**3.2 Results and discussion**

Towards finding the efficiency of the SHG process as a function of the pump energy for the conventional case of uniform illumination (**Figure 2a**), we gradually increased the input and monitored the corresponding SH energy and the dependence is as shown in **Figure 8**. The maximum SH energy conversion efficiency can be estimated from this figure as ~8.0%.

In the next set of experiments we subjected the crystal to alternate regions of high and low intensities along its length. This was readily possible by constructing a Fabry-Perot cavity comprising of the output coupler of the pump laser 'M1' (R<EMAIL_ADDRESS>μm, T<EMAIL_ADDRESS>μm) and a plane dichroic mirror 'M2' (R ><EMAIL_ADDRESS>μm, T ><EMAIL_ADDRESS>μm) located at the exit end of the crystal (refer to **Figure 2b**). The pump energy incident on the crystal, as measured by Detector D1, showed a dramatic increase as 'M2' was fine tuned to establish its parallelism with 'M1', resulting, in turn, in a corresponding improvement in the measured SH output. In effect, there are now two inputs to the crystal; (a) Forward Input: the actual input on the entrance face in the forward direction that comes directly from the pump laser and (b) Reverse Input: the pump, that stays unconverted after its passage through the crystal, gets reflected off 'M2' and shines on the exit face of the crystal from the opposite direction. When the cavity is perfectly aligned, the interference of these two components creates alternating nodal and anti-nodal intensity regions inside the cavity and partly contributes towards the observed dramatic enhancement of SH conversion by the crystal. At every instant, the reverse

**Figure 8.**

*Second harmonic output as a function of the input pump energy in the conventional operation wherein the crystal is uniformly illuminated by the pump beam along its conversion length.*

**99**

**Figure 9.**

*Dependence of the reverse input to the crystal as a function of the forward component.*

*Towards Enhancing the Efficiency of Nonlinear Optical Generation*

component, after traversing through the crystal, is reflected off M1 and falls in step with the pump photons emerging through it resulting in an effective increase in the energy incident on the entrance face of the crystal as measured by the detector D1. At this point, towards gaining a deeper insight into this process, we gradually varied the pump (forward) input and measured both, the corresponding reverse input and the generated SH. The difference in the energy measured by D1 with M1 aligned and misaligned gives the measure of the reverse input. **Figure 9** depicts the dependence of the reverse input on the forward input to the crystal while **Figure 10** shows the SH output as a function of the total effective input to the crystal which is now the sum total of the forward and the corresponding reverse components. It is apparent from **Figure 9** that the reverse input does not exactly bear a linear relationship with the forward input and this behaviour owes its origin to the square dependence of the SH output on the intensity of the input at the fundamental wavelength as is evident from **Figure 8**. The square dependence basically means that as the pump intensity rises, increasingly higher fraction of it gets converted into SH and thus less of it is left to constitute the reverse input to the crystal. This explains the observed departure from the linear dependence of the reverse input on the forward input to the crystal.

The increase in the effective input to the crystal in case of an aligned cavity due to addition of forward and reverse components leads to the generation of higher SH output as revealed in **Figure 10**. For instance, the maximum pump input of 6.5 mJ in case of uniform illumination (**Figure 8**) gets enhanced to 10.34 mJ (**Figure 10**) in the aligned cavity condition giving rise to almost 2.54 fold increase in the SH conversion efficiency. However a closer examination of **Figure 10**, in conjunction with **Figure 8**, reveals a wealth of information, hitherto unexplored, that constitutes the central theme of this study and is captured in the traces of **Figure 11**. It is clearly evident from this figure that SH output in case of non-uniform illumination of the crystal is significantly higher compared to the case of its uniform illumination even when the total input to the crystal is maintained the same. Let us consider a typical input of 4.1 mJ that in case of uniform illumination generates 0.22 mJ (refer to **Figure 8**) of SH at a conversion efficiency of ~5.36%. It can be readily estimated from **Figure 9** that this input of 4.1 mJ in case of non-uniform illumination comprises of a forward component of 2.5 mJ and a reverse component of 1.6 mJ. Thus,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80816*


# Changing Conceptions of Social Purpose Higher Education: The Legacy of University Adult Education

Maria Slowey

#### **Abstract:**

Lalage Bown was an inspirational adult educator who worked tirelessly to bring university education to people of all ages and sectors of society. For her, this was not a one-way process of 'knowledge transmission' but rather a partnership to the *mutual* benefit of both higher education and society at large.

In this chapter I illustrate one university's engagement with its wider community though a social-historical account of the emergence of Glasgow University's Department of Adult and Continuing Education – from which Lalage Bown retired as Director in 1992. The chapter then explores different interpretations of 'university adult education' in Britain and the wider European context – both conceptually and in practical terms. Finally, the question is posed as to whether the time may have passed for the values and ideals espoused by this tradition? Or whether, alternatively, they are interpreted anew through, for example, universities' commitments to widening access, social responsibility, the Sustainable Development Goals and other forms of outreach and civic engagement?

**Keywords:** Access; Community Engagement; Extra-mural; Social Purpose; University Adult Education

> I am standing in the drizzle at a bus stop in one of the famous «schemes», and begin talking with a young woman, who tells me how she feels trapped and alienated. In the end, we neither of us get a bus. She invites me in out of the rain, and the outcome is she organises a small class in her tenement flat. They «never knew» that the uni [University of Glasgow] was for them. I take along the Dean of Social Sciences and even he «never knew» how the university would be enriched by their knowledge and insight. Lalage Bown (2003, 153)

Maria Slowey, Dublin City University, Ireland<EMAIL_ADDRESS>0000-0002-5063-6491 Referee List (DOI 10.36253/fup\_referee\_list)

FUP Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing (DOI 10.36253/fup\_best\_practice)

Maria Slowey, *Changing Conceptions of Social Purpose Higher Education: The Legacy of University Adult Education*, © Author(s), CC BY 4.0, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0253-4.08, in Maria Slowey, Heribert Hinzen, Michael Omolewa, Michael Osborne (edited by), *Adult Education and Social Justice: International Perspectives*, pp. 41-54, 2023, published by Firenze University Press, ISBN 979-12-215-0253-4, DOI 10.36253/979-12-215-0253-4

## Introduction

The location of the meeting at the bus stop in the above quotation refers to Glasgow municipal housing 'schemes' located in areas of multiple deprivation. The exchange illustrates the values, creativity and rather feisty 'direct action' approach, so typical of the remarkable adult educator, Lalage Bown, as she worked tirelessly to bring university education to the widest possibly community. But more than that, importantly it reflects the fact that she did not regard knowledge 'exchange' as a one-way process. For her, universities also had much to gain from engagement with people of all ages and from all sectors of society.

In this chapter, I am approaching the question of social purpose higher education through the example of the work and legacy of Lalage Bown in the particular case of her time at Glasgow University.

As Director and Professor of Adult and Continuing Education in Glasgow University, Scotland (1982-92), her ideals reflected those of A.D. Lindsay, Professor of Moral Philosophy who, in the 1920s, had campaigned to persuade the University to establish an Extra-Mural Education Committee. Although the University had previously organised *ad hoc* lectures and collaborated with external bodies such as the Mechanics Institutes, this Committee represented a step change in approach as it was called upon to work to open higher education opportunities to the people of the City of Glasgow and its environs in a more structured way than had previously been the case. Commenting in 1923 that a University such as Glasgow, which was, at his time of writing «situated in the centre of a great industrial community» (Lindsay, quoted in Scott 1971, 102), Lindsay argued that it had a responsibility, and an opportunity to make

humanistic studies the possession of all men and women who are faced with the need of it, if all who want a completer understanding of the ideals and possibilities of our common life, of economic and political relations, of the laws and the working of the political and social institutions they are called upon to handle, can come to the University for help, and look to it for a standard of impartial and scientific study (Lindsay, quoted in Scott 1971, 102).

There is a view that education is particularly valued in Scotland and, while perhaps some of this could arguably be viewed as a 'reinvention of tradition' it is the case that as, as Bob Bell and Malcolm Tight (1993) point out, in the fifteenth century at a time when there were only two universities in England – Oxford and Cambridge – there were three in Scotland: St Andrews (1413), Glasgow (1451) and Aberdeen (1495). As it happens, there is an interesting connecting line through Oxford University between A.D. Lindsay and Lalage Bown: Lindsay became of Master of Balliol College, Oxford and subsequently Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University, while Lalage was strongly influenced by her experience while a student of Somerville College, Oxford (as discussed by Robert Hamilton in Chapter 2).

The appointment of Lalage Bown in 1982 as Director of what had by then become the Department of Adult and Continuing Education (DACE) was significant in many respects. The activities had expanded and changed since those undertaken under the auspices of the Extramural Education Committee, and there had been an expansion in scale and development of provision in the period after Second World War. However, Lalage's appointment represented a step-change transformation in relation to the philosophy and the profile of the work of the Department: both within the university and externally in the wider community. She was not only Director, but also the Professor of Adult and Continuing Education – at a time when, in Scotland, there was typically only *the* Professor in a department. Her intellect, strong values and personality made her a formidable advocate on behalf adult learners throughout the university and beyond. The tales of her challenging interventions at Senate are legendary – attracting on more than one occasion spontaneous standing applause when she subsequently retired to the campus College Club for a 'wee dram' or in one of the local restaurants where she was an always popular, familiar figure.

When Lalage 'retired' in 1992, I had the privilege of being appointed as her successor. I was both delighted and apprehensive in equal measure. Delighted as DACE had become, under Lalage's leadership, not only one of the largest but also one of the most far-sighted and innovative departments of its kind in the UK. I was of course also rather apprehensive – she had set such a high bar: how might it be possible to follow in her footsteps?

