**2.2 Fundamentals of SOA and RSOA**

Gain in a semiconductor material results from current injection into the PIN structure. The relationship between the current I and the carrier density (n) is given by the rate-equation. The rate-equation should include the stimulated emission as well as the spontaneous and absorption rate. R�n� is the rate of carrier recombination including the spontaneous emission and excluding the stimulated emission. Electrons can recombine radiatively and nonradiatively therefore R�n� can be written as:

$$R(n) = R\_{rad}(n) + R\_{non-rad}(n) \tag{1}$$

When an electron from the Conduction Band (CB) recombines with a Valence Band (VB) hole and this process leads to the emission of a photon, it is called the radiative recombination. The rate of radiative recombination is:

$$\mathbf{R}\_{\rm rad}(\mathbf{n}) = \mathbf{B}.\mathbf{n}^2\tag{2}$$

Next Generation of Optical Access Network Based on Reflective-SOA 5

but with no wavelength dependence. Amplified spontaneous emission power noise is assumed to be a white noise, with an equivalent optical noise bandwidth. When the current is modulated in a RSOA, the carrier density and the photon density are varying with time and position. This is caused by the optical wave propagation and the carrier/photon interaction. The carrier density variation is introduced in the model by dividing the total device length into smaller sections. For each section the carrier density is assumed to remain constant along the longitudinal direction. The equations are linking the driving current, the carrier density and the photon density. Figure 1 represents the model elementary section. It includes ports representing the input and output photon density (forward and backward), input and output amplified spontaneous emission (forward and backward), the input electrical current injection and carrier density. We do not consider the phase shift of the

Fig. 1. RSOA elementary representation for numerical modelling

*out*

*ASE out*

*ASE in*

*in*

material gain equation becomes:

Where � is the gain saturation parameter.

*I/e.V n*

*in S+*

*out S‐*

*ASE in S+*

*ASE out S‐*

*LS*

Where R1 and R2 are power reflection coefficients.

The forward and backward propagating optical fields (excluding spontaneous emission) are

*d*

The material gain (gm) is usually approximated by a linear function of the carrier density. In general the material gain also depends on the photon density S. For high photon density, the gain saturates and this phenomenon is described by the gain compression factor. Then, the

�� � ��

P��0� � ������P�� � ��P��0�

The boundary conditions for the device input and output facets, are given by:

P��� � ��� � P����������� (8)

*w*

*z*

*LS*

*L*

����� (9)

P��L� � ��P��L� (10)

described by the relation between the input optical power and output optical power.

signal.

*S+*

*S‐*

*S+*

*S‐*

This term corresponds to the spontaneous emission recombination. Non-radiative processes deplete the carrier density population in the CB then fewer carriers remain available for the stimulated emission and the generated amount of light is limited. The three main nonradiative recombination mechanisms in semiconductor are:

$$\mathbf{R}\_{\rm SRH} = \mathbf{A}. \mathbf{n} \tag{3}$$

$$\mathbf{R\_{Aug}} = \mathbf{C.n}^3\tag{4}$$

$$\mathbf{R}\_{\text{leak}} = \mathbf{D}\_{\text{leak}} \cdot \mathbf{n}^{3.5} \\ \text{for diffusion and } \mathbf{R}\_{\text{leak}} = \mathbf{D}\_{\text{leak}} \cdot \mathbf{n}^{5.5} \text{ for drift} \tag{5}$$

The dominant leakage current is usually due to carrier drift. Therefore the total recombination rate is given by:

$$\mathbf{R(n)} = \mathbf{R\_{rad}(n)} + \mathbf{R\_{non-rad}(n)} = \mathbf{A.n} + \mathbf{B.n^2} + \mathbf{C.n^3} + \mathbf{D\_{leak}.n^{5.5}} \tag{6}$$

The carrier leakage is usually neglected. So the rate-equation states that the resulting change of the carrier density in the active zone is equal to the difference between the carrier supplied by electrical injection and the carrier's recombination. Amplification results from stimulated recombination of the electrons and holes due to the presence of photons. The interaction between photons and electrons inside the active region depends on the position and the time. Therefore the carrier density at z and t is governed by the final rate-equation. We neglect carrier diffusion in order to simplify the carrier density rate-equation. This assumption is valid as long as the amplifier length L is much longer than the diffusion length, which is typically on the order of microns. We also assume that the carrier density is independent of the lateral dimensions.

$$\frac{d\ln(\mathbf{z},t)}{dt} = \frac{\mathbf{l}(t)}{\mathbf{e}\mathbf{V}} - \left(\mathbf{A}.\ln(\mathbf{z},t) + \mathbf{B}.\mathbf{n}(\mathbf{z},t)^2 + \mathbf{C}.\mathbf{n}(\mathbf{z},t)^3\right) - \mathbf{v}\_\mathbf{g}\mathbf{g}\_{\text{net}}.\mathbf{S}(\mathbf{z},t) \tag{7}$$

Where n(z,t) is the carrier density, I(t) is the applied bias current, S(z,t) is the photon density, gnet is the net gain and vg is the light velocity group.

A time domain model for reflective semiconductor optical amplifiers (RSOAs) was developed based on the carrier rate and wave propagation equations. The non linear gain saturation and the amplified spontaneous emission have been considered and implemented together in a current injected RSOA model (Liu et al., 2011). This approach follows the same analytical formalism as Connelly's static model (Connelly, 2007).

To make the model suitable for static analysis some assumptions have been made and simplifications have been introduced. Since, as a modulator, the RSOA is mainly illuminated by a CW optical source, the material gain is assumed to vary linearly with the carrier density

This term corresponds to the spontaneous emission recombination. Non-radiative processes deplete the carrier density population in the CB then fewer carriers remain available for the stimulated emission and the generated amount of light is limited. The three main non-

The dominant leakage current is usually due to carrier drift. Therefore the total

The carrier leakage is usually neglected. So the rate-equation states that the resulting change of the carrier density in the active zone is equal to the difference between the carrier supplied by electrical injection and the carrier's recombination. Amplification results from stimulated recombination of the electrons and holes due to the presence of photons. The interaction between photons and electrons inside the active region depends on the position and the time. Therefore the carrier density at z and t is governed by the final rate-equation. We neglect carrier diffusion in order to simplify the carrier density rate-equation. This assumption is valid as long as the amplifier length L is much longer than the diffusion length, which is typically on the order of microns. We also assume that the carrier density is

Where n(z,t) is the carrier density, I(t) is the applied bias current, S(z,t) is the photon

A time domain model for reflective semiconductor optical amplifiers (RSOAs) was developed based on the carrier rate and wave propagation equations. The non linear gain saturation and the amplified spontaneous emission have been considered and implemented together in a current injected RSOA model (Liu et al., 2011). This approach follows the same

To make the model suitable for static analysis some assumptions have been made and simplifications have been introduced. Since, as a modulator, the RSOA is mainly illuminated by a CW optical source, the material gain is assumed to vary linearly with the carrier density

R���� � �����. n�.�for diffusion and R���� � �����. n�.� for drift (5)

R�n� � R����n� � R��������n� � A. n � �. n� � �. n� � �����. n�.� (6)

�.� � �A. n�z, t� � �. n�z, t�� � �. n�z, t��� � ��g���. S�z, t� (7)

R��� � A. n (3)

R��� � �. n� (4)

radiative recombination mechanisms in semiconductor are:

crystal lattice. The rate of the Auger transitions is:

recombination rate is given by:

independent of the lateral dimensions.

density, gnet is the net gain and vg is the light velocity group.

analytical formalism as Connelly's static model (Connelly, 2007).

����,�� �� � ����

(SHR) recombination. The rate of SRH recombination is:

of the carriers therefore is given by (Olshansky et al., 1984):

but with no wavelength dependence. Amplified spontaneous emission power noise is assumed to be a white noise, with an equivalent optical noise bandwidth. When the current is modulated in a RSOA, the carrier density and the photon density are varying with time and position. This is caused by the optical wave propagation and the carrier/photon interaction. The carrier density variation is introduced in the model by dividing the total device length into smaller sections. For each section the carrier density is assumed to remain constant along the longitudinal direction. The equations are linking the driving current, the carrier density and the photon density. Figure 1 represents the model elementary section. It includes ports representing the input and output photon density (forward and backward), input and output amplified spontaneous emission (forward and backward), the input electrical current injection and carrier density. We do not consider the phase shift of the signal.

Fig. 1. RSOA elementary representation for numerical modelling

The forward and backward propagating optical fields (excluding spontaneous emission) are described by the relation between the input optical power and output optical power.

$$\mathbf{P}^{\pm}(\mathbf{z} \pm \Delta \mathbf{z}) = \mathbf{P}^{\pm}(\mathbf{z}) \mathbf{e}^{\text{g}\_{\text{net}} \Delta \mathbf{z}} \tag{8}$$

The material gain (gm) is usually approximated by a linear function of the carrier density. In general the material gain also depends on the photon density S. For high photon density, the gain saturates and this phenomenon is described by the gain compression factor. Then, the material gain equation becomes:

$$g\_S = \frac{g\_m}{1 + \varepsilon S} \tag{9}$$

Where � is the gain saturation parameter.

