factor is reduced by a moderator density reduction.

For HTGR, the graphite structure is also employed as moderator. The volume ratio of fuel to the moderator, which is an indicator for degree of moderation, is determined by the integrity of core structure and a state of the art of fuel fabrication. Generally, for almost all nuclear reactors, as fuel assembly has more number of fuel pins, the fuel temperature can be reduced to lower because the power-sharing decreases per fuel pin. For HTGR with pin-in-block type fuel, the fuel pins are allocated into the coolant hole in graphite fuel block. The number of fuel pins is restricted by the requirement for the fuel block strength against thermal stress. The fuel pins are composed of coated fuel particles (CFPs). The maximum volume fraction is determined by a state of the art of fuel fabrication to restrict initial failure fraction of the CFPs. To obtain high burnup for long life cycle, the volume fraction prefers the maximum value. Moreover, the moderating power and the absorption cross section of graphite are lower than those of light water. The optimized design for criticality is not preferable from the viewpoint of the long life cycle with considering burnup. According to the result, HTGR's design condition is in the undermoderated region when the core design is reasonable and realistic from the viewpoint of the heat removal, the integrity of structure, and the long life cycle. Moreover, the solid moderator of graphite is never voided. To realize a negative power reactivity coefficient, there are two factors, the Doppler effect of fuel temperature and reactivity feedback of moderator temperature due to neutron spectrum shift of Maxwellian distribution peak [8]. As a result, thermal reactor including LWR and HTGR has the inherent safety feature due to self-regulation of power.

discussed in Section 2. Sustainability of uranium resources and that with plutonium thermal use is discussed in Section 3. Economics of electricity generation with conventional uranium, sweater uranium, and plutonium multi-recycling by FBR is discussed in Section 4. Energy

Passive safety features are preferred for advanced reactor design, such as Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor (ESBWR) [2], Advanced Passive 1000 (AP1000) [2], and European Pressurized water Reactor (EPR) [3], to enhance safety and reliability and to reduce human intervention. In Fukushima Daiichi accident on March 11, 2011, passive safety features were

In addition, high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) attracts attention after the accident due to the inherent safety features for all safety functions of "shutdown," "cooling," and "containment" [5]. As a result, the development of HTGR was recommended in "strategic

The fundamental safety features are composed of the three functions of control of reactivity (shutdown), removal of heat from the reactor (cooling), and confinement of radioactive material (containment). In the Fukushima Daiichi accident, the first function "shutdown" was successfully performed. However, the second function "cooling" failed even with the IC systems, which have enough heat removal function for 8 hours per IC system. For the IC systems, passive safety features were desired as described in the previous section. As a result, the final

The first feature of "shutdown" was performed as the automatic scram by detecting the earthquake. For light water reactor (LWR), if the scram would be failed, the reactor power settles down to zero power by moderator reactivity feedback due to the reduced density of the moderator and the Doppler effect due to the increased fuel temperature when heat removal from core is lost.

That is equivalent to inherent safety feature due to self-regulation of power of LWR for normal operation condition. The negative reactivity feedback is caused by expansion of moderator. The moderator temperature coefficient, void coefficient for boiling water reactor (BWR), is designed to be negative as it depends only on the degree of moderation and not on the core size. In other words, the LWR core is designed to be under-moderated [7] such that the neutron moderation is not sufficient to obtain a maximum multiplication factor. At the same time,

For HTGR, the graphite structure is also employed as moderator. The volume ratio of fuel to the moderator, which is an indicator for degree of moderation, is determined by the integrity of core structure and a state of the art of fuel fabrication. Generally, for almost all nuclear reactors, as fuel assembly has more number of fuel pins, the fuel temperature can be reduced to lower because the power-sharing decreases per fuel pin. For HTGR with pin-in-block type fuel, the fuel pins are allocated into the coolant hole in graphite fuel block. The number of fuel pins is

the multiplication factor is reduced by a moderator density reduction.

energy plan," which is formulated by the government of Japan on April 11, 2014 [6].

security for uranium and plutonium utilization is discussed in Section 5.

desired especially for isolation condenser (IC) systems in unit 1 [4].

**2. Safety of nuclear reactor and breeding**

22 Uranium - Safety, Resources, Separation and Thermodynamic Calculation

function of "containment" was lost as well.

On the contrary, many FBR designs allow a positive void reactivity coefficient because of the increase of threshold fission reaction of fertile material with high neutron energy over 1 MeV due to the hard spectrum. **Figure 1** shows the fission and capture cross sections and the ratio of fission cross section to absorption cross section. The ratio stands for the fission probability per neutron absorption reaction. The fission probability also rapidly increases over 1 MeV, and the probability is around unity. Then, when the coolant of sodium is voided, the neutron over 1 MeV increased, and positive reactivity is inserted.

Due to the positive void reactivity coefficient, the coolant is boiled, and the power burst, which melts the fuel pins, occurs upon unprotected loss of coolant flow (ULOF) accident [9]. To prevent the power burst, Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) [10] is designed with a large safety margin for heat removal to avoid coolant boiling instead of inherent safety features of neutronic characteristics for self-regulation due to negative coolant void coefficient. The concept

**Figure 1.** Cross section of 238U and fission probability per neutron absorption.

of the inherent safety feature of IFR was demonstrated using an IFR prototype, Experimental Breeder Reactor No. 2 (EBR-2) [11]. Although IFR allows a positive void coefficient, it was demonstrated that, upon ULOF accident, a reactor operating at full power can be safely shut down using a negative reactivity feedback due to Doppler effect without the need of the scram, other safety systems, or operator actions.

However, the commercial FBRs, such as European fast reactor (EFR) [12], which is one of representative FBRs of Generation IV, have high economy and high breeding ability and cannot have the passive safety feature by the enhanced heat removal function because of its minimal safety margin to obtain high core performance. The safety is guaranteed with a reliable shutdown system in the event of coolant flow loss.

To obtain negative or small positive void coefficient, FBR with large core should be designed with pancake-type core to increase neutron leakage for axial direction when the coolant is voided [13]. However, sodium-cooled FBR cannot obtain the negative void coefficient only with the pancaketype core. Then, the concept of "sodium plenum" [14] was proposed to increase the axial neutron leakage. In this concept, upper axial blanket and upper side of fuel are removed to enhance the neutron leakage when the coolant is voided. Naturally, breeding ability will weaken.

