**2.3 Trauma sensitive school culture**

Trauma sensitive instruction is not simply the implementation of instructional strategies to enhance student learning, it is the creation of a culture throughout all levels of an educational system that is committed to the provision of instruction in a manner that recognizes trauma responses and fosters resilience [26, 32, 33]. It builds upon the goals of prevention and early intervention that are already deeply imbedded in our educational systems [24]. The implementation of trauma sensitive instruction does not seek to pathologize the experience but rather to identify effective ways to engage all students regardless of the presence of a known adverse experience [32]. A trauma sensitive instruction model assumes that all students have experienced adverse events rather than attempting to identify pathological responses in individual students [32]. These practices will need to be aligned with current instructional methods at all levels to be effective [33].

It is a critical time to recognize the role that educators and educational systems play in creating a conducive learning environment and the direct connection between long-term outcomes and educational achievement [12, 17]. To effectively assist students in the face of not only the current pandemic but also with the recognition of the many adversities that they will face throughout their education and life, instruction that is student-centered and responsive to the frequently changing needs of students will be critical. This includes the implementation of flexible learning environments and relational pedagogy as avenues to promote student engagement and the development of resilience to stress [6, 17, 34]. In its implementation trauma sensitive instruction emphasizes the use of relational pedagogy to foster shared responsibility and decision making [6, 12, 17] breaking down the power dynamics and empowering students to co-facilitate their own educational experiences [35]. This approach recognizes the value in listening to students and respects their ability to be directive in their learning trajectories [17]. Trauma sensitive instruction promotes collaboration

through transparency, authentic engagement, and an understanding of what both students and educators regard as important and useful to the process.

While traditional learning models focus on the educator as the transmitter of knowledge [36], here the emphasis is also on the student's construction of their learning experiences. This requires a widening of perspective that balances instruction provision with overall well-being of students [17, 35]. For students who face uncertainties such as the current pandemic or other adverse life events, an effective learning environment incorporates the educator as an academic facilitator and guide with student as co-creator [17]. Trauma sensitive approaches emphasize positive relationships as the catalyst for the development of the foundation for learning and represent a shift away from behavior management models and punitive responses [17]. To be effective, educators must take a proactive approach, providing support and encouragement to actively participate and rewards for taking responsibility for the learning process [17, 34]. This paradigm may also help to balance out the challenges faced by educators and educational systems to emphasis standardized tests and student performance measures and introduce more student-centered accountability measures [17]. Trauma sensitive practices can facilitate the development of self-regulation and foster the development of long-term self-management skills that increase the potential for academic success.

While educators have recognized the importance of attending to student emotional well-being, challenges have been identified in implementing practices that are conducive to such a holistic approach such as large class sizes, demands of preparation and responsibilities, lack of resources, and systemic support [35, 37, 38]. Additionally, Baweja and colleagues found that there is a need to create shared understandings across educators and educational systems of trauma and to provide educators with training on how to identify and respond to trauma [37]. Directly tying in adverse experiences in school districts and student populations was found to increase educator support of these approaches and decrease concerns related to loss of instructional time [37]. The ability for educators to buy into a shift in paradigm will allow for the recognition that finding the time to teach resilience is not time wasted.

The current pandemic has poised educators and educational systems to influence well-being despite an ever changing, chaotic landscape. The ability to facilitate connection building can decrease the isolation experiences and assist educators in restoring their own sense of professional identity [17]. While traditional education exists within the walls of a school building and boundaries of teacher/student relationships, Covid-19 has brought educators into the homes and lives of students, allowing for the opportunity to develop relationships in a new way.

