*Article* **Categorizations of Trust and Distrust in the Classifications and Social Representations of Food among Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women in Spain—Applying the Cultural Domains' Pile Sort Technique**

**Araceli Muñoz 1,2,3,\* , Cristina Larrea-Killinger 3,4,5 , Andrés Fontalba-Navas 3,6,7 and Miguel Company-Morales 3,8,9**

	- 3 "ToxicBody" Interdisciplinary Network, Department of Social Anthropology, University of Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain
	- 4 Research Group "Anthropology of Crisis and Contemporary Transformations (CRITS)", Department of Social Anthropology, University of Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain
	- 5 CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain
	- 6 Antequera Hospital, Northern Málaga Integrated Healthcare Area, 29200 Antequera, Spain
	- 7 Department of Public Health and Psychiatry, University of Málaga, 29016 Málaga, Spain

**Abstract:** Food is fundamental in the decision making of pregnant and breastfeeding women to care for their own health and that of their child. In this paper, we explore some common food classification systems and certain attributes assigned to these categories, represented by values of trust and distrust. This study is based on an interdisciplinary research project in which we analysed discourses and practices regarding the dietary intake of pregnant and breastfeeding women in relation to the presence of chemical substances in foods. The results presented are part of the second phase of this research where we explored the results of our analysis of the pile sort technique based on an analysis of cultural domains in order to explore the categories and semantic relations among terms regarding trust and distrust in food. This technique was applied to the 62 pregnant and breastfeeding women of Catalonia and Andalusia. These women also participated in eight focus groups that provided information and narratives enabling us to analyse the meanings of the associative subdomains obtained in the pile sorts. They classified different foods and assigned certain attributes to them according to the level of trust and mistrust, providing a social representation of food risks. The mothers expressed great concern about the quality of the food they consume and about its possible effects on their own health and on that of their child. They perceive that an adequate diet is one based on the consumption of fruits and vegetables, preferably fresh. Fish and meat generate serious concern, as their properties are considered ambivalent depending on the food's origin and mode of production. These criteria are perceived by women as relevant to their food decisions and, therefore, emic knowledge should be taken into account when developing food safety programmes and planning actions aimed at pregnant and breastfeeding women.

**Keywords:** cultural domains; pile sorts; food risk; trust; distrust; pregnancy; breastfeeding

#### **1. Introduction**

This article is based on an exploratory study of the food classification system and the values assigned to the resulting categories according to the criteria of trust and distrust by

**Citation:** Muñoz, A.; Larrea-Killinger, C.; Fontalba-Navas, A.; Company-Morales, M. Categorizations of Trust and Distrust in the Classifications and Social Representations of Food among Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women in Spain—Applying the Cultural Domains' Pile Sort Technique. *Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health* **2023**, *20*, 4195. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph20054195

Academic Editors: F. Xavier Medina, Francesc Fusté-Forné, Nela Filimon and Paul B. Tchounwou

Received: 30 January 2023 Revised: 23 February 2023 Accepted: 23 February 2023 Published: 26 February 2023

**Copyright:** © 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

pregnant and breastfeeding women. Knowledge of how consumers perceive the differences between foods enriches our understanding of eating behaviours [1]. It is also important to be able to evaluate the risks present in food selection and consumption [2]. This includes both risks derived from habits and lifestyles [3] and those resulting from transformations in the food system for increased production, possibly involving manipulations that increase risks to health [4,5].

Cognitive models related to decision making in food choices include the attributes of trust–distrust which are, in turn, components of perceptions of food (in)security. Trust is an intangible construct with many definitions, ranging from the multidimensional encompassing principles such as competence, coherence and empathy tosociopsychological principles. The latter includes both the trust inspired by the institutional structures that regulate daily life and the calculating, rational and mediated by logic, assumptions and experience [6]. In any relationship, this trust is an essential component, albeit highly dynamic and fragile.

In such an important period of life as pregnancy and lactation, women need to feel sure that the food they eat is safe and accompanied by accurate information. This demand for assurance is all the stronger within the present global food system, which is complex and interconnected, and where it is difficult to trust the sources of food information [7]. The "nutritional cacophony" referred to by Fischler [8] is part of this globalised system and has an evident influence on food choices. Women's nutrition, before and during pregnancy, plays a key role in their own health and in that of their child, and is an important aspect in optimising pregnancy outcomes [9]. For this reason, the concepts of confidence in food, related to its safety and perceived risks, are of cardinal importance in dietary preferences during pregnancy and breastfeeding [10,11].

Another important consideration is that the medicalisation of pregnancy [12,13] and nutrition [14] in Western countries, together with the biomedical discourses received, subject pregnant and breastfeeding women to incessant control and surveillance. Furthermore, in order to safeguard the health of their child (before and after birth), mothers are under great pressure to self-regulate and self-care [15,16]. Pregnancy and lactation, thus, are vital but stressful stages during which the woman may view what is happening to her body with fear and distrust [17], especially when subjected to the discourse of risk. As a result, many women apply precaution as a strategy for managing uncertainty [18] and for protecting the child [19]. As a consequence, food-related discourses and practices are a vital consideration in women's attitudes towards their health.

In this fundamental place that food occupies in the decision making of pregnant and breastfeeding women for the care of their own health and the baby's [20,21], the criteria applied for food choice and consumption depend on various socioeconomic and cultural factors [18,22].

In this paper, we analyse food classification systems and certain attributes assigned to these categories, represented by values of trust and distrust. An analysis of cultural domains [23], an area of cognitive anthropology, brings us closer to how members of a society think about certain sets of items that have a joint presence in their culture or which are represented as being of the same type [24,25]. Analyses of cultural domains are commonly used in medical anthropology, and there exists an extensive bibliography regarding this type of research. In the field of food and nutrition, the pile sort technique is especially useful [26–34].

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

#### *2.1. Study Design and Setting*

This study, which was part of a broader interdisciplinary research project, was conducted to analyse discourses and practices on the dietary intake of pregnant and breastfeeding women in relation to the presence of chemical substances in foods [11,18,22,35–37]. The research was conducted in two phases, the first from 2015 to 2017 (Ref. CSO2014-58144-P) and the second from 2018 to 2021 (Ref. AP-0139-2017).

The field work was carried out at various health centres (hospitals and primary care centres) in the Spanish autonomous regions of Catalonia (Barcelona and its metropolitan area, Baix Llobregat, Tarragona and Ribera d'Ebre) and Andalusia (Granada and its surroundings, Valle del Almanzora, Antequera and Cabra).

#### *2.2. Study Sample*

The sample selection process was intentional or purposive, seeking the maximum variation, heterogeneity and intensity, whilst obtaining a balanced sample with similar representations of age, education, occupation and socioeconomic stratum. The following inclusion criteria were applied: women born in Spain, 20 weeks pregnant or more, or who had given birth during the last six months and were breastfeeding (exclusively or also using formula). The exclusion criteria were that the women must not have had any pathology that entailed a change in their diet. All participants were informed of the objectives and methods of the research and gave written consent to take part. Approval was also obtained from the corresponding ethics committees.

#### *2.3. Data Collection and Analysis*

In the first phase of the research (Figure 1), 111 semistructured interviews were conducted (with 62 pregnant women and 49 breastfeeding women) together with 4 focused ethnographies, 2 focus groups, 71 food diaries, 71 free listings and 12 interviews with health professionals (Table 1). In the second phase, eight focus groups and 62 pile sorts were conducted with 62 mothers (26 of whom were pregnant and 36 of whom were breastfeeding) (Table 2).

**Figure 1.** First and second phases. Data collection instruments.

In Muñoz et al. [36], we reported the results of our analysis of the data obtained from the free listings carried out in the first phase of the study, in which the mothers were urged to think about what types of food they saw as trustworthy and untrustworthy and to make lists of each type of food. In the article, we explained how the technique of free listings was applied to a group of pregnant and breastfeeding women to analyse the main shared items or elements regarding trust and distrust in food. This technique is based on an analysis of cultural domains [23], a method for analysing social meanings and shared knowledge [24], which enables us to understand how mothers assimilate different social meanings and to determine the most important categories used in talking about trust/distrust in relation to food.

**Table 1.** First phase. Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants.

**Table 2.** Second phase. Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants.

In this paper, we present the second phase of the study, in which we conducted a different technique that was also based on the analysis of cultural domains [23] in order to analyse categories and semantic relations among terms regarding trust and distrust in food [25]. This technique, pile sort, was applied to the 62 pregnant and breastfeeding women who participated in the eight focus groups. In this approach, free lists are usually followed by pile sorts [25] to identify the relations among terms within a given domain [38]. The basic aim of this technique is to formalise an associative cultural map for each of the indicated areas. Pile sorts are mainly used to obtain semblances between certain items in a cultural domain or attributes that are used to distinguish these items from the informants' criteria [39].

#### 2.3.1. Items or Categories of Analysis from the Free Listings

The participants were instructed to group the main items/categories of food cited in the free listings obtained in phase one of the study, reflecting similarities or differences regarding their trust and distrust in each case. Thus, the food categories for trust (*n* = 20) and distrust (*n* = 20) used in the pile sorts were obtained from the free listings, i.e., the twenty most cited items in the free listings for trust and distrust, respectively (Table 3).

The mothers were asked to identify different types of food as trusted or distrusted and to attribute qualities and adjectives to each product together with the specific properties perceived and other relevant characteristics related to the origin, manipulation, processing and distribution of the product. Adjectives such as fresh, natural, organic, whole-grain, seasonal, local, from the garden, homemade, craft or washed are often associated with trust, while those termed as processed, industrial, precooked, prepared, packaged, canned, fried or foreign tend to be distrusted. It is important to note that some foods are mentioned several times, since distinctions are made depending on their handling.

**Table 3.** Food categories associated with trust (*n* = 20) and distrust (*n* = 20) in the pile sorts obtained from the free listings.