The boundary conditions for the device input and output facets, are given by:

$$\begin{aligned} \mathbf{P}^+ \text{(0)} &= (\mathbf{1} - \mathbf{R\_1}) \mathbf{P\_{ln}} + \mathbf{R\_1} \mathbf{P^-} \text{(0)}\\ \mathbf{P^-} \text{(L)} &= \mathbf{R\_2} \mathbf{P^+} \text{(L)} \end{aligned} \tag{10}$$

Where R1 and R2 are power reflection coefficients.

Next Generation of Optical Access Network Based on Reflective-SOA 7

along the RSOA. At the mirror and input facets, the signal photon density becomes larger with the injected current as it has been more amplified during the forward and backward

From this preliminary analysis, a general conclusion can be deduced. RSOAs should saturate faster than classic SOAs. The overall photon density inside a RSOA is larger than in a classic SOA, reducing the material gain available for signal amplification. However the forward and backward signal amplifications could compensate for this effect. Large photon density should also affect the E/O bandwidth and could be useful to obtain high speed devices. All these effects are stronger at high input electrical injection and high input optical

Fig. 3. Carrier and photon density spatial distribution in RSOA device. (a) and (b) represents

Optical gain measurements depending on the input current and optical power were realized. Figure 4 shows the experimental setup which is used to perform static measurements. The required wavelength controlled by an external cavity laser is launched into the RSOA through an optical circulator (OC). A combined power meter and attenuator is used to control the input power to the RSOA. An optical spectrum analyser and a power

the simulation from Pin = -40 dBm ; (c) and (d) for 0 dBm

**3. RSOA devices static characteristics**

propagations.

power.

The amplified spontaneous emission is the main noise source in an RSOA and determines the RSOA static and dynamic performances under low input optical power. For high stimulated emission output power the spontaneous emission drops significantly and its impact on the device performances is less significant. For a section of length Δz the ASE power spectral density generated within that section is given by the following equation :

$$\mathbf{P\_{ASE}} = \eta\_{Sp}(\mathbf{G\_S(z)} - 1)\mathbf{h}\mathbf{v}\mathbf{B\_0} \tag{11}$$

Where Gs is the single pass gain of one section and *η*sp is the spontaneous emission factor. The spontaneous emission factor can be approximated by (D'Alessandro et al., 2011):

$$
\eta\_{Sp} = \frac{n}{n - \mathbf{n}\_0} \tag{12}
$$

In our model we have assumed a constant noise power spectral density over an optical bandwidth *Bo*. The bandwidth *Bo* is estimated at 5x1012 Hz. The implementation of the ASE noise travelling wave follows a procedure similar to the optical signal travelling wave. The spontaneous emission output power for the forward and backward noise signals has two contributions: the amplified input noise and the generated spontaneous emission component within the section. The gain variations with the bias current (Experimental and modelled) are compared in Figure 2.

Fig. 2. Fibre-to-fibre gain for RSOA versus bias current

The carrier density profile is represented in figure 3 as well as the total photon density. At low input injection (Pin = -40 dBm), the carrier density profile is in this case not symmetrical due to the high reflection of the second facet. Strong depletion occurs from the ASE and the signal double propagation (reflective behaviour of the device). Also at Pin = -40 dBm, the ASE power dominates the signal power which explains that the RSOA device saturates more at high input electrical current.

At high input optical power, the carrier density in an RSOA is flattened due to the forward and backward propagations of the signal inside the device. The saturation effect occurs all

The amplified spontaneous emission is the main noise source in an RSOA and determines the RSOA static and dynamic performances under low input optical power. For high stimulated emission output power the spontaneous emission drops significantly and its impact on the device performances is less significant. For a section of length Δz the ASE power spectral density generated within that section is given by the following equation :

Where Gs is the single pass gain of one section and *η*sp is the spontaneous emission factor. The spontaneous emission factor can be approximated by (D'Alessandro et al., 2011):

> ��� � � ����

modelled) are compared in Figure 2.

Fibre-to-fibre Gain (dB)

Fig. 2. Fibre-to-fibre gain for RSOA versus bias current

0

10

20

30

40

more at high input electrical current.

In our model we have assumed a constant noise power spectral density over an optical bandwidth *Bo*. The bandwidth *Bo* is estimated at 5x1012 Hz. The implementation of the ASE noise travelling wave follows a procedure similar to the optical signal travelling wave. The spontaneous emission output power for the forward and backward noise signals has two contributions: the amplified input noise and the generated spontaneous emission component within the section. The gain variations with the bias current (Experimental and

The carrier density profile is represented in figure 3 as well as the total photon density. At low input injection (Pin = -40 dBm), the carrier density profile is in this case not symmetrical due to the high reflection of the second facet. Strong depletion occurs from the ASE and the signal double propagation (reflective behaviour of the device). Also at Pin = -40 dBm, the ASE power dominates the signal power which explains that the RSOA device saturates

20 40 60 80 100

Current (mA)

At high input optical power, the carrier density in an RSOA is flattened due to the forward and backward propagations of the signal inside the device. The saturation effect occurs all

P��� � ��������� � ��hνB� (11)

(12)

 Measured Modelled

along the RSOA. At the mirror and input facets, the signal photon density becomes larger with the injected current as it has been more amplified during the forward and backward propagations.

From this preliminary analysis, a general conclusion can be deduced. RSOAs should saturate faster than classic SOAs. The overall photon density inside a RSOA is larger than in a classic SOA, reducing the material gain available for signal amplification. However the forward and backward signal amplifications could compensate for this effect. Large photon density should also affect the E/O bandwidth and could be useful to obtain high speed devices. All these effects are stronger at high input electrical injection and high input optical power.

Fig. 3. Carrier and photon density spatial distribution in RSOA device. (a) and (b) represents the simulation from Pin = -40 dBm ; (c) and (d) for 0 dBm


**3.5 Lung organoids**

The lung organoids were developed from stem cells of the lungs through a selforganization process [35–37]. The lung organoid technology has also been extended to develop various structures of lungs such as lung buds, airways, and alveolar cells that can be used to treat pulmonary diseases [38].


*3.2.* α*M's Protection is Associated to the Preservation of Mitochondrial Bioenergetics*

The main nephrotoxic mechanism of CDDP is mitochondrial damage [13,14]. Therefore, we determined if the preservation of mitochondrial bioenergetics was related to protection by αM. So, we evaluated the respiratory states in the whole cells. As shown in Figure 3, CDDP-treatment reduced the Routine respiration, the Leak of respiration, the maximum capacity of the electron transfer system (E) and the respiration associated to oxidative phosphorylation (P) at 24 h. Interestingly, due to both Routine and Leak respiration reduced, the respiratory control (RC) did not change with CDDP-treatment (Figure 3E). All respiratory state alterations were reversed by αM co-treatment. Importantly αM alone did not alter any respiratory parameters at this concentration (Figure 3).

**Figure 2.** Changes in oxidative stress markers in LLC-PK1 cells treated with αM, CDDP or both. After 24 h of αM-, CDDP-treatment or both, the oxidative stress was evaluated by the lipoperoxidative markers (**A**) malondialdehyde (MDA) and (**C**) 4-hydroxynonenal (4HNE). (**A**) and (**C**) show the densitometry data and (**B**) and (**C**) show the representative blots. The data are presented as mean ± SD, *n* = 6–7. \*\* *p* < 0.01 vs. control. ## *p* < 0.01 vs. CDDP. α-Tub = alpha-tubulin.

**Figure 3.** αM co-treatment prevents CDDP induced a decrease in respiratory parameters at 24 h. (**A**) Cellular routine respiration = Routine, (**B**) leak of respiration, (**C**) maximum capacity of electron transfer system = E, (**D**) respiration associated to oxidative phosphorylation = P, (**E**) respiratory control = RC. The data are presented as mean ± SD, *n* = 3–5. \*\* *p* < 0.01 and \* *p* < 0.05 vs. control. ### *p* < 0.001 and # *p* < 0.05 vs. CDDP.

The decrease in all the respiratory states without changes in RC, suggested that the mitochondrial bioenergetics alterations were related to a reduction in the activity of the whole electron transport system (ETS). So, we evaluated the CI-linked respiration, the CIV activity and the percentage of routine respiration attributable to CI. The CDDP-treatment diminished CI-linked respiration but had no effect on CIV activity and the percentage of basal respiration attributable to CI was not reduced (Figure 4). These results, together with the decrease in E, imply a reduction in whole ETS activity induced by CDDP, which could be caused by a reduction in mitochondrial mass.

**Figure 4.** Determination of respiratory parameters at 24 h in LLC-PK1 cells treated with αM, CDDP or both. (**A**) Complex I (CI)-linked respiration, (**B**) percentage of respiration attributable to CI and (**C**) activity of complex IV (CIV). The data are presented as mean ± SD, *n* = 4–6. \* *p* < 0.05 vs. control. ## *p* < 0.01 vs. CDDP.