However, I need not have worried: Lalage's contribution was so distinctive that she would have been a hard, if not impossible, act for anyone to follow. From the moment she heard of my appointment, Lalage was unstinting in her support for the new Director of the Department in the University that she loved so much. Once my appointment had been confirmed, she insisted we celebrate together in one of her favourite Glaswegian restaurants.

Given her long-standing commitment to equality for women in all walks of life and in all situations she was particularly delighted that it was one of the first – if not *the* first – occasions in Glasgow University when a female Professor had been succeeded by another woman, but also that my appointment was as a time when it was estimated that only around 6% of the professoriate in the university were women.

Indomitable, intrepid, dedicated, engaging, inclusive, imaginative, radical… these are all terms would come to mind when thinking about Lalage. She dedicated her long life to fighting for social justice: and, in her tireless pursuit of this struggle, adult education – in its various manifestations – formed her 'weapon'.

This chapter makes the case that her ideas and strategies remain, if anything, even more pertinent today than ever. The discussion is divided into three parts.

In the first, drawing largely on three historical accounts (Shearer 1976; Hamilton and Slowey 2005; Slowey 2010) I use Glasgow University as a case study, tracing a brief social history of the background to the university's engagement with its wider community – including the introduction of the first university classes designed for the general public, from which the Department of Adult and Continuing Education emerged.

Secondly, I explore different conceptual and practical interpretations of 'university adult education' in Britain and the wider European context over recent decades.

### MARIA SLOWEY

In the third part I raise the question as to whether the time of the extra-mural, university adult education tradition – to which Lalage devoted most of her working life – may have come to an end? Or, whether alternatively, have the values and ideals she espoused been reinterpreted anew through, for example, universities' commitments to social responsibility, access initiatives and wider forms of civic engagement?

# 1. The Case of Glasgow University: Changing Manifestations of University Adult Education

Universities are social institutions which, inevitably, change over time in response to shifting cultural, social, political and economic conditions. At the core, however, lies a common mission to create and disseminate knowledge through research and teaching. In this way, universities are simultaneously part of society, yet, if they are to fulfil their unique academic mission, they also require the freedom to be independent, holding a critical mirror back to the society of which they are a part.

One significant aspect within this context concerns a commitment to supporting wider society and the 'public good' – the notion of which, of course, varies over time (Marginson and Yang 2020). However, arguably an arena where university values and those of social purpose adult education converge concerns access to education for people of all ages and stages of life – not just school leavers – and particularly those who did not have the chance to engage in higher education at a younger age.

In the case of Glasgow University, approximately 300 years ago, in 1727, the University Commissioners instituted changes in the Constitution of the university whereby the Professor of Natural Philosophy was required to offer two courses: one in physics and one in experimental philosophy. It was further laid down that «any person, not a student as said is, may attend the lessons of Experimental Philosophy without a gown»: in other words that the course on experimental philosophy should be open to the general public (Shearer 1976, 1). In this spirit, from 1729 to 1746, the Professor of Moral Philosophy, Francis Hutcheson, gave his lectures in English to both students and the wider public. Over the eighteenth century the professors of the university connected with clubs such as the Political Economy Club and the Glasgow Literary Society – combining, Shearer suggests «the pleasures of conviviality with the dissemination of knowledge and the promotion of research» (1976, 3). With influential thinkers such as Adam Smith and David Hume the scale of influence was impressive given that in 1800 the university comprised just thirteen professors and a few lecturers.

While the university had links with working class men through Mechanics Institutes, it was not until the 1860s that the university – not without opposition on the part of some professors – made its major contribution to widening access for women through the Association for Higher Education of Women, the establishment of Queen Margaret College and its subsequent incorporation into the university.

It was James Stuart – another influential academic who also had spent time at Glasgow University – who is credited with articulating the idea of university extramural (beyond the walls) provision in Cambridge University (Fieldhouse 1996). In 1873, the University of Cambridge agreed to organize, formally, programs and lectures in various centers, and Oxford also undertook to provide a number of programs through extension centers. Shortly afterwards, the University of London established the London Society for the Extension of University Teaching.

In Glasgow an 'Extension Board' was established in 1888, however, it some decades later, largely through the energy and commitment of A.D. Lindsay, Professor of Moral Philosophy, who had been strongly influenced by his experiences in Oxford University, that more formal connections were developed between the university and the WEA (Workers Education Association).

Ultimately this led in 1924 to the establishment of the Glasgow University Extra-Mural Education Committee. The work undertaken under the auspices of this committee was firmly in the liberal tradition of university adult education, placing an emphasis on personal growth and development of the individual, through educational experience, including both the acquisition of knowledge and analytical skills and enhancement of self-confidence and breadth of social awareness. In this regard, informed, independent, self-motivated, free individuals are held to be the cornerstone of the 'good society'. And to this objective of individual development, liberal education should be characterised by critical thinking: all questions are open questions, subject to rigorous, sceptical and wide-ranging criticism and discussion.

This then is the tradition of university adult education into which Lalage Bown fitted so well when she was appointed as Professor and Director in 1981 – shortly after her return from an influential period of working in many countries in Africa: as described in detail in other chapters in this book.

This was also the background which Lalage Bown drew on in a joint lecture which I had the pleasure of presenting with her in 1998 as a contribution to a seminar series in honour of Glasgow University's 11th Jubilee (Bown and Slowey 1998). In our lecture, Lalage emphasised the historically important role played by university adult education in supporting what she termed «a huge surge towards democracy», and the major concerns she had for a narrowing of focus due to increasing domination by economic imperatives.

In the next part, I elaborate on the economic and other imperatives which have shaped university adult education in recent decades – particularly in Britain, but also with reference to the wider European context.

2. University Adult Education: Interpretations in Britain and the Wider European Context

The days when a university might comprise just thirteen professors and a tiny proportion of the male population are long gone. In the global north higher education has expanded greatly to a scale where many, if not most, young people progress from school to some form of higher education (UNESCO 2022).

Three factors however have to be taken into consideration when looking at these raw statistics. First, the age participation rate (APR) simply measures the proportion of the population of the typical school-leaving age which progress to higher education – that is young people. Secondly, much of the expansion in higher education over the last two decades took place in institutions of higher education other than universities – such as polytechnics, community colleges, further education colleges, and the like. Thirdly, international statistics usually refer to full-time undergraduate entrants, whereas adult learners are more likely to be found on part-time, distance, post-experience, and non-credit programs.

An examination of adult participation in higher education in selected OECD countries (Schuetze and Slowey 2012) identified five different approaches to the categorization of engagement by adult students in higher education.

While arguably most university systems in Europe display some elements of the above features, in order to understand more specific patterns of university adult education, it is necessary to have a broad appreciation of the historical traditions from which they emerge.

In this regard three major traditions can be identified.

First, the model of bringing university education 'outside the walls' to the wider community. As discussed in the example of Glasgow University, the origins of this model can be formally traced back at least to the 1870s in the British universities. It led in many of the older universities to the establishment of specialist adult education (extra-mural) departments, with, at some stages dedicated and separate funding lines. These departments were unusual in being multidisciplinary and devoted to the delivery of university level courses specifically tailored to meet the needs of adult students. This extramural approach provided a conceptual model which, as demonstrated by Lalage Bown, had also a widespread international influence, in particular in Commonwealth countries as discussed in other chapters in this book.

Second, some higher education systems have traditions of university adult education which are connected to the ideal of 'service' by the university to local and regional social and economic communities. A significant example of this tradition are the land-grant universities in the USA, which had a particular mission to support community and rural development.

Third, there are traditions where educational provision to adults, as a distinctive group, tended not to be seen as a significant function for universities, but was rather associated with institutions such as folk high schools and similar. This is particularly evident where the university traditions emphasized research, professional development of adult educators, where direct delivery to local communities was largely undertaken by other agencies and specialist institutions, such as open universities or vocational organizations (for example in the Humboldtian higher education system of Germany).

The complexity and variability of patterns was well demonstrated in the findings of a comparative study of continuing education in universities across thirty countries which showed that

activity with ostensibly different purposes, including continuing professional development, second chance education, education for leisure and social development, U3A and technology transfer, are all within the remit of continuing education. Increasingly, continuing education within universities has become blurred with other aspects of flexibility including part-time education, summer universities, open and distance education, accreditation of prior learning and work-based learning (Osborne and Thomas 2003, 20).

Allowing for the expansion and development of on-line learning opportunities and the – as yet unknown – impact of artificial intelligence, there is little reason to think that this 'blurring' has declined in recent decades: or, seems likely to do so in the future.

To what extent do such organisational changes matter in the efforts to widen access to higher education for adult learners, and the social justice mission of universities? This is a question which is explored in the next part.

# 3. Reinventing the Social Justice Mission of Higher Education

The case of the extramural tradition considered above illustrates common challenges faced. These in part concern the relative advantage of seeking to incorporate adult learners into 'mainstream' university activities versus the benefits of dedicated provision which reaches out in proactive ways to the wider community, with curricula, modes of teaching and assessment (where relevant) tailored to the interests, needs and life experiences of adults – as distinct to the traditional cohort of school leavers.

Additionally, there are wider structural dynamics operating at the level of both higher education systems and individual institutions which influence how this balance tilts one way or the other, including: financing; research priorities; and institutional missions. In the case of the British model of extramural education, the interaction of these three factors over recent decades has led to a situation where effectively many such departments – leaving aside Oxford and Cambridge – have ceased to exist in the forms most had since after Second World War.

These are briefly considered below.

