**6. Conclusion**

This study puts on show that the life cycle prediction of a downward pressure on saving by aging population could not be proved under uncertainty. Population aging is, on contrast, found to exert a long-term upward pressure on saving in an unemployment context. The economic environment's uncertainty (such income uncertainty) quantified, in our case of study, by the unemployment phenomenon, looks to be an essential factor of the change in the life cycle pattern of savings. It is able to shaping the saving behavior and to distort the LCH. The impact of the demographic change seems strongly related to the economic confidence factors. Accordingly, the social and economic conditions limit the scope of the LCH. Thus, population aging will not necessarily spell disaster on national saving. Consequently, studies' findings on developed countries could not be representative of saving behavioral in developing countries; where pension and medical insurance schemes are less developed and the persistent unemployment is without unemployment allowance benefit. Furthermore, it seems that the empirical findings checking the LCH depend on the aging indicator used. In fact, the use of the total dependency ratio could not validate the LCH, but it is validated by the old-age dependency ratio use. So, with more caution on the population aging measure, the evidence that elderly do not dissave may be found and the life cycle prediction may not be endorsed. Henceforth, the life cycle hypothesis may not be validated in macroeconomic approach as in the micro-econometric approach.

### *The Life Cycle Hypothesis and Uncertainty: Analyzing Aging Savings Relationship in Tunisia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100459*

Finally, as policy implications, several measures are needed to sustain saving rate or to prevent it from an eventual decline. In addition to the strategy applied lately to postponing the retirement age to 62 years-old, Tunisian Policy-makers have to accelerate the move from the pay-as-you-ago public pension system towards the funded pension system to cut costs of increasing old-age benefits. As well, to mobilize more savings, they should shift the liquid savings towards long-term products. Accordingly, it is important to reconsider the long-term savings strategy to meet the household's needs as well as the huge potential investment's needs. Therefore, major economic and financial reforms should be undertaken to restructure public corporates and the partial openness of their capital, to strengthen the pension plans, to develop the insurance sector and promote life insurance, and to improve the framework of the stock market and the bond market and diversify product of savings.


**9. Outcomes and complications of using self-fashioned mesh**

Our results for using self-fashioned mesh for the treatment of concurrent stress urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse showed a relatively high success rate in curing urinary incontinence (continence was 80%, improvement was 17%) and less recurrence of anterior vaginal wall prolapse (none with recurrent prolapse greater than stage II) in a threeyear follow-up. However, mesh erosion was not completely averted. Exposed vaginal mesh was removed uneventfully. None of these patients experienced recurrent urinary incontinence and prolapse.

#### **9.1 Comparison of relevant published articles**

There are three similar articles using self-fashioned mesh for treating stress urinary incontinence and anterior vaginal wall prolapse have been found in recent five years (Mustafa and Wadie, 2006; Amrute et al., 2007; Eboue et al., 2010 ). Character of mesh, patient number, mean follow-up period, success rates, and complications of these articles and ours are as tabled below (Table 1). Outcomes of using self-fashioned meshes are promising. Mesh erosion rates in these case series are acceptable compared to that of commercial mesh kits (Jelovsek et al. 2007; Gomelsky et al., 2011).

The rationale for using self-fashioned mesh is: (1) to support the proximal urethra, bladder neck and anterior vaginal wall so they are simultaneously free of tension; (2) to provide a frame for augmenting the vaginal wall; (3) to fashion the size of the mesh to fit the defect in the vaginal wall; (4) to avoid complications induced by mesh arms by not using additional fulllength mesh arms. A mesh patch lessens the amount of synthetic materials present in the wound bed which might diminish potential complications. Technically, it would be easier to remove the mesh patch than the full-length mesh if late complications occur (Tsui et al. 2005).

Suburethral Slingplasty Using a Self-Fashioned Mesh

**9.2 Comparative cost of a self-fashioned mesh**

because of the lower expense of a self-fashioned mesh kit.

treating this disease.

**10. Conclusion**

**11. References**

anterior vaginal wall simultaneously.

pp. 195-201, ISSN 0147-1988

1018, ISSN 0029-7844

for Treating Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Prolapse 229

The price of commercial mesh kits varies in the international market. In Taiwan, the National Health Insurance (NHI) covers some commercial kits for patients undergoing antiincontinence surgery. The commercial mesh kits for pelvic organ prolapse are not covered by NHI. Patients choosing commercial mesh kits for treating their pelvic organ prolapse must pay 1,200-2,000 USD out of their own pockets for the additional surgical cost. In comparison, the cost of a self-fashioned mesh is relatively affordable for patients with stress urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse, and the success rate is not compromised

Stress urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse are significant problems in relatively affluent countries. However, early childbearing and high fertility with early marriage, many vaginal deliveries, and frequent heavy lifting result in a high prevalence of stress urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse. The situation in developing countries is far worse and cannot be overlooked (Wunasekera et al., 2007). Therefore, financial consideration for choosing a self-fashioned mesh or commercial mesh kits seems to be an important issue for

This procedure provides an easier placement technique, a relatively high success rate, and less recurrence. The complications of the self-fashioned mesh (monofilament and macroporous polypropylene) are acceptable compared to other commercial mesh kits. In addition, the cost of the self-fashioned mesh is cheaper than the commercial mesh kits. The self-fashioned mesh is an alternative option for treating stress urinary incontinence and

Amrute, KV.; Eisenberg, ER. Rastinehad, AR. Kushner, L. & Badlani, GH. (2007). Analysis of

Baessler, K. & Maher, CF. (2006). Mesh augmentation during pelvic floor reconstructive

Bai, SW.; Jeon, MJ. Kim, JY. Chung, KA. Kim, SK. & Park, KH.. (2002). Relationship between

Beck, RP.; McCormick, S.& Nordstrom, L.(1991). A 25-year experience with 519 anterior

Boreham, MK.; Wai, CY. Miller, RT. Schaffer, JI. & Word, RA. (2002). Morphometeric

Borstad, E. & Rud, T. (1989). The risk of developing urinary stress incontinence after vaginal

