[91] Zhang D, Xie P, Chen J. Effects of temperature on the stability of microcystins in muscle of fish and its consequences for food safety. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2010;**84**:202-207

**173**

*Mechanisms of Cyanotoxin Toxicity—Carcinogenicity, Anticancer Potential, and Clinical…*

[99] Guzmán-Guillén R, Prieto AI, Moyano R, Blanco A, Vasconcelos V, Cameán AM. Dietary l-carnitine prevents histopathological changes in tilapia (*Oreochromis niloticus*) exposed to cylindrospermopsin. Environmental

Toxicology. 2017;**32**:241-254

[100] Shaw GR, Seawright AA, Moore MA, Lam PKS. Cylindrospermopsin, a cyanobacterial alkaloid: Evaluation of its toxicological activity. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 2000;**22**:89-92

[101] Chong MWK, Wong BSF, Lam PKS, Shaw GR, Seawright AA. Toxicity and uptake mechanism of cylindrospermopsin and lophyrotomin in primary hepatocytes. Toxicon.

[102] Froscio SM, Humpage AR, Burcham PC, Falconer IR.

from acute toxicity in mouse

Toxicology. 2008;**25**:374-380

Safety. 2016;**124**:177-185

2014;**91**:23-34

[105] Fernández DA, Louzao MC, Vilariño A, Fraga M, Espiña B, Vieytes MR, et al. Evaluation of the intestinal permeability and cytotoxic effects of cylindrospermopsin. Toxicon.

[106] Runnegar MT, Kong S, Berndt N. Protein phosphatase inhibition and in vivo hepatotoxicity of microcystins.

Cylindrospermopsin-induced protein synthesis inhibition and its dissociation

hepatocytes. Environmental Toxicology.

[103] Young FM, Micklem J, Humpage AR. Effects of blue-green algal toxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN) on human granulosa cells in vitro. Reproductive

[104] Hrouzek P, Kapuścik A, Vacek J, Voráčová K, Paichlová J, Kosina P, et al. Cytotoxicity evaluation of large cyanobacterial strain set using selected human and murine in vitro cell models. Ecotoxicology and Environmental

2002;**40**:205-211

2003;**18**:243-251

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88016*

[92] Kounnis V, Chondrogiannis G, Mantzaris MD, Tzakos AG, Fokas D, Papanikolaou NA, et al. Microcystin LR shows cytotoxic activity against pancreatic cancer cells expressing the membrane OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 transporters. Anticancer Research.

[93] Monks NR, Liu S, Xu Y, Yu H, Bendelow AS, Moscow JA. Potent cytotoxicity of the phosphatase inhibitor

microcystin LR and microcystin analogues in OATP1B1- and OATP1B3 expressing HeLa cells. Molecular Cancer

Therapeutics. 2007;**6**:587-598

[94] Rücker J, Stüken A, Nixdorf B, Fastner J, Chorus I, Wiedner C. Concentrations of particulate and dissolved cylindrospermopsin in 21 aphanizomenon-dominated temperate lakes. Toxicon. 2007;**50**:800-809

[95] Humpage AR, Fontaine F, Froscio S, Burcham P, Falconer IR. Cylindrospermopsin genotoxicity and cytotoxicity: Role of cytochrome P-450 and oxidative stress. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A: Current Issues.

[96] Kinnear S. Cylindrospermopsin: A decade of progress on bioaccumulation

[97] Chiswell RK, Shaw GR, Eaglesham G, Smith MJ, Norris RL, Seawright AA, et al. Stability of cylindrospermopsin, the toxin from the cyanobacterium, cylindrospermopsis raciborskii: Effect of pH, temperature, and sunlight on decomposition. Environmental Toxicology. 1999;**14**:155-161

[98] Froscio SM, Fanok S, Humpage

AR. Cytotoxicity screening for the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A: Current Issues. 2009;**72**:345-349

2005;**68**:739-753

2010;**8**:542-564

research. Marine Drugs.

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*Mechanisms of Cyanotoxin Toxicity—Carcinogenicity, Anticancer Potential, and Clinical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88016*

[92] Kounnis V, Chondrogiannis G, Mantzaris MD, Tzakos AG, Fokas D, Papanikolaou NA, et al. Microcystin LR shows cytotoxic activity against pancreatic cancer cells expressing the membrane OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 transporters. Anticancer Research. 2015;**35**(11):5857-5865

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[85] Maatouk I, Bouaïcha N, Plessis MJ, Périn F. Detection by 32P-postlabelling

deoxyguanosine in DNA as biomarker of microcystin-LR and nodularininduced DNA damage in vitro in primary cultured rat hepatocytes and in vivo in rat liver. Mutation Research.