Thus, safety and economy, or breeding ability, are related to the transactions for fast reactors (FRs) including FBR. If core performance is prioritized, the passive safety feature for "shutdown" will be abandoned.

the relation between the market price and the mine exploration and development expenditure [15, 16]. The investment for the exploration and development follows the market price. This

Safety and Economics of Uranium Utilization for Nuclear Power Generation

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72647

25

The amount of total undiscovered resources in 2013 is approximately 7.7 million tU (7,697,800 tU), which is a marginal decrease from approximately 10 million tU (10,429,100 tU) reported in 2011 [15]. The reason why the resources decrease is that the USA did not report the amount in 2013. Then, I regard the amount of undiscovered resources as the value of 10,429,100 tU reported in 2011. This amount corresponds to approximately 170 years (168.3 years) of the duration period. For the estimation of the amount of conventional uranium resources including the identified and undiscovered resources, the highest cost category, i.e., < 260 \$/kgU, is used. Furthermore, there are other resources called unconventional resources recovered not from uranium mines as uranium ore. The unconventional resources are recovered as minor by-products such as uranium from phosphate rocks, nonferrous ores, carbonatite, black shale, and lignite. The recovery cost from these products is higher because of the low uranium concentration. In the future, these resources would become a viable source when market price of uranium exceeds 260 \$/kgU [15]. The amount of these sources is 7.3–8.4 million tU [15], which corresponds to a duration period of approximately 130 years (117.8–135.5 years). The resources described above can maintain the energy sustainability for the present. However, more resources are

Uranium from seawater, which is also categorized to unconventional resources, amounted to 4.5 billion tU [17] corresponding to a duration period of approximately 72,000 years (72,604 years). The uranium is dissolved in the seawater at a low concentration of 3.3 parts per billion (ppb) [17]. Moreover, the amount of uranium at the surface of the seafloor is approximately a thousand times more than the uranium dissolved in seawater, which is approximately 4.5 trillion tU [18]. The uranium solved in seawater is in an equilibrium state with the uranium contained in

trend is common for other resources, e.g., petroleum and coal.

**Figure 2.** Market price of uranium and mine exploration and development expenditure.

needed to achieve the permanent energy sustainability.


**1. Introduction**

Birth is the first transition in every human life. Birth is, first of all, a biological process. The baby develops throughout pregnancy in a female body. During birth the baby is transitioning into an organism out in the world. However, birth is not just a biological act. It is surrounded by many social and cultural meanings as well. Giving a name to the baby, for instance, is the social acknowledgement of that new living "thing" as a person. Though we cannot remember our own birth, those who were present at our birth can share their memories and stories about our beginning. Birth is a socio-cultural life-passage, which means that by the coming of a new child, not only the baby transitions into a new state, but also the mother, father, brothers, sisters, grandparents, uncles, aunts, and so on, transition into a new social role.

The coming of a new human being is related to expectations and meanings from society. While it is a unique individual who comes into to the world, the newcomer is also a new member of society. Similar to other life passages (such as adulthood, marriage or death), considering birth as a social transition means that the pre-status or social order is temporally in a state of *liminality* (Turner 1969; Van Gennep 1960). The social order is in a state of temporal anti-structure or chaos. Parents-to-be are preparing mentally, materially or even spiritually for the coming of their child and the transition into

becoming parents. Family members and friends are searching for their new roles in the life of this new human being. Experiencing the birth of a baby can be related to feelings of happiness and joy, as well as ambiguity and uncertainty. The coming of a new member of society has been traditionally marked by rituals. Birth is therefore understood as the first rite of passage in a human life (Van Gennep 1960).

A literature review of previous research has shown that pregnancy and birth reveal many existential questions and notions of spirituality (Prinds et al. 2014). Recently, research has increasingly been focusing on spirituality at the start of life (Crowther and Hall 2018; Crowther et al. 2014a, 2020; Wojtkowiak and Crowther 2018; Prinds et al. 2016). In line with Davis-Floyd (1992), many authors have been contributing to the understanding that pregnancy and birth are highly ritualized in Western, secular contexts (e.g., giving a name to the baby, keeping the sonogram as a memorial object, sending a birth card) (Burns 2014, 2015; Cheyney 2011; van Gysgem 2017; Freedman 2011; Prates et al. 2018; Reed et al. 2016). Interestingly, there is, however, not one collectively shared ritual or ceremony that acknowledges the transition into new life in Western secular societies. At the other end of life's spectrum, death, a funeral is held for everyone who dies, whether one is religious or not.  At birth, we do not see the same ritual significance in Western society. We do observe, however, the emergence of new, alternative ceremonies at the start of life, such as a "blessingway ceremony" or "mother's blessing"1 (Burns 2015) and humanist or secular naming ceremonies for babies (Gordon-Lennox 2017; Wojtkowiak et al. 2018). In this article, I will study meaning making and spiritualty at the start of life from a ritual perspective. I will study notions of spirituality at the start of life and explore new ritual fields, such as these emerging ceremonies.

The research question is: what can we learn from ritualizing pregnancy and birth about notions of spirituality at the start of life in contemporary Western, secular contexts? The focus is explicitly on secular or semi-secular contexts, and not on religious rituals (such as baptism) in order to reveal new cultural tendencies and strategies of meaning making. The method to answer the research question is an explorative, theoretical review of existing literature on spirituality, birth and ritual. The literature comes mainly from philosophy, sociology and ritual and religious studies. Two examples of new ceremonies will be described in order to illustrate how rituals reveal strategies of meaning at the start of life. The first example, the mother's blessing (Burns 2015), is a re-invented social ritual for pregnancy. The second example, humanist naming ceremonies for newborns, ritualizes the birth of a baby. Both rituals are re-invented from traditional ritual and have been re-discovered in secular societies.

In order to answer the main question, first, I will start by discussing some philosophical perspectives on pregnancy and birth and focus on the concept of natality and embodiment. Both are meaningful at the start of life and shed new light on understanding existential and spiritual questioning at the start of life. Second, I will describe the changing ritual and social contexts of birth in Western, secular societies. Then, I will unravel the term "spirituality" in relation to birth. Fourth, I will describe two examples of emerging rituals: the mother's blessing and humanist naming ceremonies. Finally, the article will end with discussing the insights from this analysis on ritualizing pregnancy and birth and notions spirituality at the start of life.


*Article* **The Effects of Agricultural Conservation Practices on the Small Water Cycle: From the Farm- to the Management-Scale**

**Nina Noreika \*, Tailin Li, Julie Winterova, Josef Krasa and Tomas Dostal**

Department of Landscape Water Conservation, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, 12000 Prague, Czech Republic<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(T.L<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(J.W<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(J.K<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(T.D.)

