*1.1. Power Electronics Converter Topology and Their Control Methods*

The topology of the used power electronics converter is presented in Figure 1. Depending on the inverter control method and the assumed power and frequency range the step-down converter and/or HF resonant choke may be omitted. Then, only the transformer leakage inductances will perform the function of a resonant choke.

**Figure 1.** Schematic diagram of the power converter circuit used in the developed technological devices.

To control the output power of the converter, the following adjustment methods were considered [35]:

Figure 2 shows the examples of the output current and voltage waveforms of the inverter with a series resonant circuit at the output for various analyzed control methods.

1.1.1. Output Power Control by Pulse Width Modulation, with Constant Inverter Input Voltage

Earlier studies and implementations carried out by one of the authors concerned the regulation of generator power using PWM. The chopper can be omitted to simplify the generator main circuit. This method is not recommended in the frequency range above several dozen (or even several) kHz and powers above a few kW. Turning off each of the transistors can be done "softly" (with appropriate transistors control) in the ZVS technique. However, switching on must be done "hard". Hard commutation, at high switching frequency, causes significant losses and current stress caused by the sum of the load current and the reverse current of the inverter's diodes (Figure 2a). In each half-period of the output current, a reverse diode conducts then a transistor and then again reverse diode. There are six switching operations during the inverter operation period. This causes the inverter output voltage to oscillate at the frequency three times greater than the current wave. In the previously tested inverters, the transistors had to be oversized and the inverter was a strong source of radio frequency interference, also for its own control circuits.

**Figure 2.** Waveforms of the inverter output voltage and current with different control methods, reproduced from Przegl ˛ad Elektrotechniczny [35]: (**a**) PWM, (**b**) PFM, (**c**) PDM, (**d**) PAM: *i*T, *i*D—transistor and diode current; *i*inv—inverter output current; *u*inv—inverter output voltage; for PWM, PDM, and PAM modulation it was assumed that the switching frequency is approximately equal to the resonant frequency and the voltage waveform is synchronized with the current in conditions for operation with ZVS switches.

Another kind of PWM modulation is the phase-shift pulse width modulation (PS-PWM, phase-shift control, PSC). In PS-PWM, transistors are conductive for half of the period and during diode conduction, the inverter output voltage is zero. This modulation has some advantages compared to PWM but also does not eliminate the hard switching in a wide range of power control [33,36].

#### 1.1.2. Power Control by Pulse Frequency Modulation, with Constant Inverter Input Voltage

In this arrangement, the output power of the system is adjusted by changing the transistors switching frequency (Figure 2b). When operating below the resonant frequency, current stress in transistors occurs due to reverse currents of diodes. Thus, the authors do not recommend operating below the resonant frequency due to increased commutation losses. This method was previously used in series resonant inverters made in the thyristor technique. At the resonant frequency, the system works with maximum power. System operation (and power control) should take place at frequencies above resonance. Then ZVS conditions are created for the transistor's operation. The converter power circuit is relatively simple due to the unregulated DC voltage (no chopper). The inverter operation frequency should be limited both above and below so as not to go beyond the frequency range accepted in a given production process.

#### 1.1.3. Power Control by Changing the Voltage at the Inverter Input

Earlier implementation carried out by one of the authors also considered regulation of generator power by changing the DC voltage supplying the inverter. This DC voltage source can be a controlled or semicontrolled thyristor rectifier, a noncontrolled rectifier with PFC converter or a transistor chopper (Figure 1). The system, although more complex, has a number of advantages. To enable the inverter transistors to work as ZVS switches, the transistors are turned off before the output current reaches zero. At the same time, if the switching frequency is close to the resonance frequency then the transistors turn off the low current. This is quasi-ZCS switching (Figure 2d). When ZVS and at the same time quasi-ZCS switching occurs, the inverter works in the most favorable conditions. Commutation losses are eliminated, and voltage and current steepness are limited. To ensure these optimal conditions it is necessary to automatically adjust the inverter switching frequency employing PLL. All power control processes take place in the chopper. Independent control of the inverter (PLL) and chopper is provided. Under these conditions, the time intervals at which energy returns to the DC source are very small. Then the amplitude, RMS, and average of the inverter output current (and transistor current) will be the lowest at the given output power. Assuming a sinusoidal current waveform and that Δ*t* << *T*s (Figure 2d) one gets an approximate equation for the output power of the bridge inverters (Equation (1)):