*Finance*: many such departments had been the recipients of two important streams of funding. One of these operated at a national level through specific earmarked allocations from the relevant higher education funding agency – the names and structures of which changed over time. A second stream of funding, which was particularly important for the Scottish universities, came through close collaboration with regional public authorities. By the year 2000 these two streams of funding had either come to an end, or been significantly reduced. In their place, while some targeted funding became available on a bidding basis, this not secure enough to maintain the previous scale of activity.

*Research*: the second important development with a significant impact on adult education departments was associated with an increasing focus on research assessment. The traditional adult education/extramural departments were, by definition, multi-disciplinary. In some respects their nearest equivalent were Oxford and Cambridge Colleges, with a mix of experts from a variety of different disciplines who took responsibility for developing programmes and oversight of the quality of provision in their areas of expertise. Such academics were expected to be active scholars in their relevant areas. This provided a fruitful environment for the growth of new interdisciplinary areas of knowledge, many of which subsequently became incorporated into the 'mainstream' departments (Steele 1997; Taylor et al. 2002). Thus, for example, the Department of Adult and Continuing Education at Glasgow University in the 1990s comprised academic colleagues with backgrounds in archaeology, art history, biology, geology, history, philosophy, political science, psychology, physics, sociology, as well as researchers in adult and community education.

With an increasing worldwide emphasis on 'league tables' research assessment and research excellence it became important for all such members of staff to be assessed within their relevant disciplines. This was not only in order that individuals might receive appropriate personal recognition, but also because, in effect 'successful' assessment was associated with some additional funding to the relevant department. In the case of Glasgow University, we were pleased that the research on adult and continuing education received increasingly higher grades over the years in British national research assessment systems. However, as the numbers engaging in such research were relatively small, the funding associated with this line of activity did not reflect the time and effort dedicated to it.

*Institutional mission*: the third matter which arguably shaped the demise of extramural and adult education departments in their previous manifestations was associated with changing institutional missions and strategies. This was partly associated with the major growth of new types of universities in a unitary system, with the consequent demise of dedicated funding lines. But possibly even more importantly, wider financial pressures led institutions to focus attention on income generation through, for example: recruitment of fee-paying international students; technology transfer and start up enterprises; income generated through student residences, alumni and the like. In such an environment there was, unfortunately, rarely a willingness to subsidise wider adult education programmes for the community, leading to them being seen as marginal to core university 'business'.

In investigating what they termed 'academic capitalism', Slaughter and Rhoades (2004) showed the many ways in which the boundaries between public concerns and private gains became increasingly blurred, as universities sought income from increasingly diverse sources. Consequently, continuing professional education provision, which is usually self-funding – or even 'profit' making – tended to expand: the arena of lifelong learning being one which is particularly subject to the growth of the private sector and both profit and non-profit higher education providers (Peters 2001; Marginson 2011).

Writing in 2009, Peter Jarvis, in considering the wider landscape of adult education beyond universities, posed a question as to whether the adult education 'movement' led, or followed? Towards the latter part of the twentieth century, with the rise of the knowledge economy, and the need for a more educated workforce, he makes the point that suddenly lifelong learning became important «but it was not the adult educators who forced open the door, because in many ways they have been left behind with the rapidity of the transition» (Jarvis 2009, 16).

In a similar vein, Chris Duke – a long-standing colleague of Lalage's at Warwick University where she was a Visiting Professor – reflecting on changes taking place in higher education, remarked that these were «little informed by the commendable and abiding purposes for which extra-mural liberal adult education was founded»

As universities come to deepen their interest in engagement, and often their commitment to regional partnerships and development, this occurs without benefit of the socially informed liberal perspectives of and the facilitation skills honed in EMDs [Extra-Mural Departments]. University engagement in regional development has been more unbalanced towards the (neo-) liberal economic and the technical/skills agenda. Universities as well as regions are the poorer as a result. As the world experiences new forms and intensities of economic, environmental, geopolitical and cultural crisis, rebalancing in favour of a wider civic mission becomes the more urgent (Duke 2008, 214).

So, if the classic model of the adult education/extra mural department has all but disappeared, where might we see evidence of this 'engagement' on the part of higher education? Given that Lalage Bown dedicated her long and inspirational professional life to supporting the development of dedicated university centres, departments, or institutes of adult education what does the demise of many such mean for her legacy? Might it mean that, leaving aside her incalculable personal influence, her institutional legacy has somehow been 'lost'? I believe not, as I explain in my concluding reflections.

# Concluding Reflections

In reviewing current developments in higher education in Britain and Europe more widely, I prefer to draw not only Lalage's values, but also the positive energy and associated strategies which she, as a principled pragmatist, epitomised. I see these as a combination of: regrouping in the face of adversity; and vigilance in identifying, and then seizing, every opportunity in whatever institutional 'spaces' she could find, to reinvent new approaches for universities engage with their wider communities, extending access to university knowledge to all.

Where might we identify evidence of such 'spaces' in contemporary universities? The Commissioner for Fair Access in Scotland, Peter Scott, points to some as he makes the case that there is a need to replace what he calls a 'pseudopopulist narrative' that focuses on fear, by one based on hope. In this context, policy makers, and universities «need to recalibrate our language, away from world-class universities and beggar-your-neighbour league tables, and back to social purpose, social responsibility and – of course – more open (and fairer) access» (Scott 2017, 4).

Individual academics have always engaged with, and made major contributions to, wider society with a view to supporting 'the public good'. The question is what is happening at the institutional level? Can we find any grounds for optimism as – some – universities seek to reinvigorate this social purpose mission?

The last time I saw Lalage was when she came to speak at a seminar, I was hosting in Dublin City University – to which I had moved when I left Glasgow – on 4th February 2020. Despite being in her early 90s, she had taken the train by herself from Shrewsbury to Holyhead port, where I met her. As it happened, there was a new ferry travelling between Holyhead and Dublin that day and, in inevitable Lalage style, we were upgraded to seats to right at the bow of the ship – where she charmed all the crew settling into the comfort, commenting the experience was less like a ferry crossing more like being on a cruise! She also was the highlight of the seminar the next day at the launch of a report addressing issues dear to her heart *Living Longer - Working Longer? Ageing Population and New Workforce Dynamics in Ireland* (Slowey and Zubrzycki 2020).

So, in looking for some signs of optimism below I highlight just a few initiatives with which Irish, British and many other European universities are involved, reflecting attempts to put social justice principles into practice.

Widening access: many European countries have set national targets for universities to achieve. For example, in the case of Ireland the objective is «to ensure that the student body entering, participating in and completing higher education at all levels reflects the diversity and social mix of Ireland's population» ("Higher Education Authority" 2023).

Universities of Sanctuary (2023): building on the City of Sanctuary movement, this initiative promotes good practice by universities in welcoming sanctuary seekers (students and staff) into their communities seeking to foster a culture of welcome and inclusion for all.

Age Friendly University ("Global Alliance of Age Friendly Universities" 2023): a network of c100 universities with the aim of making higher education more accessible and responsive to the needs of older learners.

Scholars at Risk (2023): An international network dedicated to protecting academics and «the freedom to think, question, and share ideas».

Development of new international 'ranking' systems focusing on universities impact, for example in working to help achieve the UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals ("THE Impact Rankings" 2023).

The above such initiatives have, of course, strengths and weaknesses, and some may prove little more than 'flavour of the moment'. However, as chapters by Alan Tuckett and others in this book describe, this is where there are clear lessons to be learnt from Lalage's approach: strong advocacy; research to produce the evidence; recount adult students' (compelling) personal stories; networking; developing partnerships and alliances; and, ultimately, 'speaking truth to power'. Whether that representative of 'power' be the Dean of the Faculty (as in the quotation at the head of this chapter), the Principal of the University, representatives of international, national or regional Governments, civic society agencies, business, commercial bodies or whoever.

At the heart of the endeavour, lies the key question: what can we do in universities to engage, share and generate knowledge with the widest possible public? In this respect, as Evans and colleagues put it in a recent Handbook on Lifelong Learning, reimagining «lifelong learning is a creative and productive process in which we all share responsibility in contributing to the iterative and recursive development of ideas, plans, programs, and practices» (Evans et al. 2022). Aways committed to fighting inequality wherever she saw it, in contemporary terms Lalage's approach might be termed 'intersectional': she did not look at key structural factors of gender, race, and social class in isolation, but rather as the ways in which they combine to shape people's opportunities for education and associated lifechances (Slowey 2022).

So, Lalage's vision, as I see it, directly follows those of the founders of the adult/extra-mural tradition in Glasgow and similar universities described briefly in this chapter – combining a passion to widen opportunities for individuals to learn and develop over their entire lifespan, with an Enlightenment conception of the value of liberal democracy. In this respect, the academy rather than being part of the problem, through exclusion and intellectual isolation, might become part of the solution by, as Jean Barr says in her discussion of the idea of an educated public «actively supporting the growth of new associations, rooted in projects, to which committed intellectuals and academics from different disciplines might contribute» (Barr 2008, 23).

In the Albert Mansbridge Lecture in 1995, Lalage laid out, perhaps most explicitly, her arguments supporting democracy and democratic principles. In doing so, she also stressed that it is crucial

to draw on our inheritance, on the understanding of our predecessors that democracy's 'magic promises' will always fail without opportunities for the general public to learn about the issues of our time and to judge them on the basis of logic and articulated principles, rather than prejudice (Bown 1995, 7).

[…] those who use the rhetoric of 'active citizenship' need to have their bluff called: reflective citizenship comes before active citizenship. Political education makes the reflection possible (Bown 1995, 18).

With widespread contemporary challenges to the pursuit of 'truth' and the rise of populism and neo-nationalism across many parts of the world, if Lalage's warning is perhaps more apposite than ever, so also is her vision.