**\*** Correspondence<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
**Abstract:** Reinforcing the small water cycle is considered to be a holistic approach to both water resource and landscape management. In an agricultural landscape, this can be accomplished by incorporating agricultural conservation practices; their incorporation can reduce surface runoff, increase infiltration, and increase the water holding capacity of a soil. Some typical agricultural conservation practices include: conservation tillage, contour farming, residue incorporation, and reducing field sizes; these efforts aim to keep both water and soil in the landscape. The incorporation of such practices has been extensively studied over the last 40 years. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to model two basins in the Czech Republic (one at the farm-scale and a second at the management-scale) to determine the effects of agriculture conservation practice adoption at each scale. We found that at the farm-scale, contour farming was the most effective practice at reinforcing the small water cycle, followed by residue incorporation. At the management-scale, we found that the widespread incorporation of agricultural conservation practices significantly reinforced the small water cycle, but the relative scale and spatial distribution of their incorporation were not reflected in the SWAT scenario analysis. Individual farmers should be incentivized to adopt agricultural conservation practices, as these practices can have great effects at the farm-scale. At the management-scale, the spatial distribution of agricultural conservation practice adoption was not significant in this study, implying that managers should incentivize any adoption of such practices and that the small water cycle would be reinforced regardless.

**Keywords:** small water cycle; agricultural conservation practices; BMPs; SWAT

#### **1. Introduction**

The small water cycle is the local cycling of water, wherein water should fall as rain in the same geographic area from which it evapo(transpi)rates. The small water cycle also greatly emphasizes a reduction in surface runoff generation in a landscape, and the cycle's reinforcement is considered to be a holistic approach to managing water resources at the catchment scale [1–3]. In an agricultural landscape, certain conservation techniques can greatly improve the water holding capacity of a soil and can, in turn, strongly reinforce the small water cycle, making an agricultural landscape more resilient in the face of climate change.

Agricultural conservation practices have been extensively studied over the last 40 years and have been shown to significantly improve a soil's infiltration capacity and, consequently, significantly decrease the surface runoff in a landscape [4–8]. The most common agricultural conservation practices in modern literature include reduced/no-tillage, mulch cover/crop residues and cover crops, and reduced application of herbicides. The goal of conservation agriculture is to make soils "self-sustainable" by: maintaining sources of organic matter above and below the soil's surface, recycling water and nutrients within the system, and ensuring that the infiltration rate of a soil is greater than the predicted rainfall

**Citation:** Noreika, N.; Li, T.; Winterova, J.; Krasa, J.; Dostal, T. The Effects of Agricultural Conservation Practices on the Small Water Cycle: From the Farm- to the Management-Scale. *Land* **2022**, *11*, 683. https:// doi.org/10.3390/land11050683

Academic Editors: Chiara Piccini and Rosa Francaviglia

Received: 23 March 2022 Accepted: 30 April 2022 Published: 4 May 2022

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

rate [9]. To maximize the benefits of implementing agricultural conservation practices, managers must maintain year-round organic matter cover, minimize soil disturbance, and diversify crop rotations [9–11]. The transition from conventional or reduced tillage to no-tillage has been shown to reduce surface runoff by upwards of 20% at the plot-scale [12]. A no-tillage management scheme can increase the infiltration capacity of a soil in two ways: by minimizing soil disruption and by preserving the highest percentage of crop residue cover. No-tillage has also been shown to reduce soil loss, splash erosion, and surface runoff, while increasing direct infiltration [10,13,14]. Maintaining adequate plant cover year-round provides numerous benefits, including improving soil quality, controlling soil erosion, and increasing soil water availability [15]. Plant cover percentage has a significant, negative relationship with final runoff rate, indicating that the greater the plant cover percentage, the lower the expected hourly runoff [16]. While cover crops and crop residues provide year-round soil coverage, they also provide an even-coverage mulching, which has been found to be a more successful mulching strategy in real-life scenarios when compared to artificial mulching with wheat straw, grass clippings, wood chips, etc., [13].

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that in the face of future climate change, Central Europe will encounter more frequent, intensive storm events, which will magnify landscape management issues in the Czech Republic [17]. The Czech Republic is a highly agricultural country, with nearly 40% of its land area being arable. Agricultural intensification in the Czech Republic began in the 1970s when the landscape was publicly managed. Large fields, subsurface tile drainage systems, and artificially lined and straightened streams were incorporated across the landscape in an effort to increase crop production [18]. Unfortunately, these practices resulted in increased soil loss and reduced deep percolation and groundwater recharge.  By working to reinforce the small water cycle through the incorporation of agricultural conservation practices, the effects of extreme precipitation events (e.g., huge spikes in surface runoff ratios as well as extreme soil loss events) may be mitigated at the basin-scale, which should incentivize their incorporation to land managers and farmers [17].

The two basins of interest have been monitored for a number of years. The farm-scale basin (Nuˇcice) is equipped to monitor localized basin processes, and previous studies have primarily focused on rainfall–runoff mechanisms and temporarily variable soil properties [19–23]. Sediment transport and erosion have been extensively studied in Vrchlice (the basin utilized for management-scale analysis), especially regarding the sediment trap efficiencies of the nearly 140 reservoirs across the basin [24–27]. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) has been previously utilized at both basins to assess the effects of land use changes on in-basin water balance [26,27], but since the Czech Republic is likely to remain quite agricultural for the foreseeable future, it is of great interest to assess the impacts of agricultural conservation practice incorporation at each of these scales. While sometimes data intensive, hydrologic models are a relatively easy and non-invasive way to run scenario analyses in a landscape. SWAT is a semi-distributed, semi-physically based, basin-scale hydrologic model. SWAT divides a basin into smaller elements called hydrologic response units (HRUs) that are each comprised of the same soil type, slope class, and land use classification [28–31]. SWAT was selected for this study because of its flexibility and applicability to agricultural catchments. SWAT makes running scenario analyses simple, and there is significant precedent for its incorporation of agricultural conservation practices [32,33].

The purpose of this study is to investigate the following questions: (i) do the incorporation of agricultural conservation practices impact the small water cycle proportionally at various scales? (ii) Which practice is most effective at reinforcing the small water cycle at the farm-scale? (iii) Does the spatial distribution of agricultural conservation practices

affect their impacts on the small water cycle at the management scale? (iv) What do these results imply regarding catchment management and incentivizing farmers to adopt these practices?

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

#### *2.1. Study Watersheds*

Both study watersheds are located in the Central Bohemia region of the Czech Republic (Figure 1). This region is characterized by a humid continental climate and receives approximately 600 mm of precipitation per year. The rainy season in this region occurs from May through August, and the driest month is usually February. These two basins were selected for this study because they are typical of an intensively agricultural Czech landscape. Nuˇcice is a simply-shaped catchment and represents the farm-scale, containing three large fields, each with very similar crop rotations and management. Vrchlice represents the management-scale. It is much larger (~100 km2), with a more diverse landscape, and its water resources are managed to meet municipal needs. It is valuable to land owners as well as basin managers to determine the effects of agricultural conservation practice adoption at each scale.