*Gynecol Scand Suppl,* Vol. 68, No.6, pp. 545-549, ISSN 0001-6349

Neurourol Urodyn, Vol. 26, No.1, pp. 53-58, ISSN 0733-2467

*Dysfunct,* Vol.13, No.4, pp. 256-260, ISSN 0937-3462

Outcomes of Single Polypropylene Mesh in Total Pelvic Floor Reconstruction

surgery: risks and benefits. *Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol,* Vol.18, No.5, (October 2006),

stress urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse. *Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor*

colporrhaphy procedures. *Obstet Gynecol,* Vol. 78, No.6, (December 1991), pp. 1011-

analysis of smooth muscle in the anterior vaginal wall of women with pelvic organ prolapse. *Am J Obstet Gynecol,* Vol. 187, No. 1, (July 2002), pp.56-63, ISSN 0002-9378

repair in continent women. A clinical and urodynamic follow-up study. *Acta Obstet*

Table 1. Clinical information self-customized mesh studies

#### **9.2 Comparative cost of a self-fashioned mesh**

The price of commercial mesh kits varies in the international market. In Taiwan, the National Health Insurance (NHI) covers some commercial kits for patients undergoing antiincontinence surgery. The commercial mesh kits for pelvic organ prolapse are not covered by NHI. Patients choosing commercial mesh kits for treating their pelvic organ prolapse must pay 1,200-2,000 USD out of their own pockets for the additional surgical cost. In comparison, the cost of a self-fashioned mesh is relatively affordable for patients with stress urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse, and the success rate is not compromised because of the lower expense of a self-fashioned mesh kit.

Stress urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse are significant problems in relatively affluent countries. However, early childbearing and high fertility with early marriage, many vaginal deliveries, and frequent heavy lifting result in a high prevalence of stress urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse. The situation in developing countries is far worse and cannot be overlooked (Wunasekera et al., 2007). Therefore, financial consideration for choosing a self-fashioned mesh or commercial mesh kits seems to be an important issue for treating this disease.


**17β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 3 Deficiency: Diagnosis, Phenotypic Variability and Molecular Findings**

Maria Felicia Faienza and Luciano Cavallo *Department of Biomedicine of Developmental Age, University of Bari, Italy*


**MATERIALS SCIENCE - ADVANCED TOPICS**

Edited by **Yitzhak Mastai**

#### **Materials Science - Advanced Topics**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56700 Edited by Yitzhak Mastai

#### **Contributors**

Alexander B. Yakovlev, Yashwanth R. Padooru, George W. Hanson, Chandra S. R. Kaipa, Mihály Janóczki, Ákos Becker, László Jakab, Richárd Gróf, Tibor Takács, Stella Ezeonu, Chien-Yi Jay Huang, Hiroshi Naganuma, Hiromi Shima, Soichiro Okamura, Petr Ptáček, František Šoukal, Tomáš Opravil, Jiří Brandštetr, Vu Trung, Minh Duc Le, Tomohiro Iwasaki, Mohammad Amin Torabizadeh, Jairo Tronto, João Barros Valim, Ana Cláudia Bordonal, Zeki Naal, Chung-Wei Yang, Gaven Martin, H.P.S. Abdul Khalil, S S Suhaily, W.O. Wan Nadirah, Mohammad Jawaid, Jagannathan Thirumalai, Rathinam Chandramohan Pillai, T. A. Vijayan, R. Chandramohan, Hagay Yehuda Moshe, Zlomanov, Giovanni Franco Crosta, Michael Zinigrad, Konstantin Borodianskiy, Marios Nestoros

#### **© The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2013**

The moral rights of the and the author(s) have been asserted.

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#### **Notice**

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in Croatia, 2013 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia

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Materials Science - Advanced Topics Edited by Yitzhak Mastai

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**Abstract**

In recent times, food consumption has advanced beyond simply meeting growth and development needs to include the supply of ingredients that can protect against diseases. Among such non-nutritive ingredients are phenolic compounds. These are benzene-ringed secondary metabolites produced in plants upon exposure to environmental stress. Previous studies have linked phenolic compounds to bioactive benefits (e.g., antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer) with these bioactivities dependent on their biochemical structure and concentrations of individual phenolic compounds present in the food system. However, majority of plant foods are thermally processed into ready-to-eat forms, with these processing methods potentially altering the structure and subsequent bioactivities of endogenous phenolic compounds. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to highlight on emerging non-thermal novel technologies (such as pulsed electric field, radiation, ultrasonication, high hydrostatic pressure processing and high pressure carbon dioxide processing) that can be exploited by the food industry to preserve/enhance bioactivities of phenolic compounds during processing.

**Keywords:** Phenolic compounds, Bioactivity, Non-thermal processing, Functional food


*8.1. Operating System Performance*

The proposed solution was designed to be operating system independent and hardware accelerated. This meant that the advanced parallel *k*-means clustering could be executed on any operating system that had two processors: a neural engine processor and a general-purpose processor. However, both iOS and Android operating systems were designed to manage and take advantage of hardware allocation and management that included their neural engine processor. These dedicated operating systems were able to send specific tasks to a particular processor core, enabling the implementation and execution of the advanced parallel *k*-means clustering.

Overall, this type hardware acceleration provides opportunities for future advancements of the operating systems, which is expected since the new M-family MacOS already supports dedicated neural-engine-core assignments.

In order to evaluate the performance of the advanced *k*-means clustering across different operating systems, Table 3 presents two large datasets, each with over 9 million records. These were clustered using the advanced parallel *k*-means clustering algorithm on Windows OS, Android, and iOS systems.

**Table 3.** Clustering datasets.

The performance results, as presented in Table 4, showed that the processing of 11 million records from the Google Play Store dataset doubled in speed with a dedicated ML processor. The next experiment was conducted using the education-sector dataset, and the mobile processor exhibited a performance up to 10-times faster than the desktop OS (Windows 11). Additionally, the performance of iOS was twice as fast as that of the Android OS.

**Table 4.** Clustering performance of big-data sets in minutes.

The performance differences observed between the iOS and Android operating systems, within the context of advanced parallel *k*-means clustering, could be due to several factors. It could be related to the differences in the underlying architectures of the two operating systems. Specifically, iOS was designed to take full advantage of its hardware resources, including the dedicated neural engine cores, which could explain the observed faster performance, as compared to Android.

Additionally, the iOS architecture was based on the use of Objective-C and dispatch queues, which were designed to facilitate concurrent processing and task scheduling. These features provide a more efficient way to execute the parallel *k*-means clustering algorithm, potentially resulting in the observed faster performance.

However, the performance differences observed could have also been influenced by other factors, such as the differences in the hardware configurations of the devices used to test the algorithms, as well as the specific implementation of the parallel *k*-means clustering algorithm on the different operating systems.