3.4.2 Damage estimation method

Flood damage to rice crops is defined as a function of flood depth, flood duration, and growth stage of rice plants and can be estimated by using the calculation

vulnerability of each item by showing the correlation of the intensity of a hazard with damage quantified by a damage curve. Therefore, flood damage curves are important in flood damage estimation. To estimate flood damage to rice crops,

Specification Website link

https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/glcc/globdoc2\_0

https://globalmaps.github.io/

http://ref.data.fao.org/map? entryId=ba4526fd-cdbf-4028-a1bd-

https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/ dataset\_discovery

1–2 days 3–4 days 5–6 days 7 days Estimated yield loss (%)

https://www.esa-landcover-cci.org/

5a559c4bff38

Flood damage curves can be mainly derived from two approaches: (1) using actual damage data of past floods and (2) using synthetic data (expert estimation or questionnaire surveys) [8]. In the former approach, flood damage curves are developed based on data and information of past hazards and resulting actual flood damage. Therefore, accumulation of data on hazards (inundation records) and flood damage is essential. In the latter approach, damage curves are derived from hypothetical analysis, information obtained from questionnaire surveys, or land

Table 2 shows the flood damage matrix for rice-crop damage published by the Philippines Bureau of Agricultural Statistics [14]. Figure 5 shows the height of rice plants at each growth stage and its duration. Based on the flood damage matrix and the information on rice plant height at each growth stage, Shrestha et al. [16] proposed flood damage curves for rice crops as presented in Figure 6. Flood damage curves of rice crops vary with each rice growing stage. Based on the duration of each growth stage of rice plants and the information on a cropping calendar, the growth stage of rice plants during a flood event can be identified, and an appropriate damage curve corresponding to the growth stage of rice plants should be applied

Growth stage of rice plants Days of submergence

Vegetative stage 10–20 20–30 30–50 50–100 Reproductive stage (partially inundated) 10–20 30–50 40–85 50–100 Reproductive stage (completely inundated) 15–30 40–70 40–85 50–100 Maturity stage 15–30 40–70 50–90 60–100 Ripening stage 5 10–20 15–30 15–30

Flood damage matrix for rice crop published by the Philippines Bureau of Agricultural Statistics [14].

depth-duration-damage function curves are normally used.

cover and standardized typical property types.

Data description Data

Recent Advances in Flood Risk Management

MODIS Land Cover NASA/

List of globally available land-cover data.

Global Land Cover Characterization (GLCC)

Global Land Cover (GLCNMO)

Global Land Cover-SHARE (GLC-SHARE)

Climate Change Initiative Land Cover

(CCI-LC)

Table 1.

Table 2.

116

provider

European Space Agency

USGS

USGS Spatial resolution:

ISCGM Spatial resolution: 15

FAO Spatial resolution:

300 m

500 m

30 arc-seconds

and 30 arc-seconds

30 arc-seconds

Spatial resolution:

Spatial resolution:

Table 3.

Calculation method of flood damage to rice crop for each growth stage of rice plants.

method presented in Table 3. When flooding occurs during the early growth stage of rice plants, i.e., from the seedling to vegetative stages, at which no rice production is expected, farmers normally replant rice crops. In such a case, flood damage to rice crops can be estimated as losses of cost of input. On the other hand, when flooding occurs during the reproductive and maturity stages, at which rice production is usually expected, there is no time for replanting rice crops. In this case, flood damage to rice crops can be estimated as volume of production losses, i.e., yield loss, and then the value of production losses can be estimated based on farm gate price as calculation method presented in Table 3. The yield loss caused by flooding can be determined using a flood damage curve presented in Figure 6, according to flood depth and duration.

created using DEM in ArcGIS. Hourly rainfall and water-level data were collected from the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). The RRI model was calibrated and validated based on recent flood events by comparing the calculated and observed flood discharges at the San Isidro station in the basin. The flood event in September 2011 was the biggest flood in the basin in the last 30 years. The model parameters were thus calibrated to the September 2011 flood event. The calibrated parameters were validated with the 2015 flood event. Figure 8 shows the comparison of the calculated discharge with the observed discharge at San Isidro gauging station for the flood events in 2011 and 2015 and also the comparison of the calculated flood inundation depths with the recorded flood depth in the barangays (villages) of Calumpit Municipality. The calculated results reasonably agreed with the observed data. The flood event in 2011 was due to Typhoons Pedring and Quiel. Typhoon Pedring was directly followed by Typhoon Quiel, and rice crops were severely damaged by this flood event. The flood event in 2015 was due to Typhoon Lando, which also damaged rice-crop areas in the

To calculate the flood inundation depth and duration for a specific return period, flood frequency analysis was conducted by using 48-hour maximum annual rainfall data. Flood frequency analysis is essential for calculating expected damage. The main objective of flood frequency analysis is to relate the magnitude of extreme events to their frequency of occurrence through the use of probability distributions [17, 18]. The Gumbel distribution method was used for rainfall analysis. Since the rainfall volume of the September 2011 flood during Typhoon Pedring was the highest rainfall volume in the last 30 years, the rainfall pattern of the September 2011 flood (only for the Typhoon Pedring case) was selected for designing a rainfall pattern for a specific return period. Figure 9 shows the results of flood frequency analysis using the Gumbel method and the estimation of a design hyetograph for an event of a specific return period such as a 100-year flood. To calculate flood characteristics for a 100-year flood, a design hyetograph for a 100-year return period was estimated by multiplying the rainfall hyetograph of the September 2011 flood by a conversion factor. The conversion factor for a 100-year return period was

basin.

119

Figure 7.

Location of the Pampanga River basin in the Philippines.

Methodology for Agricultural Flood Damage Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81011


**3.1 Principle of quality of life**

*Bioethics in Medicine and Society*

assistance policies.

oikos or "house."

**2. Method**

forms of competition for access to local public assistance services, and, finally, for

Secondly, because bioethics aims to analyze and understand the morality of the actions of moral agents on moral patients. It is understood that the transformations related to the process of implantation, operation and uninstallation of productive processes in the territories start from the decision of a certain agent, the State, and have consequences for the moral patients (those who suffer from the effects of the decision) represented by the residents, workers and professionals working in local

These are not only susceptible and vulnerable to possible consequences resulting from the State's action, but concretely and vulnerable. Thus, if the impacts on health and the environment can, in principle, affect anyone in the areas of influence of the enterprises, the negative consequences are concentrated, in fact, on specific individuals who work in the production process, those who live at the same time. Around and health professionals who are responsible for health care [2]. Thirdly, because, in its origin, the word ethos means "den" or "abode" and has a semantic proximity to

Understood as thematization of ethos [3] ethics has in its spectrum of concern and performance the purpose of protecting susceptible and vulnerable subjects [4]; therefore, it has a relationship with health protection in the environmental licensing process. There is, therefore, a legitimate object, but little treated in the field of bioethics. Thus, the objective is to indicate tools of bioethics that contribute to the

An integrated review of scientific literature was carried out which consists of constructing an analysis of the literature regarding discussions on research methods

For this, the following steps were established: (1) structuring the research question—which tools of bioethics contribute to the implication of health protection in environmental licensing; (2) search for evidence in the databases SciELO (Scientific Eletronic Library Online), VHL—Virtual Health Library and Redalyc—Network of Scientific Journals of Latin America and the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal, through the search feature (licensing OR licensure OR concesión de licencias) AND (bioethics OR bioethics OR bioethics) AND (public health OR public Health OR public health); and (3) application of inclusion criteria—indexed articles, published between 1990 and 2016, in Portuguese, English and Spanish; relevant content for research in abstracts; and exclusion criteria—incomplete articles, articles whose

With the perspective of justifying the relevance and legitimacy of bioethics to support the relationship between the morality involved in the environmental licensing process and the consequences for the health of individuals, populations and ecosystems, the deconstructive method is used, as presented by Derrida, which seeks to make evident in the text that which sought to command it from outside [6].

In the initial search process, 71 articles were identified. When applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, nine were selected. Chart 1 summarizes the integrated review of the scientific literature with articles located in the SciELO, Lilacs

implication of health protection in Brazilian environmental licensing.

and results, as well as reflections on future studies [5].

content did not meet the research design.

generating overload and scarcity in local health systems [1].

**190**

**3. Result**

In view of this, the principle of quality of life becomes a fundamental tool in issues related to being together, equity, justice, and general well-being. It questions the supremacy of science, proposing dialog for the transformation of scientific knowledge into common sense committed to the norms and values of societies and for the translation of common sense into questions for scientific investigation [7].

In 1997, Silva and Schramm [8] analyzed the environmental problem in the context of scientific rationality, in which the conflict between the relationship between man and the natural environment is evident and gives rise to social movements that denounce the environmental impacts produced by the highly techno-industrial model polluter, consumer of natural resources and generator of global biosphere disorder. It highlights the need for an ethics of solidarity involved with dialog, regulation, action, inclusion, with the recognition of conflict, with co-responsibility in the face of the advancement of technoscience.