$$P \approx \frac{1}{T\_s / 2} \int\_0^{T\_s / 2} l l\_{\rm dc} l\_{\rm inv\\_m} \sin(\omega\_s t) \quad \text{d}t = \frac{2 l L\_{\rm dc} l\_{\rm inv\\_m}}{\pi} \approx 0.9 l L\_{\rm dc} l\_{\rm inv\\_RMS} \tag{1}$$

where: *U*dc—DC inverter input voltage, *I*inv\_m, *I*inv\_RMS—maximum and RMS value of the inverter output current, *T*s, *f* s, ωs—period, switching, and angular frequency.

#### 1.1.4. Power Control by PDM Modulation (at Constant Inverter Input Voltage)

PDM modulation ensures even distribution of discharges over the entire length of the electrodes with a wide range of changes in average process power. The power regulation by means of PDM consists of sending in "packets" the maximum power with the frequency of a modulating generator with regulated filling [29,30,43]. The transistors in the inverter can work with ZVS soft commutation at a switching frequency greater than the resonant frequency. For maximum use of components (minimum transistors current in relation to the transferred power), the system should work with a frequency close to resonance. The general working principle is shown in Figure 2c. Turning off the "packet" is accomplished by switching on of two transistors T1 and T2 or T3 and T4. Then the oscillations in the resonant circuit go out automatically. The generator power circuit is relatively simple due to the unregulated DC voltage. The control system should also ensure that the transformer does not saturate, regardless of the length of the "packet" of power pulses and the pause time [43]. In particular, an even number of half-waves of the inverter output voltage should be maintained. During a break in power transfer, one must remember the switching frequency to which the system tuned during power flow. Assuming a sinusoidal current waveform and that Δ*t* << *T*s (as in Figure 2c,d), one obtains the equation for the output power of the bridge inverter:

$$P \approx \frac{2lL\_{\rm dc}I\_{\rm inv\\_m}}{\pi}D\_{\rm PDM} \approx 0.9lL\_{\rm dc}I\_{\rm inv\\_RMS}D\_{\rm PDM} \tag{2}$$

where: *D*PDM—duty cycle of PDM.

#### 1.1.5. Author's Method Based on Simultaneous PDM and PFM Modulation

The author's method [24,44] based on simultaneous PDM and PFM modulation differs from the methods described in [31,32]. This control method was used in DBD discharge generators manufactured and used at the Institute of Polymer Materials and Dyes Engineering (IMPIB, Toru ´n, Poland) [45]. The essence of this control method is the combination of PDM and PFM modulation while the inverter operation is not stopped (switching off all transistors or short-circuit state of the load) but there is a periodic increase in the switching frequency (Figure 3). The range of frequency changes is limited from above and below according to the assumed maximum and minimum power. The PDM modulating signal can have a rectangular shape with variable (Figure 3a) or with fixed (Figure 3b) filling. Limiting the maximum power protects against damage to the processed material or arcing caused by a dielectric breakdown. This control method ensures uniform discharge in a wide range of power control (about 10–100% of nominal power) and has additional advantages over the classic PDM method [31,32]. The control system does not require the use of an additional system that remembers the frequency from the moment before the inverter stops and does not require a system counting the number of half-waves of the output voltage. Another advantage is the ease of modification of existing PFM control systems to work according to the proprietary method [24].

**Figure 3.** Examples of inverter output voltage and current waveforms using the PDM-PFM method developed by the authors: (**a**) with variable duty cycle of PDM signal, (**b**) at a constant duty cycle of PDM signal.

### 1.1.6. Choice of Control Method

In further projects and implementations, the PWM method was abandoned, because the inverter transistors could not work with ZVS soft commutation. The following methods were used to control HV generators for barrier discharges:

#### **2. Matching of HV Generators and DBD Reactors**

#### *Dielectric Barrier Discharges—Theoretical Basics*

Figure 4 shows a simplified model of the discharge chamber. Figure 4a shows the construction ideas and Figure 4b presents simplified equivalent diagrams of the generator and the chamber. Figure 4b also contains the simplified characteristic of the barrier discharge in the air [21–24].

**Figure 4.** The idea of the construction of discharge chambers (**a**), simplified diagrams of the generator and the discharge chamber (**b**), and the trajectory of the voltage on the electrodes as a function of the charge supplied to these electrodes (**c**).