**3.2 Pigeonpea yields**

Long-term yields of pigeonpea under variable and changing climate in Katumani are presented in **Figure 2**. Unlike maize, both CSIRO and CNRM models predicted decreased pigeonpea yields in Katumani in the near and far future. Yields from sole pigeonpea crop will decline by 10–20% and 4–9% under CSIRO and CNRM models, respectively, by 2100. Intercropping short and medium duration pigeonpea varieties with maize will reduce pigeonpea yields by 60–80% and 70–90% under the CSIRO and CNRM model, respectively. However, long duration varieties will yield highest under the two Global Climate Change Models (GCMs) irrespective of the cropping system, but the yields will be much lower than the potential yield of over 2 t ha−1 obtained from research experiments and large-scale commercial farms in the region. The decline in pigeonpea yields could be attributed to the projected 2°C and 11% increase in temperature and rainfall, respectively. Pigeonpea is a Carbon-3 (C3) plant and is highly sensitive to waterlogging; therefore, existing pigeonpea varieties may not thrive in the predicted hotter and wetter conditions [59, 60]. High temperatures reduce the rate of photosynthesis in legumes due to their C3 photosynthesis cycle leading to low yields [61, 62]. Waterlogging blocks oxygen supply to roots which hamper permeability [63], delays flowering and reduces vegetative growth, photosynthetic rate, biomass and grain yield in pigeonpea [64, 65]. Short duration

**241**

Kenya

**Author details**

**4. Conclusion**

that Kenya currently enjoys.

**Acknowledgements**

Kizito Musundi Kwena1,2\*, G.N. Karuku1

County for their technical support.

(LARMAT), University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Katumani Research Centre, Machakos, Kenya

provided the original work is properly cited.

, F.O. Ayuke1

1 Department of Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology

3 Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Nairobi,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

2 Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO),

and A.O. Esilaba3

*Impact of Climate Change on Maize and Pigeonpea Yields in Semi-Arid Kenya*

pigeonpea varieties like Mbaazi I are more prone to the risk of yield reduction due to waterlogging compared to the medium and long duration varieties such as Kat 60/8 and Mbaazi II, respectively [66]. Therefore, farmers in Katumani and similar areas in the country may have to rethink their dependence on pigeonpea going into the future. Scientists also need to start breeding for more heat and waterlogging-tolerant varieties to save the livelihoods of thousands of resource-poor households in ASALs and safeguard the huge pigeonpea export market that Kenya currently commands.

Prospects for growing maize in Katumani are high both in the near (2050) and far (2100) future. However, pigeonpea production will be negatively affected by climate change going forward due to pigeonpea's susceptibility to high temperatures and waterlogging. Therefore, farmers in the ASALs need to rethink their dependence on pigeonpea while national plant breeding programs need to start developing heat and waterlogging-tolerant varieties to help thousands of resource-poor households in ASALs to adapt to climate change and protect the huge pigeonpea export market

We are grateful to the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) for allowing us to conduct this study. We also thank the Department of Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology (LARMAT) of the University of Nairobi, KALRO's Natural Resources Management (NRM) Programme and the Kenya Meteorological Service (KMS) office in Machakos

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93321*

**Figure 2.** *Projected pigeonpea yields for Katumani in the near and far future.*

*Impact of Climate Change on Maize and Pigeonpea Yields in Semi-Arid Kenya DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93321*

pigeonpea varieties like Mbaazi I are more prone to the risk of yield reduction due to waterlogging compared to the medium and long duration varieties such as Kat 60/8 and Mbaazi II, respectively [66]. Therefore, farmers in Katumani and similar areas in the country may have to rethink their dependence on pigeonpea going into the future. Scientists also need to start breeding for more heat and waterlogging-tolerant varieties to save the livelihoods of thousands of resource-poor households in ASALs and safeguard the huge pigeonpea export market that Kenya currently commands.


**4. Discussion, recommendations and conclusions**

The contributions made by this chapter can be separated into two major areas. The first contribution can be deemed as being the utilization of the KM Sequential Model to produce a logical link between various knowledge concepts, KM perspectives and KM strategies (**Figure 1**). The second contribution can be deemed as the suggestions made, based on the literature review, for the role of various HR practices in supporting different KM strategies (**Table 1**). The chapter suggests an alignment between HRM and its practices and various KM strategies. As many scholars have highlighted, in this study we proposed an integrative approach between KM and HRM, so that if we compare the KM cycle with HRM processes, we found that various activities are shared between both.

The constructed framework of HR practices under each KM strategy assumed that the practices should be consistent in order to best support the organizational strategy towards KM. Arguably, the HR strategy achieves its optimal supportive role by constructing a combination of practices that are consistent and complimentary in catering to the objectives set by the organizational strategy. However, in reality this might not be the case.

*Aligning Human Resource Management with Knowledge Management for Better Organizational…*

So far, the available literature on the role of HRM in supporting KM theoretically suggests a strong potential contribution for HR practices in implementing effective KM strategies. Various HRM practices were discussed and relationships made with KM activities, although the relationships mooted were mainly theoretical in nature or focusing on a few HR practices to empirically claim such a relationship. Due to the perceived novelty of this research field within HRM specifically and management studies in general, there are many contributions that have the potential to be made in this field. That being said, there is a definite niche for empirical research to be undertaken in this particular area. There is, of course, a probability that undiscovered gaps between theory and practice do indeed exist. Moreover, most of the studies focused on a few HR practices and not comprehensively covered HR practices in supporting KM strategies. Therefore, future empirical studies that look at HR practices as a combination in supporting KM are needed to claim the alignment of HR practices in supporting KM activities in practice and not only in theory. A targeted empirical research effort is definitely needed to uncover the mechanisms that link HRM and KM and aid the deepening of our academic and practical understanding of the subject. Academically, empirical research will add to the available body of knowledge in the KM and HRM literature and allow amendments to be made to theoretical assumptions. Practically speaking, this effort would help to enforce KM initiatives within firms and it would assist in repositioning HRM in a

structures, structural inertia and cultural considerations that might inhibit the

alignment of HR practices with the identified KM strategies.

more strategic position fit for tackling the knowledge economy era.

contradictory—HRM practices suggested to support each strategy.

employees are treated differently within one firm.