# References


**3. Materials and Methods**

The study followed a sequential exploratory mixed-methods approach [62] and combined ethnographic case studies with a subsequent quantitative survey (Figure 2). To gain an understanding of how decisions on energy efficiency are constituted and how the enterprises deal with energy efficiency issues in everyday work life, firstly, ethnographic case studies [63] were carried out on 10 industrial SMEs using qualitative interviews and observations as the main methods. Secondly, and based on their key results and orienting on the discussed framework, the questionnaire was conceptualized, which was addressed to 500 SMEs.(An SME is here intended as an enterprise according to the 2003 recommendation of the European Council [64]).

**Figure 2.** Research design.

#### *3.1. Qualitative Analysis: Case Studies*

The ethnographic organizational analyses formed the starting point of the research work, which primarily aimed at the observation and reconstruction of situations in everyday work life in order to find out "how work is organized and how that organizing organizes people". [63] (p. 1). This qualitative approach is particularly suitable for studies of organizational cultures [65] (p. 20). Exploratively designed case studies focused on several basic questions: How do decisions for energy efficiency come about in the SMEs? Which driving (or constraining) processes and aspects can be identified? How are energy efficiency issues treated, organized, and communicated in everyday work life? The sample (Table 1) comprised 10 manufacturing enterprises from different industrial sectors (chemicals, minerals, engineering, and machinery). The cases were selected by theoretical sampling [66] according to the premise of "minimum/maximum contrast", especially with regard to energy intensity, sector, and number of employees of the enterprises. All participating enterprises are family businesses (ownership and/or control). (Ninety-one percent of all enterprises in Baden-Württemberg are family controlled and 88% of all enterprises in the manufacturing sector are family controlled [67].). The data generation was mainly based on qualitative interviews [68] with members from different divisions within the enterprises. Around seven to 10 interviews per SME (one-on-one and multi-person) were carried out in each enterprise. Interviews were conducted with managing directors, owners, and energy managers as well as production workers and controlling, marketing, and human resources staff (Table 2). In addition to the interviews, participating observations [69] and artefacts (e.g., company presentations, homepages, work instructions) were included in the analysis. Depending on what was appropriate from the perspectives of the enterprises and their members, the observations were either performed as fly-on-the-wall (e.g., at meetings of formal or informal energy teams or meetings with external energy efficiency consultants) or following the daily routines throughout the work day. The data (primarily interview text and observation protocols) were analyzed by system analysis [68,69]. This hermeneutic approach focuses on the interpretation of the data in two steps. In the first step, hypotheses are formed, from which subjective and organizational meanings and conditions could lead to a statement (e.g., "Only the boss is responsible for energy.") or observation. In the second step, hypotheses are formed, from which these meanings and conditions could have effects for the organization (e.g., centralization of competences and responsibility for measures). The field research was carried out by one person of the University of Reutlingen, taking about one year all together and spending around one work week in each SME.

**Table 1.** List of enterprises participating in the case studies.

> \* Self-evaluation of the enterprises.

**Table 2.** Shares on the roles of the interviewed persons of the SMEs.

## *3.2. Quantitative Analysis: Survey*

Based on the case study research, a quantitative survey was conceptualized through a questionnaire comprising questions on topics such as the importance of energy e fficiency, measures, support measures, the influence of the business environment, the relevance of employee behavior, financing, and others. The questionnaire consisted of 20 di fferent types of questions including multiple choice questions, Likert scale questions, and matrix questions as well as single-choice questions (see Appendix A). The survey took place from May to June 2018 and around 500 SMEs from the federal state of Baden-Württemberg, Germany, were surveyed. A market research institute was commissioned with the survey itself while the analysis was conducted by the Institute for Energy E fficiency in Production, Universität Stuttgart. On the basis of available data bases and selected by company size (micro-, small-, middle-sized) and sectors, the SMEs were reached by telephone. The energy demand of the surveyed SMEs is shown in Figure 3. The distribution of the responding SMEs with respect to the number of employees is shown in Table 3. Analogous to the sample procedure for the survey of the Energy E fficiency Index of German Industry [10], the distribution of the sample size did not correspond to the real distribution of SMEs by enterprise size in Germany [70]. In order to allow valid results for small- and medium-sized enterprises, the share of micro enterprises was reduced. Furthermore, a thorough coverage of the manufacturing sector including subsectors of particular importance for the state of Baden-Wuerttemberg (such as the manufacturing of metal products and processing, mechanical engineering, and the automotive sector) was targeted. The respondents were either owners, managing directors, technical managers, production managers, energy or environmental managers, controlling, or other persons of the SMEs. Naturally, not all enterprises were open to be interviewed. Therefore, a self-selection bias can be assumed. In addition to descriptive data analysis, a correlation analysis (using SPSS) investigating the factors driving the internal establishment of energy e fficiency was conducted. The correlation analysis was performed using ordinally scaled variables, with the Spearman rho rank correlation coe fficient as an indicator of correlation.

**Figure 3.** Energy demand of the surveyed SMEs.

**Table 3.** Sample composition, according to size.


Systems-of-Systems Perspectives and Applications Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis (MS&A), Gaming and Decision Support

*Edited by Tien M. Nguyen*

Systems-of-Systems Perspectives and Applications - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis (MS&A), Gaming and Decision Support *Edited by Tien M. Nguyen*

Published in London, United Kingdom

## *Supporting open minds since 2005*

Systems-of-Systems Perspectives and Applications - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis (MS&A), Gaming and Decision Support http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.77586 Edited by Tien M. Nguyen

#### Contributors

Andrzej Łodziński, Sameh Najeh, Ammar Bouallegue, Teresa Azevedo Perdicoúlis, Paulo Lopes Dos Santos, Tien M. Manh Nguyen, Alper Pahsa, Thomas O. Freeze, John D. Nguyen, Maria Cerreta, Ludovica La Rocca, Gaia Daldanise, Paolo Di Lauro, Fatima Isiaka, Awwal M. Adamu, Salihu A. Abdulkarim, Ruolun Liu, Xueqin Zhang, Rui Huang, Lucia Pusillo, Agostino Bruzzone, Derseh Limeneh, Kelem Yilma, Tung Bui, Charles H. Lee, Abdullahi Salihu, G. Jank

#### © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2021

The rights of the editor(s) and the author(s) have been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECHOPEN LIMITED. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECHOPEN LIMITED's written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECHOPEN LIMITED rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com).

Violations are liable to prosecution under the governing Copyright Law.

Individual chapters of this publication are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License which permits commercial use, distribution and reproduction of the individual chapters, provided the original author(s) and source publication are appropriately acknowledged. If so indicated, certain images may not be included under the Creative Commons license. In such cases users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. More details and guidelines concerning content reuse and adaptation can be found at http://www.intechopen.com/copyright-policy.html.

#### Notice

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in London, United Kingdom, 2021 by IntechOpen IntechOpen is the global imprint of INTECHOPEN LIMITED, registered in England and Wales, registration number: 11086078, 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom Printed in Croatia

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Systems-of-Systems Perspectives and Applications - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis (MS&A), Gaming and Decision Support Edited by Tien M. Nguyen p. cm. Print ISBN 978-1-83968-327-5 Online ISBN 978-1-83968-328-2 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-1-83968-329-9


*4.1. Spatial Pattern*

Figure 3 shows six *DI* maps that were averaged based on the annual draught indices from 2001 to 2018. Figure 3a–e presents those drought indices whose lower values indicate severe drought, while Figure 3f shows the TVDI map for which a higher value indicates severe drought.

**Figure 3.** Six drought indices averaged over 18 years for the Greater Changbai Mountains (GCM). (**a**) Precipitation condition index (PCI), (**b**) temperature condition index (TCI), (**c**) vegetation condition index (VCI), (**d**) vegetation health index (VHI), (**e**) scaled drought condition index (SDCI), and (**f**) temperature–vegetation dryness index (TVDI).

According to the PCI shown in Figure 3a and the classification scheme presented in Table 4, the southeast area of the GCM region where Baishan, Tonghua, and Dandong Cities are located, exhibits no drought conditions, whereas the northeast area (ShuangyaShan) has a low PCI value, indicating obvious drought conditions. Most of the remaining areas had slight or no drought. The TCI and VCI maps show slightly different drought patterns. According to the TCI map, most of the GCM area experienced drought conditions, except for the mountains in the central region. The VCI map indicates that most of the area experienced slight or no drought, except for the low-lying areas in the southwest and northeast. Since the TCI is related to LST, and the VCI is related to NDVI, the conflict between the TCI and VCI suggests that vegetation flourished in the mountains despite the high LST, indicating that the vegetation in the GCM area has high drought endurance. The VHI is high (no drought/wet conditions) in the southeast area with high elevation, while low (drought conditions) in the low-lying southwest and northeast areas. The other area has moderate VHI values, indicating mild drought conditions according to the classification in Table 4. The SDCI map shows a pattern similar to that of the PCI map, largely because the PCI is an important factor in the SDCI. According to the TVDI map, no drought conditions occurred in the southeast area with high elevation. The remaining parts of the region exhibited slight to moderate drought conditions. The spatial pattern of the TVDI was similar to that of the VHI. Thus, these six indices exhibit different drought information for the GCM area. This is mainly because they are calculated from different combinations of precipitation, LST, and vegetation status. Thus far, we cannot conclude which index is more reliable because they all try to reflect one

or more aspects of drought conditions. The di fferences among the index maps also suggests that the method for drought monitoring should be selected carefully.