Capacities *C*1, *C*2 and discharge (and ignition) voltage *U*dis depend on the shape and size of the electrodes, dielectric thickness, and its type and width of the air gap [46]. Figure 4c shows the trajectory of the voltage on the electrodes as a function of the charge supplied to these electrodes. This trajectory allows determining the capacities of the equivalent diagram and ignition voltage. To design a device for generating DBD discharges, one needs to know the parameters of the discharge chamber, transformer ratio, voltage and frequency range of the inverter output voltage, inductance in the resonant circuit.

According to the simplified scheme and the *u*C(*q*) trajectory (Figure 4b,c) one can distinguish two states in chamber operation (Figure 4c): state 1, wherein there are no discharges and state 2 in which DBD discharges occur. In state 1 the increase rate d*u*C/d*q* on the chamber terminals depends on the substitute capacity *C*S made up of series-connected capacitors *C*1 and *C*2 (3). In state 2 the capacitor *C*2 voltage does not change and the d*u*C/d*q* depends on the *C*1 capacity (4). Parameters of the discharge chamber can be experimentally determined based on *u*C(*q*) trajectory (Figure 4c).

$$\frac{\text{d}u\_{\text{C}}}{\text{d}q} = \frac{1}{\text{C}\_{\text{S}}} = \frac{\text{C}\_{1} + \text{C}\_{2}}{\text{C}\_{1} \quad \text{C}\_{2}} \tag{3}$$

$$\frac{\mathbf{d}u\_{\mathbf{C}}}{\mathbf{d}q} = \frac{1}{\mathbf{C}\_1} \tag{4}$$

The chamber parameters related to the primary side of transformer are *C'*1·=·ϑ*2C*1, *C'*2·=·ϑ*2C*2, *C'*S·=·ϑ*2C*S, *U*dis·=·*U*dis/ϑ, where *U*dis—discharge (and ignition) voltage, ϑ—transformation ratio. The frequency *f* syn at which the inverter output voltage and current are synchronized is in the range *f*r\_max > *f* syn > *f*r\_min (Equations (5) and (6)) [34]. The synchronization frequency is the boundary of the transistors' abilities to work as ZVS or ZCS switches. The synchronization frequency *f* syn at the rectangular inverter output voltage is only approximately equal to the resonant frequency [47].

$$f\_{\rm r\\_max} = \frac{1}{2\pi\sqrt{L\_{\rm r}C\_{\rm S}\vartheta^2}}\tag{5}$$

$$f\_{\rm r\\_min} = \frac{1}{2\pi\sqrt{L\_I C\_1 \vartheta^2}}\tag{6}$$

where *L*r = *L*choke + *L*σ, *L*choke—the additional choke (Figure 1) between the inverter output and the HV transformer, *L*σ—the leakage inductance of the transformer seen from the low voltage side.

For the inverter voltage and frequency at which the capacitor *C*2 voltage does not reach the *U*dis, there are no discharges. In such conditions, the discharge chamber is a linear load. This creates a capacitor with a capacity of *C*S. Capacitor *C*S together with *L*r creates a resonant circuit with low-pass filter properties. The shapes of electrode current and voltage are sinusoidal and the classical ac analysis can be used.

The amplitude of the capacitor *C*2 voltage, which is referred to the first harmonic amplitude of the inverter output voltage is described by Equation (7), wherein *U*C2\_1m—the amplitude of the capacitor *C*2 voltage, *U*inv\_1m—the first harmonic amplitude of the inverter output voltage (in the full bridge topology and a maximum duty cycle), ωs = 2π*f* s—circular frequency of the inverter output voltage, *f* s—transistors switching frequency [24,34].

$$\frac{\mathcal{U}\_{\rm C2\\_1m}/\mathcal{S}}{\mathcal{U}\_{\rm inv\\_1m}} = \left| \frac{1}{\alpha\_s^2 \mathcal{U}\_{\rm r\\_s} \cdot \mathcal{S}^2 \mathcal{C}\_{\rm S} - 1} \cdot \frac{\mathcal{C}\_{\rm S}}{\mathcal{C}\_2} \right| \tag{7}$$

where *U*inv\_1m = 4 π*U*dc, *UC*2m = *U*dis ≈ *UC*2\_1m.