With the KM strategy and the implications it has for HRM, there is a debate regarding whether organizations should place emphasis on the personalizationbased approach, the codification-based approach or a combination of the two. Although this argument may sound theoretical in nature, its empirical consequences are, nonetheless, important. Agreeing with Hansen et al. [21], the chapter indicates complications and inconsistencies when both a personalization strategy and a codification strategy are stressed. This is due to the differing—and sometimes

However, the suggestion put forth by Edwards et al. [23] is equally viable, based on a number of reasoning points. Firstly, both standpoints agree that a personalization approach and a codification approach coexist within a single organization, yet with different roles. They can either be rated as being of equal importance or as one method acting as a primary method with the other as a secondary method. Therefore, if Hansen et al. [21] are indeed right, then how can a supportive strategy be highlighted given that the firm places sole emphasis on its primary strategy? Secondly, although a combination approach may indicate an unclear strategic orientation within a company; this may actually be a reflection of the organizational complexity and the need to accommodate different strategies to

Nonetheless, the combination approach is tempting in that it sums up well the benefits of the personalization and the codification strategies. However, if it is practiced then empirical examinations are needed so its implementation mechanisms can be understood. In theory, the combination approach seems more inclined towards a personalization-based approach, with minor differences. So, it can be hypothesized that, within a combination strategy, the HRM and organizational practices of a company with a personalization approach would prevail over those of a company that has adopted the codification approach. Yet, how would contradictory practices be resolved in such a strategy? Also, the adoption of the combination strategy would raise issues, one being equality and fairness based on whether

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86517*

## *Aligning Human Resource Management with Knowledge Management for Better Organizational… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86517*

structures, structural inertia and cultural considerations that might inhibit the alignment of HR practices with the identified KM strategies.

So far, the available literature on the role of HRM in supporting KM theoretically suggests a strong potential contribution for HR practices in implementing effective KM strategies. Various HRM practices were discussed and relationships made with KM activities, although the relationships mooted were mainly theoretical in nature or focusing on a few HR practices to empirically claim such a relationship. Due to the perceived novelty of this research field within HRM specifically and management studies in general, there are many contributions that have the potential to be made in this field. That being said, there is a definite niche for empirical research to be undertaken in this particular area. There is, of course, a probability that undiscovered gaps between theory and practice do indeed exist. Moreover, most of the studies focused on a few HR practices and not comprehensively covered HR practices in supporting KM strategies. Therefore, future empirical studies that look at HR practices as a combination in supporting KM are needed to claim the alignment of HR practices in supporting KM activities in practice and not only in theory.

A targeted empirical research effort is definitely needed to uncover the mechanisms that link HRM and KM and aid the deepening of our academic and practical understanding of the subject. Academically, empirical research will add to the available body of knowledge in the KM and HRM literature and allow amendments to be made to theoretical assumptions. Practically speaking, this effort would help to enforce KM initiatives within firms and it would assist in repositioning HRM in a more strategic position fit for tackling the knowledge economy era.

With the KM strategy and the implications it has for HRM, there is a debate regarding whether organizations should place emphasis on the personalizationbased approach, the codification-based approach or a combination of the two. Although this argument may sound theoretical in nature, its empirical consequences are, nonetheless, important. Agreeing with Hansen et al. [21], the chapter indicates complications and inconsistencies when both a personalization strategy and a codification strategy are stressed. This is due to the differing—and sometimes contradictory—HRM practices suggested to support each strategy.

However, the suggestion put forth by Edwards et al. [23] is equally viable, based on a number of reasoning points. Firstly, both standpoints agree that a personalization approach and a codification approach coexist within a single organization, yet with different roles. They can either be rated as being of equal importance or as one method acting as a primary method with the other as a secondary method. Therefore, if Hansen et al. [21] are indeed right, then how can a supportive strategy be highlighted given that the firm places sole emphasis on its primary strategy? Secondly, although a combination approach may indicate an unclear strategic orientation within a company; this may actually be a reflection of the organizational complexity and the need to accommodate different strategies to serve various needs.

Nonetheless, the combination approach is tempting in that it sums up well the benefits of the personalization and the codification strategies. However, if it is practiced then empirical examinations are needed so its implementation mechanisms can be understood. In theory, the combination approach seems more inclined towards a personalization-based approach, with minor differences. So, it can be hypothesized that, within a combination strategy, the HRM and organizational practices of a company with a personalization approach would prevail over those of a company that has adopted the codification approach. Yet, how would contradictory practices be resolved in such a strategy? Also, the adoption of the combination strategy would raise issues, one being equality and fairness based on whether employees are treated differently within one firm.

*Current Issues in Knowledge Management*

decreasing retention rate.

career progression in such mundane environments.

**4. Discussion, recommendations and conclusions**

the knowledge gaps within the organization.

various activities are shared between both.

internal network and utilizing it as they progress later on.

undertaken at the early stages of careers, so as to establish a "norm" within a career plan. This could potentially aid the new recruits from the outset, in forming their

Hansen et al. [21] suggested that different KM strategies require different methods of career management. Companies that have adopted the personalization approach like to promote upward movements: it is either "up or out" for some. Some scholars claim that knowledge workers have primary responsibility for their own career development [69]. Employee seen as especially valuable to the organization are developed more proactively by the organization and this often includes a stronger role for the organization in planning their careers and facilitating careers moves-now part of 'talent management' [70]. Along the same line, Gope et al. [8] revealed that companies encourage their employees towards self-choice career development and unhindered growth and provide them with flexibility and opportunities to enhance individual learning capabilities for creating new knowledge and sharing it in different functions and divisions. This is consistent with other studies on knowledge acquisition and knowledge sharing. Subsequently, some firms have created two hierarchies as a response to the personal career needs: a managerial hierarchy and an expert-oriented hierarchy. However, the increasing willingness of knowledge workers to stay in their domain of expertise mixed with the onset of increased organizational de-layering (which forces a reduction in the numbers of middle managers), there is a relative drought occurring of managerial talents that are needed to fill senior positions. Accordingly, firms are looking outside their own firms and recruiting externally to fill top managerial positions. This is increasing the personnel cost due to the labor market shortage and the

This is at odds with a codification-based company, where progress is limited due to emphasis being placed on routine job roles [21]. Hierarchal movements are also limited for low-skilled employees. There is always difficulty in sparking interest in

Overall, however, most scholars believe that career adjustments should always concentrate on involving KM roles and functions and then altering them to filling

The contributions made by this chapter can be separated into two major areas. The first contribution can be deemed as being the utilization of the KM Sequential Model to produce a logical link between various knowledge concepts, KM perspectives and KM strategies (**Figure 1**). The second contribution can be deemed as the suggestions made, based on the literature review, for the role of various HR practices in supporting different KM strategies (**Table 1**). The chapter suggests an alignment between HRM and its practices and various KM strategies. As many scholars have highlighted, in this study we proposed an integrative approach between KM and HRM, so that if we compare the KM cycle with HRM processes, we found that