**8. Conclusion**

No matter what globalization means this term gains its tremendous popularity even outside the academic. Sometimes it means global migration, which brings up the optimistic argument but the pessimistic argument also play its role to show the old dark side recurrent in the new context of global migration. Yet by repeating old argument, many studies indicate the old but still important issues such as the exploitation of migrant care workers. This study demonstrates how the aging population and the low birth rate in Taiwan

Cheng, Shu-Ju Ada (2004), "When the Personal Meets the Global at Home: Filipina Domestics and Their Female Employers in Taiwan," Frontiers, 25(2): 31-52. Council for Economic Planning and Development (2008), "Population estimation from 2008

Gibson, Katherine, Lisa Law & Deirdre McKay (2001), "Beyond Heroes and Victims",

Huang, Shirlena & Brenda S. A. Yeoh (2007), "Emotional Labour and Transnational

Huang, Shirlena & Brenda S. A. Yeoh (2003), "The difference gender makes: State policy and

Human Rights Watch (2005), Maid to Order: Ending Abuses against Migrant Domestic

International Labour Office (2003), Preventing Discrimination, Exploitation and Abuse of

Lan, Pei-Chia (2000), Global Divisions, Local Identities: Filipian Migrant Domestic Workers

Lan, Pei-Chia (2003a), "Maid or Madam? Filipina Migrant Workers and the Continuity of

Lan, Pei-Chia (2003b), "Negotiating Social Boundaries and Private Zones: The Micropolitics of Empoying Migrant Domestic Workers," Social Problems, 50(4):525-549. Lan, Pei-Chia (2006), Global Cinderellas: Mirgrant Domestic and Newly Rich Employers in

Liang, Li-Fang (2011), "The Making of an 'Ideal' Live-in Migrant Care Worker: Recruiting,

Lin, Chin-Ju (1999), "Filipina Domestic Workers in Taiwan: Structural Constraints and Personal Resistance," Taipei: Taiwan Grassroots Women Workers' Centre. Loveband, Anne (2004), "Positioning the Product: Indonesian Migrant Women Workers in

Lyons, Lenore (2007), "Dignity Overdue: Women's Rights Activism in Support of Foreign Domestic Workers in Singapore", Women's Studies Quarterly, 35(3&4): 106-122. Mantouvalou, Virginia (2006), "Servitude and Forced Labour in the 21st Century: The Human Rights of Domestic Workers," Industrial Law Journal, 35(4): 395-415. Ministry of Health (2009), "National Citizen Health Survey," Ministry of Health, Republic of

Ministry of the Interior (2010), "Population Statistics," Ministry of Interior, Republic of

Ong, Aihwa (1991), "The Gender and Labor Politics of Postmodernity," Annual Review of

Pan, Shu-Man and Jung-Tsung Yang (2008), "Cultural constructions of female homelessness in Taiwan", Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless,17 (3), 53-71.

Training, Matching and Disciplining", Ethnic and Racial Studies, (forthcoming

International Feminist Journal of Politics, 3(3): 365-386.

Workers in Singapore, Human Rights Watch.

Domestic Labor," Gender & Society, 17(2): 187-208.

Taiwan." Journal of Contemporary Asia, 34(3): 336-348.

Programme, International Labour Office.

Taiwan, London: Duke University Press.

NorthwesternUniversity Press.

China, Taiwan.

2): 75-97.

Article).

China, Taiwan.

China, Taiwan.

Anthropology, 20: 279-309.

Mobilities, 2(2): 195-217.

to 2056 in Taiwan," Council of Economic Planning and Development, Republic of

Domestic Work: The Moving Geographies of 'Maid Abuse' in Singapore,"

contract migrant workers in Singapore," Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 12 (1-

Women Migrant Workers: An Information Guide, Geneva: Gender Promotion

and Taiwanese Employers, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Sociology,

intersect with the trend of global migration and bring in migrant care workers and analyzes the exploitation of these worker such as overwork even work for multiple households which is against the law.

But this study also argues that exploitation cannot fully explain the whole situation of migrant care workers by showing the sexual abuse against these workers, which is ignored by studies of migration and sexual violence against women.  It is very difficult for these workers to file a suit, because they face the employers who have tremendous power over them and the labor regulations and the policy by the government. This study has investigated the social-cultural context in Taiwan, which leads to the sexual abuse by the employer and his relatives. This study also reveals prejudice/stereotype/ideology, which operates in this context to justify or cover up the sexual abuse. For example, why the sexual abuse against care workers tends to be covered up by the family is this not related to race, class, and indifference to the outsider/foreigner status or xenophobia and micro-power politics. The male employers justify their abusive behavior by claiming that this is a trade and they had already paid the money. Is this justification not related to gender discrimination or the kind of stereotype that if the migrant women worker is willing to sell her labor, she is willing to have sex with the employer for money?

#### **9. Acknowledgments**

The authors would like to thank the National Science Council of the Republic of China, Taiwan for financially supporting this research under Contract No. NSC 95-2412-H-003- MY2. The authors are grateful to all those who assisted with or participated in this study. The authors would like to thank research assistants, Kai-Chi Chuang and Pei-Fang Hsieh, for their assistance in putting this study together, and Ted Knoy is appreciated for his editorial assistance.

#### **10. References**

intersect with the trend of global migration and bring in migrant care workers and analyzes the exploitation of these worker such as overwork even work for multiple households which

But this study also argues that exploitation cannot fully explain the whole situation of migrant care workers by showing the sexual abuse against these workers, which is ignored by studies of migration and sexual violence against women.  It is very difficult for these workers to file a suit, because they face the employers who have tremendous power over them and the labor regulations and the policy by the government. This study has investigated the social-cultural context in Taiwan, which leads to the sexual abuse by the employer and his relatives. This study also reveals prejudice/stereotype/ideology, which operates in this context to justify or cover up the sexual abuse. For example, why the sexual abuse against care workers tends to be covered up by the family is this not related to race, class, and indifference to the outsider/foreigner status or xenophobia and micro-power politics. The male employers justify their abusive behavior by claiming that this is a trade and they had already paid the money. Is this justification not related to gender discrimination or the kind of stereotype that if the migrant women worker is willing to sell her labor, she is willing to have sex with the

The authors would like to thank the National Science Council of the Republic of China, Taiwan for financially supporting this research under Contract No. NSC 95-2412-H-003- MY2. The authors are grateful to all those who assisted with or participated in this study. The authors would like to thank research assistants, Kai-Chi Chuang and Pei-Fang Hsieh, for their assistance in putting this study together, and Ted Knoy is appreciated for his

Abu-Habib, Lina (1998), "The Use and Abuse of Female Domestic Workers from Sri Lanka

Anderson, Bridget (2001), "Why Madam has so Many Bathrobes: Demand for Migrant

Bach, Stephen (2003), Selectoral Activities Progrmme: Working Paper- International

Chang, Grace (2000), Disposable Domestics: Immigrant Women Workers in the Global

Cheng, Shu-Ju Ada (2003), "Rethinking the Globalization of Domestic Service: Foreign

Domestic Workers in the EU," Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie,

Migration of Health Workers: Labour and Social Issues, International Labour

Domestics, State Control, and the Politics of Identity in Taiwan", Gender & Society,

in Lebanon," Gender and Development, 6(1): 52-56.

is against the law.

employer for money?

editorial assistance.

**10. References**

92(1): 18-26.

Office, Geneva.

17(2), 166-186.

Econnomy, New York: Routledge.

**9. Acknowledgments**

Pan, Shu-Man and Jung-Tsung Yang (2012), "Strangers in the Family: Abuse of Migrant Domestic Workers in Taiwan", Asian Journal of Women's Studies, (forthcoming). Pyle, Jean L. (2006), "Globalization and the Increase in Transnational Care Work: The Flip

Radford, Lorraine, & Kaname Tsutsumi (2004), "Globalization and Violence against

Yeoh, Brenda S.A. & Shirlena Huang (1998), "Negotiating Public Space: Strategies and Styles

Yeoh, Brenda S.A., & Shirlena Huang (2000), "Home" and "Away": Foreign Domestic

Women─Inequalities in Risks, Responsibilities and Blame in the UK and Japan,"

of Migrant Female Domestic Workers in Singapore," Urban Studies, 35(3): 583-602.

Workers and Negotiations of Diasporic identity in Singapore", Women's Studies

Side," Globalizations, 3(3): 297-315.

International Forum, 23(4): 413-429.

Women's Studies International Forum, 27(1): 1-12.


**3.1 Classifications and prognostic scores systems in myelodysplastic syndrome**

Until 1980, the MDS included a variety of hematologic abnormalities classified as syndromes or pre-leukemic states. However, these denominations were unsatisfactory, not grouping all the patients who showed an ineffective hematopoiesis and not progressed to acute leukemia, occurring complications because of the cytopenias leading to death. The term "pre-leukemia" disappeared and the term myelodysplstic syndrome became widely accepted in 1982 with the FAB classification.

### **3.1.1 FAB classification**

In 1982, the FAB group (French, American and British group) proposed a classification for primary MDS into five subgroups: refractory anemia (RA), refractory anemia with ringed sideroblasts (RARS), refractory anemia with excess blasts (RAEB), refractory anemia with excess blasts in transformation (RAEB-t) and chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML).