Equation (7) determines when the amplitude of the capacitor *C*2 voltage reaches *U*dis. The limit values of the switching frequencies at which the discharges appear, are determined based on Equations (8) and (9):

$$f\_{\rm s\\_lim\\_1} = \frac{1}{2\pi} \sqrt{\frac{1}{L\_\mathrm{r} \\$^2 C\_2} \left(\frac{C\_2}{C\_\mathrm{S}} - \frac{4}{\pi} \frac{\mathcal{U}\_{\mathrm{dc}}}{\mathcal{U}\_{\mathrm{dis}}/\mathcal{S}}\right)}\tag{8}$$

$$f\_{\rm s\\_lim\\_2} = \frac{1}{2\pi} \sqrt{\frac{1}{L\_r \\$^2 \mathcal{C}\_2} \left(\frac{\mathcal{C}\_2}{\mathcal{C}\_S} + \frac{4}{\pi} \frac{\mathcal{U}\_{\rm dc}}{\mathcal{U}\_{\rm dis}/\mathcal{S}}\right)}\tag{9}$$

For PWM modulation, this equation is modified as shown in [29]. The discharges occur when *f* s\_lim\_1 < *f* s < *f* s\_lim\_2. The frequency limits depend on the capacity of the electrodes, the inductance of *L*r, the discharge voltage, the inverter output voltage, and transformer winding ratio. The ratio of transformer winding has an impact on the operating frequency range and power of the device. By reducing the inverter output voltage these frequency limits approach to *f*r\_max (Equations (5) and (9)).

Figure 5a shows characteristics of discharges power as functions of frequency and inverter input voltage. Figure 5b illustrates power, current, and voltage characteristics as functions of frequency at a constant inverter input voltage (300 Vdc). Figure 5b illustrates the frequency limits according to the Equations (5), (6), (8), and (9). The characteristics from Figure 5a,b have been determined by assuming a constant value of the inductance *L*r and transformer winding ratio. The following parameters of the real system (for treatment of plastic foil surface) were assumed in the simulation model: power *P*N = 3 kW: *U*dc ≈ 300 V, two rotating electrodes: length 1700 mm, diameter 100 mm, 2 mm silicone insulation; two immovable electrodes: length 1600, width 36 mm toothed profile; air gap of approx. 2–4 mm (teeth); capacitance *C'*1 ≈ 1.59 nF, *C'*2 ≈ 0.794 nF; *L*r ≈ 1.3 mH; ϑ = 9.17.

**Figure 5.** Characteristics of DBD discharges: (**a**) as a function of inverter output voltage and frequency, (**b**) as a function of inverter output frequency and constant inverter input voltage *U*dc = 300 V, reproduced from Przegl ˛ad Elektrotechniczny [34]; the simulation results; base values: *I* \* = *U*dc/(*L*r*C*1')1/2, *P*\* = *U*dc2/(*L*r*C*1')1/2.

Figure 6 shows the impact of the inductance and the transformation ratio on the frequency limits that define the range of switching frequency at the PFM modulation. The characteristics are derived by mathematical analysis (Equations (8) and (9)) for the above data. The same frequency limits were obtained by simulation. This is illustrated by the points on the curves in Figure 6. It is worth noting that experimentally measured frequencies did not diverge more than a few hundred Hz from those obtained by calculation and simulation.

**Figure 6.** The range of the inverter output frequency at which the discharges appear (derived by mathematical analysis) as a function of: (**a**) inductance *L*r; (**b**) transformer windings ratio, reproduced from Przegl ˛ad Elektrotechniczny [34].

Increasing demand for processing different kinds of materials with different sizes generates the need to examine the impact of the transformer windings ratio and the inductance in the treatment process. Figure 7 presents the power control characteristics for the device with the same parameters as described above. The electrodes capacitance and voltage *U*dis are fixed. Figure 7 shows that with a change of the transformation ratio the electrode capacities and voltage *U*dis (referred to the inverter side) also change.

**Figure 7.** Relative discharge power as a function of frequency for: (**a**) various values of *L*r; (**b**) various values of ϑ, reproduced from Przegl ˛ad Elektrotechniczny [34]; base values: *L*b = 1 mH, ϑb = 9.17, *f* b = 1/(2π(*C*1*L*b) 1/2).