The constructed framework of HR practices under each KM strategy assumed that the practices should be consistent in order to best support the organizational strategy towards KM. Arguably, the HR strategy achieves its optimal supportive role by constructing a combination of practices that are consistent and complimentary in catering to the objectives set by the organizational strategy. However, in reality this might not be the case. HR strategies are subject to other forces such as organizational size, available resources, leadership climate, internal politics and power

**96**

Moreover, the literature focuses on debating and studying KM strategies at the organizational level. However, this might be a limited perception of reality. Different KM strategies might exist at various organizational levels. Thus, further research studying KM strategies at the intra-organizational level might be useful to address how knowledge is managed at various geographical locations, occupational levels, departments and practices. Subsequently, How HRM practices accommodate for various KM strategies within the same organization? Are HRM practices customized within organizations to support various strategies or are they standardized based on the holistic KM orientation at the organizational level.

Also, it is possible that both the HR and IT approaches within the same organization are weak and underdeveloped. Therefore, under such circumstances, how organizations manage their knowledge to ensure their output quality and quantity?

It is also interesting to further investigate the contextual characteristics under each KM strategy. Hansen et al. [21] focused on the competitive strategy, economic models, IT and HR. Other attributes such as the leadership style, culture type and organizational structure are some factors that might act as forces influencing the KM strategy formulation and implementation.

Another factor that future studies should focus on is the rise of artificial intelligence and its impact on KM and HR practices. It might be that the debate of either having a codification or personalization dominant strategy or the argument of having an equal-dominance coexistence of those strategies are obsolete. New KM strategies might emerge in organizations that highly depend on automation, artificial intelligence and big data, with a mass customization competitive advantage. For example, KM might be leaning towards a more partnership model between human capital and machines and software. Under such a strategy, what will be the role of HRM and how HR practices will be constructed? A parallel influence, related to the increasing embedment and dependence on technology within some organizations is the changing nature of the workplace and work arrangements. For example, the impact of the increasing trends of crowd-workers, virtual employees, teleworkers, dematerialization of workplace, etc., will definitely have an impact on KM and the supporting HR practices.


*Article* **Dewetting Process in Ni-Mn-Ga Shape-Memory Heusler: Effects on Morphology, Stoichiometry and Magnetic Properties**

**Milad Takhsha Ghahfarokhi 1,\*, Federica Celegato 2, Gabriele Barrera 2, Francesca Casoli 1,\*, Paola Tiberto 2 and Franca Albertini 1**

**Abstract:** In this work, dewetting process has been investigated in shape-memory Heuslers. To this aim, series of high-temperature annealing (1100–1150 K) have been performed at high vacuum (time is varied in the range of 55–165 min) in Ni-Mn-Ga epitaxial thin films grown on MgO(001). The process kinetics have been followed by studying the evolution of morphology and composition. In particular, we report the initiation of the dewetting process by the formation of symmetric holes in the films. The holes propagate and integrate, leaving micrometric and submicron islands of the material, increasing the average roughness of the films by a factor of up to around 30. The dewetting process is accompanied by severe Ga and Mn sublimation, and Ni-Ga segregation, which significantly modify the magnetic properties of the films measured at each stage. The annealed samples show a relatively weak magnetic signal at room temperature with respect to the pristine sample.

**Keywords:** magnetic shape memory alloys; multifunctional Heusler compounds; solid-state dewetting; annealing; morphology; stoichiometry; magnetic properties


**Author details**

Cecile M. Schultz Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**5. Microbubbles (MBs)**

There are a number of pathways by which LNPs could enter mammalian cells, namely by phagocytosis, pinocytosis, clathrin and calveolin independent endocytosis [9, 17]. Of these, phagocytosis is a process of engulfing and internalisation of large particles (1 um) by cells. The majority of phagocytic cells of the immune system, including macrophages, neutrophils, monocytes, and microglia, are able to internalise foreign bodies via phagocytosis. Pinocytosis is a method of particle internalisation by non-phagocytic cells but this is a very non-specific mechanism of internalisation into cells [9]. On the other hand, clathrin-mediated endocytosis (receptor-mediated) and caveolin-mediated endocytosis are much the more specific means of

In original preclinical laboratory experiments, Gadonano-F LNPs were prepared and used to image xenograft tumours (IGROV-1) in mice. At just 2h post-injection the Gadonano-F LNPs mediated a similar signal enhancement to that attained at 24h post-injection by control (Gadonano LNPs, lacking folate ligand) (Figure 6). Specifically, Gadonano LNPs accumulated in tumour by the EPR mechanism ("passive" targeting) [12, 13], and labelled cells for MRI over a period of 24h. These imaging LNPs were seen to access the entire hyperpermeable, living volume of the tumour while being excluded from the necrotic regions. By contrast, the FRtargeted Gadonano-F LNPs accumulated in the tumour and labelled cells for MRI from 2h onwards, owing to EPR mediated tumour uptake from the blood pool followed by rapid FRmediated cell entry probably involving clathrin-mediated endocytosis. FR-targeted imaging

Gadonano-F LNPs accumulated in the tumour and labelled cells for MRI from 2h onwards, owing to EPR mediated tumour uptake from the blood pool followed by rapid FR-mediated cell entry probably involving clathrin-mediated endocytosis. FR-targeted

On the left 24 h post imaging LNP administration, (a) surface IGROV-1 tumor slices, Gadonano LNPs, (b) midtumor IGROV-1 slices, Gadonano LNPs, (c) surface IGROV-1 tumor slices, Gadonano-F LNPs, and (d) IGROV-1 midtumor slices, Gadonano-F LNPs (green bar represents 50 *μ*m).  On the right, MRI contrast images of IGROV-1 tumour bearing Balb/C nude mice:

Rapid and effective imaging of FR-bearing tumours by Gadonano-F LNPs in preclinical experiments, has since led to these LNPs being prepared for clinical trial by GlobalAcorn Ltd under the name GA101 NANO-GdF (Gadonano LNPs are also being developed for clinical trial by GlobalAcorn Ltd under the name GA100 NANO-Gd). Rapid and specific imaging of diseased tissues and tumours will be of paramount importance for preclinical research and also future diagnostic and theranostic applications in clinic [2,3].