Epigenetics in Cancer: The Myelodysplastic Syndrome as a

Refractory cytopenias with unilineage dysplasia (**RCUD**)

Refractory anemia with ring sideroblasts

Refractory cytopenia with multilineage dysplasia (**RCMD**)

Refractory anemia with excess blasts-1

Refractory anemia with excess blasts-2

(**RAEB-1**)

(**RAEB-2**)

Syndrome 5q-

Myelodysplastic syndrome,

unclassified (MDS-U)

(**RARS**)

**Subgroup Peripheral Blood Bone marrow**

Unicytopenia or bicytopenia;

Anemia; No blasts

Cytopenia(s); or rare blasts (<1%); No Auer rods; monocytes <1 x 109/ L

Cytopenias; <5% blasts; No Auer rods; monocytes <1 x 109/ L

Cytopenias; 5-19% blasts; ± Auer rods;

Anemia;

Cytopenias; Blasts ≤1%

**3.1.3 Classification of myelodysplastic syndrome in childhood**

Some studies have shown differences in morphological, cytogenetic, molecular and clinical manifestations of primary MDS in childhood that affect their inclusion in traditional classification systems (FAB and WHO), based mainly on adult patients. The rarity of childhood MDS and the heterogeneous nature of the disease have further contributed to the difficulties in classifying this disease (Hasle &Niemeyer, 2011). In 2003, Hasle and colleagues proposed a pediatric approach to the WHO classification of myelodysplastic syndrome: 1- MDS occurring both "de novo" and secondary, including the subtypes refractory cytopenia (RC), RAEB, and RAEB-t.; 2- a group of myelodysplastic/ myeloproliferative disorders with Juvenile Myelomonocytic Leukemia (JMML) as the most common disorder of this category; 3- myeloid leukemia of Down syndrome (DS), a disease with distinct clinical and biological features, encompassing both MDS and AML. In this classification, the minimal diagnostic criteria are: unexplained cytopenia (neutropenia,

Table 2. The WHO 2008 Classification of MDS.

monocytes <1 x 109/ L

No or rare blasts (<1%); Platelet count usually normal or increased

No or rare blasts (<1%)

Model to Study Epigenetic Alterations as Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers 27

Unilineage dysplasia;

are dysplastic; <5% blasts; <15% ring sideroblasts

Erythroid dysplasia only;

≥15% ringed sideroblasts

more myeloid lineages;

<5% blasts;

<5% blasts; No Auer rods; ±15% ring sideroblasts

5-9% blasts; No Auer rods

10–19% blasts; ± Auer rods

<5% blasts;

abnormality; No Auer rods

<5% blasts; No Auer rods

≥10% of the cells of the affected lineage

Dysplasia in ≥10% of cells in two or

Unilineage or multilineage dysplasia;

Unilineage or multilineage dysplasia;

Normal to increased megakaryocytes

Dysplasia in <10% of the cells in one or

with hypolobated nuclei;

more myeloid lineages;

Isolated del(5q) cytogenetic

This classification was based on morphological characteristics and the percentage of blasts in the bone marrow and peripheral blood (Table 1) (Bennett et al., 1982).

Table 1. Classification of Myelodysplastic Syndrome according to the FAB Group in 1982.

As we can notice, this classification suggests multiple steps during the evolution from MDS to acute leukemia, being the initial stages the RA and RARS and the advanced stages the RAEB, RAEB-t and CMML. Since it was introduced, several studies have shown the usefulness of the FAB classification, both for monitoring a large number of patients with primary MDS, allowing comparisons between different studies, as for the treatment of patients. However, to determine a precise prognosis this classification still has some problems especially within initial subgroups, RA and RARS. The term "refractory anemia" is not always adequate, and anemia is only one of the three cytopenias in MDS. The CMML presents features of MDS and myeloproliferative diseases, so their inclusion in MDS classification has been discussed in more recent classifications like the World Health Organization (WHO) (Harris et al., 2000; Malcovati & Nimer, 2008).

### **3.1.2 WHO classification**

The classification of the World Health Organization (WHO) was established in 2000 and used many concepts and definitions of the FAB classification and also the knowledge of the cytogenetic and molecular features to improve the definition of subgroups, as well as clinical relevance in order to improve diagnostic criteria and improve the prognosis definition (Harris et al., 2000). The main difference between the two classifications is the disappearance of the subgroup RAEB-t, considered the evolution to AML from 20%of blasts in the bone marrow. The classification system proposed by WHO was reviewed in 2008 and consider the subgroups described in Table 2. In this new classification the subgroup CMML is regarded as a myeloproliferative disorder. The WHO categories have several important clinical implications (Brunning et al., 2008). Patients with unilineage dysplasia have a favorable outcome compared to patients with multilineage dysplasia (Jadersten & Hellstrom, 2008). The presence of del(5q) strongly correlates to the probability of response to lenalidomide (Oliva et al., 2010).

This classification was based on morphological characteristics and the percentage of blasts

**Blast cells (%) Auer**

bone marrow

peripheral blood

**rods bone marrow**

**Ringed Sideroblasts (%) bone marrow**

**RA** No < 15 < 1 < 5 No **RARS** No > 15 < 1 < 5 No **RAEB** No No < 5 5 - 20 No

**RAEB-t** No No > 5 20 - 30 Yes or No

**CMML** > 1000 No < 5 < 20 No

Table 1. Classification of Myelodysplastic Syndrome according to the FAB Group in 1982.

Organization (WHO) (Harris et al., 2000; Malcovati & Nimer, 2008).

As we can notice, this classification suggests multiple steps during the evolution from MDS to acute leukemia, being the initial stages the RA and RARS and the advanced stages the RAEB, RAEB-t and CMML. Since it was introduced, several studies have shown the usefulness of the FAB classification, both for monitoring a large number of patients with primary MDS, allowing comparisons between different studies, as for the treatment of patients. However, to determine a precise prognosis this classification still has some problems especially within initial subgroups, RA and RARS. The term "refractory anemia" is not always adequate, and anemia is only one of the three cytopenias in MDS. The CMML presents features of MDS and myeloproliferative diseases, so their inclusion in MDS classification has been discussed in more recent classifications like the World Health

The classification of the World Health Organization (WHO) was established in 2000 and used many concepts and definitions of the FAB classification and also the knowledge of the cytogenetic and molecular features to improve the definition of subgroups, as well as clinical relevance in order to improve diagnostic criteria and improve the prognosis definition (Harris et al., 2000). The main difference between the two classifications is the disappearance of the subgroup RAEB-t, considered the evolution to AML from 20%of blasts in the bone marrow. The classification system proposed by WHO was reviewed in 2008 and consider the subgroups described in Table 2. In this new classification the subgroup CMML is regarded as a myeloproliferative disorder. The WHO categories have several important clinical implications (Brunning et al., 2008). Patients with unilineage dysplasia have a favorable outcome compared to patients with multilineage dysplasia (Jadersten & Hellstrom, 2008). The presence of del(5q) strongly correlates to the probability of response to

in the bone marrow and peripheral blood (Table 1) (Bennett et al., 1982).

**Subgroup Monocytes (l)**

**3.1.2 WHO classification**

lenalidomide (Oliva et al., 2010).

**peripheral blood**

Table 2. The WHO 2008 Classification of MDS.


*4.2. Renal APN in BP Control*

APN is widely distributed in the kidney and has been detected in glomeruli, mesangial cells, and on the luminal surface of tubules [47,58]. Renal APN generates AngIV [59,60], and infusion of AngIV in the renal artery increased sodium excretion [61–63], an effect related to the reduced activity of basolateral tubular Na-K-ATPase [64]. This mechanism may also participate in the adaptative response to increased salt intake, thus protecting against hypertension. Moreover, abnormalities in renal APN have also been observed in several models of experimental hypertension. Thus, the Goldblatt model showed increased APN activity in the renal cortex of the non-clipped kidney [41] and APN protein abundance and activity in the kidney were increased in Dahl salt-resistant versus Dahl salt-sensitive animals (64). APN has also been associated with essential hypertension in humans [65].


**3.4 Chaperones**

In general, molecular chaperones are proteins that recognize and bind polypeptides to expose surfaces with specific physicochemical properties, thereby minimizing the potential for aggregation and protecting against attack by proteases [29]. Two different categories of chaperones are identified, folding helper, and holding-type chaperones. Folding helper chaperones comprises of ubiquitous Hsp70/Hsp40/ GrpE chaperone system (eukaryotic homologs of the DnaK/DnaJ/GrpE system in *Escherichia coli*) and the large barrel chaperonin complex Hsp60/Hsp10 (eukaryotic homologs) [30–33]. Lectin chaperones calreticulin and calnexin are family of folding helper chaperones without ATPase domain [34]. CLIPs (chaperones involved in protein synthesis) constitute a large family of proteins, and evidence suggests that various CLIPs are associated with different classes of proteins. CLIPs are physically linked to translation mechanisms to control the quality control of newly translated proteins [35, 36]. Chaperones utilize ATP binding and hydrolysis cycles to target

#### **Figure 5.**

*Summary of factors that are responsible for protein misfolding.*

*Pathology of Protein Misfolding Diseases in Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112405*

nonnatural polypeptides for folding and unfolding. Several ATP-dependent chaperones, also called protein remodeling factors, mediate target degradation, unfolding, or reversal of aggregation [8, 21]. Chaperones target unfolded and partially folded proteins. In particular, it showed a separated hydrophobic region at the center of the folded protein, preventing aggregation by interacting with other molecules [30, 31].

Besides molecular chaperones, other types of folding catalysts that accelerate steps in the folding process, which can otherwise be very slow include protein disulfide isomerases. Protein disulfide isomerases enhance the rate of formation and reorganization of disulfide bonds within proteins and peptidylprolyl isomerases that increase the rate of cis/trans isomerization of peptide bonds involving proline residues [15]. Dysfunction of any of these pathways can, unsurprisingly, lead to protein misfolding diseases (**Figure 5**) [1, 34, 37].