#### **3. The role of safe spaces in education**

Trauma sensitive instruction is a pathway to the creation of safe spaces for students to process their experienced and challenge themselves academically. Educators and educational systems are tasked with providing instruction and support not only on the academic plane, but they are also looked upon to promote healthy social relationships between students, to meet the needs of each individual student in their classes and to create a milieu in which all students feel valued and supported. The concept of safe spaces has been discussed regularly in the literature on education and has been incorporated into teaching pedagogy by many educators and educational systems. A safe space has been defined by Holley and Steiner as a climate in which students feel safe expressing themselves openly and honestly, taking risks to explore the root of their views, beliefs, and opinions and in many

**239**

*Intentional Teaching: Building Resiliency and Trauma-Sensitive Cultures in Schools*

cases confronting themselves and others [38]. This definition highlights that it is not the physical space that is safe or the catalyst for the experience of safety, rather it is a climate that is free from the potential for of psychological or emotional harm [15, 38–41]. It is a definition that highlights the educational contexts that have been found to foster intellectual and social learning for students [42]. In practice, this educational milieu is free from purposeful embarrassment and facilitates risk taking by students in the learning process, making this environment a place where failure is an option and accepted [38, 39]. Safe spaces are built upon mutual respect and promote healthy social interactions and an atmosphere for community building and academic success [38, 39]. These learning environments recognize the connectedness between student well-being and their academic achievement [40] and seek to

Safe spaces are not environments that are free from discomfort or controversy but rather they are environments that foster the ability to have challenging conversations without the threat of emotional harm or judgment [39, 42]. Safe classroom spaces can decrease the negative experiences of students who are willing to take risks in sharing their views and experiences by engaging in personal disclosure [39]. As a pedagogical approach, safe spaces refer to the actual experiences of students in the classroom as being free of fear, self-doubt, and social exclusion creating the intellectual and emotional safety necessary to openly disclose information that they otherwise may have self-censored [41, 43]. They value opportunities to where students openly demonstrate their individuality and supportively acknowledge the experiences of discomfort or struggle [38, 39]. Educators of safe classrooms balance the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment measures that balance risk and

In non-crisis times, educators recognize the struggles that students often have with class requirements such as participation, group work, and presentations, these challenges do not dissipate in the online environment [42] and may be exacerbated by the stress that already exists in mastering the transition online. While instruction is often built around the expectation of personal risk-taking and critical inquiry to foster and self-determine intellectual advancement, this pedagogy is best paired

In the face of Covid-19, societal unrest, and widespread controversy, students are regularly exposed to a multitude of attitudes and beliefs about social distancing practices, governmental responses, and safety which can increase their experience of anxiety and create confusion related to whom they can trust [15, 44]. We would be remiss if we did not recognize that not only was the introduction of social distancing meant to stop the spread of a pandemic illness, there was also a very real component of fear as messages that safety is best achieved by staying home became commonplace and began to influence the behaviors and daily lives of individuals and families across the globe [15]. The Covid-19 pandemic, with social distancing and safety protocols, has created a gap in the emotional and community support that individuals have access to increasing feelings of isolation and anxiety [44]. Safe spaces incorporated into educational practices afford students the experience of consistency and continuity in the face of quickly changing contextual landscapes [15]. There is a need to create environments where fears and concerns about Covid-19 and other adverse life experiences can safely be talked about rather than proceeding with instruction as if nothing is remiss. The avoidance of these conversation ignores the stress and experiences that many students and educators are experiencing and misses crucial moments to develop relationships through

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96571*

balance both presenting needs.

**3.1 Climates of safety in adverse times**

with an environment that makes it safe to do so [42].

rewards [42].

#### *Intentional Teaching: Building Resiliency and Trauma-Sensitive Cultures in Schools DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96571*

cases confronting themselves and others [38]. This definition highlights that it is not the physical space that is safe or the catalyst for the experience of safety, rather it is a climate that is free from the potential for of psychological or emotional harm [15, 38–41]. It is a definition that highlights the educational contexts that have been found to foster intellectual and social learning for students [42]. In practice, this educational milieu is free from purposeful embarrassment and facilitates risk taking by students in the learning process, making this environment a place where failure is an option and accepted [38, 39]. Safe spaces are built upon mutual respect and promote healthy social interactions and an atmosphere for community building and academic success [38, 39]. These learning environments recognize the connectedness between student well-being and their academic achievement [40] and seek to balance both presenting needs.