[86] Sueoka E, Sueoka N, Okabe S, Kozu T, Komori A, Ohta T, et al. Expression of the tumor necrosis factor a gene and early response genes by nodularin, a liver tumor promoter, in primary cultured rat hepatocytes. Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology.

[87] Komori A, Yatsunami J, Suganuma M, Okabe S, Abe S, Sakai A, et al. Tumor necrosis factor acts as a tumor promoter in BALB/3T3 cell transformation. Cancer Research.

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[90] Sainis I, Fokas D, Vareli K, Tzakos

Cyanobacterial cyclopeptides as lead compounds to novel targeted cancer drugs. Marine Drugs. 2010;**8**(3):629-657

[91] Zhang D, Xie P, Chen J. Effects of temperature on the stability of microcystins in muscle of fish and its consequences for food safety. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and

1993;**9**:246-249

2004;**564**(1):9-20

1997;**123**:413-419

1993;**53**:1982-1985

2008;**7**(12):1875-1884

AG, Kounnis V, Briasoulis E.

Toxicology. 2010;**84**:202-207

[77] Homma S, Ishii Y, Morishima Y, Yamadori T, Matsuno Y, Haraguchi N, et al. Nrf2 enhances cell proliferation and resistance to anticancer drugs in human lung cancer. Clinical Cancer Research. 2009;**15**:3423-3432

[78] Nanqin G, Xiaoyun S, Lirong S. Activation of Nrf2 by microcystin-LR provides advantages for liver cancer cell growth. Chemical Research in Toxicology. 2010;**23**:1477-1484

[79] López-Alonso H, Rubiolo JA, Vega F, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Protein synthesis inhibition and oxidative stress induced by cylindrospermopsin elicit apoptosis in primary rat hepatocytes. Chemical Research in Toxicology.

[80] Lankoff A, Bialczyk J, Dziga D, Carmichael WW, Gradzka I, Lisowska H, et al. The repair of gamma-radiationinduced DNA damage is inhibited by microcystin-LR, the PP1 and PP2A phosphatase inhibitor. Mutagenesis.

[81] Clark SP, Ryan TP, Searfoss GH, Davis MA, Hooser SB. Chronic microcystin exposure induces hepatocyte proliferation with increased expression of mitotic and cyclin-associated genes in P53 deficient mice. Toxicologic Pathology.

[82] Zegura B, Sedmak B, Filipic M. Microcystin-LR induces oxidative DNA damage in human hepatoma cell line HepG2. Toxicon. 2003;**41**:41-48

[83] Zegura B, Lah TT, Filipic M. The role of reactive oxygen species in microcystin-LR-induced DNA damage.

Toxicology. 2004;**200**:59-68

2013;**26**:203-212

2006;**21**:83-90

2008;**36**:190-203

**172**

[93] Monks NR, Liu S, Xu Y, Yu H, Bendelow AS, Moscow JA. Potent cytotoxicity of the phosphatase inhibitor microcystin LR and microcystin analogues in OATP1B1- and OATP1B3 expressing HeLa cells. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics. 2007;**6**:587-598

[94] Rücker J, Stüken A, Nixdorf B, Fastner J, Chorus I, Wiedner C. Concentrations of particulate and dissolved cylindrospermopsin in 21 aphanizomenon-dominated temperate lakes. Toxicon. 2007;**50**:800-809

[95] Humpage AR, Fontaine F, Froscio S, Burcham P, Falconer IR. Cylindrospermopsin genotoxicity and cytotoxicity: Role of cytochrome P-450 and oxidative stress. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A: Current Issues. 2005;**68**:739-753

[96] Kinnear S. Cylindrospermopsin: A decade of progress on bioaccumulation research. Marine Drugs. 2010;**8**:542-564

[97] Chiswell RK, Shaw GR, Eaglesham G, Smith MJ, Norris RL, Seawright AA, et al. Stability of cylindrospermopsin, the toxin from the cyanobacterium, cylindrospermopsis raciborskii: Effect of pH, temperature, and sunlight on decomposition. Environmental Toxicology. 1999;**14**:155-161