#### **3.2 Bioethics and public health**

Schramm and Kottow [9] characterize the moral problems in public health and consider that principlism a particular current, originating in the United States of America, which provided a bioethical model for biomedical practices, whose core are the principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice—it is not suitable for this field because it does not effectively fulfill the principle of justice in which interventions must promote the reduction of inequality.

Thus, they propose the principle of protection, which would be more suitable for bioethical purposes in public health, in which protection should be directed to the subjects who actually need it, through the implementation of public policies, morally correct and effective from the point of view of technicians. In 2002, an article tried to characterize the development of bioethics and its potential to deal with problems related to research with human beings. It presents lato sensu bioethics as a planetary ethics that is concerned with responsibility for the damage produced by human action on the environment [2]. Pontes and Schramm [10] studied the bioethics of protection and the role of the State with regard to unequal access to drinking water as a public health problem.

#### **3.3 Bioethics and accountability**

The authors consider that bioethics contributes to the State's accountability as a strategic protective agent in the construction of a just and equitable society, committed to the protection of the health of its members, as well as to the promotion of its legitimate personal development projects. Schramm [1] carried out an analysis of the problem of applied ethics, bioethics and environmental ethics. Identifying that the common denominator between them is in the reference of each to ethics and ethos, as well as by the common methods to construct their specific objects;

**193**

**Year** 2002

Lilacs

Bioethics, its development and importance for Life and Health Sciences [2].

To characterize the development of bioethics and its usefulness to face the problems that arise in research involving human beings, taking into account both the disciplinary and methodological requirements of bioethics and some needs of ethics.

**Base**

**Title**

**Purpose**

**Results**

*Bioethical Implications and Major Infrastructure Works DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93410*

Bioethics contributes to the State's accountability for the

provision of sanitation services, and, in particular, the provision

of good quality water. From a view of access to water as a right,

privatization policies in favor of public policies that aim to correct

situations of social injustice, protect the health of populations

and, in particular, of population groups constantly threatened, are

promoted, promoting conditions for a better quality of life.

It shows that, in the Age of Globalization, applied ethics, bioethics

and environmental ethics are in fact intertwined. This implies

conceptual, methodological, disciplinary, interdisciplinary and

transdisciplinary tools used by the three forms of thematization of

the ethos under examination in order to be able to account, at the

same time, for the identities and differences between these three

areas of knowledge and Ethics practices

2004

SciELO

Protection bioethics and the role

Examine unequal access to drinking water as a health

issue, analyzing the moral implications, primary needs,

situations of fragility and threat of population groups and

responsibilities for water supply.

of the State: moral problems

in unequal access to drinking

water [10].

2009

SciELO

Applied ethics, bioethics and

Analyze the issue of applied ethics, bioethics and

environmental ethics, identifying the possibility of

integration in research.

environmental ethics, possible

relationships: the case of global

Bioethics [1].

It establishes that bioethics is part of a context in which it coexists with the conflicting structures of human reality and attempts to build convergences of solutions, considered equidistant. Lato sensu bioethics corresponds to a planetary ethics concerned with responsibility for the harmful effects that can result from human acts on individual human life, social and cultural life, the biosphere and the ecosphere. Thus, the concept of lato sensu bioethics encompasses and is adapted to complex situations, being a theoretical and practical tool for understanding (analyzing) conflicts; converge the proposed solutions (prescribe better solutions); protect individuals and populations (provide means of protection). Bioethics is the thematization of ethos, taking into account human practices that can have irreversible effects on other humans, living beings in general and the environment.

*Bioethical Implications and Major Infrastructure Works DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93410*

*Bioethics in Medicine and Society*

**192**

**Year** 1995 1997

SciELO

The ecological question:

Analyze important elements in the formation of

technoscientific culture—techno-industrial model—and

developments in the field of Ecological Science and related

social movements.

between science and ideology/

utopia of an era [8].

SciELO

The third margin of health:

"natural" ethics

**Base**

**Title**

**Purpose** Discuss the relevance of a complex natural ethics for the

health field escaping the main disjunctions of the subject/

object, public/private, value in itself/value in itself.

**Results**

Points out the centrality of ethical reasons in the field of health that

imply the need to outline a practical-discursive universe of ethics

capable of articulating technoscientific knowledge with ethical

principles of justice, equity and general well-being in the context

of available resources and priorities each concrete situation. This

universe includes reflections on duties towards the environment;

the rights of present generations linked to future generations.

Health ethics is conceived as a field of links and possibilities

between the bioecological dimension of the life of individuals and

populations in a territory and its socio-cultural dimension.

It establishes the need for an ethics that enables dialogs on

ecological issues in which politics takes a strategic place for making

democratic decisions in the context of advancing technoscience.

Proposes an ethics of solidarity based on an open dialog of

pluralist and interdisciplinary confrontation; regulatory ethics;

in pragmatism; in the non-exclusion of feeling—the affective

expression of judgment—of the set of elements that cooperate in

making ethical decisions; in the ethics of ambivalence, in the sense

that this is a choice, not a logical conclusion, or a mechanical result;

evolutionary ethics and reversibility of principles; in the ethics of

co-responsibility; integrate efforts to overcome conflicts, become

aware of responsibilities so that action can be taken accordingly.

It is considered that although relevant to clinical bioethics,

principlism is not applicable to public health dilemmas, since it is

based on the morality of doctor-patient relationships. They propose

to link Jonas's ontological concern and the transcendental Levinas,

through the protection principle that would be more adequate to

the purposes of a public health ethics, allowing to clearly identify

the objectives and the actors involved in the implementation of

morally correct and pragmatically effective public policies.

2001

SciELO

Bioethical principles in

Characterize the specificity of moral problems in public

health and analyze the applicability of principlism as a

standard for resolving conflicts in this field.

public health: limitations and

proposals [9].

**195**

use mass of automobiles.

*Bioethical Implications and Major Infrastructure Works DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93410*

and work to make way to the interests of a globalized elite.

and banning of human behavior.

of these movements.

(**Table 1**).

**4. Discussion**

of health protection in environmental licensing.

sibilities of finding points of convergence [11].

**4.1 Bioethical problems addressed**

**3.4 Bioethics and biopolitics**

that is: (a) the description and understanding (in the double sense of "representing" and "presenting") of the conflicts that exist in the ethos; and (b) the prescription

Assumpção and Schramm [11] studied the urban transformations in the city of Rio de Janeiro related to major world events—Olympics and World Cup—in the light of the elements for a bioethical analysis. It is an important contribution in pointing the State as an agent that produces vulnerability in the context of economic globalization and the civilizing process that produces gentrification under the discourse of environmental revitalization, expelling people from their places of life

These authors show that there is an ethic of resistance on the part of human groups vulnerable by the State, and that bioethics has elements that contribute to the strengthening of the struggle of these groups that come together to interact in social movements. For this reason, bioethics needs to return, more and more, its analytical focus to processes of production of subjectivity, autonomy and resistance

Schramm [12] analyzed the concepts of liberalism, paternalism, biopolitics and bioethics, establishing dialectical relations among themselves and opening spaces for forms of resistance to threats to the quality of life of people and populations resulting from questionable actions. In this study, bioethics is rightly seen as a form of resistance that includes the analysis of macroproblems and collective conflicts through the previous theoretical deconstruction of categories, an ethical criticism and a concrete political opposition to an unjustified annexation of bioethics to biopolitics, when, in fact, it is possible to consider bioethics as a form of resistance to biopolitics. It is a liberating alternative to biopolitical practices as it mediates normative issues involved in the relations of organic life (zoe), practical life (bios) and these with politics (polis), enabling the empowerment of citizens

The selected and described articles address theoretical, conceptual and practical aspects related to elements of protection bioethics that contribute to the implication

Although they do not attempt to analyze, specifically, environmental licensing, it is evident that this problem is implicated with the bioethical problems addressed, which are discussed below. Global capitalism, local development and the environmental issue Initially, it is worth considering that the implantation of large enterprises in Brazil must be understood in relation to economic globalization, inscribed in the aspects of technological and biotechnological advances that intensify social relations in a global dimension, as well as in conflicts and, in principle, in the pos-

Similarly, the oil refining process is located in the environmental problem because of its local impacts that become global, such as, for example, the production of greenhouse gases, both by the emission of industrial pollutants, and by the

#### *Bioethical Implications and Major Infrastructure Works DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93410*

*Bioethics in Medicine and Society*

**194**

**Year** 2010 2012

Redalyc

Elements for a bioethical

Identify elements for a bioethical analysis of conflicts

related to urban transformations in the city of Rio de

Janeiro related to major world events—Olympics and

World Cup—inscribed in the phenomenon of globalization

and the social consequences of the removal of inhabitants

from slums and occupations.

analysis of recent urban

transformations in Rio de

Janeiro from the perspective of

globalization [11].

2014

Redalyc

Dialectic between liberalism,

Analyze the concepts of liberalism, paternalism,

biopolitics, bioethics, separately, and then relate them

dialectically to each other.

state paternalism and

biopolitics. Conceptual analysis,

bioethical and democratic

implications [12].