Safe spaces are not environments that are free from discomfort or controversy but rather they are environments that foster the ability to have challenging conversations without the threat of emotional harm or judgment [39, 42]. Safe classroom spaces can decrease the negative experiences of students who are willing to take risks in sharing their views and experiences by engaging in personal disclosure [39]. As a pedagogical approach, safe spaces refer to the actual experiences of students in the classroom as being free of fear, self-doubt, and social exclusion creating the intellectual and emotional safety necessary to openly disclose information that they otherwise may have self-censored [41, 43]. They value opportunities to where students openly demonstrate their individuality and supportively acknowledge the experiences of discomfort or struggle [38, 39]. Educators of safe classrooms balance the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment measures that balance risk and rewards [42].

#### **3.1 Climates of safety in adverse times**

In non-crisis times, educators recognize the struggles that students often have with class requirements such as participation, group work, and presentations, these challenges do not dissipate in the online environment [42] and may be exacerbated by the stress that already exists in mastering the transition online. While instruction is often built around the expectation of personal risk-taking and critical inquiry to foster and self-determine intellectual advancement, this pedagogy is best paired with an environment that makes it safe to do so [42].

In the face of Covid-19, societal unrest, and widespread controversy, students are regularly exposed to a multitude of attitudes and beliefs about social distancing practices, governmental responses, and safety which can increase their experience of anxiety and create confusion related to whom they can trust [15, 44]. We would be remiss if we did not recognize that not only was the introduction of social distancing meant to stop the spread of a pandemic illness, there was also a very real component of fear as messages that safety is best achieved by staying home became commonplace and began to influence the behaviors and daily lives of individuals and families across the globe [15]. The Covid-19 pandemic, with social distancing and safety protocols, has created a gap in the emotional and community support that individuals have access to increasing feelings of isolation and anxiety [44].

Safe spaces incorporated into educational practices afford students the experience of consistency and continuity in the face of quickly changing contextual landscapes [15]. There is a need to create environments where fears and concerns about Covid-19 and other adverse life experiences can safely be talked about rather than proceeding with instruction as if nothing is remiss. The avoidance of these conversation ignores the stress and experiences that many students and educators are experiencing and misses crucial moments to develop relationships through

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World*

increase the potential for academic success.

**3. The role of safe spaces in education**

not time wasted.

students and educators regard as important and useful to the process.

through transparency, authentic engagement, and an understanding of what both

While traditional learning models focus on the educator as the transmitter of knowledge [36], here the emphasis is also on the student's construction of their learning experiences. This requires a widening of perspective that balances instruction provision with overall well-being of students [17, 35]. For students who face uncertainties such as the current pandemic or other adverse life events, an effective learning environment incorporates the educator as an academic facilitator and guide with student as co-creator [17]. Trauma sensitive approaches emphasize positive relationships as the catalyst for the development of the foundation for learning and represent a shift away from behavior management models and punitive responses [17]. To be effective, educators must take a proactive approach, providing support and encouragement to actively participate and rewards for taking responsibility for the learning process [17, 34]. This paradigm may also help to balance out the challenges faced by educators and educational systems to emphasis standardized tests and student performance measures and introduce more student-centered accountability measures [17]. Trauma sensitive practices can facilitate the development of self-regulation and foster the development of long-term self-management skills that

While educators have recognized the importance of attending to student emotional well-being, challenges have been identified in implementing practices that are conducive to such a holistic approach such as large class sizes, demands of preparation and responsibilities, lack of resources, and systemic support

[35, 37, 38]. Additionally, Baweja and colleagues found that there is a need to create shared understandings across educators and educational systems of trauma and to provide educators with training on how to identify and respond to trauma [37]. Directly tying in adverse experiences in school districts and student populations was found to increase educator support of these approaches and decrease concerns related to loss of instructional time [37]. The ability for educators to buy into a shift in paradigm will allow for the recognition that finding the time to teach resilience is

The current pandemic has poised educators and educational systems to influence well-being despite an ever changing, chaotic landscape. The ability to facilitate connection building can decrease the isolation experiences and assist educators in restoring their own sense of professional identity [17]. While traditional education exists within the walls of a school building and boundaries of teacher/student relationships, Covid-19 has brought educators into the homes and lives of students,