[98] Froscio SM, Fanok S, Humpage AR. Cytotoxicity screening for the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A: Current Issues. 2009;**72**:345-349 [99] Guzmán-Guillén R, Prieto AI, Moyano R, Blanco A, Vasconcelos V, Cameán AM. Dietary l-carnitine prevents histopathological changes in tilapia (*Oreochromis niloticus*) exposed to cylindrospermopsin. Environmental Toxicology. 2017;**32**:241-254

[100] Shaw GR, Seawright AA, Moore MA, Lam PKS. Cylindrospermopsin, a cyanobacterial alkaloid: Evaluation of its toxicological activity. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 2000;**22**:89-92

[101] Chong MWK, Wong BSF, Lam PKS, Shaw GR, Seawright AA. Toxicity and uptake mechanism of cylindrospermopsin and lophyrotomin in primary hepatocytes. Toxicon. 2002;**40**:205-211

[102] Froscio SM, Humpage AR, Burcham PC, Falconer IR. Cylindrospermopsin-induced protein synthesis inhibition and its dissociation from acute toxicity in mouse hepatocytes. Environmental Toxicology. 2003;**18**:243-251

[103] Young FM, Micklem J, Humpage AR. Effects of blue-green algal toxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN) on human granulosa cells in vitro. Reproductive Toxicology. 2008;**25**:374-380

[104] Hrouzek P, Kapuścik A, Vacek J, Voráčová K, Paichlová J, Kosina P, et al. Cytotoxicity evaluation of large cyanobacterial strain set using selected human and murine in vitro cell models. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2016;**124**:177-185

[105] Fernández DA, Louzao MC, Vilariño A, Fraga M, Espiña B, Vieytes MR, et al. Evaluation of the intestinal permeability and cytotoxic effects of cylindrospermopsin. Toxicon. 2014;**91**:23-34

[106] Runnegar MT, Kong S, Berndt N. Protein phosphatase inhibition and in vivo hepatotoxicity of microcystins. American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology. 1993;**265**:224-230

[107] Bazin E, Mourot A, Humpage AR, Fessard V. Genototoxicity of a freshwater cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin, in two human cell lines: Caco-2 and HepaRG. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis. 2010;**51**:251-259

[108] Lankoff A, Wojcik A, Lisowska H, Bialczyk J, Dziga D, Carmichael WW. No induction of structural chromosomal aberrations in cylindrospermopsin-treated CHO-K1 cells without and with metabolic activation. Toxicon. 2007;**50**:1105-1115

[109] Straser A, Filipic M, Zegura B. Cylindrospermopsin induced transcriptional responses in human hepatoma HepG2 cells. Toxicology In Vitro : An International Journal Published in Association with BIBRA. 2013;**27**:1809-1819

[110] Hercog K, Maisanaba S, Filipic M, Jos A, Cameánn AM, Zegura B. Genotoxic potential of the binary mixture of cyanotoxins microcystin— LR and cylindrospermopsin. Chemosphere. 2017;**189**:319-329

[111] Bain P, Shae G, Patel B. Induction of P53-regulated gene expression in human cell lines exposed to the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A: Current Issues. 2007;**70**:1687-1693

[112] Liebel S, Oliveira Ribeiro CA, Magalhaes VF, Silva C, Ramsdorf WA, Rossi SC, et al. Low concentrations of cylindrospermopsin induce increases of reactive oxygen species levels, metabolism and proliferation in human hepatoma cells (HepG2). Toxicology In Vitro. 2015;**29**:479-488

[113] Pichardo S, Cameán AM, Jos A. In vitro toxicological assessment of

cylindrospermopsin: A review. Toxins. 2017;**9**(402):1-29

[114] Huguet A, Hatton A, Villot R, Quenault H, Blanchard Y, Fessard V. Modulation of chromatin remodelling induced by the freshwater cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin in human intestinal Caco-2 cells. PLoS One. 2014;**9**(6):99-121

[115] Alja Š, Filipič M, Novak M, Žegura B. Double strand breaks and cell-cycle arrest induced by the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin in HepG2 cells. Marine Drugs. 2013;**11**(8):3077-3090

[116] Facciponte DN, Bough MW, Seidler D, Carroll JL, Ashare A, Andrew AS, et al. Identifying aerosolized cyanobacteria in the human respiratory tract: A proposed mechanism for cyanotoxin-associated diseases. Science of the Total Environment. 2018;**645**:1003-1013

[117] Dawson RM. The toxicology of microcystins. Toxicon. 1998;**36**(7):953-962

[118] Zlateva S. Poisoning with molluscs and crustaceans. In: Kanev K, Stavrev D, editors. Handbook of Marine Toxicology. Poisoning with Sea Food and Marine Animals Incidence. 1st ed. Medical University Varna: Publishing Steno; 2018. p. 26. ISBN 978-619-221- 163-0. IBSN 978-954-449-977-8