Since the MBs were first proposed as suitable tools for ultrasound contrast agents more than three decades ago, there has been a remarkable progress in the field. In accordance with that, the research has been particularly concerned with the MB preparation techniques and their standardization, in order to ensure a steady composition and size distribution of MBs, both representing crucial features for the stability of MBs *in vivo* and thus providing a sufficient backscatter for ultrasound imaging. Although the very first MBs were generally considered to contribute to improvement of the imaging techniques, they were soon proved to serve as excellent drug and gene delivery systems both in diagnostics and therapy. Much has been discussed on ultrasound molecular imaging using MBs as contrast agents, including novel preparation techniques and their general design; however, the choice of a convenient system for drug and gene delivery and concept of MB functionalization is still an issue worth consideration. In this chapter, potential ways for application of MBs as contrast agents together with drug and gene delivery are shown, relating to the recently used functionalized

MBs are small gas-filled microspheres whose size typically ranges between 1 and 10 µm in diameter see (**Figure 7**). They comprise a gas-filled core, usually formed by inert, high molecular gases such as sulphur hexafluoride or perfluorocarbons, which due to their decreased solubility and low diffusion prolong the lifespan of MBs in circulation [19], by means of a stabilizing shell of lipid, polymer and/or protein [20, 21]. The composition of the shell determines the stiffness and therefore the stability of MBs in blood flow, where instability is caused by exposure of MBs to the rigors of systemic circulation [19, 22]. Limits on stability can effect the scope of ultrasound imaging utilization *in vivo* since the half-life of MBs depends on their stability. Generally, lipid shelled MBs are considered thinner and more flexible, whilst polymer and protein-shelled bubbles have a thicker and more rigid shell [23]. A thick permeable shell is beneficial to enhance the MB stability (also reducing the gas diffusion) and thus might be used for ultrasound drug delivery purposes [19, 24, 25]. However, the shell ought to only slightly limit the vibration of MBs in the ultrasound field generated

Another important aspect for any MB formulation is their size distribution that dictates the acoustic properties of MBs [22]. As the MBs smaller than 1 µm in diameter produce minimal acoustic contrast, the intent is to produce larger MBs [26-29]. On the other

LNPs accumulated in more perivascular and macrophage-rich locations [14,18].

*Figure 6. Fluorescence microscopy and MRI contrast imaging of 24 h post imaging LNP injection*.

**Figure 6.** Fluorescence microscopy and MRI contrast imaging of 24 h post imaging LNP injection.

shows location of tumour) (Adapted from [18])

by echo imaging systems (otherwise they do not provide sufficient contrast).

**Microbubbles (MBs)**

86 Advances in Bioengineering

MBs in vitro and *in vivo*.

imaging LNPs accumulated in more perivascular and macrophage-rich locations [14,18].

cellular entry, of which the first is ideal for entry of LNPs to cells.

Since the MBs were first proposed as suitable tools for ultrasound contrast agents more than three decades ago, there has been a remarkable progress in the field. In accordance with that, the research has been particularly concerned with the MB preparation techniques and their standardization, in order to ensure a steady composition and size distribution of MBs, both representing crucial features for the stability of MBs *in vivo* and thus providing a sufficient backscatter for ultrasound imaging. Although the very first MBs were generally considered to contribute to improvement of the imaging techniques, they were soon proved to serve as excellent drug and gene delivery systems both in diagnostics and therapy. Much has been discussed on ultrasound molecular imaging using MBs as contrast agents, including novel preparation techniques and their general design; however, the choice of a convenient system for drug and gene delivery and concept of MB functionalization is still an issue worth consideration. In this chapter, potential ways for application of MBs as contrast agents together with drug and gene delivery are shown, relating to the recently used functionalized MBs in vitro and *in vivo*.

MBs are small gas-filled microspheres whose size typically ranges between 1 and 10 μm in diameter see (Figure 7). They comprise a gas-filled core, usually formed by inert, high molecular gases such as sulphur hexafluoride or perfluorocarbons, which due to their decreased solubility and low diffusion prolong the lifespan of MBs in circulation [19], by means of a stabilizing shell of lipid, polymer and/or protein [20, 21]. The composition of the shell determines the stiffness and therefore the stability of MBs in blood flow, where instability is caused by exposure of MBs to the rigors of systemic circulation [19, 22]. Limits on stability can affect the scope of ultrasound imaging utilization *in vivo* since the half-life of MBs depends on their stability. Generally, lipid shelled MBs are considered thinner and more flexible, whilst polymer and protein-shelled bubbles have a thicker and more rigid shell [23]. A thick perme‐ able shell is beneficial to enhance the MB stability (also reducing the gas diffusion) and thus might be used for ultrasound drug delivery purposes [19, 24, 25]. However, the shell ought to only slightly limit the vibration of MBs in the ultrasound field generated by echo imaging systems (otherwise they do not provide sufficient contrast).

Another important aspect for any MB formulation is their size distribution that dictates the acoustic properties of MBs [22]. As the MBs smaller than 1 μm in diameter produce minimal acoustic contrast, the intent is to produce larger MBs [26-29]. On the other hand, the MB size distribution should not exceed 10 μm of size in diameter; otherwise they get quickly filtered by the lungs and can pose a risk of embolus [22, 30]. Furthermore, the size distribution is also believed to affect the drug delivery [22, 31, 32].


*Edited by Mokhtar Arazpour*

This book consists of two parts: Prosthetics and Orthotics. Over the years there has been rapid development in prostheses and orthoses. Advancement of technology, significant progress in computer components and robotics, and the development of new materials have enabled many people in need to return to useful and practical life. This book provides information for effective clinical decision-making for those working with people who need medical supportive devices. Over two parts, chapters in this volume examine construction methods, applications, and effects of prosthetic and orthotic devices.

Published in London, UK © 2021 IntechOpen © mkitina4 / iStock

Prosthetics and Orthotics

Prosthetics and Orthotics

*Edited by Mokhtar Arazpour*


**5. Discussion**

This chapter discusses application of the AHP method in two different organisational settings based on two case studies.