**Table 1.**

*implications of health protection in the licensing of large enterprises in Brazil.*

Redalyc

Bioethics as a form of resistance

to biopolitics and biopower [4].

**Base**

**Title**

**Purpose** Deconstruct the concepts of biopolitics and biopower and

create conditions for a correct performance of bioethics,

understood both as an analytical and normative tool for the

morality of biopolitics and biopower.

**Results**

It assumes that the concepts of biopolitics and biopower are

used inconsistently, which affects their power of intelligibility to

understand the profound transformations of contemporary society.

Discusses the proposals for biopolitical democracy and democratic

biopolitics, showing the need for bioethical control of biopolitics

as a practical application in the form of resistance and democratic

dissent in relation to morally questionable effects, resulting from

biopolitical practices and the inappropriate uses of such concepts to

They carry general aspects of the phenomenon of globalization

and its background—the civilizing process -, as well as its urban

implications. As an analytical focus for the bioethics produced in

Brazil—in particular the bioethics of protection and the bioethics

of intervention—they propose the resistance processes present in

urban conflicts over housing and urban housing. They approach

bioethics of protection and bioethics of intervention, in its

theoretical aspects, and criticizes the relevance they give to the

role of the State as the sole agent of transformation, indicating

that the analytical focus of bioethics turns to the autonomous and

self-managing processes of social movements.

The thesis is defended that the terms, as a whole, have a dialectical

relationship, since liberalism would take the place of thesis

and paternalism, that of antithesis, whose synthesis would be

represented by the moment of biopolitics, which would in turn

constitute a new thesis, initiating a new dialectical process in which

the place of antithesis would be represented by bioethics, both

of which would converge to a new synthesis, represented by the

empowerment of citizens, constitutive of democratic societies, or

that are intended to be such.

*Articles used in the SciELO, lilacs and Redalyc databases, from 1990 to 2016, according to the database, title, objectives and results related to elements of protection bioethics that contribute to the*

carry them out.

that is: (a) the description and understanding (in the double sense of "representing" and "presenting") of the conflicts that exist in the ethos; and (b) the prescription and banning of human behavior.

Assumpção and Schramm [11] studied the urban transformations in the city of Rio de Janeiro related to major world events—Olympics and World Cup—in the light of the elements for a bioethical analysis. It is an important contribution in pointing the State as an agent that produces vulnerability in the context of economic globalization and the civilizing process that produces gentrification under the discourse of environmental revitalization, expelling people from their places of life and work to make way to the interests of a globalized elite.

These authors show that there is an ethic of resistance on the part of human groups vulnerable by the State, and that bioethics has elements that contribute to the strengthening of the struggle of these groups that come together to interact in social movements. For this reason, bioethics needs to return, more and more, its analytical focus to processes of production of subjectivity, autonomy and resistance of these movements.

### **3.4 Bioethics and biopolitics**

Schramm [12] analyzed the concepts of liberalism, paternalism, biopolitics and bioethics, establishing dialectical relations among themselves and opening spaces for forms of resistance to threats to the quality of life of people and populations resulting from questionable actions. In this study, bioethics is rightly seen as a form of resistance that includes the analysis of macroproblems and collective conflicts through the previous theoretical deconstruction of categories, an ethical criticism and a concrete political opposition to an unjustified annexation of bioethics to biopolitics, when, in fact, it is possible to consider bioethics as a form of resistance to biopolitics. It is a liberating alternative to biopolitical practices as it mediates normative issues involved in the relations of organic life (zoe), practical life (bios) and these with politics (polis), enabling the empowerment of citizens (**Table 1**).


In Turkey, growing numbers in residential programs do not imply a decline in open and distance learning, as can be observed in Fig.12.1. However, there are several barriers for uptake of ODL in Turkey that are very similar to the ones indicated in the 2010 Policy Report of the International Council for Distance Education (ICDE). In this report, ICDE (2011) lists the major barriers as insufficient political goodwill, financial constraints, failure to engage allies, institutional challenges, professional deficiency, learner issues, and technological barriers. By looking at the policy declarations and programs of the government and the major political parties, it can be observed that there is no interest in ODL although it plays a crucial role in the Turkish higher education system. The HEC has adopted some policies supporting open and distance education but at the end they created conflicting results with expansion and improvement of ODL. For instance, the regulation issued in 2012 and revised in 2014 forces all the ODL providers to follow a standardized instructional strategy and does not support creative designs. During a workshop on issues of distance education in Turkey, held by Anadolu University in 2015 with the participation of major ODL providers, almost all but especially DE providers expressed their financial problems and the problematic items in the regulation. It is also observed that there is a shortage of professional organizations and meetings as well as professional programs focusing specially on ODL in Turkey. These shortages surely do not help the lack of qualified human resources (both staff and researchers). Anadolu University's graduate programs (masters' and Ph.D. level) are the only instructional programs that intend to train both researchers and practitioners.

In addition to the large young population, the growing economy pushes for an even further expansion of both residential and ODL programs. Developments in ICT suggest that not only will more programs be developed, but also that current open and distance education programs will increasingly rely on and integrate educational technology. As a result of implementing educational technology, course contents will be enriched and various delivery methods will be employed. Nevertheless, public opinion about this mode of delivery, technology literacy, technology infrastructure and the actual quality of ODL in its present form still constitute major handicaps.

So far, equality in status of degrees earned from open and distance or residential education exists only on paper. Accompanied by the traditionally held perspective towards higher education, which prioritizes traditional white-collar professions in conventional programs, DE programs as such do not receive broad interest of students. Likewise, changing employers' perception of degrees earned in open or distance education depends largely on increasing program quality.

Considering the currently available ODL programs, their quantity indicates an uncalculated expansion in ODL, which calls for a national-level strategy to become meaningful and purposeful. Along this line, a change or modification in the way DE programs are designed and delivered may be expected. This is closely related to the quality concern in DE. Factors related to academics are a major source of low quality implementation in DE (Düzakın & Yalçınkaya, 2008 as cited in Tuncer and Tanas, 2011). Academics believe that DE is more appropriate for social sciences and that it is not possible to create a conducive instructional environment (Can, 2004 as cited in Tuncer and Tanas, 2011) in other fields such as science and health.

And finally, internet use and internet access are very important indicators of broadening ODL in Turkey. According to Eurostat 2016 data (2017) Turkey is still in the low-tier countries in Europe in both household internet access (76%) and household internet use (73%). Despite the increasing trend in these two indicators, internet connectivity remains much below of the Euro Area average (internet access 85%; internet use 83%). Although these statistics do not show the distribution of these two indicators across different segments of the society, it can be suspected that disadvantaged segments of the society in Turkey have even lower access to and use of internet.

It is hoped that dealing with the problems mentioned will contribute to further expansion of ODL in Turkey. Considering the growing enrolment numbers in ODL in Turkey, it can be argued that it has the potential of serving life-long learning purposes in the country and herewith being supportive to further develop into a knowledge society. However, transforming Turkish ODL into this envisioned effective and efficient life-long learning tool as well as making it a prestigious certification mechanism relies both on transforming its present structure and function.

#### **References**

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

### **Chapter 13 Turkey—Commentary**

**Soner Yildirim and Müge Adnan**

Changing the face of higher education with its functions and missions revisited has made it difficult to define the 'modern campus', which may require various descriptions. Nonetheless, it is easier to see the picture through certain specific commonalities that modern campuses have (e.g. learning opportunities available anytime/anyplace, classes constructed of modular learning objects, continuous collaboration, applied research, accessible digital library) where learners are 'everybody the institution connects with teachers' in an interactive and learner-centred environment (Langenberg & Spicer, 2001, p.11). New possibilities offered through the Internet and other technologies have become a challenge for traditional higher education institutions, yet providing brand new opportunities for learners. In the case of Turkey, the Human Development Report 2004 for information and communication technologies (ICT) indicated that "with a cautionary, caring, informed and well-rounded approach, communication and Information Technologies can make substantial contributions to Turkey's human development" (UNDP, 2004, p. v). However, the report also warned that:

Turkey's approach to policy surrounding the use of ICT within education should not therefore be driven by a need to keep pace with international developments but should be led by the need to find appropriate niches where ICT can enhance Turkey's multiple yet specific educational needs. (pp. 48–49)

The mid-2000s in Turkey witnessed many traditional universities' primary efforts to integrate online education modules in response to the needs of geographically dispersed students with a differing profile from traditional students, embracing a multi-dimensional interaction opportunity between and among learners, instructors

© The Author(s) 2019 O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Qayyum (eds.), *Open and Distance Education in Asia, Africa and the Middle East*, SpringerBriefs in Open and Distance Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5787-9\_13

121

S. Yildirim (B)

Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
M. Adnan Mu ˘gla Sıtkı Koçman University, Ankara, Turkey e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
and media, offering flexibility, individualisation, and cost-effectiveness. Yet, as Kondakci, Bedenlier, and Aydin indicated in their contribution to this volume, the 'distance education' adventure for Turkey dates back to the 1920s. After the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in 1923, a well-organised and effective education was of paramount importance for the young national, secular, and democratic state. The government's efforts to restructure the higher education system were grounded on Professor Albert Malche's report on Turkish university reform, and with the valuable contribution of John Dewey, 'distance education' was prioritised among other alternatives to reach all segments of society in the shortest time, particularly for teachertraining activities towards the aim for national literacy. Yet, low literacy rates made it impossible to consider correspondence education until the 1950s (Adnan, 2016).