Trauma sensitive instruction is a pathway to the creation of safe spaces for students to process their experienced and challenge themselves academically. Educators and educational systems are tasked with providing instruction and support not only on the academic plane, but they are also looked upon to promote healthy social relationships between students, to meet the needs of each individual student in their classes and to create a milieu in which all students feel valued and supported. The concept of safe spaces has been discussed regularly in the literature on education and has been incorporated into teaching pedagogy by many educators and educational systems. A safe space has been defined by Holley and Steiner as a climate in which students feel safe expressing themselves openly and honestly, taking risks to explore the root of their views, beliefs, and opinions and in many

allowing for the opportunity to develop relationships in a new way.

**238**

transparency, vulnerability, and shared experiences [10]. Instead, educators can increase their emotional presence thereby creating a climate of empathy and compassion [6] and normalizing conversations about emotional health and holistic well-being. While we can recognize that students may not be able to retain all of the information that they learn during times of adversity, the experiences and feelings that they had during this time can frame how they view education moving forward [6].

#### **3.2 How to create safe spaces in the classroom**

While safe spaces have been widely explored in the literature, their ongoing implementation and emphasis as a pedagogical approach represented more of a cultural ideal than a necessary practice [38]. Safe spaces have been correlated with increased student responsibility and engagement in the learning process in traditional educational settings, they may play an even greater role in the success of virtual environments where educators cannot use physical proximity to ensure that behavioral expectations are met [39]. Tasked with the goal of not only providing instruction but also promoting healthy social relationships between students, teachers must explore how they can continue this in a virtual environment.

While many educators understand how to create safe spaces in their classroom environment, the ability to translate these concepts into an online learning environment requires a different level of understanding of the concept and skills to implement it [45]. This requires starting with the recognition that it is no longer education as usual and using mindfulness to approach online student instruction [45]. As students are exposed to a multitude of new online instructional formats, the need to adapt to them and the rules for each one can be a stressful transition for many, one that needs educator awareness, support, and recognition [45]. We would be remiss if we assumed that student's ability to utilize technology such as cell phones and social media accounts equates to their ability to navigate new instructional platforms [45].

In order to create safe spaces, educators must move beyond traditional lesson planning, incorporating the flexibility for the vast array of emotions that may be experience by themselves and students through the school day and year [40]. This includes the ability to be vulnerable and a willingness to share about themselves and their experiences [10, 39]. Holley and Steiner found that qualities students identified in educators that fostered a safe environment included being welcoming and approachable, having a non-judgmental demeanor, being emotionally present and supportive of students who take the risk to share [39]. Educators can establish safe classrooms by partnering with students in the development of ground rules for interactions with peers and the teacher and by reinforcing a common understand of appropriate engagement and class climate [39, 46]. The process of student-centered norm development increases buy in from students and the concept of co-creators of the classroom community. These rules include the recognition that we cannot share in a manner that is intended to harm another student and providing examples of constructive framing and inappropriate sharing are useful to establishing shared responsibility [39]. While it is tempting to utilize all of the technological opportunities available, and to find new innovative and creative ways to deliver lessons, educators must consider the benefits of consistency and simplicity and the comfort that is brought to students through routines [46]. Educators can utilize specific positive feedback as a way to highlight that there are positives in all that students share [46, 47] and to demonstrate that they are listening and value what students share with them [17]. Students also described safe classrooms as having educators

**241**

adverse situations.

educators [38].