#### 2.3.2. Item Sorts and Categories of Analysis

The pile sorts were obtained as follows: each participant was given two sets of cards, one with the names of types of food that generally inspire trust and the other with those associated with distrust [38]. Each set of cards was randomly shuffled, and the participants were instructed to group the cards by sorting them into piles with as many or as few cards as they wished. No specific criteria for doing so were mentioned [40]. However, the women were told they could not put all the cards in a single pile [38].

#### 2.3.3. Analysing with ANTHROPAC and Nonmetric Multidimensional Scaling (nMDS)

The information from the pile sorts was classified and analysed using *ANTHROPAC* software (version <IP_ADDRESS>, Software for Cultural Domain Analysis, Borgatti, SP.; Analytic Technologies: Natick, MA, USA, 2003), designed for the quantitative analysis of qualitative data and cultural domains [41]. From the *ANTHOPAC* findings, *nonmetric multidimensional scaling (nMDS)* was performed on the participants' trust and distrust in the food categories, to represent the pile sorts obtained that reflected the proximity/distance of each category in the mother's perceptive universe. *nMDS* provides a way to represent semantic proximities without requiring metric data [42], in which the distances between items reveal correlational, not metric distances [25]. The outcome of this process is a graphic display of the mothers' thought processes in creating the pile sorts [43].

#### 2.3.4. Identifying Clusters or Dimensions

*nMDS* results may be interpreted by considering the items as dimensions or as clusters [25]. In our analysis, the associative subdomains in the women's perceptions were overlaid on the representation. The *nMDS* model enables various interpretations to be made, and so the item areas or dimensions proposed are tentative. Using the information obtained from the focus groups, we identified clusters or dimensions and decided which labels should be attached to each [29]. In the case in question, five clusters or dimensions in the *nMDS* were related to trust and another five to distrust (Table 4). The labels of these dimensions refer not only to different types of foods but also to the qualities and properties attributed to them, as well as other characteristics related to their origin, manipulation, processing and distribution.

**Table 4.** Clusters or dimensions in the *nMDS* related to trust (*n* = 5) and distrust (*n* = 5) in food items.

#### 2.3.5. Pile Sorts and Focus Groups' Narratives

The focus groups provided information and narratives enabling us to analyse the meanings of the associative subdomains obtained when the mothers constructed pile sorts. The focus groups also informed us about their sociocultural norms, attitudes and perceptions regarding interactions with the environment [44]. The participation of these women in the focus groups gave us a better understanding of the social contexts in which crucial decisions were made. These qualitative data were analysed following the strategies expressed in Grounded Theory [45,46] to identify, interpret and explain the core meaning of the data obtained from pregnant and breastfeeding women and thus to generate meaningful codes and categories. The study information was exhaustively systematised using *ATLAS-ti* qualitative analysis software (Version 8; ATLAS-ti Scientific Software Development GmbH: Berlin, Germany, 2019).

#### **3. Results**

We present the results obtained from analysing the pile sorting activity and the focus groups' contributions regarding associative subdomains for trust or distrust in different types of food. This analysis enabled us to distinguish similarities and differences in the categories generated by the focus group participants.

In these focus groups, the participants remarked on the complexity of determining which foods can be trusted and which cannot. In relation to food environments, for example, they reflect on how contamination may affect production and provoke distrust in the food consumed:

"Absolutely. For me, this has a direct influence, because the plants, which rely on rain, on the water that falls, when they're in contaminated ground, this is where they feed. And the animals that eat contaminated grass, or that eat, well, everything ... the water, everything, the nitrates, everything that's in the soil, then everything ends up in the plant. And we eat all of that. So, yes, I do think it affects us".

#### *(Tarragona focus group)*

They also note that distrust in some foods spurs a search for more information, which can then provoke even greater distrust in the products investigated:

"Of course, you tend to distrust everything. Then again, if you have to look at what's in all the food, you wouldn't buy anything, you wouldn't eat anything. But finally, you end up eating it because you like it, full stop . . . ".

#### *(Tarragona focus group)*

The pregnant and breastfeeding mothers consulted expressed great concern about food quality and its potential effects on their health and that of their child, and emphasised the importance of knowing what they are eating, on reading the labels and on having good information about the composition of the products bought and consumed:

"You try to take better care of yourself. Also, now that I've got over the gestational diabetes I had, well, I look at everything much more closely and now I'm looking at the labels much more than I used to, I can see they add sugar to things, which I didn't know about before, I didn't ... For example. So, it's true that now, apart from being careful with freezing and washing food, and I don't know what else, when you start looking at the labels that's another question... In my case, due to my special circumstance, yes. When this is all over, sure, I won't look at them so carefully".

#### *(Antequera focus group)*

"Take fish, for example. Even if it's fresh today, I don't care. Even if it's fresh today, I won't eat it straight away. I always freeze it and eat it later, because once before, I was going to eat it on the same day and I found this little worm inside, the larva or whatever, though later I heard that you can't see anisakis, it's impossible. Well, I saw a worm, I don't know if it was anisakis or what it was, but from then on, I've always frozen everything".

#### *(Tarragona focus group)*

The women participating in the focus groups also argued that distrust is not incompatible with taste, since many of these foods are liked; nevertheless, they are avoided because they are not considered healthy. Distrust in itself does not prevent consumption. Some of the women acknowledged that you should not think too much about food because otherwise you would end up not eating anything. As some of the participants pointed out: "Everything creates distrust, but distrust doesn't stop you from eating" *(Tarragona focus group)*, or "We don't trust it, but we have to eat" *(Tíjola focus group).*

Another idea that came out in these narratives, and one that makes deciding which foods to choose even more complex, is that the amount of food or the frequency of its consumption is important. In other words, the excessive or abusive consumption of any product can have a negative impact on people's health.

"- ... . But if you haven't got much time, and now you're going to do the shopping, are you going to look at the label on every single product?

*(Cabra focus group)*

#### *3.1. The Trust of Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women in Food*

The *nonmetric multidimensional scaling (nMDS)* performed for confidence in food revealed five associative subdomains in the proximity/distance map of the categories, according to the perceptions of the women participating (Figure 2).

The clusters or associative subdomains of the *nMDS* graphical representation of trust in food were given these labels: 1. items in which trust arises from the nutritional properties of the food itself and/or its origin and manipulation; 2. cereals, legumes and nuts; 3. dairy products; 4. eggs; 5. items in which participants expressed ambivalence in terms of (mis)trust.

In the focus groups, various categories and items related to trust in food emerged from the participants' narratives (Figure 3).

**Figure 2.** *Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (nMDS)* of trust in food. Representation of the total number of pile sorts (*n* = 62), showing the proximity/distance of the categories in the women's perceptual universe. The *nMDS* model allows for various interpretations, and therefore the proposed item areas are tentative. Interpretation of the clusters or dimensions: blue: cereals, legumes and nuts; black: trusted items due to the nutritional properties of the food itself and/or its origin and manipulation; pink: items characterised by ambivalence regarding (mis)trust; green: eggs; grey: dairy products.

The first area of items in the *nMDS* model of trust in food revealed two related categories: on the one hand, fruits and vegetables, in which trust is based on their inherent nutritional properties; on the other, organic meats and products linked by trust based on their origin and handling.

"In relating these groupings with the narratives drawn from the focus groups, it can be seen that, in reference to trust in the nutritional properties of fruits and vegetables, the participants remarked that natural, fresh products contain the best nutritional components, vitamins and minerals. Furthermore, these nutritionbased attitudes towards the properties of foods are reinforced by biomedical care during pregnancy and childbirth, although taste also plays an important role; thus, some mothers emphasised that fresh fruit had a better flavour: 'Exactly, so they can grow them faster, because when you see a tomato that's this big, but when you eat it, it doesn't have any taste!'".

*(Tíjola focus group)*

**Figure 3.** Categories and items arising from the focus groups in relation to trust in food.

Although fruits and vegetables are trusted and considered to be healthy and nutritious, some of the women consulted compared the use of pesticides and fertilisers in intensive agriculture (unfavourably) with the absence of these products from their own and relatives' vegetable gardens. They provided an environmental justification in relation to a growing distrust toward chemical substances derived from agricultural production [18,36], and they argued that intensive agriculture harms plant health and growth by degrading the soil and water. Some of the women commented that although they tried to avoid using pesticides in their gardens, this was not always possible:

"Because they've made [the fruit, vegetables] bigger, oh yes, with fertilisers and the like... I know that my father-in-law has to use something to kill the bugs, because nowadays the soil isn't good, the water isn't good.  If you don't use something extra, the tomatoes won't grow".

#### *(Tíjola focus group)*

Nevertheless, these women distinguish between the products of intensive agriculture and what comes from their own or their family's gardens, which they know is much healthier:

"My father-in-law has a vegetable garden and we used to help him out. The best thing is... there's no comparison, you pick a tomato from there... the bunch of tomatoes or the peppers in season, ... we grew it ourselves, that's what I really trust".

#### *(Cabra focus group)*

In relation to organic meat and other organic products, and people's trust based on the origin and handling of the food, the participants in our focus groups remarked that they had more trust in this type of product, which they considered less industrially manipulated and contained fewer chemical additives such as pesticides, herbicides and hormones. In their opinion, organic certification gives a sense of security backed by production controls, where the legal discourse of certification generates trust associated with healthy living and sustainability. A woman who works in a meat producing company shared her experience:

"- Even if there are lots of controls, industrial methods will never be as natural as what you do at home. But it is true that the industrial scene has all the veterinary controls. When you slaughter at home, well yes, the vet is usually there. Except when he isn't. That's the thing. So, it's a bit complicated.

#### *(Tíjola focus group)*

The *nMDS* model of consumer trust also contained a second set of items that were a little more widely separated: an associative subdomain comprised of cereals, legumes and nuts.

In their words, the members of the focus groups trusted cereals, viewing them as products that usually keep well without spoiling. In this respect, they placed special emphasis on bread, pasta and rice, which were termed "balanced" foods and a source of energy.

"What would give me the most confidence would be, as I said before, pasta and legumes, because they give me more peace of mind".