The initial years of distance education in Turkey were challenging due to the limited available resources of the period. Yet, increasing demand for higher education required additional measures to increase capacity, and facilitate higher education accessibility to the larger audience. Hence, as pointed out by Kondakci, Bedenlier, and Aydin, universities were bestowed the legal responsibility for distance higher education in 1981, and Internet-based distance education has become increasingly important and communal as a natural consequence of the development of accessible information and communication technologies since the mid-90s. Soon enough, the Internet became an integral part of daily life at most Turkish universities. Besides fully online distance education programmes offered at the associate, undergraduate and graduate levels by Turkish higher education institutions, many universities have also integrated online technologies into on-campus teaching for delivering certain courses fully online or in blended learning environments.

Major affordances of distance education such as time and space flexibility, and particularly effective solutions for logistics and instructor shortages have led higher education institutions to transform compulsory common courses at the undergraduate level into fully online courses delivered synchronously or merely asynchronously. Such adoption of online learning technologies requires meticulous strategic planning covering the establishment of a sound technological infrastructure, orientation of instructors and students, the professional development of instructors in order to teach online competently, and most importantly the adequate design and development of content and instructional materials. Several universities have acknowledged their institutional, technological or manpower shortcomings, and formed official collaboration with other universities to utilise their established technological infrastructure or their human resources for online teaching. Nevertheless, this has not always been the case, with many institutions starting out with inadequately designed courses, untrained online instructors and unprepared online learners, which resulted in poor and unsatisfactory teaching-learning experiences through mere online replication of conventional classroom environments (Adnan, 2018; Bates & Sangrà, 2011). This has also resulted in a resistance to online teaching and learning both by instructors and learners.

Online distance education remains as a significant alternative for the Turkish Education System. With more than 17 million students and teachers in K-12 schools, and nearly 6 million students in higher education, the Turkish education system remains a big one. In order for this mass population to access quality education, online distance education may become a great opportunity for those who are especially in the disadvantaged group to access to formal education. On the other hand, the successful integration of Internet-based distance learning programmes, as with any innovative initiatives on this scale, is dependent upon thorough planning, a sound technological infrastructure, high-quality content, and most importantly, acceptance, readiness, and active involvement of administrators, instructors, and learners. If Turkey wishes to reach the greater masses, providing them with effective learning opportunities and not merely ticking the boxes for the required numbers, the next step in Turkey's Internet-based distance education journey needs to focus carefully on quality assurance, considering all factors that impact on both educational settings and products at all stages of e-learning.

#### **References**

**Open Access** This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

### **Chapter 14 The State of Open and Distance Education**

**Adnan Qayyum and Olaf Zawacki-Richter**

This book is the second of two volumes. However, these books do not represent an exhaustive portrait of the state of open and distance education (ODE) in the world. Important ODE developments in Indonesia, France, Spain,Mexico, Argentina, Nigeria, Tanzania and many other countries are not covered. However, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, India, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, United Kingdom, and the United States represent 51% of the world's population. As such, the two volumes about these 12 countries provide a portrait of open and distance education in a large part of the world today. The books also provide an opportunity to compare the trends, challenges and opportunities in ODE based on common points of reference (Raivola, 1985). In this chapter, we compare and analyze ODE enrollments, the relationship of ODE to higher education systems, the growing competition within ODE, the acceptance of ODE, the use of ICTs, and important barriers, challenges and opportunities in these twelve countries.

#### **Growing Enrollments**

The overall trend is one of continued growth in ODE enrollments for higher education students. Based on the data provided by the authors, there are over 23 million higher education students taking a distance education course from institutions in the twelve countries (see Table 14.1). This is likely low calculation of total enrollments. It has been hard to tally the precise number of students enrolled in ODE, as countries count

125

A. Qayyum (B)

Penn State University, State College, PA, United States e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
O. Zawacki-Richter Carl Von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
<sup>©</sup> The Author(s) 2019

O. Zawacki-Richter and A. Qayyum (eds.), *Open and Distance Education in Asia, Africa and the Middle East*, SpringerBriefs in Open and Distance Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5787-9\_14

aFor India as for other countries, there are different enrollment numbers provided. The ones included here are a more conservative calculation provided by the Government of India's post hoc five-year plan analysis

ODE differently. In Turkey, for example, there is precise data for open education enrollments. Open education is mainly self-paced learning using educational media. But open education is a specified, if dominant, form of DE in the country. However, there is also DE in Turkey that is delivered via synchronous ICTs. In Australia and the UK, the data does not consistently include ODE enrollments on conventional campus-based institutions.

The year over year enrollments in distance education have been growing in most countries. Enrollment has been growing most rapidly in emerging economies. In Brazil, China, and Turkey, ODE enrollments have been increasing dramatically. In Brazil, ODE enrollments grew at 63.8% per year from 2003 to 2009, before tempering to average annual growth rate of 9.9% from 2009 to 2014. In China, ODE enrollments have grown by an average of 8.8% per year from 2004 to 2016. In Turkey, open education enrollments have grown by 20.1% from 2008 to 2014. In these countries, ODE growth is important to meet the increased demand for education that is occurring in tertiary education, and likely all levels of education.

There has been steady growth in ODE enrollments in Australia, Canada, Germany, India and United States for many years. Demand for ODE is growing because of conventional higher education students seeking more flexibility, and adult learners regularly returning to higher education. In South Africa and South Korea enrollment levels have been fluctuating. In South Africa, enrollments at the University of South Africa, by far the biggest DE provider, have been mainly increasing for most of this decade, with the exception of 2014. In South Korea, enrollment numbers have been steady but flat for the past six years from the 17 cyber-universities, while enrollment has been declining at the Korean National Open University.

ODE enrollment numbers have been declining for several years in Russia and the United Kingdom, but for different reasons. Earlier in this book, Zawacki-Richter et al., state that in Russia, ODE enrollments have bifurcated. Demand for online education is growing while demand for correspondence education is declining. Online education includes e-learning, blended learning and flexible learning. It is called *distantsionnoe obrazovanie* to distinguish modern ODE from correspondence education. The latter still connotes the Soviet system of DE and sometimes has a negative image. Educational institutions are growing their offerings *distantsionnoe obrazovanie* and moving away from correspondence education. Despite the growth in *distantsionnoe obrazovanie*, the overall enrollments in all DE formats have been declining in Russia. The substantial ongoing decrease in the country's population has resulted in less demand for education at all levels. Correspondence education seems to be particularly affected by this population decline. In the United Kingdom, a decrease in distance education enrollments is likely attributable to government economic austerity policies in 2011 and 2012 that resulted in increased fees for students since 2012. Gaskell points out, in volume 1, that since those policies, fewer adult students and part-time students, important ODE constituents, have been enrolling. Across the world, there may be other cases like Russia and the UK. But overall, the trend seems to be more ODE enrollment growth than decline.

#### **ODE Growth as Part of Education Growth at All Levels**

Education as a sector has seen increased demand for decades (see Fig. 14.1). In primary, secondary and tertiary (or higher) education the number of people enrolled has continued to increase for 50 years. This is due to several factors including: global population growth (in 1965 the global population was 3.3 billion and by 2014 was 7.2 billion people); international efforts encouraging educational participation, like the Millennium Development Goals in 2000 and Sustainable Development Goals from 2015; government educational policies; and a growing general belief that education is important for the (knowledge) economy. However, tertiary education has been growing especially quickly in the past twenty years.

In 1995, only 12.5% of students who finished primary education persisted to higher education (see Table 14.2). Two decades later nearly 30% of people who enroll in primary education enroll in higher education. It is not just that education enrollments are growing but students in education are persisting to higher levels of education.

This has led to increased demand for higher education in countries. In 1992, five countries had more than 50% of their student-aged population attending university. By 2012, 54 countries had more than 50% of their student-aged population attending university (The Economist, 2015). This does not include the demand for higher education by adult learners. This global growth in tertiary education has put pressure

**Fig. 14.1** Global gross education enrollment

**Table 14.2** Gross education enrollment growth 1965–2014

*Source* Figures from, and calculations based on, *UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1979, 1998, 2016*

on educational providers to keep pace with demand as more of the world wants to go to university. DE is seen as a way to meet demand for higher education more quickly while requiring less physical infrastructure and less cost. DE is growing perhaps as an alternative to face-to-face education, but also because education as a whole is growing. DE may have a bigger share of the education pie, but the pie itself is getting bigger.