**Figure 1.** (**a**) A map of the Czech Republic. Prague is highlighted for reference as well as the outlet locations of the two study watersheds, Nuˇcice (**b**) and Vrchlice (**c**).

The Nuˇcice experimental catchment ("Nuˇcice") has been monitored since 2011 by the Landscape Water Conservation Department (in the faculty of Civil Engineering) of Czech Technical University in Prague. It is a small watershed (~0.52 km2) consisting of three fields that are managed by two farmers and is appropriate for modeling at the "farm-scale" in the Czech Republic. Its outlet is located at 49◦57 49.230 N, 14◦52 13.242" E (Figure 1b). The soils in Nuˇcice are classified mainly as Luvisols and Cambisols overlaying siltstone and sandstone. The average slope in Nuˇcice is 3.9% but ranges from 1 to 12%. Nuˇcice is primarily cropland, with a very narrow riparian/brush zone around the stream; the basin is bisected horizontally by a 2-lane road (Table 1).

**Table 1.** Land use percent cover over the experimental basins.

The Vrchlice Basin ("Vrchlice") is much larger than Nuˇcice, at ~97 km2 (Figure 1c). Vrchlice also has a more diverse land use, with large areas of forested land as well as many townships (Table 1), but it is still primarily cropland. The Vrchlice Reservoir provides drinking water to the nearby town of Kutná Hora, serving approximately 40,000 inhabitants. Its outlet is located at 49◦55 37.211" N, 15◦13 37.07" E. The basin is covered in clayey soils classified as Cambisols overlaying a metamorphic bedrock [24]. Vrchlice contains a network of nearly 140 reservoirs, mostly small fish ponds, that serve cultural and hydrologic significance. The discharge at the outlet of the Vrchlice Reservoir has been monitored by the Elbe River Authority since 1979. The Vrchlice Basin is considered to be an appropriate size for modeling at the "management-scale" in the Czech Republic.

#### *2.2. Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)*

SWAT requires the following as its bare minimum regarding data requirements: soils, slopes, land uses, and daily weather data. The input data used for each of the models present in this study are outlined in Table 2.

**Table 2.** Input variables and their sources used for Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) modeling.

The daily meteorological data for the Nuˇcice SWAT model was obtained from on-site gauges (Table 2). The climate data for this model was obtained from the Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR) database; these data are used in case there are any gaps in the observed weather dataset. The digital elevation model (DEM) was obtained from the fifth generation of the digital relief model of the Czech Republic (DMR5G) and was point-cloud processed to obtain a 3 m spatial resolution. The SWAT model for Nuˇcice was developed using the field boundary method [34]. In the field boundary method scheme, each field is defined as its own HRU by aggregating the primary soil type and elevation class for each field. This method was selected in order to incorporate reduced field sizes at the farm-scale and was accomplished through the use of soil dummy variables. The SWAT model for Nuˇcice was run during the growing seasons (~April through October) from 2014 through 2019, using 2013 as a warmup period. Calibration and validation procedures followed those outlined in Noreika et al. 2020 [26].

The Vrchlice SWAT model was developed originally for Noreika et al. 2021 to study the effects of land use and management changes over time in the basin [27]. The model itself has not been edited further. This model was run at the monthly timestep from 2001 through 2019 with a 5-year warmup period (1996–2000). The monthly timestep was chosen to minimize daily effects due to reservoir processes that are not publicly available and therefore unable to be represented in SWAT. The model was calibrated (2001–2012) and validated (2013–2016) at the monthly timestep with discharge data from the basin's outlet. The basin boundaries and stream network were largely DEM-based, but ground-truthed to existing data. Vrchlice was divided into 63 sub-basins, containing 1058 HRUs that were defined by their unique combinations of land use, slope class, and soil type. For further detail, parameterization, and intricacies of the model setup, please refer to Noreika et al. 2021 [27].

#### *2.3. Scenario Analysis*

#### 2.3.1. Literature Review

Contour farming results in a reduction of surface runoff by impounding water in small depressions, as well as a reduction of sheet and rill erosion by reducing the erosive power of surface runoff and preventing or minimizing the development of rills. This practice is represented by adjusting the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) curve number in SWAT. Residues are meant to slow down surface and peak runoff by increasing surface roughness. They also increase infiltration and reduce surface runoff by decreasing surface sealing and slowing down overland flow. Finally, residues reduce sheet and rill erosion by reducing surface flow volume. In SWAT, there is significant literature precedent to incorporate these practices; conservation tillage and residue management are typically represented by adjusting the curve number and Manning's roughness coefficient for overland flow, respectively. In order to incorporate these practices appropriately, a literature review was conducted using the following keywords: SWAT, best management practice, and conservation agriculture [35–67]. A total of 33 articles were downloaded and narrowed down to 25 based on relevance. The 25 remaining papers addressed the incorporation of conservation tillage operations, contour farming, and residue management into SWAT (Figure 2). Of the 25, 12 took place in the Midwest (of US and Canada), 1 in Texas, 6 in Europe, 1 in Africa, and 6 in Asia. Overwhelmingly, 17 of the 25 papers referenced Arabi et al. 2008 and Neitsch et al. 2011 publications [32,33], meaning that conservation practices were incorporated via the curve number (CN) method. Three publications introduced tillage operation changes and no CN edits (TO). Two introduced tillage operation changes along with the CN edits (CN + TO). Two modified the CN by a percent change, and two did not specify (NS) how the practices were incorporated into SWAT. We then conducted a scenario analysis at the Nuˇcice basin to determine whether it is necessary to incorporate both CN shifts and tillage operation changes. We found no significant differences between water balance variable outputs (discharge at the basin's outlet, subsurface lateral flow, surface runoff, evapotranspiration, and soil water content, *p* > 0.05) when only the CN method was utilized versus shifting both the CN and the tillage practices. We concluded that the CN method is appropriate to incorporate agricultural conservation practices and is also more efficient in the modeling process.

**Figure 2.** Literature review results of 25 articles outlining the incorporation of agricultural conservation practices into SWAT.

#### 2.3.2. Scenarios Outlined

Five scenarios were run at the farm-scale for this study (Table 3). These scenarios incorporate contour farming, small residues (0.5–1 t/ha), large residues (1–9 t/ha), conservative tillage, and field size reductions at Nuˇcice. To incorporate field size reductions, instead of three fields averaging 17 ha each, Nuˇcice was divided into 52 fields averaging 1 ha each through the use of dummy soil variables. The other scenarios were incorporated as presented in Table 4.