[119] Ito E, Kondo F, Terao K, Harada KI. Neoplastic nodular formation in mouse liver induced by repeated intraperitoneal injections of microcystin-LR. Toxicon. 1997;**35**(9):1453-1457

[120] Nishiwaki-Matsushima R, Oht T, Nishiwaki S, et al. Liver tumor promotion by the cyanobacterial cyclic peptide toxin microcystin-LR. Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology. 1992;**118**(6):420-424

**175**

**Chapter 9**

*Chia-Yi Tseng*

therapeutic methods.

**1. Introduction**

neurodegenerative disorders

[2], epilepsy, and dementia [3, 4].

**Abstract**

Effects of Atypical Neurotoxins on

The brain is not only a control center of the body but also a part of the way that the body can communicate with external environments. The spatial and temporal events of brain development are well-defined. These processes are sequentially regulated by intrinsic and external factors, such as gene. Disruption of these steps results in malformation and malfunction of the brain. Neurotoxin may affect our developing nervous system as a kind of endogenous and exogenous factor. For classical neurotoxins, such as heavy metals, snake venom, and bacterial toxins, the underlying toxin-mediated physiological pathways are relatively clear, and their antidotes are usually available. However, for atypical neurotoxins, such as air pollutants, food additives, and manufactural compounds, their effects on the nervous system are ordinarily extended and not easy to detect. In addition, the corresponding mechanism is too complex to define. A single and effective antidote against these atypical neurotoxins is uncommon, so prevention is better than cure with this kind of toxin. This chapter starts with the introduction of endogenous and exogenous neurotoxins, how they affect nervous system and their potential antidotes, followed by the impact of atypical neurotoxins in fetal brain development and their possible preventative or

**Keywords:** environmental or atypical neurotoxins, neurodevelopmental defects,

Neurotoxins are toxic substances that destroy the nervous system. Depending on their origin, it could be divided into endogenous or exogenous neurotoxins. Endogenous is the neurotoxin produced by the human body itself, while exogenous one comes from the surrounding environment. Neurotoxins can damage neurons, nerve fibers, glias, and myelin, causing the atrophy of nerve fibers and neurons, or demyelination, which in turn affects neural circuits and functions. Ultimately, defect in nerve system affects the physiological homeostasis of human body, which results in corresponding signs and symptoms of poisoning. Macromanifestations of neurotoxin exposure may associate a wide range of central nervous system impairments such as cognitive deficit [1], memory impairment

the Developing Fetal Brain

## **Chapter 9**

*Medical Toxicology*

1993;**265**:224-230

American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology.

Mutagenesis. 2010;**51**:251-259

[107] Bazin E, Mourot A, Humpage AR, Fessard V. Genototoxicity of a freshwater cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin, in two human cell lines: Caco-2 and HepaRG. Environmental and Molecular

cylindrospermopsin: A review. Toxins.

[115] Alja Š, Filipič M, Novak M, Žegura B. Double strand breaks and cell-cycle arrest induced by the cyanobacterial

toxin cylindrospermopsin in HepG2 cells. Marine Drugs. 2013;**11**(8):3077-3090

[116] Facciponte DN, Bough MW, Seidler D, Carroll JL, Ashare A, Andrew AS, et al. Identifying aerosolized cyanobacteria in the human respiratory tract: A proposed mechanism for cyanotoxin-associated diseases. Science of the Total Environment.

[117] Dawson RM. The toxicology

[118] Zlateva S. Poisoning with molluscs and crustaceans. In: Kanev K, Stavrev D, editors. Handbook of Marine Toxicology. Poisoning with Sea Food and Marine Animals Incidence. 1st ed. Medical University Varna: Publishing Steno; 2018. p. 26. ISBN 978-619-221- 163-0. IBSN 978-954-449-977-8

of microcystins. Toxicon. 1998;**36**(7):953-962

[119] Ito E, Kondo F, Terao K, Harada KI. Neoplastic nodular formation in mouse liver induced by repeated intraperitoneal injections of microcystin-LR. Toxicon.