Globally, enrollments in higher education have been growing faster than any other level of education. From 1995 to 2014, enrollments have grown in primary education by 9.5%, in secondary education by 34.3% and in higher education by 60.9% (UNESCO, 2016). This is partly because of the success of primary and secondary education. For the past two decades, there has been a global push to have more students enter and complete education (e.g. Universal Primary Education initiative, the second goal in the United Nations Millennium Development Goal from the year 2000). This has led to an upward push in persistence, completion and demand in education. As more people complete primary education, the demand for secondary education and later tertiary education has increased. Combined with the growing economic and social importance of higher education credentials, demand is so robust, many countries cannot build conventional tertiary education spaces quickly enough to keep apace. In countries like China and India, distance education offerings are expanding to meet this growing demand.

#### **ODE as Part of Higher Education**

It is not just the enrollment figures that matter.  Figure 14.2 indicates the percentage of higher education students enrolled in open, online and distance education courses. The percentage ranges from 5.5% of higher education students in Germany taking ODE courses to nearly 50% of all higher education students in Russia taking ODE courses. An average of 21.3% of higher education students were taking ODE courses among the 12 countries.

On the demand side, these figures suggest that open and distance education is increasingly a part of higher education in most countries. In Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, India, Russia, South Africa, Turkey and the United States nearly one fifth or more of all higher education students are taking some online or distance education courses and programs. In the United States, the only growth in higher education enrollments is due to growth in distance education enrollments. On the supply side, distance education is not only being offered by open access, or low-selectivity institutions. In Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Russia, South Korea the United Kingdom and the United States, high profile institutions are offering distance education. They are providing distance education not only for adult learners, but for younger conventional higher education students wanting flexibility. Both from a student and institutional perspective, distance education is increasingly seen as part of higher education.

**Higher Education Students in ODE**

**Fig. 14.2** Percentage of higher education students taking open, online or distance education courses

#### **The Ascendance of Online Education**

The book chapters reveal that there is a substantial movement towards online education by ODE providers. This is not universal. Distance education is not the same as online education. Forms of DE, other than online education, are still important. One can draw a spectrum of the type of ICTs used to deliver ODE based on the descriptions provide for each country in the books.

As Fig. 14.3 indicates, several countries like South Korea, Australia, Canada and the United States have moved heavily into online education, almost to the exclusion of correspondence education. Other countries like India, China and South Africa are still strongly committed to correspondence education and the use of broadcast radio and television for distance education. Some DE providers continue to be committed to correspondence education not because they are opposed to online education or because they are risk-averse. First, it is not feasible to move towards online, mobile or other digital-based distance education delivery. Uneven access and use of the internet persist, despite increased connectivity in most countries. As indicated in Fig. 14.4, the internet is used regularly by nearly 80% of people in Europe and by over 20% of people in Africa.<sup>1</sup>

<sup>1</sup>For details about definitions of internet use, developed and developing countries and methodologies for determining use see: http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/methodology\_ sheets/econ\_development/internet\_users.pdf.

**Fig. 14.3** Spectrum of ICT use for open and distance education, by country

On aggregate, nearly 84% of people in developed countries were using the internet and 41% of people in developing countries were. Access to the internet varies in important ways that make it a poor choice, and at times prohibitive, for distance education provision in many countries.

Second, many ODE institutions have long running infrastructure that supports correspondence and broadcast education. The challenge is how to decide what formats to use for course production and delivery when there are so much sunk costs for existing formats. For example, the University of South Africa, the largest DE provider in South Africa, has huge buildings for printing course materials. Any financial calculation about future programs needs to include these legacy infrastructures that may make it more financially beneficial to continue with correspondence education. But sunk costs are also an issue for online education. There is a prohibitive cost of transferring to, for example, a new learning management system.

**Fig. 14.4** Percentage of people using the internet. *Source* International Telecommunications Union *Facts and Figures* (2016)

#### **The Mainstreaming of Distance Education**

With the advent of online education in particular, distance education programs have more legitimacy from larger educational institutions, governments and employers. In countries like Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom, a degree or diploma or other credential does not indicate if it was done via distance education. This has been the case for decades in some institutions. Increasingly, employers and other educators recognize the parity of ODE, or at least do not diminish the legitimacy of learning via distance education. There is no important economic opportunity difference between getting a degree or diploma via ODE or on campus. The output is the same. But the flexibility, time savings, and sometimes, costs savings, make ODE the preferred option for many students. Indeed, in the United States, distance education is seen to be adequately important that the National Center for Education Statistics Integrated Postsecondary Education System is now collecting data about it. This is not the case in all countries. In the United Kingdom and Australia, there is increasing awareness that not tracking online enrollments and providers is a gap in data. In most developed countries, distance education has become an important part of higher education. DE has gained mainstream acceptance.

This is not universally the case. In India, it is still a struggle to get distance education programs and degrees recognized as being of equal value as on-campus programs and degrees. In India, this is expressed by Panda and Garg, in their chapter, as concerns about "parity of esteem". The esteem accorded distance education is not on par with that of residential degrees. This view comes from government bodies like the University Grants Commission, the Indian higher education regulator, that deems DE lacks quality programs for both correspondence and online education. Since 2009, this regulator has banned M.Phil. and Ph.D. programs via distance learning. Distance education providers in India have not been able to offer or grow their graduate programs, programs that have proved very successful for distance education providers in other countries. Kondakci, Bedenlier and Aydin state that in Turkey, there is technically equality of status between open and distance education degrees, and residential degrees. But most employers, especially in white-collar professions, still give priority to conventional residential programs. DE programs still struggle with an image of offering low-prestige degrees. Still, ODE is now an integral part of higher education in most countries.

#### **The Digital Transformation of Education**

The growth of ODE enrollments, increased number of ODE providers, and growing acceptance of ODE in most countries is part of a larger digital transformation of education. Certainly, in many countries, ODE growth is partly attributable to increased persistence of students from primary and secondary onto tertiary education. However, in most countries, the growth of ODE is strongly connected to the growth of online education. And online education is part of digital transformation of higher education.

To varying degrees, all countries are encountering social and economic change due to digitization. In education, digitization has become a part of most educational functions, especially in higher education (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley, 2009). Selwyn (2014) argues that most functions in tertiary educational institutions are deeply digitized, including research (i.e. gathering, storing and analyzing research data, writing and publishing reports and articles), administration (i.e. promotion and marketing, registering, enrolling and managing students, etc.), libraries (i.e. online journals and books) and, of course, communication among students, instructors, administrators and researchers. Countries differ in how much education in general and ODE in particularly have been changed by digitization. In some countries, the digital transformation of higher education is well under way while other countries are still early in their use of ICTs and its impact on higher education. The digital transformation of education is strongest in South Korea, the United States, Canada, Australia and the United Kingdom. Countries like India and South Africa are moving in this direction at a slower pace, but definitely have increased digitization of educational processes. In China and Russia, there are concerted efforts by governments and higher education institutions to digitize more educational functions, including teaching. In all countries studied, the teaching function is not immune to the digitization of education. Teaching is increasingly digitized both for on-campus and off-campus students. The growth of distance education is another instantiation of digital processes and practices in education, manifest in the growth of online education. The growth and acceptance of distance education seems to be a symptom of this digital transformation of all education.

#### **Growing Competition in ODE**

Competition for providing ODE has been growing. In most countries in the world, an increasing number of institutions are providing online and distance education. Provision of open and distance education courses and programs are available from three major types of institutions: existing institutions, new dual-mode institutions, and new institutions.

Institutions that have historically offered ODE are still important providers. In most cases, they have been growing the number of programs and courses being offered. In the Australia chapter in volume one for example, Latchem stated that almost 75% of all online enrollments are from six universities: Central Queensland University, Charles Sturt University, Deakin University in Melbourne, University of New England, University of Southern Queensland, and the University of Tasmania. In Turkey and South Africa, Anadalou University and UNISA, respectively, are by far the largest providers of distance education. In India, open universities like the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and Yeshvantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University each have more than half a million students, while four other open universities continue to be growing providers with well over 100,000 students each (CEMCA, 2016).

However, more campus-based institutions are offering ODE, mainly as online education. Over 80% of higher education institutions in Europe offer online courses to distance students (Gaebel, Kupriyanova, Morais, & Colucci, 2014, p. 7). The numbers are similar in the United States. Of the institutions with more than 1000 students, more than 80% of them offer distance education courses (Seaman, Allen, & Seaman, 2018). In Canada and the United States, on-campus institutions are the largest providers of distance education, in the form of online education. As Li and Chen state earlier in this book, in China, high profile campus-based institutions like Peking University, Nanjing University, Sun Yat-Sen University, Beijing Normal University and the Harbin Institute of Technology all offer online education programs. Similarly, in South Africa, the University of Cape Town, which regularly ranks first among universities in all of the African continent, has moved into offering online distance education since 2014. For decades in Russia, most higher education institutions have had distance education units, next to their "direct departments", historically offering correspondence courses. These universities are now some of the main providers of online education. In India, while there are 15 open universities, there are more than 100 dual mode universities, that offer on campus and distance education. Distance education is firmly ensconced in an increasing number of conventional higher educational institutions. Indeed, the term "dual-mode" institutions may now be unnecessary.