First, AHP is applicable as an evaluation technique that eases the decision maker's task of choosing the most efficient maintenance policy. Diverse management practices can be implemented by manufacturing organisations in order to improve organisational performance by continuous improvement trough implementation of process changes [47,48]. Maintenance can be seen vital for sustainable performance of a production plant [49]. Sharma et al. [50] concluded that development, adoption and practice of new maintenance strategies had become crucial. Selecting a suitable maintenance policy is definitely one of the essential decision-making tasks in improving the cost-effectiveness of the production systems [3,14]. Recent studies [40] indicate that appropriate maintenance can extend the life of an asset and prevent costly breakdowns that may result in lost production. The maintenance function plays a critical role in a company's ability to compete on the basis of cost, quality and delivery performance [51,52]. It appears that aim of the maintenance function is to contribute towards a company's profit, clearly bringing the need for maintenance operations to be in harmony with corporate business objectives [53]. Further, the growing importance of maintenance regarding improving company's profitability and competitiveness [54,55], strengthens the need for selecting a proper maintenance policy [56]. Therefore, using the proposed AHP framework, the criteria for maintenance policy selection can be clearly recognised and the issue can be structured systematically. More importantly, it can effectively support the decision makers in the process of selecting the most appropriate maintenance policy.

Three main criteria for the maintenance policy selection were used in this study and are as follows: equipment- and process-related measures, financial measures as well as health and safety and environment measures. Furthermore, the following sub-criteria are considered to be the most important: OEE, maintenance savings, number of accidents and productivity and availability. The latter can be explained in the context of a production process which in the paper mill is running 24/7. Therefore, used criteria play an important role, especially from the perspective of accomplishing the production goals. Based on the selected criteria as well as on the decision makers' evaluations, the TQMain was selected as the most appropriate mainte‐ nance approach. Among others, the TQMain is focused on maintaining and improving continuously the technical and economic effectiveness of the process elements [9], which were indeed important criteria in our study.

To ensure that final solution is stable and robust, we additionally applied sensitivity analysis. With Expert Choice software, AHP enables sensitivity analysis of results which is very important in practical decision making [57].

Secondly, the AHP method was applied to identify the important of each of the factors that would impact the sustainability of the suggestion scheme. This analysis resulted in placing importance ranks among the five factors. These factors are arranged in the order of their importance as below:

As the consistency ratio resulted in < 0.1, the judgement for overall sustainability factors are

After the study and analysis of the reciprocal matrix and AHP calculations were done, it can

• Leadership and Work Environment is slightly more important than both—System Effec‐ tiveness (2) and System Capability (2), somewhat more important than Organisational

• System Capability is equally important to System Effectiveness (1) and slightly more important to both Organisational Encouragement (2) and System Barriers (2). However, it is

• System Effectiveness is equally important to both System Capability (1) and Organisational Environment (1) and slightly more important to System Barriers (2). However, it is slightly

• Organisational Encouragement is equally important to System Barriers (1) and System Effectiveness (1). However, it is less important than System Capability (1/2) and somewhat

• System Barriers is equally important to Organisational Encouragement (1). However, it is slightly less important to both System Capability (1/2) and system Effectiveness (1/2) and much

**Table 8** depicts the importance order for five sustainability factors based on the above interpretations. The Leadership and Work Environment is the more important factor when compared to the other four. The indicator System Capability stands at the next importance on rank 2, System Effectiveness at importance rank 3 and Organisational Encouragement at rank

This chapter discusses application of the AHP method in two different organisational settings

First, AHP is applicable as an evaluation technique that eases the decision maker's task of choosing the most efficient maintenance policy. Diverse management practices can be implemented by manufacturing organisations in order to improve organisational performance by continuous improvement trough implementation of process changes [47,48]. Maintenance can be seen vital for sustainable performance of a production plant [49]. Sharma et al. [50]

Environment (3) and much more important than System Barriers.

106 Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process - Decision Making for Strategic Decisions

slightly less important than Leadership and Work Environment (1/2).

less important to Leadership and Work Environment (1/2).

less important to Leadership and Work Environment (1/3).

less important to Leadership and Work Environment (1/5).

4 and System Barriers at rank 5.

**5. Discussion**

based on two case studies.

perfectly consistent.

be interpreted that:

**4. The overall factor importance**

The most important factor is placed at the centre and the least important factor is placed at the bottom of the list. Leadership and Work Environment is the first most important factor, System Capability is the next important factor followed by System Effectives that is placed at the next level. The Organisational Encouragement is placed at layer four and the last important factor is the System Barriers.

The success of the suggestion scheme is related to the management support, practices, commitment and their leadership [35,58]. Truly, senior management ought to demonstrate their faith in the scheme, promote and support it and encourage all managers to view it as a positive force for continuous improvement [59]. Typically, the management support is seen as crucial to the implementation of ideas. For example, while a person can be creative and generate new ideas on her/his own, the implementation of ideas typically depends upon the approval, support and resources of others, which essentially calls for different forms of management support. If employees make a lot of suggestions, then the opportunity for them to be translated into implementations is greater when there are higher levels of support. Without senior level management support the workers will not be motivated to turn in suggestions [60].

The management support is also very essential for the facilitation of communication mecha‐ nism within the organisation. Management, therefore, has a responsibility to satisfy this need for participation and create a culture which is supportive of employee involvement in the decisions that affect his or her work [61]. Thus, the leadership-employee relation is of top most importance that can help the creativity practice to grow in the organisation.

Secondly, the knowledge possessed by individual employees can only lead to a firm, compet‐ itive advantage if employees have the incentive and opportunity to share and utilize their individual knowledge in ways that benefit the organisation. Systems that capture the ideas and the capability of such system to evaluate them and provide necessary feedback and reward the employees for the suggestion are other core elements that are necessary once the top management and leadership support is obtained.

Thirdly, organisations need to nurture the system by establishing mechanisms such as team works to improve the employee participation and must ensure that the right expertise and supervision is provided to guide the employees to make their suggestions.

The benefits of the suggestions must be visible. Therefore, it is important that the suggestions result in desired outcomes so these benefits are accrued, and such systems can be sustained. Often there will be organisational impediments that may have a negative impact which are normally the barriers to creativity and this factor has least importance specially because if the systems are the result of the vision of the leadership and resources are allocated to the functioning of the system, organisation impediments have a little scope to cripple the sustain‐ ability of the suggestion system.

Each of the factors has a varied influence on the sustainability of the suggestion scheme and hence understanding the importance level identified by the AHP application of each of them would help the organisation to foster the factors accordingly for an improved performance and increase the effectiveness. Using AHP method, it is possible to identify the importance level of critical success factors and success barriers that have emerged in previous studies. Although the suggestion systems have been around for many decades, identifying the importance level of these factors helps to get a deeper understanding of sustainability of suggestion systems in organisations. Moreover, sustainability is not just a binary state of 'sustaining' or 'not sustaining'. Therefore, it is important to study the impacts of the inhibitors and barriers of suggestion systems on its sustainability.