*Intentional Teaching: Building Resiliency and Trauma-Sensitive Cultures in Schools*

can experience increased vulnerability in the classroom [42].

that were culturally sensitive, attended to the cultural issues that occurred in the classroom and valued the diversity of the students [39, 48]. This practice helps to create inclusion and a greater sense of belonging for underrepresented groups that

While safe classrooms foster students' willingness to question their own beliefs, they also require educators to be willing to look at their beliefs and to recognize when there may be errors in their logic [39]. Educators are role models for students and as such can model the types of interactions that are expected in the classroom [39]. Evidence suggests that students in safe spaces perform better academically [39, 40]. Holley and Steiner found that students valued safe classroom spaces and identified this milieu as playing a role in both what they learned and how much they learned [39]. Students reported that safe classroom environments gave them additional learning opportunities by exposing them to the ideas and experiences of other students, thereby helping to expand their personal views, increase their creativity and facilitating experiential learning [39]. Further students reported that they learned more in safe classroom spaces and that this knowledge was more likely to be practically applied to their lives and fields of study [39]. Safe spaces were found to increase student self-awareness, communication skills and to create an environment where they felt challenged to learn [39]. This is consistent with research that found increased academic performance in safe classrooms, particularly in environments that created connectedness between students and

Safe spaces allow students to express themselves and experiment with their identity, this includes their place in social structures and provides experiences in managing social pressures across the multiple contexts in their lives [41]. They build upon the social nature of children and the social expectations that they are presented with [41]. It is important to recognize that not all students will experience safe spaces equally and that classroom climate will need to be a fluid construct as students experience changing relational and social contexts [41]. While it is unclear how the educational system will define itself after Covid-19, it is clear that the integration of safe spaces increases outcomes and enhances learning opportunities for students and helps to decrease disparities. Safe spaces can create a positive climate that facilitates participatory engagement and responsibility for learning outcomes.

Online education programs, while increasingly popular has heard many criticisms for lack of rigor, similar costs, low student success rates, are generally revered as less desirable than traditional educational environments [49, 50]. This view became intensified in the Spring of 2020 when many chaotic transitions to online education left educators, educational systems, students and the public questioning the education students would receive in coming academic years in the face of a continuing pandemic. This may have perpetuated the misconception that online education is inferior to classroom instruction and that education as usual is the best option for school systems as educators did not have access to the preparation time necessary to create and design virtual courses [6, 11]. This left many simply transferring their classroom work into online platforms [6, 11]. Yet online education has been an attractive option for many students and families due to its accessibility, convenience, and student-driven learning strategies [15, 50]. It also, when planned and implemented correctly, has the ability to sustain educational systems facing

**4. Educational transformation: toward the new normal**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96571*

#### *Intentional Teaching: Building Resiliency and Trauma-Sensitive Cultures in Schools DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96571*

that were culturally sensitive, attended to the cultural issues that occurred in the classroom and valued the diversity of the students [39, 48]. This practice helps to create inclusion and a greater sense of belonging for underrepresented groups that can experience increased vulnerability in the classroom [42].

While safe classrooms foster students' willingness to question their own beliefs, they also require educators to be willing to look at their beliefs and to recognize when there may be errors in their logic [39]. Educators are role models for students and as such can model the types of interactions that are expected in the classroom [39]. Evidence suggests that students in safe spaces perform better academically [39, 40]. Holley and Steiner found that students valued safe classroom spaces and identified this milieu as playing a role in both what they learned and how much they learned [39]. Students reported that safe classroom environments gave them additional learning opportunities by exposing them to the ideas and experiences of other students, thereby helping to expand their personal views, increase their creativity and facilitating experiential learning [39]. Further students reported that they learned more in safe classroom spaces and that this knowledge was more likely to be practically applied to their lives and fields of study [39]. Safe spaces were found to increase student self-awareness, communication skills and to create an environment where they felt challenged to learn [39]. This is consistent with research that found increased academic performance in safe classrooms, particularly in environments that created connectedness between students and educators [38].

Safe spaces allow students to express themselves and experiment with their identity, this includes their place in social structures and provides experiences in managing social pressures across the multiple contexts in their lives [41]. They build upon the social nature of children and the social expectations that they are presented with [41]. It is important to recognize that not all students will experience safe spaces equally and that classroom climate will need to be a fluid construct as students experience changing relational and social contexts [41]. While it is unclear how the educational system will define itself after Covid-19, it is clear that the integration of safe spaces increases outcomes and enhances learning opportunities for students and helps to decrease disparities. Safe spaces can create a positive climate that facilitates participatory engagement and responsibility for learning outcomes.