#### **3. Developed Prototype and Industrial Systems**

#### *3.1. Systems with Resonant Inverters for Surface Treatment (Activation) of Plastics*

In order to modify the surface of plastics during printing, laminating, and gluing the DBD discharges (so-called corona treatment) are used. To achieve the desired level of adhesion the discharge energy in the range of 0.65–1.3 kJ/m2 should be delivered. Parameters of HV generators for plastics surface treatment are generally in the range of power—0.5–10 kVA; frequency—5–50 kHz; voltage—4–20 kV. The schematic diagram of the power converter circuit used in the developed technological devices is shown in Figure 1. The idea of construction and the equivalent circuit of discharge chambers are presented in Figure 4a,b.

Figure 8 shows the construction principle of discharge chamber for foil processing, the trajectory *u*(*q*) and waveforms of current, voltage, charge, and instantaneous power of the electrode set obtained experimentally. Discharges occur between the cylindrical (rotating) and rod electrode (Figure 8a). Capacitors assembly consists of the electrodes and two dielectric layers (silicon, quartz glass or ceramics, and air). The treated plastic makes the third layer of dielectric. Capacities of silicone and treated plastic foil are analyzed as one capacitor. Capacities of the electrodes and the leakage of transformer and additional choke inductances create a resonant circuit. The selection of transformer winding ratio and choke inductance allows for operating of the system in a given frequency range and assumed output power (Figures 5–7). The density of energy E/s (J/m2) supplied to the plastic surface for the device as in Figure 8a can be determined from the equation:

$$E/\text{s} = P/(\text{vd}),\tag{10}$$

where *P*—DBD discharge power, *v*—speed of the foil, *d*—width of discharges (electrodes).

**Figure 8.** The discharge chamber for foil processing: (**a**) construction principle; (**b**) the trajectory *u*(*q*) obtained experimentally at the frequency 26.8 kHz of the inverter output voltage and power 1.5 kW; (**c**) oscillogram of electrode current and voltage at the frequency of 26.8 kHz, CH1 1 A/div., CH2 6.25 kV/div.; (**d**) waveforms of current, voltage, charge, and instantaneous power of the electrode set obtained from the data from the oscillogram.

The waveforms of currents and voltages presented in Figure 8c were recorded using measuring devices: oscilloscope Tektronix TDS2024, current probe PA-622, high voltage differential probe P5200 with an additional voltage divider (1/12.5) at the input. The recorded data (from Figure 8c) were used to determine the trajectoryfrom Figure 8b and the waveforms from Figure 8d. Excel was used for this purpose. The capacities of *C*1 and *C*2 were determined on the basis of the trajectory from Figure 8b and Equations (3) and (4). In order to determine the inductance *L*r = (*L*choke + *L*σ), the secondary winding of the HV transformer was shorted and the additional choke and the transformer were powered from the inverter at reduced voltage. The rectangular voltage wave and the triangular current waveform at the inverter output were recorded. The inductance was determined on the basis of the relationship *L*r = *U*dc(Δ*t*/Δ*i*) where Δ*t* is half of the period of the inverter output voltage and Δ*i* is the current increase during this time. The determined parameters values were used during the simulation, the results of which are shown in Figures 5–7. The dimensions of the discharge chamber and the determined parameters values can be found in the description of Figure 5.

The trajectorypresented in Figure 8b prove that the model adopted for the analysis and simulation is correct for the averaged values of voltage and current of the electrodes. During the analysis and simulation with the use of this model, the electrodes current and power do not experience high-frequency oscillations visible in Figure 8c, d. This model can be used in the design and simplified analysis of the phenomena occurring in the discharge chamber. On the other hand, the oscillograms in Figure 8c, d show that many ignition and extinguishing processes occur simultaneously.

The generators for surface treatment of plastics by DBD discharge, which are described in this article, are produced now based on documentation and under the supervision of one of the authors at the Institute of Polymer Materials and Dyes Engineering (IMPiB, formerly Metalchem) in Torun, Poland [45]. Figure 9 presents the exemplary generator and discharge electrodes. The nominal powers of these generators in the range from 0.5 to 10 kW are produced.

**Figure 9.** Construction of the devices for processing plastic film using DBD discharges: (**a**) power electronics generator with additional choke; (**b**) HV transformer and electrodes assembly, reproduced from web page IMPiB [45]; (**c**) part of the electrode.