#### *(Antequera focus group)*

The levels of trust in cereals were determined by notions of their origin, price and degree of manipulation.

"For example, because I see it in my work, maybe... "Look, I'm going to buy these cereals for my child, because they're the best, because they are more expensive", and you compare them with another brand and it has a lot of added sugar . . . ".

#### *(Cabra focus group)*

Many of the participants trusted legumes because this type of food has many nutritional properties with proteins and iron. For these mothers, it is important that legumes are subject to very little processing and manipulation and are easy to store.

"Well, the thing is to have a balanced diet, a little of everything. With legumes, fish, a bit of everything. In pregnancy, sometimes, I don't know, sometimes it does something to you, but well. Sure, dairy products and all that, yes".

#### *(Tarragona focus group)*

It is these very characteristics that are apparent in legumes, which are seen as trusted products, like nuts. The mothers in the focus groups also indicated that legumes are very "natural", being rich in healthy fats and providing a lot of energy.

"For I eat a few nuts, too. They give me energy, I think. I don't know if it's psychological, but I think they do me good".

#### *(Sant Feliu focus group)*

"Nuts, perhaps, is what I trust most. Because I think everything else is more adulterated, and ... With animals, it's hormones. With fish, heavy metals.  Unless you're going to buy organic, then you know there are more guarantees. Nuts, I would say, maybe. And seeds".

*(Tarragona focus group)*

Considered in a similarly positive light are two associative subdomains, dairy products and eggs.

Dairy foods, especially milk and yogurt, also generated confidence among the participants, who referred to these products as complete and nutritious with a high calcium content and which undergo strict controls in their preparation process.

Eggs were also among the foods that were generally well trusted by the mothers in the study groups, who emphasised that it provides lots of protein and is subject to little industrial manipulation. However, this trust depends on the production methods used; eggs from free-range hens are trusted because this status affects the way the hens are treated, their behaviour and, ultimately, the quality of the food. By contrast, the intensive production model is criticised, and this negative view influences consumer choice.

"Eggs, for example, before, the chickens lived free, they were... now we eat eggs from chickens that are stressed out because they are locked up. It's true, they are psychologically stressed, they're pressured to lay eggs, come on, lay eggs that need to be sold, do this, do that ... I don't like eggs very much. I'll often buy from someone who's got a bit of land, I'll buy just a few eggs from them... I also buy in supermarkets, because you've got to do the shopping, ...".

#### *(Tíjola focus group)*

Finally, another set of items in the *nMDS* trust model formed an associative subdomain characterised by ambivalence between trust and distrust. This ambivalence concerned two types of food in particular: fish and meat.

On the one hand, fish generated trust due to the properties of the food itself, its proteins, minerals and omega 3 content. On the other hand, distrust could occur depending on the origin, manipulation and conservation of this food. As one of the mothers pointed out:

"For example, I eat a lot of fresh fish, my father goes out fishing, and you can't even trust that, really, because of the plastics in the water, the spills from the boats...".

#### *(Vera focus group)*

Meat is another food that generated trust due to its natural properties, providing proteins and containing a lot of iron. However, concerns about production and manipulation reduced the level of trust in this respect as well.

"- I prefer to go to the butcher's and have the meat minced there, rather than buy packaged minced meat from...

#### *(Antequera focus group)*

"Well, the thing is to have a balanced diet, a little of everything. With legumes, fish, a bit of everything. In pregnancy, sometimes, I don't know, sometimes it does something to you, but well. Sure, dairy products and all that, yes".

*(Tarragona focus group)*

#### *3.2. The Distrust of Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women in Food*

The illustration of *nonmetric multidimensional scaling (nMDS)* on distrust in food shows that there are five associative subdomains in the proximity/distance map of the food categories according to the pregnant and breastfeeding women participating in this study (Figure 4).

**Figure 4.** *Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (nMDS)* of distrust in food. Representation of the total number of pile sorts (*n* = 62) showing the proximity/distance of the categories in the women's perceptual universe. The *nMDS* model allows for various interpretations and therefore the proposed item areas are tentative. Interpretation of the clusters or dimensions: blue: prepared or pre-cooked food; black: highly artificial processed products with many added chemical substances; pink: basic processed products; green: products that are distrusted due to their origin, manipulation and/or distribution; grey: products that are distrusted because of concerns about added preservatives.

The different clusters or associative subdomains in the *nMDS* graphical representation of distrust in food are labelled as: 1. prepared or precooked products; 2. basic processed products; 3. highly artificial processed products with many added chemical substances; 4. items distrusted due to their origin, manipulation and/or distribution; 5. items distrusted due to concerns about added preservatives.

The discussions held in the focus groups gave rise to the following categories and items related to trust in food (Figure 5).

Continuing with the first area of items in the *nMDS* model of food distrust, there were three subdomains of items that grouped a large body of foods that generated suspicion according to the way in which they were manipulated: these were prepared or precooked products, basic processed products and highly artificial products with chemical additives.

In relating these groupings with the narratives from the focus groups, it can be seen that the participants distrusted prepared or precooked products because they do not know what substances they may contain; they also had serious reservations concerning how these foods are processed, manipulated, cooked, preserved and packaged.

**Figure 5.** Categories and items arising from the focus groups in relation to distrust in food.

In relation to basic processed foods, such as meat, the participants said they distrusted those that have been "processed" or "treated", referring in particular to the addition of preservatives, stabilisers and colourants, which they perceived as "unnatural".

"- Yes, I'm not so keen on packaged food. For example, take minced meat; if you read the label on the pack you'll see it contains more things that are not meat than what is meat.   It doesn't give you much confidence.

#### *(Tíjola focus group)*

*(Vera focus group)*

Processed products that are considered highly artificial or which contain large amounts of chemical additives—such as industrial pastries, crisps, packaged juices and soft drinks—provoke great suspicion. This is especially the case with industrial pastries, due on the one hand to the presence of saturated fats and sugars and, on the other, to the existence of chemical additives such as sweeteners, colourants, flavourings and preservatives.

"Looking after children, I think, is much more complicated than controlling your own diet. The children who eat worse than... Well, I don't know if it's worse, but they eat what is sold as food for children, and it has such an enormous amount of sugar; I always say, go to the supermarket and get a My First Danone, and a normal Danone, and look at the amount of sugar in My First Danone. Your heart sinks. And it is very difficult to escape from those kinds of foods, no matter how much you want to. At home you can give them the healthiest, really the healthiest food, look out for them... But they are in the world . . . It's really very difficult". *(Antequera focus group)*

In a similar way to the above-mentioned groups, there was an ambivalent associative subdomain in the participants' (mis)trust in food depending on its origin, manipulation and distribution. Concerning meat, the mothers distrusted meat from animals that had been fed with fodder, with "chemical substances" or that had been injected with hormones or other drugs. Instead, they preferred meat that was more "natural", from animals allowed to freely graze in the open.

"The fewer the additives, the fewer the extra preservatives that aren't natural, for me that's closer to being healthy. I mean, for example, before on the label there was the word 'tuna', which is a fish that, within a balanced diet ... fish, well, you consider it... well, me at least, I consider it part of a balanced diet. But it's not a fish that gives me much confidence, because it reminds me of mercury, pollution, all that. And I'd almost rather eat canned tuna or tuna that comes from a fish farm, than the natural fish, because, perhaps because of the context of mercury that's been related with tuna and suchlike ... it depends on the food. The more natural, the less it's packaged, the fewer preservatives added, the more natural it is. For me, that's the best".

#### *(Antequera focus group)*

There was a tendency to distrust large fish and to prefer smaller ones, caught near the coast, since there is a widespread belief that big fish may have consumed more heavy metals and mercury.

Finally, one area of item grouping in the *nMDS* model of distrust was spatially separated from the rest. This associative subdomain was related to (mis)trust in relation to food preservation. For example, in the narratives obtained from the focus groups, the case of frozen fish highlights the doubts and uncertainty created by this form of food preservation. Although most of the women believed they can trust this food, because freezing the fish keeps it in a good state of preservation, they also feared that there may have been a break in the cold chain before it reached the consumer. The doubts raised by this concern, not knowing whether the frozen food maintains the same properties as fresh fish, makes them somewhat distrust it.

"But when you're pregnant, you get more cautious. You wash the vegetables much better than before. You even freeze the food. Maybe you're not pregnant and you say, "Well, look, I eat fresh fish, freshly cooked". But now, being pregnant, it's different; I prefer to freeze it. You do that, whatever, just to be on the safe side . . . ".

*(Antequera focus group)*

#### **4. Discussion**

Pregnancy and lactation are vital stages in a woman's life, during which food becomes a central issue in relation to her health, and the changes in her body are experienced with fear and trepidation [17]. These feelings are associated with the fact that mothers, in this cycle of their lives, are marked by the discourse of risk and the precautionary principle as strategies to manage uncertainty [18] and to protect the foetus or the baby [19].

Food insecurity can affect all stages of life. However, women are at greater risk of suffering from this condition due to gender determinants as the result of inequalities arising from risk factors such as gender violence or unequal access to employment and education [47]. A balanced diet and appropriate weight gain during pregnancy are associated with better maternal and perinatal outcomes. Therefore, weight gain and nutrition are significant areas of public health concern during this stage of life [48]. Conversely, overnutrition and undernutrition both increase the risk of an adverse perinatal outcome, including excessive or inadequate foetal growth, gestational diabetes mellitus, preterm birth and pre-eclampsia. Furthermore, the absence of proper nutrition in early childhood can have life-long consequences. Therefore, it is important to explore the social representations around 'healthy eating' of these women and the factors that influence their trust or distrust in food.

The pregnant and breastfeeding mothers consulted expressed great concern about the quality of the food they consume and about its possible effects on their own health and on that of their child. Regarding which foods they can trust, these women must sometimes make highly complex decisions. The participants in our study emphasised the importance of reading food labels, of knowing the composition of the products consumed and of seeking information on any foods that might seem suspicious. However, they also recognised that worrying excessively about food quality could mean, ultimately, not eating anything.