[120] Nishiwaki-Matsushima R, Oht T, Nishiwaki S, et al. Liver tumor promotion by the cyanobacterial cyclic peptide toxin microcystin-LR. Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology. 1992;**118**(6):420-424

1997;**35**(9):1453-1457

[114] Huguet A, Hatton A, Villot R, Quenault H, Blanchard Y, Fessard V. Modulation of chromatin remodelling induced by the freshwater cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin in human intestinal Caco-2 cells. PLoS One.

2017;**9**(402):1-29

2014;**9**(6):99-121

2018;**645**:1003-1013

[108] Lankoff A, Wojcik A, Lisowska H, Bialczyk J, Dziga D, Carmichael WW. No induction of structural chromosomal aberrations in cylindrospermopsin-treated CHO-K1 cells without and with metabolic activation. Toxicon. 2007;**50**:1105-1115

[109] Straser A, Filipic M, Zegura B. Cylindrospermopsin induced transcriptional responses in human hepatoma HepG2 cells. Toxicology In Vitro : An International Journal Published in Association with BIBRA.

[110] Hercog K, Maisanaba S, Filipic M,

[111] Bain P, Shae G, Patel B. Induction of P53-regulated gene expression in human cell lines exposed to the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part A: Current Issues.

[112] Liebel S, Oliveira Ribeiro CA, Magalhaes VF, Silva C, Ramsdorf WA, Rossi SC, et al. Low concentrations of cylindrospermopsin induce increases of reactive oxygen species levels, metabolism and proliferation in human hepatoma cells (HepG2). Toxicology In

[113] Pichardo S, Cameán AM, Jos A. In vitro toxicological assessment of

Jos A, Cameánn AM, Zegura B. Genotoxic potential of the binary mixture of cyanotoxins microcystin—

LR and cylindrospermopsin. Chemosphere. 2017;**189**:319-329

2013;**27**:1809-1819

2007;**70**:1687-1693

Vitro. 2015;**29**:479-488

**174**


**Author details**

Ol'ha O. Brovarets'\*, Kostiantyn S. Tsiupa and Dmytro M. Hovorun Department of Molecular and Quantum Biophysics, Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 150 Akademika Zabolotnoho Street, 03680, Kyiv, Ukraine

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Where Quantum Biochemistry Meets Structural Bioinformatics: Excited Conformationally… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94565*


**4.3 Looking beyond the self-evaluation report: the challenge of open and complex social systems**

The first point of analysis would be the very notion of a developmental university (2015–2019) and how that regime managed some of the 30 recommendations (out of only 5 commendations) from the Institutional Audit Report of 2011.

**Table 2** provides the case about WSU and therefore the evidence of historical and structural disadvantage, which played out in the form of CSR for EU-PG. **Vision Statement: Walter Sisulu University (WSU)** will be a leading African comprehensive university, focusing on innovative educational, research, and community partnership programs that are responsive to local, regional, and national development priorities and cognizant of continental and international imperatives.

**HEQC Recommendation 19: "**The HEQC recommends that WSU develops an appropriate institution-wide strategy on teaching and learning, and assessment, to ensure the success of students, which is consistent with the University's aspirations to be a developmental university that has specific teaching and learning goals, and which is linked to academic and pastoral support systems", p.12.

**HEQC Recommendation 20**: "The HEQC recommends that Walter Sisulu University firmly implement its academic exclusions policy" p.12.

#### **Table 2.**

*WSU vision statement, selected values, and recommendations from the national institutional audits 2011.*

Recommendations 19 and 20 would somehow find expression in the form of crisis events that would punctuate both regimes (2015–2019; 2020–2024), hence the second points of analysis.

The second point of analysis would be in consideration of what have been institutional crisis events over time. These were the events whose source was the previous dispensation (2015–2019) and beyond [17]; yet they would have to be managed in the current regime (2020–2024). Two of these events, the academic crisis events of 2019/20 and of 2021/22, serve as the clear indicator of how this university is still grappling with ensuring the quality of her academic project. These were the cases of social and systemic integration as contradictory totality (the unity of purpose but the diversity of outcomes), both externally in terms of regional integration [9] and integrated community development [10] as well as of internal integration where contradictions apply within the system itself (the cases under study). Such events, as the elaboration on the SER, would help indicate the systemic challenges confronting WSU over time, the case about CSR for UE-PG whose resolution point should be the question of agency.