**Table 3.** Outline of scenarios implemented in the Nuˇcice and Vrchlice Basins.

\* denotes the original calibrated model for each

In Vrchlice, only the "General Measures" agricultural conservation scenario was adopted (Table 4) at various scales across the basin (Table 3, Figure 3). The "General Measures" outlined in Table 4 are considered to be "best case scenarios" to represent conditions if the practices were incorporated properly and if the landscape responds as expected, but it is likely that any real-world result would fall somewhere between the calibrated model without any conservation practices and the "General Measures" scenarios. Vrchlice was divided into three regions based on location in the basin and percent area cropland (Figure 3). Each area (Upper, Middle, Lower, Random) comprises approximately 1/3 of the cropland cover in the Vrchlice Basin. Additionally, the Upper Extended and Lower Extended scenarios encompass the Upper + Middle and Lower + Middle areas, respectively, to encompass approximately 2/3 of the cropland cover in the Vrchlice Basin. A requirement for the Random scenario is that no selected sub-basins should be adjacent. The Random scenario controls for the effects of connectivity of agricultural conservation practices to determine if individual farm adoption is "enough" or if regional adoption is necessary to more greatly reinforce the small water cycle. These scenarios were outlined so that the individual impacts of agricultural conservation practice continuity and spatial adoption within the basin could be evaluated.

**Table 4.** Agricultural conservation measures applied to the Nuˇcice Basin and how they are parameterized in SWAT. The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Curve Number (CN) and Manning's Roughness values represent a relative change from the respective calibrated model [32,33].

\* Conventional tillage is present because the Nuˇcice model was calibrated based on conservation tillage, and this is how the effects of conservation tillage will be compared to conventional tillage. † These general measures are applied to the Vrchlice scenarios at various levels of incorporation across the basin.

**Figure 3.** A map of the Vrchlice Basin, color coded to represent the various scenarios analyzed.

#### **3. Results**

According to the global sensitivity analysis that was conducted, three parameters significantly influenced the modeled discharge flowing out of the Nuˇcice experimental basin (Table 5). RCHRG\_DP is the deep aquifer percolation fraction; this value should fall between 0 and 1 as it is the fraction of percolation past the root zone which recharges the deep aquifer. Since this value is very close to 0, this indicates that a very small fraction of water entering the Nuˇcice Basin recharges the deep aquifer. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (SOL\_K)

and the available water capacity of the soil (SOL\_AWC) govern how water is infiltrated and retained in a soil, respectively, were also significantly sensitive parameters.

**Table 5.** Sensitive parameters and their calibrated (adjusted) values.

V: replace, A: absolute, and R: relative.

Calibration (2016–2018) and validation (2019) for the Nuˇcice basin were conducted with SWAT-Cup 2019, which is a semiautomatic calibration methodology [28]. Table 6 presents the selected model performance indicators during the calibration and validation periods for the Nuˇcice SWAT model. Figure 4 presents a scatterplot, correlating the modeled discharge values with the observed discharge values at Nuˇcice during the calibration and validation periods.

**Table 6.** Model performance indicators for the calibration and validation periods of the Nuˇcice SWAT model.

**Figure 4.** Correlation of modeled and observed discharge values at Nuˇcice's outlet during the calibration and validation periods; a 1:1 line is included for reference.

There were significant shifts across water balance parameters with the incorporation of agricultural conservation practices at the Nuˇcice scale (Figure 5). The incorporation of residues and contour farming reinforced all of the small water balance parameters when compared to the calibrated scenario, which included generalized conservation tillage. Resorting to conventional tillage from conservation tillage was consistently contradictory to the goal of reinforcing the small water cycle. Field size reductions resulted in the highest amount of streamflow contribution from subsurface lateral flow, but the model indicated that otherwise the adoption of smaller fields does not reinforce the small water cycle.

**Figure 5.** A ranking of each scenario (in the Nuˇcice basin) according to its reinforcement of specific small water cycle parameters. All values are significantly different from the calibrated scenario (parameters in red, bold) unless indicated by \*. † indicates a significant difference between Res1 and Res2.

All small water cycle parameters, except for discharge at Vrchlice's outlet, were significantly affected by the incorporation of agricultural conservation practices across the basin. Interestingly enough, neither the scale of adoption nor the spatial distribution of agricultural conservation practices significantly affected any small water cycle parameters at this scale; further figures presented compare only Vrchlice's conventional tillage (calibrated model) and the full adoption scenario. Both the available water content and evapotranspiration in the conventional tillage scenario are consistently lower than the full conservation adoption across the entire year (Figures 6 and 7). Both the surface runoff ratios and subsurface lateral flow were significantly higher throughout the year in the conventional tillage scenario when compared to the General Measures full adoption scenario (Figures 8 and 9). Generally surface runoff in the conventional tillage scenario is greater than 2× that of the conservation scenario (Figure 9).

**Figure 6.** Average monthly evapotranspiration rates (mm) across the modeled time period in Vrchlice.

**Figure 7.** Average soil water content (mm) by month across the modeled time period in Vrchlice.

**Figure 8.** Average monthly percentage subsurface lateral flow contribution to streamflow across the modeling period in Vrchlice.

**Figure 9.** Surface runoff ratios between full agricultural conservation practice adoption and the default conventional tillage scenario. The histogram bars represent the cumulative probability that a value falls at or below the respective ratio.

#### **4. Discussion**

#### *4.1. Hydrological Modeling with SWAT*

There are several possible sources of error in any hydrologic model; the first is input parameter uncertainty, which is the largest possible source of error and also influences uncertainties associated with output data. Model parameterization and model structural uncertainties are additional possible sources of error [62,68]. Furthermore, since SWAT is neither fully physically based nor fully distributed, some processes may not be properly represented, such as temporal changes in topsoil hydraulic properties, preferential flow, or the influences of the spatial distribution of fine-scale land management [28,69,70]. While there are some drawbacks to the SWAT model (as stated above), it is a very useful tool for hydrologic modeling, especially regarding scenario analysis. Currently, Nuˇcice is equipped to model generalized processes rather than more spatially distributed processes (piezometer clusters and a cosmic-ray neutron sensor are currently being installed). The soil data at this scale is fairly coarse and is nearing the lower spatial range of SWAT's modeling capabilities, but SWAT was still able to model Nuˇcice effectively with "good" or "very good" performance across the selected indicators [71–73]. The uncertainties associated with the Vrchlice model primarily include generalized reservoir processes and crop rotations [27]. Vrchlice was able to be effectively modeled at the monthly timescale, also with "good" and "very good" performance indicators [71–73]. While SWAT was able to model significant shifts in water balance parameters with the incorporation of agricultural conservation practices in Vrchlice, it was unable to represent significant differences at varying scales and distributions of incorporation across Vrchlice. This could be due to the fact that Vrchlice, while primarily cropland, contains significant areas of forested areas and riparian zones, which may disguise the effects of agricultural conservation adoption. Additionally, since Vrchlice is of significant size and SWAT is not fully distributed, the effects of the scale of

agricultural conservation practice adoption may be aggregated across the basin, leading to insignificant changes across the agricultural conservation practice adoption scenarios.