In addition, the participants mentioned other factors that make it even more difficult to decide which foods to choose. They realise that caution is more important than the pleasure of eating. Therefore, although they like many of the foods referred to with distrust, for reasons of health they prefer to avoid them. Some women also observed that the amount of food and the frequency of its consumption are important factors, and that any excessive consumption can be harmful.

In the opinion of the pregnant and breastfeeding mothers consulted, an adequate diet is one based on the consumption of fruits and vegetables (preferably fresh) and of organic meats. However, these preferences are not always applied in practice since other factors such as price and availability (not addressed in this study) must also be taken into account. Although the medical–nutritional discourse based on sustainability has steadily gained strength among consumers as a significant criterion in their food choices [49], this environmental discourse (recommending a diet based on the production and consumption of organic meats, fruits and vegetables) does not constitute the subdomain most frequently identified in our analysis. Proximity and taste remain the preferred criteria for choosing fruits and vegetables, while "fresh" is considered synonymous with "natural" and with not having undergone cold storage for preservation.

Legumes and cereals are easier to store and hence are more generally trusted than other foods. In no case did the study participants question the production process for cereals (with the exception of transgenics) or legumes. On the contrary, although eggs and dairy products are trusted foods, they are often viewed with some suspicion due to industry involvement in the manufacturing process.

Fish and meat generate serious concern as their properties are considered ambivalent depending on the food's origin and mode of production. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation [50], Spain is the fourth country in the world in fish consumption, with an annual per capita consumption of 45.6 kg. The origin and type of fish products—from various countries, fresh or frozen, large and small—creates some disquiet. Medical discourses favour the consumption of small fish in order to enhance the nutritional properties of this type of food [51] and advise against the consumption of large fish, which are subject to the risk of mercury contamination.

Ambivalence among the participants regarding the consumption of meat is due to the high consumption of sausage products in Spain. Many types are specifically warned against during pregnancy. Ambivalence is also due to the influence of discourses in the media concerning how the animals are fed [52] and because of medical warnings about effects on cardiovascular health [53].

In summary, the women consulted in this study expressed ambivalence between trust and distrust in meat, fish, dairy products and eggs, mainly regarding the ways in which these foods are produced. The participants, however, were in close agreement in classifying prepared or precooked products, basic processed products and highly artificial products with added chemical substances as foods to be distrusted due to suspicions about the manufacturing process.

#### **5. Conclusions**

The pregnant and breastfeeding women in our study groups classified various foods and assigned certain attributes to them according to the level of trust and mistrust inspired in each case, thus providing a social representation of food risks. These criteria are perceived by women as relevant to their food decisions and, therefore, emic knowledge should be taken into account when developing food safety programmes and planning actions aimed at pregnant and breastfeeding women.

We believe that achieving a better understanding of what women consider 'healthy eating' and determining the factors that influence their trust or distrust in the food consumed is critical. This is one of the main contributions of this article. These findings could be very useful for health professionals, revealing which criteria determine trust/mistrust among this population group and highlighting similarities and differences with regard to medical–nutritional recommendations.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization and design, A.M. and C.L.-K.; methodology and software, A.M., A.F.-N. and M.C.-M.; formal analysis and data curation, A.M., C.L.-K. and M.C.-M.; investigation, A.M., C.L.-K., A.F.-N. and M.C.-M.; writing—original draft preparation, A.M. and C.L.-K.; writing—review and editing, A.M., C.L.-K., A.F.-N. and M.C.-M.; supervision and project administration, M.C.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** The first phase of this research was financed by the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, the State Programme for the Promotion of Scientific and Technical Research of Excellence, the State Subprogramme for the Generation of Knowledge, Spain (reference: CSO2014-58144-P). The second phase of the study was funded by Fundación Pública Andaluza Progreso y Salud de la Junta de Andalucía, Spain (reference: AP-0139-2017). Dr. M. Company-Morales obtained a scholarship for this part of the research from the Ministry of Health of the Junta de Andalucía, Spain (A-0043-2018).

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** This study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the following ethics committees: "Parc de Salut Mar" Clinical Research Ethics Committee (Ref: 2015/6459/I), IDIAP Jordi Gol Ethics Committee for Clinical Research (Ref. P15/135) and the Research Ethics Committee of the Andalusian Health Service in Almería (Ref: 66/2017).

**Informed Consent Statement:** Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

**Data Availability Statement:** The data presented in this study are not publicly available due to privacy and confidentiality reasons.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors would like to thank all the pregnant and breastfeeding women who took part in this study for their attentiveness, effort and participation in the focus groups and in making the pile sorts.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

**Disclaimer/Publisher's Note:** The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.


**1. Introduction**

Despite the significant improvements in hemodialysis (HD) techniques over the past 40 years, patients on this therapy still suffer from the burden of HD-associated symptoms, vascular access-related issues, acute and chronic complications, poor quality of life, and the mortality rate remains unacceptably elevated [1, 2]. The European Renal Association (ERA) and the United States Renal Data System (USRDS) showed that the 5-year survival rate for patients on HD is close to only 50%, which is worse than patients with breast cancer, prostate cancer and almost like or worse than colon cancer [3–6].

The retention of large-size uremic toxins (e.g., proinflammatory cytokines, alpha 1-microglobulin, YKL-40, and kappa and lambda free light chains) has been associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis and vascular calcification, cardiovascular disease, and increased risk of mortality [7]. These uremic toxins have also been associated with poor quality of life, such as late recovery time post-HD session, impaired physical function, moderate-to-severe pruritus, and restless legs syndrome [8]. These drawbacks of HD treatment demonstrate the unmet needs in the current or conventional HD modalities.


*3.4. Chromosome Distribution of the PebHLHs*

The chromosome distribution of each *PebHLH* was obtained, as shown in Figure 3. The total 117 *PebHLHs* were located on nine chromosomes. Seven members were located at unknown chromosomal positions. Among them, Chr1 contained the largest distribution of 41 *PebHLH* genes (~37.27%), followed by Chr6 (24 genes, ~21.82%). Meanwhile, Chr9 distributed the least number of *PebHLH* genes (3 genes, ~2.73%). Chr2, Chr3, Chr4, Chr5, Chr7, and Chr8 presented 7, 6, 10, 5, 4, and 10 *PebHLH* genes, respectively.

**Figure 2.** Phylogenetic clustering, conserved motifs, and exon/intron organization of *PebHLHs*. Ten color boxes indicate different motifs, green color represents 5 and 3 UTR, and yellow color and black lines represent exons and introns, respectively.

**Figure 3.** Locations of the 117 identified *PebHLH*s in 9 chromosomes of Passion fruit. The *PebHLHs* were located on No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 chromosomes.

#### *3.5. Promoter Analysis of PebHLH Genes*

The TATA and CAAT boxes were the key cis-regulatory elements, which were found in all 117 *PebHLHs* (Figure 4). Additionally, the promoter region of the *PebHLH* family contains a large number of action elements related to abiotic stress, such as the cold-responsive element (CCGAAA) and the salicylic acid-responsive element (CCATCTTTTT and TCAGAA-GAGG). Some cis-acting elements are associated with stress response, such as the woundresponsive element (AAATTTCCT). In addition, there are some hormone-related elements, such as the abscisic acid responsiveness element (ABRE, GACACGTGGC, and ACGTG), the MeJA-responsive motifs (TGACG and CGTCA), the gibberellin-responsive motifs (CCTTTTG, TATCCCA, and TCTGTTG), and the auxin-responsive element (AACGAC).


**3. Geotechnical studies**

Stack weight in the slip area to determine the geotechnical stability in American Standards (ASTM and GEO5) based. In the area where the strengthening cabling of the masses and the presented soil rock interface of the phase content is given in **Tables 1** and **2**.

Slip face of shale and limestone rock pillar parameters are given in **Table 3** below.

Free slide rock stability to assess the risk of slipping GEO5 program used and was advantageous. Rock stability GEO5 program provided safety analysis at 1.35 safety factor. Stability analysis of weight slices as wide 3 m blocks as possible cut into slices. On Slope S1 free slip surface formed like 2m mesh using GEO 5 FEM program by groundwater data section submerged discharge gave the critical red

level slip surface effect and poor stability factor was practiced by lower mesh cross section [19, 20]. Using GEO5 on slip slice chart is advantageous at different slip surface pore pressure in program as in **Figure 12**, depending on the rock surface or planar wedge type drift is not formed in particular from 30 to 40 m length was

*S1 cross-section of rock slope of the study area, circular free rock sliding surfaces, sensitivity analysis rock*

*Asphalt Fill Strengthening of Free Slip Surfaces of Shale Slopes in Asphaltite Open Quarry:…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94893*

Safety factor was in the ASTM standard as based GEO 5 rock stability safety factor of over 1.35. Using the parameters determined by model chart analysis of GEO 5, the appropriate support system for the long-term stability of the slopes was determined. Accordingly, it was decided to make asphalt cohesive support with fly ash material in front of the slope. Subsequently, 2 m long rock bolts were placed to provide short-term slope stability. After this stage, it was understood that a compost of asphalt-cover structure should be made on the crack section. The slope was required to ensure the long-term stability of the Asphaltite open pit quarry.

The stack S2 hillside after rains made the small size of the movements that have been identified in field studies. No. S2 to develop pile slope is covered with talus and 10 m mesh rock stability GEO5 programs were created problem due to heterogeneous structure and complexity with the program (**Figure 3A**). S2 The top of the stack and the maximum height difference between the heel point 45 m, the slope of

Regarding cohesive resistive parameters obtained from the asphalt composed rock formations made in c '= 1.9 kpa, φ '= 22°, γnat. = 1.97 = 2.27 g/cm3 g/cm3

are used to γdry. According to γdry and γnat calculated separately on the potential slip

, and

**4. Slope analysis of S1 and S2 shale soil/rock face slopes**

the maximum height of 50 m, the slope of the surface tilt angle is 40°.

surface deformation iso values seen in **Figure 13**.

determined.