*2.5. Surface Analysis*

Surface analysis was done by micrographs of the surface using a stereo microscope M205 C by Leica Microsystems. An objective with a numerical aperture of 0.35 and a maximum optical resolution of up to 1050 LP/mm (line pairs per millimeter) was used.

Since stylus roughness measurements are often not meaningful to determine the effect of LμP on surface roughness [27], systematic white light interferometry (WLI) measurements of laser-polished areas were conducted. Surface analysis was done by an analysis of the spectral composition of surface roughness, which is typically presented as a roughness spectrum (Sa spectrum) [18,27,50,51]. The WLI measurements for these Sa spectra were conducted with a "Newview 7300" (Ametek-Zygo, Berwyn, PA, USA). The maximum vertical resolution was approximately 0.1 nm, while the spatial resolution ranged between 0.36 and 9.50 μm. The control and analysis software Zygo MetroPro (V10.3) was used for all measurements.


**3. Results**

*3.1. Specific Capacitance of Lipid Bilayers in the Presence of Simple Carbohydrates* 3.1.1. Free-Standing Lipid Bilayers—Electrodeformation of GUVs

The specific capacitance of POPC bilayers is measured in aqueous solutions of 1 mM NaCl containing different concentrations of glucose, fructose or glucose up to 300 mmol/L. In order to probe for specific effects, we determine the same parameter also for another type of phosphatidylcholine membranes, namely SOPC, at 200 mmol/L of sucrose in the aqueous surroundings. Our choice of synthetic lipids is motivated by their controlled chemical composition combined with the property to mimic well natural lipid extracts, e.g., egg-yolk or soybean phosphatidylcholine extracts. The values obtained for membrane specific capacitance together with the error calculated from the fit of our experimental data for every sugar concentration are summarized in Table 1 and Figure 2.

**Figure 2.** Specific capacitance of (i) POPC bilayers in the presence of 1 mmol/L NaCl and up to 300 mmol/L of glucose, fructose or sucrose; (ii) SOPC membranes in 1 mmol/L NaCl, 200 mmol/L of sucrose obtained from electrodeformation of GUVs.

̅ **λ Λ** ഥ For each sugar concentration, we measure the transition frequency *fcr* (Equation (4)) of 6 to 15 vesicles. The acquired experimental data for *fcr* as a function of the inverse radii of vesicles are fitted for fixed *λin* and Λ. Latter are the same for all recorded and analyzed vesicles in one batch. Membrane capacitance serves as a single fitting parameter. Our results show no alteration of the specific capacitance of POPC bilayers in aqueous

solutions of glucose and fructose at concentrations of up to 300 mmol/L and in the presence of 1 mmol/L NaCl. In glucose solutions, we obtain *Cm* = 0.52 ± 0.02 µF/cm2 with goodness of fit 0.91. The value calculated from the data acquired in fructose solutions is *Cm* = 0.51 ± 0.01 µF/cm2 with goodness of fit 0.55. In sucrose-containing aqueous surroundings we measure 25%-higher values of membrane specific capacitance at 200 and 300 mmol/L sugar concentrations compared to the control value of the same parameter in 1 mmol/L NaCl (Figure 2). Similar increase of *Cm* is reported also for SOPC bilayers at 200 mmol/L of sucrose in water.

**Table 1.** Specific capacitance of POPC membranes in aqueous solutions containing different concentrations up to 300 mmol/L glucose, fructose or sucrose; data obtained from electrodeformation of GUVs; GF, goodness of fit. The errors in *Cm* and *Cm* are standard deviations.


Color Measurement

The color parameters of ice cream samples were measured using a colorimeter (CR-400 Konica, Minolta, Tokyo, Japan). The CIELAB coordinate system was used, and the *L\**, *a\** and *b\** parameters were evaluated. *L\**, *a\** and *b*\* parameters represent whiteness/darkness, redness/greenness, and yellowness/blueness, respectively.