### *3.2. Systems with Resonant Inverters for Decontamination of Loose Organic Material*

Dielectric barrier discharges and ozone produced in this process can be used to decontaminate products such as seeds or ground dried plants. The use of plasma technologies in the food industry and agriculture has been described many times in literature [6,48–51]. However, these articles usually did not describe the construction details of plasma generators and reactors. Descriptions of some reactor designs can be found in patents [10,11]. The description of the DBD generation is analogous to the generation for surface treatment of plastics. However, the constructions of the discharge chambers are different. Figure 10 presents an equivalent diagram of part of the generator with HV transformer and construction of two types of discharge chambers for decontamination of loose organic material. The prototypes according to Figure 10b,c were built and tested under the supervision of one of the authors [7]. The first chamber (Figure 10b) has one fixed electrode, and the other in the form of a movable trolley that performs reciprocating movements transporting the treated organic material. The second version (Figure 10c) has two rotary electrodes in the form of cylinders between which the processed material is decontaminated.

**Figure 10.** Construction of the devices for decontamination of loose organic material using DBD discharges: (**a**) equivalent diagram of part of a generator with transformer; (**b**) discharge chamber with a sliding electrode; (**c**) discharge chamber with rotating electrodes; 1—discharge chamber, 2—electrodes assembly, 3—suction hole, 4—insulating support, 5—electrodes gap adjustment knob, 6—transport trolley, 7—belt conveyor, 8—processed material, 9—sweeper.

New reactor designs were developed to increase the discharge power and thus to reduce the plasma exposure time and speed up the technological process. Plasma processing time is short compared with other known solutions [10]. Figure 11 shows two types of prototypes of devices for decontamination of crushed dried plants.

**Figure 11.** View of devices for decontamination of loose organic materials using DBD discharges developed and tested by the authors: (**a**) device with a sliding electrode; (**b**) device with rotating electrodes; 1—discharge chamber, 2—electrodes assembly, 3—transport trolley, 4—operator panel, 5—electrodes gap adjustment knob, 6—ozone chamber, 7—belt conveyor.

Figure 11b shows a solution that can be part of a technological line. This design is equipped with a support decontamination system which uses ozone generated in the discharge chamber. The conveyor speed determines the remaining time of the processed material in the ozone chamber. Electrodes in the form of rotating cylinders provide better cooling conditions than fixed electrodes. To increase the plasma operating time, the chamber may consist of several electrode assemblies. The implementation of such devices for the food industry is envisaged.

The power of discharges was regulated in the range of 200–1000 W by PFM or PDM + PFM modulation. The PDM + PFM modulation was used in the power range of 200–300 W to ensure even discharges over the entire length of the electrodes at low power. The decontamination efficiency of these prototypes was tested at the Faculty of Agriculture and Biotechnology of the UTP University in Bydgoszcz. The tests [52] confirm the effectiveness of DBD plasma and ozone in reducing microbial contamination of dried fragmented plants.

#### **4. Conclusions**

The article considers the most common problems concerning a proper matching of HV generators and DBD reactors It focused on parameters of electrodes sets (equivalent capacitance, discharge voltage), generator parameters (frequency and output voltage, modulation methods), transformer parameters (transformation ratio, leakage inductances), and the resonant circuit choke inductance. Thus, the article contributes knowledge to designing equipment for surface treatment of plastics and for decontamination by DBD method.

A common feature of the presented systems is that the transistors of the inverters work with the ZVS soft commutation in the whole range of power regulation. In the case of PAM + PFM modulation, the transistors work with ZVS and "almost" ZCS commutation, which radically reduces switching losses. Resonant converters created in this way had better parameters than similar systems in which transistors operated with hard commutation. This concerned parameters such as efficiency and generation of radioelectric disturbances.