### **4. Factors affecting protein misfolding**

Protein misfolding is a mutation in the gene in question, which results in the misfolding of an amino acid. These mutations in the genetic code are consequently directly related to abnormalities in protein folding, which are either a decrease (loss of function) in the presence of certain proteins that have never been folded into a functional state, or a misfolded protein inside or outside the cell. This situation can always be an igniting point for various diseases as these misfolded proteins are usually insoluble and tend to form aggregates (gains of function). The insoluble nature of protein aggregates results in recessive structures due to their high propensity for intermolecular hydrogen bonding. These are called amyloid fibrils, and as they accumulate, they form amyloid plaques [19, 38].

Incorrect protein folding can occur for a number of reasons, including internal and external factors. The internal factors broadly include, first, somatic mutations in the gene sequence resulting in transformation of proteins that cannot accommodate their native folding. Secondly, errors in the transcription or translation process result in modified proteins that cannot fold correctly. Third criteria include failure of folding and chaperones protective responses. Fourthly, posttranslational modifications of proteins and errors in protein delivery mechanism, and lastly, structural modifications due to environmental changes and induction of protein misfolding by seeding and cross-seeding mechanisms. The most common fate of misfolded proteins is self-aggregation due to exposure of fragments, which are otherwise hidden inside the protein and generate a high level of stickiness [39].

Protein folding is a fine-tuned process that is influenced by several external factors, including electric fields, magnetic fields, temperature, pH, chemicals, space constraints, and molecular density. These factors lead to improper folding of proteins, which leads to proteinopathy. Proteins become unstable at extreme temperatures and become denatured. Likewise, excessive alteration in pH, mechanical forces, and chemical denaturants denature proteins [4]. Denaturation leads to the loss of the tertiary structure of the protein and not the formation of aggregates, but mainly the beta layer of amyloid or amyloid fibrils, which subsequently forms amyloid plaques [7].

High temperature directly affects the conformation of proteins and causes irreversible sometimes reversible denaturation of proteins, which leads to aggregation. High temperature enhances oxidation and deamination reactions and also increases the frequency of hydrophobic interactions, which may lead to protein aggregation. Protein aggregation changes with the pH of the protein, resulting in partial unfolding of the protein and affecting the electrostatic interactions of protein. Aggregation occurs due to neutralization of charged molecules with enhancement of hydrophobic interactions. The presence of various surfactant molecules, for example, cationic (CTAB, CPC, DTAB), anionic (SDS, SLES, AOT), and nonionic causes protein aggregation. They have a strong effect on protein conformation as they destabilize the protein or stabilize it with subsequent aggregation. Aggregation of proteins occurs due to the interaction of surfactants with opposite charge centers of protein molecules and repulsion of water molecules by hydrophilic tails. Chemical modification is another technique that plays an important role in protein aggregation. Chemical reactions, such as hydrolysis, oxidation, isomerization, and deamidation, can destabilize protein structures and promote aggregation [29]. In addition, the induction of aggregation will be induced by photolytic degradation of proteins, including oxidation of aromatic residues, including histidine, cystine, and methionine.

Posttranslational modifications affect the structure and function of proteins, usually promoting proper folding or leading to improper folding and accumulation. Reducing sugars plays an important role in posttranslational protein modification, forming advanced glycosylation end products (AGEs) in a nonenzymatic process called glycosylation. Protein glycosylation depends on the influence of free amino groups on the polypeptide chain, sugar concentration, and oxidative conditions. It has been noted that amyloid deposits of β-amyloid, tau, prion, transthyretin, and β(2) microglobulin contain glycosylated proteins [40]. The mechanism behind aggregation-promoting glycosylation is that it stabilizes protein aggregates by promoting the formation of covalent cross-links that accumulate over a period of time and are not frequently removed. Proteins also undergo glycosylation at exposed lysine residues, which are also ubiquitination sites, which send proteins to the proteasome for degradation, resulting in clearance damage by the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Thus, the accumulation of proteins in the form of aggregates or in the form of deposits or inclusions in tissues may be beneficial after glycosylation. Various factors that cause protein folding include protein concentration, salinity, and ionic strength.

### **5. Diseases due to protein misfolding**

Diseases, due to protein misfolding, can be broadly categorized into two categories basically the loss of function and the gain of function. Diseases arise because specific protein becomes unfunctional when adopting a misfolded state or undergoes severe impairment of protein trafficking [41]. This is observed in autosomal recessive disorders with loss of function pathology. This type of misfolding comprises of cystic fibrosis, Phenylketonuria, and short chain acyl Co A dehydrogenase. Second type of misfolding occurs by the gain of function, wherein the pathological state originates because of underlying aggregates or concomitant aggregation of proteins [7, 42]. This is further subcategorized into two subtypes. First, dominant inherited diseases [43]. Some researchers illustrate protein misfolding diseases under five different categories namely, improper degradation, mislocalization, dominant-negative mutations, structural alterations with novel toxic functions, and amyloid accumulation [14].

#### **5.1 Prion disease and protein misfolding**

Prions cause spongiform encephalopathy known as scrapie in sheep and bovine spongiform encephalopathy or mad cow disease in cattle. Transmissible spongiform

#### *Pathology of Protein Misfolding Diseases in Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112405*

encephalopathy is a protein-folding disease that causes fatal neurodegeneration characterized by vacuoles in the brain. The misfolded protein, named PrPSc, is derived from the endogenous cellular prion protein PrPC. PrPC is a glycoprotein of approximately 231 amino acid residues, which is fixed in plasma. Mature PrPC protein residue is 23–231 amino acid long composed of an independent and flexible N-terminal region (residues 23–120) and a C-terminal globular domain (residues 121–231), *via* the glycolipid anchor phosphatidylinositol that physically interact with each other. Globular domain contains two short leaf-forming antiparallel filaments (aa 128–130 and 160–162 aa for mouse PrPC) and three helices [44, 45]. The hypothesis is that amyloid-like fibrils are formed by two tightly staggered plates in the form of zippers, allowing nucleation to form fibrillar-forming aggregates [36, 46, 47].

Prime event within pathogenesis is the misfolding of the regular shape of the prion protein, PrPC, into the generally protease-resistant-sheet rich isoform, described because the scrapie prion protein (PrPSc), *via* way of means of a conformational rearrangement. The PrPSc constitutes the transmissible agent ("prion"), capable of recruit and convert natively folded PrPC into de novo PrPSc through an autocatalytic process. It is the PrP-TSE protein that can shape amyloid protein aggregates. The purpose for the two absolutely special configurations of the identical protein is not known; however, a vital commentary is if a small quantity of PrP-TSE is brought to a bigger quantity of PrP-C, the "healthy" protein is transformed to the TSE shape [48]. The two variations have wonderful traits glaring of their secondary and tertiary structures. The PrPC is constructed from 40% α-helical and 3% β-helical folds, while PrPSc is folded right into a parallel left-exceeded β-helical shape that has a 30% α-helical and 40% β-helical conformation [45]. There are at the least two proposed fashions for PrPSc autocatalytic propagation. The refolding version assumes that an electricity barrier precludes the preliminary conversion of PrPC to PrPS. The seeding version asserts that PrPC and PrPSc exist in thermodynamic equilibrium, and PrPSc starts to mixture while a particularly ordered monomeric PrPSc (the seed) stabilizes and recruits greater monomeric PrPSc to shape large aggregates [49, 50].

Elucidation of the high-decision shape of prions and aggregated prions has been hard due to problems related to the inherent chemical houses of the proteins. Two mechanisms, the cloud speculation and deformed-template speculation, were proposed for the genesis of prion lines related to classical scrapie. Although the two ideas are noticeably described, they may be now no longer collectively exclusive. The cloud speculation assumes that isolates are constructed from a heterogenous combination of PrPSc conformations (lines), and over time, a permissive conformer arises to turn out to be the fundamental variant [51]. The deformed-template speculation posits that, initially, there may be a fundamental conformer instead of a combination of PrPSc conformations, and adjustments within side the replication surroundings cause trialand-mistakes seeding activities that generate a brand-new dominant conformer. Both hypotheses postulate the life of more than one conformer inside an isolate that makes a contribution to the discovered variations in sickness phenotype [52].

The key event in pathogenesis is the aberrant folding of the normal form of the prion protein, PrP C, into a commonly protease-resistant leaf-rich isoform, defined as prion protein scrapie (PrPSc) by structural rearrangement. PrPSc is an infectious agent ("prion") that can naturally recruit folded PrPCs and convert them to novel PrPSc through an autocatalytic process. It is the PrP TSE protein that can form an aggregate of amyloid proteins. The reasons for the two completely different configurations of the same protein are unknown, but the normal prion protein PrP C undergoes a conformational change into a self-replicating, misfolded PrPSc conformer.

On the other hand, in the genetic type of disease, a change in the PrPC form may occur due to a genetic mutation of the PRNP gene [44, 53]. The processes that promote development are not fully understood. Indeed, pathogenic mutations, such as G113V and A116V in the N-terminal domain, can induce prion pathogenesis by accelerating misfolding and aggregation and modifying the structure of the palindromic region, which appears to be the intermolecular binding site in oligomers [44].

The defining step in prion infection is the transformation of the PrPC form into the protease-resistant β-sheet. Prion disease is caused by the accumulation of a misfolded form of PrPC called PrPSc. At this time, PrPC expression is necessary and rate-limiting. Transformation of PrPC into the pathological conformer PrPSc is characterized by a significant increase in the secondary structure of the β-sheet [5, 48]. The conversion of PrPC to PrPSc is accompanied by significant structural and biophysical changes in the molecule. When improperly folded, PrPC, rich in α-helices, which normally attaches to cell membranes *via* glycosyl phosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors, is converted into predominantly single β-sheets [5, 45]. These changes increase resistance to heat and degradation by proteases. Indeed, it has been suggested that prion proteins can experience an environment that can reconstitute disulfide bonds in the endosome, which has been shown to enhance the transition to a fibrillar state [5, 48]. In sheep, the highest concentrations of PRNP mRNA transcripts are found in the thalamus and brain, followed by the cerebellum, spinal cord, spleen, other lymphoid tissues, brainstem, gastrointestinal tract, and reproductive organs.