**111**

**Figure 12.**

*stability using GEO5 program.*

#### **Table 1.**

*The samples taken from the slopes of the masses on the results obtained from the geotechnical testing.*

#### **Table 2.**

*Permiability of the samples taken from the slopes.*

**Table 3.**

*Physical and mechanical properties of asphalt composite fill.*

*Asphalt Fill Strengthening of Free Slip Surfaces of Shale Slopes in Asphaltite Open Quarry:… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94893*

**Figure 12.**

**3. Geotechnical studies**

**Sample No Asphalt Ash**

**compost fill**

**Tables 1** and **2**.

*Slope Engineering*

below.

c0

γkuru g/cm3 Kum ve çakıllı

**Table 1.**

**Table 2.**

**Table 3.**

**110**

*Permiability of the samples taken from the slopes.*

*Physical and mechanical properties of asphalt composite fill.*

Natural unit weight, γn (kN/m3

Cohesion, c (kN/m2

Saturated unit weight, γd (kN/m3

Stack weight in the slip area to determine the geotechnical stability in American Standards (ASTM and GEO5) based. In the area where the strengthening cabling of the masses and the presented soil rock interface of the phase content is given in

Free slide rock stability to assess the risk of slipping GEO5 program used and was advantageous. Rock stability GEO5 program provided safety analysis at 1.35 safety factor. Stability analysis of weight slices as wide 3 m blocks as possible cut into slices. On Slope S1 free slip surface formed like 2m mesh using GEO 5 FEM program by groundwater data section submerged discharge gave the critical red

> **Asphalt+Fine Shale compost fill**

height(m) 800 850 925 921 933 927 Wopt,% 15.90 13,70 10,80 11,40

(kpa) 52 88 0,52 0,59 0,63 0,55 φ0 24,2 22,5 32,50 22,50 21,00 20,00 Lı(%) 11.8 Mpa ϭ 9.6 Mpa ϭ 26 15 28 17 Pı(%) 42 RQD 40 RQD 19 11 18 22 Ip (%) 46 RMR 44 RMR 10 9 8 12 γs g/cm3 2,70 2,70 2,40 2,50 2,40 2,30 Soil zayıf zayıf SP SP SP SP γdoğal g/cm3 1,94 2,14 1,82 1,76 1,90 1,70

γdoygun g/cm3 2,0 2,23 2,02 1,84 2,0 1,8

**Örnek no S11 S21 S31 S41** γk max g/cm3 1,68 1,93 2,05 1,90 wopt % 15,9 19,0 12,3 13,0 Permeability (k) (cm/s) 5,63\*10�4 6\*10�4 3,0\*10�4 5,62\*10�4

**Specification of rock fill Asphalt Ash compost fill Asphalt+Fine Shale compost fill**

) 52 88

Intern. Friction Angle, ϕ (°) 30 34

) 16 18

) 16 18

*The samples taken from the slopes of the masses on the results obtained from the geotechnical testing.*

1,94 2,14 1,65 1,6 1,78 1.60

**S1 S2 S3 S4**

Slip face of shale and limestone rock pillar parameters are given in **Table 3**

*S1 cross-section of rock slope of the study area, circular free rock sliding surfaces, sensitivity analysis rock stability using GEO5 program.*

level slip surface effect and poor stability factor was practiced by lower mesh cross section [19, 20]. Using GEO5 on slip slice chart is advantageous at different slip surface pore pressure in program as in **Figure 12**, depending on the rock surface or planar wedge type drift is not formed in particular from 30 to 40 m length was determined.

Safety factor was in the ASTM standard as based GEO 5 rock stability safety factor of over 1.35. Using the parameters determined by model chart analysis of GEO 5, the appropriate support system for the long-term stability of the slopes was determined. Accordingly, it was decided to make asphalt cohesive support with fly ash material in front of the slope. Subsequently, 2 m long rock bolts were placed to provide short-term slope stability. After this stage, it was understood that a compost of asphalt-cover structure should be made on the crack section. The slope was required to ensure the long-term stability of the Asphaltite open pit quarry.


**6. Conclusions**

In the field of land-use planning, civic participation provides space for residents to be significantly involved, but engagement requires social cohesion and its strengthening [72]. Residents can be involved in terms of their own individual intentions, for example, if they want to change the usability of land so that they can build what they plan. Additionally, they can influence projects in their immediate vicinity that may affect their property, as well as general and complex intentions, which relate to a vision for the future in the sense of "where we are and where we are going", and in this respect, a plurality of opinions is important. The participation of citizens in the vision for the future, which will be ensured by the appropriate development of the land-use plan, is suitable due to the fact that citizens thus become participants in the project, which, from a territorial point of view, will greatly affect the functioning of the municipality in the future. On the positive side of civic participation, citizens can "build their place" through it, and if they identify with the land-use plan and adopt it as their own, they are likely to be more inclined to be satisfied with it. However, in order for this to work, it has been confirmed that it is usually necessary to take collective action and take steps towards social learning [71], and the profiling and follow-up of the leader (Lamker) can be a significant driving force in this direction [73]. Among other things, civic participation is important as a source of observations and ideas for individual intentions, while social control can also take place [70].

Civic participation is a major component of the land-use planning process, which is generally executed by experts via a political contracting authority. Civic participation has an irreplaceable role in supplementing expert knowledge and planning [9] with the "know-how" of local inhabitants [29]. The optimal degree of civic participation in landuse planning cannot be defined in a universally applicable manner, but it is possible to describe a number of its typical basic features. An optimal degree of civic participation (1) should constitute a representative sample of the population that inhabits the given territory—individuals are not enough, whilst a 50% or higher level of involvement is not completely necessary, but groups of dozens of people may be sufficient if (2) these groups are well balanced and represent various population segments (young X old; employees X entrepreneurs; healthy X ill, etc.). Additionally, these groups may sufficient if (3) they bring relevant proposals from the citizens, which can be and are accepted, but also other impulses that are not or cannot be satisfied, and if they also allow individual citizens or groups to express themselves and enter into debate, which promotes awareness of the issue and facilitates collaborative education [3–5], thus providing the municipality with a more educated and experienced citizenry and promoting a civil society [59] with a greater future potential for participation. However, participatory bias [48] must always be taken into account as a negative external attribute.

The recommendations that can ensure and facilitate an optimal degree of civic participation in land-use planning may be summarized in the following points.

website, or an article in a bulletin published by the local council, perhaps structured as an interview with the mayor or with the expert who is preparing the plan.

This research deals with the optimal level of civic participation, which should be an important element for land-use planning in terms of quality. This distinguishes the present study from most professional studies, which also deal with the topic of civic participation, as they usually address the quantitative aspect, i.e., how to strengthen public participation and gain more knowledge from the public for land-use planning. However, they almost never offer solutions for producing an effective participation process. Another important group of publications focuses on civic participation in terms of the positive and negative aspects of land-use planning. Further research could focus on the citizens' motivation to become involved in the land-use planning process and on identifying the factors that might boost participation, bearing in mind that [25] notes how important it is for participants to receive feedback on how their input was used, so this aspect should also be scrutinized in further detail. Moreover, considering that the scope of the research was limited to municipalities with a small population, it would suitable and beneficial to perform a comparison with larger-population municipalities and cities, or to investigate and identify the characteristic features of voluntary participants. Last but not least, this research was only based on the evaluation of municipal representatives, i.e., individual mayors, so it would be very beneficial to evaluate the optimal level of civic participation from the perspective of planners and the public, or their representatives, in other research.

**Funding:** The research was financially supported by the student research grant competition of the University of Ostrava for the years 2019 [SGS16/PˇrF/2019] and 2020 [SGS11/PˇrF/2020].

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** The data presented in this study are available on request from the author.

**Acknowledgments:** The author wishes to thank the mayors of the individual municipalities for finding time to participate in the project and for sharing their experience regarding the given issue. He is also grateful to his supervisor Petr Rumpel for his expert advice and to Tomáš Ulip and Aneta Krausová for providing technical and administrative support during the fieldwork.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declares no conflict of interest.


*Edited by Rosaria Meccariello*

Epigenetic changes are heritable and reversible modifications that significantly affect gene expression without any change in DNA sequence. The epigenetic signature is remodelled during the lifespan as a direct consequence of both environment and lifestyle. Therefore, health or disease status strongly depends on epigenetic marks. This book summarizes the current knowledge in the field and includes chapters on epigenetics in plants and epigenetics in health and disease. It is written for a wide audience of basic and clinical scientists, teachers and students interested in gaining a better understanding of epigenetics.

ISBN 978-1-78984-087-2

Epigenetics

Published in London, UK © 2019 IntechOpen © kirstypargeter / iStock


3.1. Probabilistic modelling of safe crack growth and estimation of the durability of structures

Crack growth up to a critical size under cyclic and long-term static loading is a rather complex process, which can be described by various crack growth equations. Methods for estimation of the lifetime of structures containing defects can be developed on the basis these equations. However, there are insufficient studies of the probabilistic aspects of crack growth, which greatly limit the opportunity for practical applications of these methods. To overcome this restriction, probabilistic models of the crack growth have been developed. This part presents

the results, in a generalized manner, of these studies involving the probabilistic modelling of safe crack growth and the estimation of the durability of a structure [18, 19].

Probabilistic factors of crack growth are present both at the micro- and macro-levels of deforming materials. At a micro-level, these factors are the structural heterogeneity of materials and the heterogeneity of the stress-deformed conditions of local zones at the level of grain size. The important factors at the macro-level include the heterogeneity of intensely deformed zones of structural elements, the uncertainty of form, size, and orientation of cracks, and the dispersion in the evaluation of the cyclic crack growth resistance of materials. It is an extremely complex problem to develop probabilistic models of crack growth that reflect all levels of the process. Therefore, our main attention is directed to probabilistic models that handle macro-level factors.