**3.1 Lead placement sites**

Current approaches to the CSP base on the placement of the permanent pacing leads in the sites of the cardiac conduction system other than the RVA. CSP intends to overcome an asynchronous activation during pacing by producing the most physiologic activation pattern close to the one seen in the intrinsic conduction system. For that purpose, CSP leads may be implanted either at the HB or at the region of the left bundle branch (LBB) for different resynchronization strategies (**Figure 1**). The advantages and limitations of different strategies will be discussed later in the chapter.


**Section 6**

**Social Psychology**

246 Psychology – Selected Papers

Marková, I., Moodie, E., & Plichtovà, J. (1998). The social representations of democracy:

Moscovici, S. (1961). La psychanalyse son image son public. Paris: PressesUniversitaires de

Moscovici, S., & Vignaux, G. (1994). Le concept de Thêmata. In Ch. Guimelli (Dir.),

Reinert, M. (1990): Alceste, une méthodologie d'analyse des données textuelles et une

Reinert, M. (1993): Les «mondes lexicaux» et leur «logique» à travers l'analyse statistique

Reinert, M. (1999): Quelques interrogations à propos de l'«objet» d'une analyse de discours de type statistique et de la réponse «Alceste». Langage & Société, décembre, 90, 57–70. Reinert, M. (2001a). Processus catégorique et co-construction des sujets et des mondes à

Reinert, M. (2001b): Alceste, une méthode statistique et sémiotique d'analyse de discours.

Psychiatrie et de Psychologie Médicale. Tome V, 49 (10/2001), 32–36.

d'un corpus de récits de cauchemars. Langage & Société, 66, 5–39.

Linguistique et Psychanalyse (pp. 385–398). Paris: In Presse.

University Press.

Delachaux et Niestlé.

26, 24–54.

France. (second edition 1976).

Peirce, C.S. (1978). Écrits sur le signe. Paris: Seuil.

stability and change in word meanings. In A.-V. Rigas (Ed.), Social representations and contemporary social problems (pp. 155–177). Athens: Ellinka Grammata Publ. Marková, I. (2003). Dialogical triads and three-component processes. In Dialogicality and

Social representations, the dynamics of Mind (pp. 147–176). Cambridge: Cambridge

Structures et transformations des représentations sociales (p. 25–72). Neuchâtel:

application: Aurélia de Gérard de Nerval. Bulletin de Méthodologie Sociologique,

travers l'analyse statistique de différents corpus. In M. Arrivé. & C. Normand,

Application aux «Rêveries du promeneur solitaire». La Revue Française de

**13**

*Germany*

Nina Dickel and Gerd Bohner

*University of Bielefeld,*

**Minority and Majority Influence on Attitudes**

In a complex world a quick evaluation of objects and situations is very helpful. It can guide our attention and behavior toward the things that matter to us. Attitudes are such evaluations. They can refer to anything one can conceive of: individuals and groups, products, music, or even smells, as well as suggestions and ideas. For example, when we meet someone new, we form an attitude toward our new acquaintance within seconds. Often, we

Attitudes can be formed in various ways: Imagine you are browsing the Internet for a holiday destination. You will find hundreds of different offers for package tours: how do you decide which one to book? You may like the pictures of the sea or of people relaxing in a bar. Maybe the web advertisement claims that 89% of costumers were highly satisfied with the holiday. Or, if it is very important to you not to spend too much money, you will elaborate carefully on which services are included. Eventually, you will come up with a summary evaluation regarding which offer is the best, and, if you consider the price to be appropriate, perhaps buy it. As this example illustrates, many different aspects can impact the evaluation of an object. A spontaneous affective reaction is immediately activated (in this case that could be a positive reaction to sunny pictures), heuristic inferences are made, for instance, "if 89% were happy it must be quite good", or very systematic thinking about the concrete features of the offer results in a judgment of whether this holiday suits you or

Social psychologists invented a large range of measurement paradigms that tap into different aspects of attitudes and attitude change. The simplest way to assess an attitude is to just ask people how they like something, on a scale, for instance, from "not at all" (1) to (7) "definitely like it," or to ask whether or not they agree with statements in favor or disfavor of the attitude object (Likert scale; Likert, 1932). Those are examples of self-report measures of attitudes that will be referred to as explicit attitudes in this chapter. When attitudes are measured by asking people explicitly how the object of interest is liked, respondents are usually able to answer this question. However, the outcome is also subject to impression management and may not cover all aspects like spontaneous affective reactions. To eliminate effects of social desirability on attitude measures social psychologist developed several "tricks".

**1. Introduction**

**1.1 What is an attitude?**

not (see Erb, et al., 1998, expt. 2).

**1.2 How to measure attitudes?**

do not know where this affective reaction comes from.


*1.6. Up-Gradation of End-Products*

Recent studies have laid much emphasis on agro-waste-AD systems, in which a mixture of 40–65% of methane (CH4), 35–55% of carbon dioxide (CO2), some traces of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), nitrogen gas(N2), H2, water vapor and other components (e.g., volatile hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc.) are produced as raw biogas. Similarly, the removal of contaminants, mainly H2S, CO2, and water vapor, in addition to some other toxic components from the biogas stream, is termed biogas up-gradation. This is usually performed to obtain a methane-rich gas of >96% CH4. In the biogas up-gradation process, three main techniques are usually used, i.e., pressure swing adsorption, absorption (physical and chemical), and membrane separation [42]. Pressure swing adsorption is carried out based on the molecular size to adsorb unwanted CO2, H2S, N2, and O2 from the biogas

stream, and, as such, 96–98% of pure methane is obtained. The most commonly used adsorbent materials during biogas up-gradation techniques are activated carbon and zeolites. Another technique employed in biogas purification is the physical water scrubbing method based on the increased solubility of CO2 and H2S in the water compared to CH4. Other separation techniques used to remove CO2 and H2S from the biogas stream include amine scrubbing, caustic scrubbing, and amino acid salt solution usage. Examples of commonly used amines for chemical absorption are monoethanolamine, aminoethoxy ethanol, etc. On the other hand, the membrane separation technique involves using permeable membranes, which helps in trapping some other biogas constituents. In fermentation, the conventional method used for liquid biofuels up-gradation is distillation, which operates on the principle of the volatile nature of the substances in a mixture. The separation can be carried out primarily based on the less heavy products. Other classes of distillation that can be used for the product up-gradation include extractive, conventional, azeotropic, and molecular distillation. Hence, when an end-product undergoes an up-gradation process using the above processes, it can be utilized efficiently in various technology fields and serve as a promising alternative for renewable energy process development.