The innovative solutions presented in the article are the inverters for DBD plasma generators, which use the proprietary PDM + PFM modulation method. This method ensures the extension of the power regulation range and maintaining the uniformity of discharges in DBD devices for plastic surface treatment and decontamination. The generators were built using the theoretical considerations presented in this article. New designs of discharge chambers for decontamination have been developed. They have been reserved in the European patent office. The innovative solution of the first structure, with a movable GND electrode, is the ability to precisely select the dose of energy and decontamination conditions by adjusting the discharge power, the distance between the electrodes, the speed of the trolley with the GND electrode, the number of runs of the trolley during processing. An innovative solution of the second design is, among others, the use of rotating cylindrical electrodes, which improves cooling conditions and the use of ozone produced in the process for initial decontamination.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, J.M.; methodology, J.M.; validation, J.M., R.S.; formal analysis, J.M., R.S.; investigation, J.M., R.D.; writing—original draft preparation, J.M.; writing—review and editing, R.S., R.D.; funding acquisition, J.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** The mechanical design and construction of equipment for decontamination of loose plant products was financed by the UTP and UKW University consortium under the "Inkubator Innowacyjno´sci Plus" project. Project application no. 17/02/2018/UTP. Other presented research received no external funding.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors would like to thank the employees of the Institute of Polymer Materials and Dyes Engineering (IMPIB) in Torun for their help and sharing of electrode sets and HV transformers. The authors also thank the staff of the Faculty of Agriculture and Biotechnology of the UTP University in Bydgoszcz for their help in evaluating the concept of devices for decontamination of loose organic materials.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

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Tel: +41 61 683 77 34 Fax: +41 61 302 89 18


**1. Introduction**

Healthy life is the most significant virtue of one's existence. The physical, social, and economical productivity of an individual depends mostly on the quality of life led by an individual. Human beings have always strived to achieve an optimum milieu of internal and external environment [1]. The diseases affecting mankind can be broadly classified into two types—communicable and noncommunicable diseases. With improvement in health-care facilities, sanitation, litigation services, and treatment modalities, the reign of communicable diseases is on a decline. However, a contrary rise of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) has been observed primarily due to changing lifestyles and diet [2].

The changing scenario favoring NCDs can primarily be contributed to sedentary lifestyle and rapid population aging especially in developing countries like India. Diseases like cardiac problems, cancers, diabetes, psychiatric disorders, and chronic respiratory diseases have seen an exponential increase in recent times and have become the leading causes of death globally killing more people each year than all other causes combined [2, 3]. As per the Global Burden of Disease Study for 1990, noncommunicable diseases ranked first as the cause of death in developed countries as well as in many developing countries and the world as a whole. Hence, common

risk factor approach addressing the problems and issues connected with noncommunicable diseases can influence the major health gains worldwide [3, 4].


**Meet the editors**

Prof. Eduardo Jacob-Lopes is currently an Associate Professor at the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria. He has more than 15 years of teaching and research experience. He is a technical and scientific consultant of several companies, agencies and scientific journals. He has 400 publications/communications, which include 5 books, 25

book chapters, and 80 original research papers, has 300 research communications in international and national conferences and has registered 15 patents. His research interest includes environmental biotechnology with emphasis on microalgal biotechnology.

Prof. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an Associate Professor at the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria. She is a technical and scientific consultant of several companies, agencies and scientific journals. She has 350 publications/communications, which include 5 books, 20 book chapters and 70 original research papers, has 280 re-

search communications in international and national conferences and has registered 10 patents. Her research interest includes microalgal biotechnology with emphasis on biomolecules and natural pigments.

Prof. Maria Isabel Queiroz is currently a Senior Professor at the Department of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande. She has more than 30 years of teaching and research experience. She is a technical and scientific consultant of several companies, agencies and scientific journals. She has more than 500 publications/communications, which include 10 books, 11 book

chapters and 100 original research papers and has 350 research communications in international and national conferences. Her research interest includes microalgal biotechnology with emphasis on bioprocesses.

Contents

**Preface VII**

**Introduction 1**

and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes

**for Biofuel Potential 13**

Sivaprasad and Ajith Haridas

Julio Cesar Sacramento Rivero

Chapter 1 **Introductory Chapter: Microalgae Biotechnology. A Brief**

Chapter 2 **Checklist, Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Marine**

Chapter 3 **Effect of Hydrodynamic Conditions of Photobioreactors on**

Chapter 4 **The Influence of Microalgae Addition as Co-Substrate in**

Sakthisaravanan and Radhakrishnan Kannan

Chapter 6 **Cyanobacteria and Microalgae in the Production of Valuable**

Elena Martínez-Francés and Carlos Escudero-Oñate

**Lipids Productivity in Microalgae 39**

**Anaerobic Digestion Processes 59**

Lama-Calvente and Rafael Borja

**Bioactive Compounds 105**

Chapter 5 **Algal Fuel Cell 91**

Stefania Fortes Siqueira, Maria Isabel Queiroz, Leila Queiroz Zepka

**Microalgae from Offshore Visakhapatnam, Bay of Bengal, India**

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