Three models can represent crack growth: a discrete model with casual moments of time; a continuous model with casual increments at fixed time intervals; and discrete continuous model with casual increments of both types. In all cases, the conditions of irreversibility δlτ ≥ 0 and kinetic conditions apply

$$\frac{dl}{d\tau} = \varphi(\Delta\sigma, l\_{\tau})\tag{18}$$

understood, then the sense of component w remains unclear. Nevertheless, as will be shown

Using a Monte Carlo method can be considered as another effective approach. The advantage of this method is the possibility to use determined forms of the equations of the crack growth with casual parameters. Let us consider an example of the kinetic equation. As is known, it has

If one accepts that parameters C, m, Δσ, l are casual variables with given probability distribution functions, use of the Monte Carlo method allows one to obtain casual realizations of the

ð Þ φð Þl m�1

Distribution densities f(l|τ) or f(τ|l) in the case are a result of frequent realizations of the model expressed by Eq. (23). Obviously, the determination of specified probability distributions is a complex and labour-consuming task, and representative statistics on the parameters of cyclic

The most productive approach is a creation of special probabilistic models, the parameters of which can be determined by means of fracture mechanics. Assuming the fundamental basis of the mechanics of the crack growth, a probabilistic kinetic model can be formulated in the

Increments can be calculated by means of fracture mechanics. As a first approximation, it is possible to suppose that these values are the parts of the plastic zone at the crack front, where deformations reach the fracture state ef. Using an energy notation of crack growth, the proba-

Obviously, the values of WN and Wε are widely variable, while WfN and Wfε only slowly change. It is possible to estimate values of WN and Wε by means of computational fracture

The presented models contain initial defect sizes l(0). Therefore, probabilistic models of the distributions of the defect sizes must be included into the main models. Statistical studies of defects in welded joints show that it is possible to use a two-parameter Weibull distribution as

3 7 5

�1

8 < :

C X N

j¼1 σm j

9 = ;

Probabilistic Modelling in Solving Analytical Problems of System Engineering

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75686

lð Þ¼ τ εNPN þ ετpτ (24)

� �β n o (25)

, pε ¼ 1 � exp � Wε=Wfε

πl p φð Þl n om

(22)

15

(23)

dN ¼ Cð Þ ΔK m ¼ C Δσ ffiffiffiffiffi

later, the practical use of this approach gives rather efficient results.

dl

process trajectory l(N) for a given number N of loading cycles:

l Nð Þ¼ ð

pN ¼ 1 � exp � WN

a basic probabilistic model for distribution of defect sizes:

WfN � � � �α

crack resistance are not available at present.

bilities can be written as follows:

lf

2 6 4

l0 l �m=2

the form:

manner of:

mechanics.

The problem of probabilistic modelling of the crack growth consists of the assignation of probabilistic features of trajectories l(τ), which adequately describe real processes. The problem of the probabilistic estimation of functions f(l|τ) and f(τ|l) on given probabilistic features of the trajectories. Modelling trajectories can be carried out on the basis of models of the theory of casual processes, empirical models, and probabilistic models of fracture mechanics.

The theory of casual processes offers a wide spectrum of models. Among the analytical models, it is possible to consider diffusive models as being the most respective. The use of diffusive models allows one to write the kinetic function in the manner of:

$$l(\tau) = a(l, \tau)d\tau + b(l, \tau)dw(\tau) \tag{19}$$

Modelling of processes with jumps requires that the kinetic function given by Eq. (19) must contain an additional component, that is:

$$l(\tau) = l(0) + \int\_{\tau} a\{l(\tau), \tau\} d\tau + \int\_{\tau} b\{l(\tau), \tau\} dw(\tau) + \int\_{\tau} \theta(l, \tau) d\tau \tag{20}$$

The models represented by Eqs. (18)–(20) allow one to directly obtain the densities of the distribution of defects f(l|τ) or durability f(τ|l). In particular, Eq. (19) creates a diffusive durability distribution of kind:

$$f\left(\pi|l\_f\right) = \Phi\left\{\frac{a\pi - l\_f}{b\sqrt{a\pi/l\_f}}\right\} + \exp\left\{\frac{2a^2}{b^2}\right\}\Phi\left\{-\frac{a\pi + l\_f}{b\sqrt{a\pi/l\_c}}\right\}\tag{21}$$

It is necessary to point out that such diffusive models present difficulties with respect to a physical interpretation of the parameters. So, if the physical sense of functions a, b, θ are understood, then the sense of component w remains unclear. Nevertheless, as will be shown later, the practical use of this approach gives rather efficient results.

the results, in a generalized manner, of these studies involving the probabilistic modelling of

Probabilistic factors of crack growth are present both at the micro- and macro-levels of deforming materials. At a micro-level, these factors are the structural heterogeneity of materials and the heterogeneity of the stress-deformed conditions of local zones at the level of grain size. The important factors at the macro-level include the heterogeneity of intensely deformed zones of structural elements, the uncertainty of form, size, and orientation of cracks, and the dispersion in the evaluation of the cyclic crack growth resistance of materials. It is an extremely complex problem to develop probabilistic models of crack growth that reflect all levels of the process. Therefore, our main attention is directed to probabilistic models that handle macro-level factors. Three models can represent crack growth: a discrete model with casual moments of time; a continuous model with casual increments at fixed time intervals; and discrete continuous model with casual increments of both types. In all cases, the conditions of irreversibility δlτ ≥

safe crack growth and the estimation of the durability of a structure [18, 19].

dl

of casual processes, empirical models, and probabilistic models of fracture mechanics.

diffusive models allows one to write the kinetic function in the manner of:

a l f g ð Þτ ; τ dτ þ

aτ � lf b ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi aτ=lf p ( )

The problem of probabilistic modelling of the crack growth consists of the assignation of probabilistic features of trajectories l(τ), which adequately describe real processes. The problem of the probabilistic estimation of functions f(l|τ) and f(τ|l) on given probabilistic features of the trajectories. Modelling trajectories can be carried out on the basis of models of the theory

The theory of casual processes offers a wide spectrum of models. Among the analytical models, it is possible to consider diffusive models as being the most respective. The use of

Modelling of processes with jumps requires that the kinetic function given by Eq. (19) must

ð

τ

The models represented by Eqs. (18)–(20) allow one to directly obtain the densities of the distribution of defects f(l|τ) or durability f(τ|l). In particular, Eq. (19) creates a diffusive durability

þ exp

It is necessary to point out that such diffusive models present difficulties with respect to a physical interpretation of the parameters. So, if the physical sense of functions a, b, θ are

2a2 b2 � �

dτ ¼ φð Þ Δσ; lτ (18)

lð Þ¼ τ a lð Þ ; τ dτ þ b lð Þ ; τ dwð Þτ (19)

ð

θð Þ l; τ dτ (20)

(21)

τ

Φ � aτ þ lf b ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi aτ=lc p ( )

b l f g ð Þτ ; τ dwð Þþ τ

0 and kinetic conditions apply

14 Probabilistic Modeling in System Engineering

contain an additional component, that is:

distribution of kind:

lð Þ¼ τ lð Þþ 0

f τjlf � � ¼ Φ

ð

τ

Using a Monte Carlo method can be considered as another effective approach. The advantage of this method is the possibility to use determined forms of the equations of the crack growth with casual parameters. Let us consider an example of the kinetic equation. As is known, it has the form:

$$\frac{d\mathcal{l}}{d\mathcal{N}} = \mathcal{C}(\Delta \mathcal{K})^m = \mathcal{C}\left\{\Delta \sigma \sqrt{\pi l} \rho(l)\right\}^m \tag{22}$$

If one accepts that parameters C, m, Δσ, l are casual variables with given probability distribution functions, use of the Monte Carlo method allows one to obtain casual realizations of the process trajectory l(N) for a given number N of loading cycles:

$$I(\mathbf{N}) = \left[ \int\_{l\_0}^{l\_f} l^{-m/2} (\boldsymbol{\varrho}(\boldsymbol{I}))^{m-1} \right]^{-1} \left\{ \mathbb{C} \sum\_{j=1}^{N} \sigma\_j^m \right\} \tag{23}$$

Distribution densities f(l|τ) or f(τ|l) in the case are a result of frequent realizations of the model expressed by Eq. (23). Obviously, the determination of specified probability distributions is a complex and labour-consuming task, and representative statistics on the parameters of cyclic crack resistance are not available at present.

The most productive approach is a creation of special probabilistic models, the parameters of which can be determined by means of fracture mechanics. Assuming the fundamental basis of the mechanics of the crack growth, a probabilistic kinetic model can be formulated in the manner of:

$$l(\tau) = \varepsilon\_N P\_N + \varepsilon\_\tau p\_\tau \tag{24}$$

Increments can be calculated by means of fracture mechanics. As a first approximation, it is possible to suppose that these values are the parts of the plastic zone at the crack front, where deformations reach the fracture state ef. Using an energy notation of crack growth, the probabilities can be written as follows:

$$p\_N = 1 - \exp\left\{-\left(\frac{\mathcal{W}\_N}{\mathcal{W}\_{\notin}}\right)^a\right\}, p\_\varepsilon = 1 - \exp\left\{-\left(\mathcal{W}\_\varepsilon/\mathcal{W}\_{\notin}\right)^\beta\right\} \tag{25}$$

Obviously, the values of WN and Wε are widely variable, while WfN and Wfε only slowly change. It is possible to estimate values of WN and Wε by means of computational fracture mechanics.