#### *4.2. The Small Water Cycle at the Farm-Scale*

At the farm-scale, SWAT was able to model significant differences in water balance parameters across agricultural conservation practice scenarios. According to SWAT, residue incorporation and contour farming were the most effective at reinforcing the small water cycle and should be prioritized by farmers to aid the holistic management of their land in the face of future climate change [17]. Although it was not in the scope of this study to investigate the effects of crop changes in addition to the incorporation of agricultural conservation practices, the previous SWAT study of the Nuˇcice basin indicated that crop changes also have significant impacts on the small water cycle [26]. For instance, winter wheat reinforces the small water cycle to a greater degree than rapeseed in the Czech landscape. The incorporation of contour farming and crop residues may be able to mitigate water balance issues that arise from less-sustainable crop choices, and the interaction should be studied further.

SWAT was not able to effectively model the impacts of incorporating smaller field sizes at Nuˇcice. This may be due to several factors: SWAT is not fully distributed and cannot model the spatial effects influenced by smaller field incorporation, crop changes were not incorporated across the smaller fields, and SWAT does not model true border effects between fields. To replicate this in future studies, a trap efficiency would need to be applied to each HRU to simulate flow disruption between fields. The field boundary HRU method may be more useful to identify "hotspot" fields that may be susceptible to erosive events due to their slopes, crops, and soil types [28,30,34,69,70].

#### *4.3. The Small Water Cycle at the Management-Scale*

The adoption of agricultural conservation practices in at least 33% of the cropland across Vrchlice had significant effects on the small water cycle within the basin. Neither the distribution nor the scale of adoption (anything above 33%) significantly affected the small water cycle variables at Vrchlice any further. While Vrchlice is a very agricultural basin (>50% cropland), there are also very large forested and riparian areas that may mask the effects of various intensities of agricultural conservation practice adoption. It may also be due to SWAT's model structure, being semi-distributed and semi-physically based, that some effects at this scale may be lost due to HRU aggregation or generalizations due to using the curve number method [34,74,75]. While SWAT models significant impacts on the small water cycle due to the adoption of agricultural conservation practices, SWAT cannot represent realistic effects when additional spatial distribution and connectivity scenarios are introduced; a fully distributed model would be necessary for this purpose. However, SWAT was able to model general trends and could represent significant differences between conventional agricultural practices and full conservation adoption.

When compared to the effects of land use changes at Vrchlice [27], average soil water content and subsurface lateral flow shifts fell in similar ranges to that of agricultural conservation practice incorporation scenarios. However, the modeled adoption of agricultural conservation practices reduced the proportion of surface runoff at the management scale by up to 30×, which greatly outweighs the effects of the land use change scenarios previously modeled [27]. These findings indicate that, at the management-scale, the incorporation of agricultural conservation practices can have similar effects to land use changes on the small water cycle and can greatly reduce the overall proportion of surface runoff contribution to streamflow.

#### *4.4. Implications for Agricultural Conservation Practice Incorporation in the Czech Republic*

The incorporation of agricultural conservation practices tend to reinforce the small water cycle regardless of scale of incorporation. These effects are more obvious at the farm-scale than at the management-scale, which should motivate individual farmers to adopt such practices. At the management-scale, the effects of agricultural conservation practices were still significant but the scale and the spatial distribution of adoption were not. This implies that managers should incentivize any willing famers/conglomerates within their management area to adopt such practices. In addition to agricultural conservation practices, other land and crop management factors can also have significant effects on the small water cycle and their interactions should be studied further [26,27]. While soil erosion and sediment transport were not explored in this study, agricultural conservation practices have also been shown to have positive effects concerning these issues and can lead to increased soil conservation [14–16,76,77].

#### **5. Conclusions**

This study reinforces SWAT's applicability to the Czech landscape at both the farmand management-scales. SWAT is very effective in its ability to model various management, land use, and crop change scenarios. While likely exaggerated by the scale, agricultural conservation practice adoption at the farm-scale has significant effects on the small water cycle. The most effective practice modeled at this scale was the incorporation of contour farming. The effects of small field incorporation at the farm-scale tended to have significantly negative impacts on the small water cycle, but this result is likely an artifact due to the HRU processing in SWAT. At the management-scale in the Czech Republic, any degree of incorporation of agricultural conservation practices makes significant impacts on the small water cycle, according to the Vrchlice SWAT model. SWAT was able to model that the incorporation of agricultural conservation practices in a primarily agricultural landscape can have significant effects on the small water cycle, especially regarding surface runoff ratios. While SWAT is not fully distributed and real-world effects would likely vary, this study indicates that managers should encourage agricultural conservation practices, regardless of scale or spatial distribution. As this study only focuses on the effects of agricultural conservation practices on the small water cycle, further studies should be conducted to model their effects on erosion as well as the interactions between agricultural conservation practices and land use/management changes in the Czech landscape.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, N.N. and T.D.; methodology, N.N.; modeling, N.N.; writing—original draft preparation, N.N.; writing—review and editing, N.N., T.L., J.W., J.K., and T.D.; figures, N.N., T.L., and J.W.; supervision, T.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** The presented research has been performed within projects H2020 No. 773903 Shui, focused on water scarcity in European and Chinese cropping systems and the Grant Agency of Czech Technical University in Prague, No. SGS20/156/OHK1/3T/11.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


*2.3. RNA-Seq and Annotation of Unigenes*

To understand the molecular basis of flower polymorphism in *P. limprichtii*, three distinctly colored flower petals and lips were used for RNA-seq. A total of 80,525 unigenes with a mean length of 856 bp were obtained by de novo assembly. We assessed the quality of the unigenes in the transcriptome library. The length of N50 (sequence length of the shortest contig at 50%) was 1470 bp, the Q20 and Q30 percentages were 98% and 95%, the GC content was 40%, and the unigenes were generally distributed between 200 bp and 3000 bp in length. A total of 69,004,304 base pairs were aligned. These data show that the throughputs and sequencing quality were high enough to ensure further analysis.

According to the BLASTx results, a total of 33,724 unigenes were annotated, accounting for 41.88% of all the unigenes. Among these, 33,459 could be annotated using the Nr database (Non-redundant protein database, 41.55%), 21,177 using the Swiss-prot database (Swiss-Protein protein database, 26.30%), 11,067 using the KEGG database (Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes, 24.68%), and 19,871 using the KOG database (Eukaryotic orthologous groups, 13.74%). In addition, there were 8396, 151, 42, and 23 unigenes annotated only using the Nr, Swiss-protein, KEGG, and KOG databases, respectively (Figure 2).