#### **4.4 The Three Crisis Cases, continuities from the old regimes of power and of truth**

#### *4.4.1 The Crisis event I: The G 7 Rule Cases of 2019/20*

From a document analysis about the selected case of science, engineering, and technology programs, 100 students were academically excluded during the academic year of 2019/20 and were then de-registered in February 2020. The anomaly of the case became more serious when students were registered for 2020 academic year only to be de-registered a few months later. This was not the first case, as the HEQC Recommendation 20 had resulted from a similar case in 2009. The crisis took place despite the mitigating strategies in place about the students who could be at risk of academic success [17, 18]. The academic monitoring strategy for student access and success prescribed the roles that managers, faculty, and various forms of student academic support can put in place to mediate student challenges in learning. The strange turn of events was when the university had to make a public apology after students had been excluded, long after 70% of the initial cohort of students had left the system. The public apology, in the form of a media statement of 09/02/2021 *(Daily Dispatch),* would read as follows:

*"The university assumes full responsibility and offers an unqualified apology to affected students and their families. We assure you that the matter is under investigation and that consequences management will occur where necessary".*

There is no evidence that consequences followed the managers who had failed in implementing the corrective action plans long before the students were excluded. On the other hand, evidence can be inferred, through retroductive reasoning, therefore constituting a strong assumption that the affected students and families, due to their socioeconomic backgrounds, did not have access to the media statement and were not even aware about what could be a recourse to their plight. This was the first case of corporate social irresponsibility that can constrain access to the public good that university education is supposed to offer. In consideration of Recommendations 19 and 20 by the National Council on Higher Education, the G7 Rule cases could be regarded as the case of the interventions in place, but the system keeps on backfiring.

The case about CSR for EU-PG arises from the implicit assumption that admitting students from working-class families, the equity issue, to university education means the quality of success. The case becomes more serious when there are mediation strategies in place for such high-risk students only for the university management to undermine the very processes for academic support. G 7 Rule cases apply to each course or module, over a semester (6 month) or year. Abductive reasoning requires that the social analyst understands and explains the conditions that must have led to the inaction of the management (heads of departments and deans of faculties) about strategy implementation and of the governance structures (academic boards and university council) about the poor implementation of university policy on academic exclusion (CHE IQF Focus Area 1, Standard 3). However, the results were quite instructive; 70 students, from the identified cohort, could not have access to the public good due to the inaction of those who should have acted on the quality management systems in the form of institutional strategies and policies.

#### *4.4.2 The Crisis Event II: Program Accreditation Cases of 2021/22*

The local and national media houses were in a frenzy in 2022 as reflected in the following captions:

*"WSU plays accreditation cat and mouse" (DD, 01/04/2022).*

*"WSU Council calls for accountability on accreditation debacle" (DD, 13/04/2022).*

*"WSU students vow to take Butterworth campus over accreditation fiasco" (DD, 21/04/2022).*

*"Accreditation debacle sees WSU Graduation Ceremonies Cancelled" (DD, 25/04/2022).*

Out of five programs that had been declared as unaccredited during the academic year 2021/22, the intervention took place with the help of external consultants including direct assistance by the national bodies (the National Department of Higher Education and Training and the National Council on Higher Education). The seriousness of this case included the university management being accountable to the National Portfolio of Parliament on Higher Education, which called for the application of the consequence management policy in addition to the promised

*Reimagining Corporate Social Responsibility in the Idea of University Education as the Public… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110177*

corrective action plans. One program was still declared unaccredited after submission of corrective action plan, which was an indictment on academic leadership, program management, and governance structure (CHE IQF Focus Area 1, Standard 3). Communication with one of the teaching development specialists, who had assumed the new role of a Campus Manager, indicated that the unaccredited program resulted from the internal challenges emanating from a relaxed culture, lack of cooperation, and lack of proper guidance (CHE IQF Focus Area 3, Standard 9). These program accreditation cases constituted a breach of the program review and accreditation policies and strategies that the university had as the structural requirements for quality management (CHE IQF Focus Area 3, Standard 9). The crisis revealed yet another case of contradictory totality, that the program reviews and accreditation criteria can translate to the ability to monitor and evaluate the quality of program management. The crisis event called into question the very key performance areas that informed the responsibilities of the affected heads of departments and the deans of faculties (**Table 3**). The case also had serious implications to the oversight functions that are supposed to be played by the institutional governance structures (academic board and university council), including the National Department of Higher Education, the approval and funding institution, and the National Council on Higher Education, the university education professional body. The same case about abductive reasoning that was alluded to in Crisis Event One also applied here.


**3. Proposed System**

The C2F2C framework is proposed for intelligently managing the resources regarding the electricity demands of the residential users. In the subsequent subsections, assumptions of the system model, problem formulation and proposed C2F2C framework are described.