The presented models contain initial defect sizes l(0). Therefore, probabilistic models of the distributions of the defect sizes must be included into the main models. Statistical studies of defects in welded joints show that it is possible to use a two-parameter Weibull distribution as a basic probabilistic model for distribution of defect sizes:

$$f(l) = \frac{\gamma}{\theta} \left(\frac{l}{\theta}\right)^{\gamma - 1} \exp\left\{-\left(\frac{l}{\theta}\right)^{\gamma}\right\} \tag{26}$$

Producing complete probabilistic diagrams of integrity is a major prospect. These diagrams are based on information gained from the same model. The structure of complete probabilistic diagrams of integrity is shown in Figure 7. A complete probabilistic diagram of integrity presents itself as a number of sections of a surface connecting three parameters: probability P, safety factor n, and durability N. They allow one to estimate the durability and probability of its attainment. Additionally, there is a possibility for a decision of an inverse task—the definition of probability that for a chosen safety factor, a certain durability will be achieved. Thus, a complete probabilistic diagram of integrity presents itself as a number of sections of a surface

Probabilistic Modelling in Solving Analytical Problems of System Engineering

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75686

17

connecting three parameters: probability P, safety factor, and durability.

vessels

functions of equal safety factors.

3.2. Reliability and risk assessment of metal-liner composite overwrapped pressure

Metal-composite pressure vessels (MCOPVs) have found a wide application in aerospace and aeronautical industries. Such vessels should combine the impermeability and high weight efficiency with enhanced long-term safety and durability. To meet these requirements, theoretical

Figure 7. A complete probabilistic integrity diagrams: (a) probability of fatigue, (b) durability distributions, and (c)

An estimation of the parameters of Eq. (26) for structures of different types shows that parameter of form γ changes from 0.4 to 4.0. The second parameters θ changes over rather wide limits (from 1.5 mm to 25 mm and more).

These probabilistic models were used to study crack kinetics in the welded joints for highpressure vessels and estimation of durability and reliability functions. The results of calculation reflect the character of the model trajectories over a range of dispersion in the function l(τ), which corresponds to those observed in laboratory experiments.

The empirical Paris-Erdogan model, in combination with the statistical simulation method, was used for modelling kinetic of crack growth in the weld joint of a pipeline in the nuclear reactor VVER-1000. Processing of the results of the probabilistic modelling of the crack kinetics allowed one to estimate reliability functions for a weld joint fracture as is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Reliability functions for hermetic breach criterion (1) and fracture criterion (2).

Producing complete probabilistic diagrams of integrity is a major prospect. These diagrams are based on information gained from the same model. The structure of complete probabilistic diagrams of integrity is shown in Figure 7. A complete probabilistic diagram of integrity presents itself as a number of sections of a surface connecting three parameters: probability P, safety factor n, and durability N. They allow one to estimate the durability and probability of its attainment. Additionally, there is a possibility for a decision of an inverse task—the definition of probability that for a chosen safety factor, a certain durability will be achieved. Thus, a complete probabilistic diagram of integrity presents itself as a number of sections of a surface connecting three parameters: probability P, safety factor, and durability.

f lðÞ¼ γ θ l θ γ�1

which corresponds to those observed in laboratory experiments.

Figure 6. Reliability functions for hermetic breach criterion (1) and fracture criterion (2).

limits (from 1.5 mm to 25 mm and more).

16 Probabilistic Modeling in System Engineering

exp � l

An estimation of the parameters of Eq. (26) for structures of different types shows that parameter of form γ changes from 0.4 to 4.0. The second parameters θ changes over rather wide

These probabilistic models were used to study crack kinetics in the welded joints for highpressure vessels and estimation of durability and reliability functions. The results of calculation reflect the character of the model trajectories over a range of dispersion in the function l(τ),

The empirical Paris-Erdogan model, in combination with the statistical simulation method, was used for modelling kinetic of crack growth in the weld joint of a pipeline in the nuclear reactor VVER-1000. Processing of the results of the probabilistic modelling of the crack kinetics allowed one to estimate reliability functions for a weld joint fracture as is shown in Figure 6.

θ γ

(26)


**Growth Performance, Meat Quality, and Fecal Microbial Population in Limousin Bulls Supplemented with Hydrolyzable Tannins**

**Andrej Mergeduš 1, Marjan Janžekoviˇc 1, Dejan Škorjanc 2, Tadeja Kraner Šumenjak 3 and Maksimiljan Brus 1,\***

**Abstract:** The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of supplementation of hydrolyzable tannins (HT) from sweet chestnut wood extract (*Castanea sativa* Mill.) to the diet of Limousin bulls on growth rate, carcass and meat quality traits, and fecal *Clostridia* strain levels in a 7-month feeding trial. Thirty-two bulls were randomly assigned to four treatment groups (CON (without addition of HT); TAN 1 (1 g HT kg−1 DM); TAN 2 (1.5 g HT kg−1 DM); and TAN 3 (1.5 g HT kg−1 DM with a nominally lower dose of concentrate). Compared with the CON group, supplementation with HT significantly (*p* < 0.050) increased bull growth rate during 4–7 months, whereas carcass and meat quality traits were unaffected during the last three months of fattening. Supplementation of HT significantly reduced meat drip loss (*p* = 0.000) compared with the CON group. No effects were observed on the total number of fecal *Clostridia* strains; however, the concentration of *Clostridium perfringens* was significantly lower (*p* = 0.004) in TAN 1 than that in the CON group. The results obtained in fattening bulls indicate that the addition of HT is justified in practice to improve growth performance and feed efficiency without adverse effects on the carcass and meat quality.

**Keywords:** carcass characteristic; chestnut tannins; fecal *Clostridia*; growth performance; Limousin bulls; meat quality


**5. Cassie-Baxter model**

Wenzel model.

*r*, which is larger than 1.

material (*θ*0 < 90°) [10–12].

**Figure 3.**

**118**

interface area is enlarged to be *s*

*21st Century Surface Science - a Handbook*

According to the model described by Wenzel in 1936 [9], the solid surface completely contacts with liquid under the droplet as shown in **Figure 3**. The *sl*

roughness. There is a ratio of the sl interface area to the geometric surface area,

*s* 0

With a variation of the geometric *sl* interface area, the amount of energy

In addition, the lv interface is not affected by the surface roughness. So the

cos *θ*0 ¼ *r γsv* � *γsl* ð Þ

where *θ*w is the contact angle on the rough surface with Wenzel model and *θ*0 is the original contact angle according to the ideal smooth surface. Eq. 9 is the Wenzel equation. It shows that when Wenzel model is applied, *r* > 1, the morphology of the surface always magnifies the underlying wetting properties. *θ***w** is larger than *θ*0 for the hydrophobic material (*θ*0 > 90°); and it is smaller than *θ* for the hydrophilic

*γlv*

*sl* which is equal to the "actual surface" by the

*sl* ¼ *rssl* (5)

*sl* ¼ *r γsv* � *γsl* ð Þ*dssl* (6)

cos *θ*0 ¼ *r* cos *θ* (8)

cos *θw* ¼ *r* cos *θ*0 (9)

(7)

0

*γsv* � *γsl* ð Þ*ds*0

equilibrium with the new contact angle of *θ*' can be expressed by:

Taken *θ*w and *θ*0 to represent *θ*' and *θ*, respectively, it is obtained:

released from it or accumulated in it is increased:

Compared with Eq. (1), *θ*' can be depicted as:

*Schematic of a droplet on the rough surface described by Wenzel.*

In 1944, Cassie applied and explored Wenzel equation on porous materials [13]. According to Cassie-Baxter model, air can be trapped below the drop as shown in **Figure 4**. The area of the *sl* interface is reduced by the surface roughness while a part of that transits to the lv interface in indentations. The ratio of the actual *sl* interface area to the geometric surface area is represented by *f*, which is smaller than 1 in Cassie-Baxter model.

$$ds'\_{sl} = f ds\_{sl} \tag{10}$$

$$ds'\_{lv} = ds\_{lv} + (\mathbf{1} - f)ds\_{sl} \tag{11}$$

With a variation of the profile of the droplet, the amount of energy transited among the interfaces is changed:

$$f(\chi\_{sv} - \chi\_{sl})d\mathbf{s}'\_{sl} = f(\chi\_{sv} - \chi\_{sl})d\mathbf{s}\_{sl} \tag{12}$$

$$
\gamma\_{lv}d\mathbf{s}'\_{lv} = \gamma\_{lv}d\mathbf{s}\_{lv} + (\mathbf{1} - f)\gamma\_{lv}d\mathbf{s}\_{sl} \tag{13}
$$

The equilibrium with the new contact angle of *θ*' can be expressed by:

$$\cos \theta' = \frac{f(\chi\_w - \chi\_d)}{\chi\_w} - (1 - f) \tag{14}$$

Compared with Eq. (1), *θ*' can be calculated as:

$$\cos \theta' = f(\cos \theta + \mathbf{1}) - \mathbf{1} \tag{15}$$

Taken *θ*c and *θ*0 to represent *θ*' and *θ*, respectively, it is obtained:

$$\cos \theta\_{\varepsilon} = f(\cos \theta\_0 + 1) - 1 \tag{16}$$

where *θ*c is the contact angle on rough surface with Cassie-Baxter model. Eq. (16) is Cassie-Baxter equation. According to Cassie-Baxter model, only the

**Figure 4.** *Schematic of a droplet on the rough surface described by Cassie-Baxter.*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Schematic of self-similar contact line pinning. (a) A liquid droplet that rests in a Cassie-Baxter state on a hierarchical surface exhibits an apparent receding angle* θ*0 r . (b) The apparent contact line of the drop is divided into many smaller first-level contact lines, each at the top of a first-level roughness feature with width* w *and spacing* s*. each of these first-level contact lines sits at the base of a first-level capillary bridge, which has a local receding contact angle* θ*1 r . (c) The apparent contact line of each second-level capillary bridge is further divided into smaller second-level contact lines, each atop a second-level roughness feature. Each second-level contact line sits at the base of a second-level capillary bridge, which has a local receding contact angle* θ*2 r .*

characteristics of hydrophobicity can be enhanced. *θ*c is always larger than *θ* on the rough surface [14–17].

In fact, numerous investigations have been devoted to the wettability on different surfaces, particularly for the surfaces inspired by Nature Mother [18–26]. Paxson et al. [27] fabricated a surface with the hierarchical textures initiated by lotus leaves and revealed the relevant mechanism of the variation or evolution of the adhesion force per unit length of the projected contact line distributed on natural textured surfaces. Results show that the adhesion force varies with the pinned fraction of each level of hierarchy.