#### **5.2 Amyloidosis and protein misfolding**

Amyloidosis belongs to the group of protein-folding disorders. Various proteins that are soluble under physiological conditions can undergo conformational changes in their β-layer-rich structures, which can then self-assemble into highly insoluble amyloid fibrils. Proteins in a partially folded or misfolded state due to loss of function of the protein's quality control system and various external factors contain open hydrophobic and unstructured regions that contribute to the formation of aggregates [36, 46, 49]. Amyloidosis can be divided into two main classes: localized or focal and systemic. In focal amyloidosis, amyloid fibrils deposit in organs, such as the brain and pancreas, where precursor proteins are synthesized [9, 54]. On the other hand, in systemic amyloidosis, serum precursor proteins, such as immunoglobulin light chain in amyloid amyloidosis (AL), transthyretin in familial amyloid polyneuropathy, and β2-microglobulin in dialysis amyloidosis circulate and polymerize to form amyloid fibrils then settles all over the tissue surface [40, 55]. In addition, the formation of stable aggregate structures can also occur due to hydrophobic decay due to the presence of extraneous debris in solution that changes conditions. On the other hand, electrostatic interaction with hydrophobic forces plays a crucial role in the formation of the complex amyloid fibrils [40].

#### **5.3 Cancer occurence and protein misfolding**

The maximum often altered gene in tumors is TP53 encoding the p53 protein. TP53 mutations are related to unfavorable diagnosis in lots of sporadic cancers. The initial stage of TP53 mutations is the loss of wild-kind p53 functions, which represents an essential gain for the duration of most cancers improvement through depriving cells of intrinsic tumor suppressive responses, along with senescence and apoptosis [56]. The tumor suppressor p53, a transcription element that regulates

#### *Pathology of Protein Misfolding Diseases in Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112405*

the cell cycle and apoptosis, is likewise amyloidogenic. In tumor models, each wildkind and mutant p53 protein displays aggregation kinetics and morphology just like the ones of classical amyloidogenic proteins, along with β-amyloid peptide and α- synuclein [14]. Wild type p53 loses its anticancer maneuver, while p53 mutants with enhanced amyloidogenicity show accelerated aggregation. The majority of TP53 mutations are missense, producing single residue substitutions within the protein's DNA-binding domain when compared with most other tumor suppressor genes. However, p53 missense mutant proteins (mutp53) lose the ability to activate canonical p53 target genes, and some mutants exert trans-dominant repression over the wild-type counterpart. The cancer cells are supposed to gain selective advantages by retaining only the mutant form of the p53 protein. This can be explained by the ability of different p53 mutants to reshape the tumor cell's transcriptome and proteome, by virtue of newly established interactions with transcription regulators, enzymes, and other cellular proteins.

Based on this, it has been reported that specific missense mutations in p53 disrupt important cellular pathways, promote proliferation and survival of cancer cells, and promote invasion, migration, metastasis, and chemical resistance. Some of the tumor suppressive activity of wild-type p53 is related to its ability to help cells adapt and survive in moderately stressful conditions, including oxidative and metabolic stress [38]. Mutant p53, similar to wild type, stabilizes and activates in response to tumor-associated stress conditions and may provide cancer cells with the ability to cope with difficult conditions encountered during tumor development, including DNA associated with hyperproliferation. Mutant p53 supports tumor progression by promoting an adaptive response to cancer-associated stress conditions. An oncogenic missense mutant form of p53 (mutp53) can recognize multiple stress effects and act as homeostatic factors triggering adaptive mechanisms. Mutant p53 has been shown to induce a survival response to oxidative stress, promoting protein folding and increasing proteasome activity. The mutant p53 protein is inherently unstable due to proteasome-mediated degradation induced by the E3 ubiquitin ligase MDM2 and CHIP. However, mutp53 protein accumulates in higher amounts in tumor tissues, and this stabilization is necessary to realize pleiotropic oncogenic activity [57].

### **5.4 Epidermolysis bullosa simplex and protein misfolding**

EB simplex results from mutations affecting either keratin 14 (K14) or K5, the type I and type II intermediate filament (IF) proteins. Mutations in the gene encoding collagen, type XVII, alpha 1 (COL17A1), a hemidesmosomal plaque protein required for tight adherence of basal keratinocytes to the basal lamina, account for a special subset of patients with elements typical of both EB simplex and EB junctional dominantly disrupting keratin IF structure [58, 59]. Mutations in the K14 rod domain elicit the formation of aggregates of amorphous proteins in the cytoplasm. Such aggregates are diagnostic of the most severe form of EB simplex. In an experiment with mice, homozygous null for K14, K5, or plectin displayed the key features of EB simplex revealing that cell fragility is largely a loss of function phenotype, containing a K14 mutation causing simple EB compared to *in vitro* reconstituted filaments in wild-type K5 and K14 proteins contains an Arg125 → Cysor K5 mutation, 1649delG exhibiting significantly lower elasticity in low (linear) strain mode is easily broken. If the response of misfolded proteins cannot resolve these aggregates, the cell's protein homeostasis machinery is overloaded. This induces cellular stress and can affect the phenotype of cells and tissues *in vivo* [60].


*Edited by Alexander Vitin*

Since the book "Gangrene: Current Concepts and Management Options" had been published in August 2011, certain advancements in the field have been observed and several important multicenter studies have been successfully accomplished. The presented book, second in the series, continues the discussion of many clinical, physiological, immune-and bacteriological, as well as socio-economic aspects of the complex problems pertain to diabetes-associated and non-diabetic gangrene management. Of particular interest, current management trends, as well as epidemiology of the gangrene as a most serious, potentially fatal complication, have been discussed in details.

ISBN 978-953-51-1061-3

Gangrene Management - New Advancements and Current Trends

Photo by Dr\_Microbe / iStock

## Gangrene Management New Advancements and Current Trends

*Edited by Alexander Vitin*

**GANGRENE**

**MANAGEMENT - NEW**

**ADVANCEMENTS AND**

**CURRENT TRENDS**

Edited by **Alexander Vitin**


**3.1.2 Striatotalamhic and thalamocortical tracts**

There are two different striatal pathways: one is direct and projects to the internal pallidus globus and substantia nigra pars reticulata; and the indirect going to the external globus pallidus. Both are inhibitory and mediated by GABA and neuroactive peptide. Integration of pathways inhibitory direct and indirect excitatory takes place at the internal globus pallidus and substantia nigra pars reticulata. Internal globus pallidus projects to thalamus through inhibitors GABA fibers.

The effects of facilitation played by the direct route or suppression maintained by the indirect on the outputs of the thalamus to the cortex influences movement and cognitive processing. Deinhibition of thalamic neurons results in hyperexcitability of the projections from the thalamus to the motor cortex leading to tics.


**2.4 Poor waste management habit**

 There is no waste sorting culture in the region, which creates problem in the effective management of waste. This is because collected waste at different sites are all mixed up at home by residents and dumped by the road side for collectors to pick. There is no separation of waste into different types as practiced in developed societies (**Figure 3a, c**). Lack of waste separation creates problem for collectors who do not have the training or the equipment for separating the waste into its parts before final disposal in landfills [18]. Gross ignorance and helplessness in waste management had made a lot of people to become waste distributors, who pass on waste from one place to another in the name of management. They do this be pouring waste in restricted places under the cover of darkness or sometimes in the open without being confronted. Favorite areas of waste disposal in some cities in the

#### **Figure 3.**

*(a) Giant silo bin used to collect and convey building waste at a building renovation site. (b) Indoor waste disposal unit installed in a room to collect house hold waste, which will be channeled out into a silo bin placed outside for onward collection and disposal by waste agent at a building facility in Saint Louis USA. (c) Type I (rubbish, e.g., paper) waste collected and sorted for recycling (green silo).*

*Municipal Solid Waste Disposal in Mangrove Forest: Environmental Implication… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83809*

 Niger Delta are along roads. This is done to seek attention from the government or waste agency (**Figure 2a**) to come and evacuate pile of waste in their neighborhood. They also dump waste during heavy rainfall inside drains so that it will be flushed away by water into adjoining river. Wastes are also poured on farm and mangrove forest to conceal their action from the municipal authority. A favorite place where waste is usually dumped is at the foot of plantain and banana trees. This is because there is an erroneous belief that the waste act as manure for the growth of the plants. Dumping of waste in drainages blocks the free movement of waster leading to flooding problems. People also buy goods they do not need, which end up at the dump site. Poor income makes some people to buy sub-standard products that have low life span, resulting to wastage. These products become non-usable when used for a short time leading to their disposal in refuse dump.


Estimation of Shear Wave Velocity Profiles Employing Genetic Algorithms and the Diffuse Field Approach on Microtremors Array: Implications on Liquefaction Hazard at Port of Spain, Trinidad

Walter Salazar, Garth Mannette, Kafele Reddock and Clevon Ash


**Author details**

Alexander Martinez1,2, Joseph J. Pizzimenti1 , Drake W. Lem3 and Pinakin Gunvant Davey3 \*

1 Rosenberg School of Optometry, University of Incarnate Word, San Antonio Texas USA

2 South Texas Eye Institute, San Antonio, Texas, USA

3 College of Optometry, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona California USA

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.