**Figure 2.** Venn diagram of the number of unigenes annotated by BLASTx with four protein databases.

Statistical analysis of the E-value (The probability due to chance) characteristics of the Nr annotations revealed that 32.05% of the mapped sequences showed strong homology (E-value < 1 × 10-3), while 29.48% in the Swiss-protein database, 44.77% in the KEGG database, and 30.07% in the KOG database showed strong homology (Figure 3).

**Figure 3.** E-value distribution of top BLASTx hits against four protein databases for each unigene. (**a**) distribution E-values in non-redundant protein database; (**b**) distribution E-values in Swiss-protein database; (**c**) distribution E-values in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database; (**d**) distribution E-values in the Eukaryotic Orthologous Group database.

Based on the Nr annotations, 6495 unigenes were classified into 53 functional categories, belonging to three functional terms: molecular function, cellular component, and biological process. The largest percentages of unigenes identified within each of the three functional terms were metabolic process (3602 unigenes), cell and cell part (2237 and 2233 unigenes), and binding and catalytic activity (2481 and 3409 unigenes), corresponding to biological process, cellular component, and molecular function, respectively (Figure 4).

**Figure 4.** Function classification of the gene ontology of all unigenes based on Nr annotation.

To exhaustively explore the potential functions of the annotated unigenes, 11,067 unigenes were mapped onto 131 KEGG pathways, including metabolic pathways, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, biosynthesis of antibiotics, and many other important metabolic pathways. Metabolic pathways and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites were enriched in the most unigenes, with 2450 and 1294 unigenes annotating to these two pathways, respectively, while the anthocyanin pathway was enriched in only one unigene. Among these 131 pathways, there are two color formation-related pathways, the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway (ko00941) to which 36 unigenes were mapped, and the ABP (ko00942) to which one unigene was mapped (the pathways are listed in Supplementary Table S3).


**2.4 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)**

COPD is a chronic inflammatory lung disease triggered by exposure to toxic particles and gases, especially, cigarette smoke. Some of the predominant characteristics of COPD include parenchymal destruction, poorly reversible, persistent airflow limitation, and chronic bronchitis. A COPD patient shows some visible symptoms like cough, chest tightness dyspnoea, excess sputum production, and wheezing [52]. COPD is coordinated by a complex network of inflammatory mediators, such as inflammatory enzymes, lipid mediators (eicosanoids, namely prostanoids and leukotrienes, LTs), interleukins (ILs), and adhesion molecules, which may moderate airway inflammation through chemotactic and autocrine or paracrine effects [3]. Eicosanoids are produced by cells resident in the lung and airways, such as fibroblasts, epithelial cells, myofibroblasts, and smooth muscle cells, also by inflammatory cells that have migrated from the circulation to the airways, such as macrophages, mast cells, neutrophils, platelets, eosinophils, and T-lymphocytes [53]. Activated macrophages release cytokines such as IL-8, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and LTB4, which can attract and activate various inflammatory cells. Smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts, and myofibroblasts play a key regulatory role in airway remodeling by generating different structural components, such as collagen and proteoglycans [54]. Although the mediators involved in structural remodeling of the bronchial wall remains unknown, chemokines, cytokines, and growth factors are thought to have a crucial role. Observational clinical studies suggest that n-3 PUFA levels in COPD are inversely related to systemic inflammation and directly related to clinical outcomes [55–57]. Interventional studies using n-3 PUFAs alone in COPD do not exist; however, many trials are currently underway, which may generate valuable data in the coming years [58–60]. An animal study in pneumonia model of mice, revealed RvE1 metabolite of n-3 PUFA decreased levels of several pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines in the lung, and improved survival [61]. However, currently, there is a paucity of data regarding the potential of n-3 PUFAs to be used therapeutically in COPD. Recent studies, conducted using omega-3 PUFAs in COPD has used nutrient combinations, in a manner that the exact effects of omega-3 PUFAs cannot be elucidated.

### **2.5 Rheumatoid arthritis**

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a low grade chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease affecting the joints and bones. RA and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are multisystem autoimmune diseases featuring the production of a variety of autoantibodies, and resulting in higher immune-mediated inflammation. Prevalence of RA is known to affect 17.6 million people worldwide [7] with the huge economic burden to mankind. Pathogenesis of RA in early phase focused on auto-antibodies and immune complexes [62], however, the nature of T-cell mediated antigen-specific responses, T-cell-independent cytokine species, and aggressive tumor-like behavior of rheumatoid synovium have also been reported. Immune complex theory strongly suggests increased neutrophils accumulation in synovial fluid results in engulfment of immune complex and release proteolytic enzymes [62]. A better understanding of the intracellular targets that regulate cytokines in RA can potentially lead to new therapeutic interventions. For instance, studies reported activation of NF-κB in the synovium of RA patients [63] and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases are identified as vital regulators of cytokine and metalloproteinase production. The mechanistic approach to currently available drugs is partially understood and mostly targeting the eicosanoid pathway, and reports are scarce about gene targets on CD28, AP-1, and MAP kinases. Investigators have examined the effect of dietary fatty acid supplementation in different autoimmune diseases, and the effects of both n-6 and n-3 PUFA on RA have been reported [64]. Resolvins derived from EPA and DHA are anti-inflammatory and resolve inflammation, serving as important mediators in regulating various homeostatic functions, including gastric mucosal integrity. Kremer and co-workers reported that a dose of 90 mg/kg/day EPA/DHA (3:2 ratio) showed a shorter period to respond than 45 mg/kg/day [65]. Clinical studies have ambiguity in results, few observed reductions in both tender joints by 36% and swollen joint to 38% in patients, whereas the placebo group showed no improvement in these parameters [66]. Fish oil supplementation in women patients showing a decrease in the production of serum nuclear factor-kappa B (Nf-kB) ligand/osteoprotegerin ratio [67]. Cell culture-based investigations have reported that EPA and DHA prevent the proliferation of human T cells and their generation of IL-2 [68]. Animal studies also reported a beneficial effect of marine n-3 PUFA in RA [69, 70]. Finally, supplementation with dietary n-3 PUFA and its ability to inhibit TNF-α and IL-1b synthesis is rational. Considering the emphasis on recommendations to increase dietary n-3 PUFA intake for health benefits, the possible therapeutic potential of fish oil/n-3 PUFA on autoimmune diseases need to be clearly defined.