**Figure 5** shows a droplet sitting on a textured surface in a Cassie-Baxter state. It depicts the real contact line of the droplet, which is changed into many smaller lines. Meanwhile, the contact angle also changes from *θ*0 r (the zeroth level) to *θ*1 r (the first level of hierarchy) as shown in **Figure 5b**. If the contact line is divided into much smaller lines, viz., the second level of hierarchy, the related contact angle *θ*2 r is distinctively different from *θ*1 r of the first level of hierarchy as shown in **Figure 5c**. These phenomena will be kept on until a homogeneous wetting interface achieved when reaching a level *n*. Consequently, the contact angle either increases or decreases by adding multiple length scales of roughness at all smaller levels depending on the pinned fraction of each level of hierarchy, which is critical for designing surfaces with various adhesion [28–33].

**Author details**

Yeeli Kelvii Kwok

**121**

Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

*Wettability on Different Surfaces*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92885*

Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **6. Conclusion**

The droplet on a solid surface will exhibit a certain value of contact angle to achieve the equilibrium of the interfacial tensions. In addition, surface roughness will influence the contact angle, based on Wenzel's and Cassie-Baxter's theories, with the assumption of overhangs. It reveals that the contact angle can be controlled by the intentionally fabricated textured surfaces, and the surface with the fabricated textures can be changed from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, and vice versa, without considering whether the original material is hydrophilic or hydrophobic.

*Wettability on Different Surfaces DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92885*


*2.1. Subjects*

Two subjects who had previously suffered from FNS during CI stimulation and had been re-implanted with Oticon Medical Neuro-Zti devices [8] were further investigated during a clinical follow-up visit. One of these patients was initially fitted with Advanced Bionics (Valencia, CA, USA) HiRes Ultra 3D implants and a mid-scala electrode in both ears. The other patient had originally been fitted with a MED-EL SYNCHRONY implant with a FLEX28 electrode in one ear.

Our goal was to gain deeper insight into the subjects' behavioral perceptions of different stimuli, with the ultimate aim of further improving their clinical outcomes.

#### *2.2. Stimuli*

We used the Oticon Medical Research Platform (OMRP) [9] to directly stimulate single electrodes on the Neuro-Zti Implant in two ways: (1) using stimulus parameters designed to replicate those of their prior CI, and (2) using the parameters of their current clinical CI mode. With Subject S2, we also investigated reversing the polarity of these pulses for a total of 4 stimulus types (Table 1 and Figure 1). All stimuli were presented in a pulse train with a 50% duty cycle (500 ms on and 500 ms off) using pulses presented at a rate of 500 Hz.

**Table 1.** Stimulus parameters that were used during this study.

1 Subject S1 used duration coding for stimuli A− and B+ (current = 0.6 mA). Subject S2 used duration coding for stimuli B−/B+ (current = 0.4 mA) and current coding for stimuli A+/A− (duration = 30 μs). Note: We improved the software between S1 and S2 to allow current coding. 2 Distributed-all-polar (DAP) [7] indicates that current returns via the case electrode, like MP (monopolar) grounding, and simultaneously to all non-stimulating intra-cochlear electrodes, sometimes called 'common ground' (CG) (Figure 1).

**Figure 1.** Panel (**a**) shows a diagram of the Neuro-Zti implant illustrating current paths (dotted lines) for monopolar (MP) grounding used for stimuli A− and A+ (blue) vs. distributed-all-polar (DAP) grounding used for B+ and B− (orange). It also shows the electrode positions and numbering. Panel (**b**) shows sketches of the pulse shapes used in the experiment for MP grounding (blue) and DAP grounding (orange). The first row shows the clinical pulses in each case, with arrows denoting clinical loudness coding; the second row shows the reversed polarity pulses used with Subject S2.

In each trial, we gradually increased the stimulation charge (i.e., pulse duration or amplitude) until either (1) the sound was too loud or (2) non-auditory sensations became too intense for the subject.

#### *2.3. Procedure*

Testing was conducted during a scheduled clinical fitting session. The session was divided into three parts, each lasting about 30 min, interspersed with 5-min breaks. The total testing time was approximately 2 h.

In the first session, we selected suitable electrodes for the experiment from the regions where subjects had previously reported strong FNS responses (Figure 2). We conducted a search to determine which electrode to use for each subject utilizing the 'A−' stimulus (Table 1). This was chosen to mimic their previous cochlear implant and thereby give a good chance of eliciting an FNS response. For the search, we incrementally increased the pulse charge until either the subject reported a non-auditory sensation or the loudness reached an uncomfortable level. Not all electrodes that previously caused FNS (Figure 2) induced FNS responses with the Oticon Medical implant. Those that did, did so at different charge levels than previously reported (higher ones for subject S1, and lower ones for subject S2). In the end, we selected the electrode that elicited the most substantial FNS response to study in detail.

**Figure 2.** Selected results from case reports presented in [8]. C-level before and about half a year after re-implantation with Oticon Medical Neuro Zti EVO. Asterisks refer to the FNS thresholds with the previously implanted electrode. The upper x-axis refers to the channel number (#) of the previously implanted electrode; the lower x-axis refers to those of the EVO electrode. (**a**) Subject S1, right; (**b**) Subject S1, left; (**c**) Subject S2, right.

In the two following sessions, we stimulated the chosen electrode using either (1) the current clinical mode of their Oticon Medical CI (stimulus B+) or (2) a non-clinical mode designed to mimic their previous CI (stimulus A−). This allowed us to directly compare the in-situ effect of these stimulation modes while keeping implant hardware and subject factors consistent. For each stimulation mode, we gradually increased the intensity. At each charge level, we asked the subjects to: (1) rate the loudness on a scale from 0 (inaudible) to 10 (very loud); (2) describe any non-auditory sensations qualitatively; and (3) indicate whether they were comfortable enough to continue. Due to time constraints, we did not interleave testing modes; this would have necessitated reconfiguring the implant between presentations.

For subject S1, only stimuli of type A− and B+ were explored as described above, because it took some time until we found an electrode that exhibited strong non-auditory side effects. For all stimuli presented to subject S1, charge was increased using pulse duration due to a software limitation (Table 1). Fortunately, for subject S2, the software limitation was overcome, and we then used current coding for stimuli A−/A+ and duration coding for stimuli B−/B+ as would have been carried out clinically. We also had time to explore the effect of reversing pulse polarity for subject S2 in session 3 (Figure 1).

#### **3. Results**

The results of the main single electrode experiments for both subjects across all stimulus types are shown in Figure 3 as loudness growth curves. Reported non-auditory/FNS sensations are overlayed as separate symbols. For both subjects, the charge required to reach equivalent loudness levels was higher for stimulus B+ than for A− by more than a factor of 2. However, the growth in loudness was very different between the two. Subject S1 exhibited a rightward shift (~20 nC) and a slower loudness growth for the B+ stimulus, while Subject S2 only exhibited the rightward shift.

**Figure 3.** (**a**) Subject-reported loudness vs. individual pulse charge delivered for subject S1 (left electrode E5) showed faster loudness growth with stimulus A− than with B+. Stimulus A− also elicited non-auditory FNS sensations. (**b**) Subject S2 (right electrode E18) reported similar slopes but rightward-shifted loudness growth functions between A− and B+. Non-auditory sensations on both panels show how stimulus A− led to FNS stimulation at lower charge levels than for other stimulus types and how non-auditory sensations were affected in a markedly different way from the loudness percepts. Using stimulus B−, we were unable to achieve sufficient loudness. Instead, pronounced side effects were observed.

Reversing the polarity highlighted how non-auditory sensations were affected in a markedly different way than the loudness percept. More detailed results for each subject are presented individually below.


**1. Introduction**

At the present time, many formulas for the relief of pain are present; among them, medicinal herbs are highlighted because of their wide popular use and availability. Many plant-derived compounds could offer valuable therapeutic effects for the treatment of chronic inflammatory conditions, which are likely associated with pain.

In the drug market today, about 40% of all medicines have been originated directly or indirectly from natural sources. It is estimated that about 25% being derived from plants, 13% from microorganisms and 3% from animals. For instance, morphine, salicin, artemisinin,

capsaicin, atropine, pilocarpine, digitalis, quinine, scopolamine and captopril are examples of drugs derived from natural sources [1, 2].


*Article* **Neural Visual Detection of Grain Weevil (***Sitophilus granarius* **L.)**

**Piotr Boniecki 1 , Krzysztof Koszela 1,\*, Krzysztof Swierczy ´nski ´ 1 , Jacek Skwarcz 2 , Maciej Zaborowicz 1 and Jacek Przybył 1**

Received: 23 November 2019; Accepted: 14 January 2020; Published: 20 January 2020

**Abstract:** A significant part of cereal production is intended for agri-food processing, which implies a necessity to search for and implement modern storage systems for this product. Stored grain is exposed to many unfavorable factors, particularly caryopsis macro-damage caused mainly by grain weevil (*Sitophilus granarius* L.). This triggers a substantial decrease in the value of the stored material, thus resulting in serious economic losses. Due to this fact, it is necessary to take steps to effectively detect this pest's presence when grain is delivered to storage facilities. The purpose of this work was to identify the representative physical characteristics of wheat caryopsis affected by grain weevil. An automated visual system was developed to ease the detection of damaged kernels and adult weevils. In order to obtain the empirical data, a decision was made to take advance of SKCS 4100 (the Perten Single Kernel Characterization System). The measurements obtained were used to build the training sets necessary in the process of ANN (artificial neural network) learning with digital neural classifiers. Next, a set of identifying neural models was created and verified, and then the optimal topology was selected. The utilitarian goal of the research was to support the decision-making process taking place during grain storage.

**Keywords:** artificial neural network (ANN); *Grain weevil* identification; neural modelling classification