**203**

*Modulatory Potentials of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Inflammatory Diseases*

Conjunctivitis is an ocular inflammatory condition of the membrane lining the eyelid, which provides a shelter to the open surface of the sclera [71]. It is said to be the most common cause of "red eye," and the infection, either acute or chronic can originate from three different sources, based on which it is commonly classified: viral, allergic, and bacterial conjunctivitis. The type of conjunctivitis may be determined by a diagnostic investigation which takes into account, the patient's age, time of the year, and physical examination findings [72]. Identification of the pathogen which elicits the inflammatory response is necessary to decide on the required treatment module, since some bacterial conjunctivitis forms are self-limiting, while those caused by *Chlamydia trachomatis* or *Neisseria gonorrhoeae* demand aggressive antibiotic therapy, and primarily good eyelid hygiene [71]. The visual symptoms of inflammation at the ocular surface, include, lid and conjunctival edema–redness, tearing, extreme itching, and photophobia during the acute phase cause immense discomfort, thereby necessitating treatment [73]. Effective pharmacological cure comprises antihistamines, mast cell stabilizers, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [74]. The excess wateriness experienced during conjunctivitis and also early dry eye disease is because of enhanced goblet cell mucin secretion into tears, which otherwise produce a regulated amount of mucins only to protect the eye. This phenomenon is due to the action of inflammatory mediators, cysteinyl leukotrienes LTB4, LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4, and prostaglandin PGD2, which stimulate conjunctival goblet cell mucous secretion. Thus, mitigation of this LTD4 effect can aid in reducing mucin secretion, and this has been achieved previously by the action of Resolvins D1 (RvD1) and E1 (RvE1) [2]. The finding of Dartt and co-workers [2] indicates that lipids including fatty acids or lipid mediators play a role in suppression of systemic inflammation as well as local, such as in the case of inflammatory conjunctivitis. The connection between the quality of fat consumed and conjunctivitis was drawn from the results of a Japanese study, which states that meat intake is directly proportional to the prevalence of rhinoconjunctivitis in young adult Japanese women, while no correlation was seen between fish intake and rhinoconjunctivitis [75]. Though, there are not many reports from similar controlled clinical trials that specifically correlate meat intake with incidence of conjunctivitis, to ascertain such claims. The study does raise questions on the role of fats present in meat that possibly trigger the pathways in inflammation. The true potential of n-3 PUFA as an anti-inflammatory in managing conjunctivitis was elucidated through other detailed investigations of their actions and mechanisms at molecular levels. A primary mode of action is that of the resolvin mediated responses, as mentioned earlier. The process of resolution of inflammation is an active process facilitated by pro-resolution lipid mediators. Not only D-series resolvins RvD1, which are produced in the cornea but also aspirin-triggered RvD1 (ATRvD1) have exhibited regulation of inflammatory responses to histamine in allergic conjunctivitis. The effect is implemented by a cross-talk between two types of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). When RvD1 interacts with its receptor GPR32, it prevents the histamine-stimulated H1 receptor-mediated rise in intracellular Ca2+, thereby blocking H1 receptor-mediated responses. Consequentially, this activates extracellularly regulated–protein kinase (ERK) 1/2 [76]. In addition to resolvins, another class of lipid mediators that can mimic these anti-inflammatory actions in conjunctivitis includes lipoxins, especially, lipoxin A4 that has benefits similar to that of ATRvDI and can activate ALX/FPR2 receptor to regulate conjunctival goblet cell secretion, which is particularly useful in maintaining ocular surface homeostasis, and managing the dry eye syndrome [77]. Another evidence of polyunsaturated fats aiding in the treatment of conjunctivitis emerged on evaluating the impact of the feeding of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA on human leukocyte antigen-DR (HLA-DR) marker of conjunctival

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88394*

**2.6 Conjunctivitis**


**Meet the editors**

Jiu-Fu Liu received his BSc and MSc degrees in Hydrology from the Hohai University, Nanjing, China. He has been a research professor at the Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute (NHRI) of the Chinese Ministry of Water Resources since 2003. He engages himself in the development of scientific hydrology and hydroinformatics and in the renovation of hydrological experiments. He has presided the National Key R&D Program of China and several key projects of the National Natural Science Foundation. He is a winner of two second prizes of the National Scientific and Technological Progress Award, four first prizes, and one second prize of Scientific and Technological Progress Award in provincial/ministerial levels. He has published c.a. 30 academic articles. He became the director of the Institute of Hydrology and Water Resources of NHRI in 2007 and the deputy secretary-general of Hydrological Professional Committee, Chinese Hydraulic Engineering Society, and so on.

Wei-Zu Gu graduated from the Jiao-Tung University, Shanghai, China, in 1952. He has been a research professor at the Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute of the Chinese Ministry of Water Resources since 1982 and an adjunct professor of Hefei Polytechnical University (1987–1996), Heilongjiang University (1990–1996), Hohai University (2003–2006), Xi'an University of Science and Technology (1994–2014), and Nanjing Center of Chinese Geological Survey (2003–2009). He dedicated himself to the Chinese field of basin studies for more than 60 years since 1953. He was awarded by the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology (2009) as the outstanding contributor of the field work. He is an editor/coeditor of three books and c.a. 50 published articles. His current research focuses on the renovation of watershed hydrological experimental systems and the applications of isotope hydrology.

Contents

**Preface VII**

**Watersheds 1**

**Ecological Change 25**

and Peter A. Troch

**"Chicken Creek" 75**

Zaplata and Reinhard F. Huettl

**for Controlled Systems 95**

Jan Frouz

Chapter 1 **Experimental Watersheds at Coshocton, Ohio, USA:**

**Experiences and Establishing New Experimental**

James V. Bonta, Martin J. Shipitalo and Lloyd Owens

**Biosphere 2 Landscape Evolution Observatory: Toward Prediction of Coupled Hydrological, Biogeochemical, and**

Till H. M. Volkmann, Aditi Sengupta, Luke A. Pangle, Katerina Dontsova, Greg A. Barron-Gafford, Ciaran J. Harman, Guo-Yue Niu, Laura K. Meredith, Nate Abramson, Antonio A. Meira Neto, Yadi Wang, John R. Adams, David D. Breshears, Aaron Bugaj, Jon Chorover, Alejandro Cueva, Stephen B. DeLong, Matej Durcik, Ty P. A. Ferre, Edward A. Hunt, Travis E. Huxman, Minseok Kim, Raina M. Maier, Russell K. Monson, Jon D. Pelletier, Michael Pohlmann, Craig Rasmussen, Joaquin Ruiz, Scott R. Saleska, Marcel G. Schaap, Michael Sibayan, Markus Tuller, Joost L. M. van Haren, Xubin Zeng

Wolfgang Schaaf, Christoph Hinz, Werner Gerwin, Markus K.

**Post-Mining Sites at Various Spatiotemporal Scales: The Need**

Chapter 2 **Controlled Experiments of Hillslope Coevolution at the**

Chapter 3 **Ecosystem Development in the Constructed Catchment**

Chapter 4 **Changes of Water Budget during Ecosystem Development in**