There are two major types of new institutions offering online and distance education: institutions created by universities, and institutions created by companies. The emergence of online spin-off institutions, from existing higher education providers, is likely most well known in the MOOC world, with Stanford University spin-offs Coursera and Udacity, and EdX as an MIT initiative. However, it is not a recent or MOOC idea. This practice has been occurring for decades. Lim, Lee and Choi inform us in the South Korea chapter that cyber-universities were established after 2000 and were accredited by South Korean Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. Cyber-universities are institutions providing online education that are affiliated with a campus-based university. Most are administratively distinct from the campus-based institutions but maintain ties, often being a subsidiary. For example, the Kyung Hee Cyber University is independent but based on the Kyung Hee University in Seoul which has been around since 1949. The Daegu Cyber University was established in 2002 and has close ties with Daegu University, which has been around for over 60 years in Gyeongsang province. The Korea National Open University, the main provider of distance education in the country, has seen enrollments affected by competition from the 17 cyber universities. As Table 14.3 indicates, their enrollments have been increasing most years, while KNOU enrollments have been steadily decreasing for several years.

Private companies are also institutions providing distance education. There are private non-profit and private for-profit educational companies. Private universities usually do not receive public funding from the government. While the University of Phoenix is well known to many western audiences, it is certainly not the largest

**Table 14.3** Student population of KNOU and cyber universities

private provider of online and distance education courses. Litto states in volume 1 that private for-profit distance education provision is particularly important in Brazil. In 2002, the Ministry of Education approved 25 institutions that were allowed to offer distance education courses. Of these 25, 16 were public institutions and 9 were private institutions. In 2012, 150 institutions that were allowed to offer DE courses –80 public and 70 private. By 2016, 331 institutions were authorized to offer DE courses, 74 public and 257 private institutions. By 2016, public institutions constituted 22.4% of all institutions offering DE in Brazil and 77.4% were private. This growth in private providers of DE is reflected in the enrollment patterns. In 2009, public providers had 20.6% of online and distance education enrollments. By 2014 they had 10.4% of enrollments. Conversely, private institution enrollments grew from 79.4% of DE students to 89.6% during that same time frame. The net effect is that competition has increased substantially and enrollments in DE offerings from public institutions are decreasing as a percentage of enrollments. Four groups, UNOPAR, Anhanguera, Estácio, and UNIP (Universidade Paulista), have over half of all distance education enrollments in Brazil. Private sector distance education enrollments make up nearly 90% of all DE enrollments, and the four major organizations constitute nearly 60% of the private-sector distance education enrollments in Brazil. Even in Russia, there are more students enrolled in correspondence courses from private institutions than from state universities. Private educational institutions emerge and grow when they are able to meet a demand that public institutions may not be able to.

All of these existing and new providers amount to increased competition in the distance education sector. As enrollments have been growing for distance education in most countries, so has the number of providers. The pie is getting larger and there is more competition for it. However, the nature of the competition also matters. High profile, prestigious, institutions are now offering online education like Beijing Normal University in China, Lomonosov Moscow State University in Russia, the University of Cape Town in South Africa, and some Ivy League institutions in the United States like Columbia University and Harvard's extension school. Existing distance education providers now have to consider "brand" and institutional trust as a part of the competitive landscape.

#### **Meeting the Challenges for ODE**

Past and current trends in ODE in the 12 countries analyzed indicate that enrollment growth and digital changes in ODE will likely continue. Globally the appetite of ODE is robust, as the demand and acceptance for distance education grows in most countries. While the future of ODE seems strong, not all current providers of ODE may have a future. The current changes are not inevitable and there are many important issues for countries and institutions to address, including competition, strategic responses, and regulations.

The competition for ODE offerings is from current providers, new entrants, and also possible substitutes from current offerings. In most countries, current providers of ODE are visible or at least readily identifiable. Orr, Weller and Farrow (2017) identify three important dimensions of provision in online, open and flexible higher education by current providers: the delivery of learning, content development, and recognition of learning. Most existing ODE organizations are making ongoing changes to their delivery formats in response to changes in demand, and the digital transformation of education. There are many examples of this in all of the 12 countries analyzed. In Australia, for example, Latchem points out that the boundaries between conventional higher education and distance education are blurring. This is in response to a common theme from all countries studied: the strong demand by students for more flexibility because most students, not just conventional ODE students, want more convenient and accessible offerings. This is increasingly achieved by offering more blended formats of educational programs using digital technologies. This will likely continue to be an expansion area from current providers of ODE.

Many educators seem to be fond of thinking of online education as having the potential to be a "disruptive innovation", based on Harvard University business professor Clayton Christensen's work (2011). A disruptive innovation is an innovation that disrupts and overtakes existing organizations and products. Indeed, Christensen himself has written about online education, and been involved with online education initiatives, in this vein. But current educational institutions providing ODE, need to ask if they are the disruptors or the disrupted. In each country, there are new entrants to ODE, both from within countries and, in some cases, international initiatives. In many cases these new entrants are private for-profit educators or partnerships between conventional educational organizations and private companies. As Li and Chen state, Peking University has partnered with Alibaba Group, the largest e-commerce retailer in the world to create Chinese MOOCs. FutureLearn is a for-profit division from the UK Open University. They function as an international distance education provider by partnering with "local" universities to deliver existing and new content in countries.

Increased competition is bringing not just more competitors but also more types of distance education offerings. Among the most successful practices by ODE providers is the provision of different types of credentials. While degrees are still the focus of most institutions, many ODE providers are offering an increased number of certificates. These are often specializations in a subject area, but require far less course work for students than a degree. Micro-credentials are also growing. The highest profile online education micro-credentials are the ones offered by MOOCs. These include badges, statements of accomplishments, and verified certificates. They are often competency-based assessments of learning. Credentials other than degrees are promising for many ODE audiences as they require less time and financial commitment. In some countries, such as teacher training certificates for in-service teachers in Brazil, these certificates have educational and economic value for students.

All types of ODE providers, current and new, are subject to government regulations to varying degrees. In Brazil, all distance education courses must be approved by the Ministry of Education. The documents submitted for approval are used to assess: the curriculum, student admission numbers and student selection policy, ongoing student evaluation, attendance control, qualifications of the teaching staff, library and laboratory facilities, and partnerships with other groups. These have to be approved every five years. In China, government regulations are administered by different levels of national and local educational authorities, and include access regulations, price regulations, quality regulations, and information regulations. These barriers can slow the provision of distance education. Or as seen in India, they can stop any provision for graduate programs via distance education.

The major advantage that existing ODE providers have is that they are known and generally trusted. This is extremely important. New providers of online and distance education can be met with resistance, as students want to know that the institution where they got their degree will still be in existence in 10 and 20 years. That trust and familiarity is important but not enough. The digital transformation of education is an opportunity for ODE providers to rethink what their core value proposition is. In all countries, there are more providers of distance education, but there are not necessarily more providers of open education. Distance education has benefited from, and benefited, the digital transformation of education. It is more complicated for open education, an area that has been contested, appropriated and at times marginalized by the digital transformation of education (Weller, 2014).

#### *Overall Changes*

Overall, the changes taking place in ODE seem to be driven by four sets of factors, summarized by the acronym VEDI (Latin for "see"):

1. **V**alues—the values and vision of educational institutions and policymakers for ODE. There seem to be two major sets of visions among ODE providers: offering open access to potential students who may not otherwise have ready access to education; or providing flexible access to students. Many of the changes taking place for ODE seem to be driven by providing more flexibility for students. But the historical mission and vision of distance education, particularly single-mode institutions, has been about providing openness. These two sets of visions need not be opposed. However, there is certainly concern about the future of openness and single mode ODE universities (Tait, 2018). Open education is still important for many students served by ODE providers. However, providing flexibility, not openness, seems to be more prioritized by many institutions offering ODE across the globe.

#### *Current Approaches*

In this context, educational providers have been both re-active and pro-active in their approach to dealing with increased competition and the changing landscape for ODE. Re-active approaches include, what Orr et al. (2017) have called, "defenderlike" competitive strategies. Here, institutions focus on providing ODE to their main constituent of students. They may update and innovate their offerings for, and relationships with, the core student audiences. But the focus is on serving these core audiences that have historically been the priority. Pro-active approaches include what Orr et al. (2017) have called, "prospector-like" competitive strategies. Here, institutions take a more entrepreneurial approach and try to innovate in all areas of their ODE provision. This includes innovating in the delivery and design of offerings (e.g. modules, courses, programs) and certifications. But it also includes new target audiences of students and trying to be revenue generating and profitable.

It can be tempting to advocate that ODE providers need to use only or mainly pro-active approaches in the current ODE landscape. However, the decision to use re-active or pro-active strategies depends not just on the demand for ODE, the policy environment, or the type of ICT access available. It also depends on the values and visions of educators. As the chapters in these volumes indicate, ODE has been changing in a digital age. However, open and distance education has a strong history of being education for those who may not otherwise have an opportunity to education. There is a risk that these values and visions may become secondary priorities or nonpriorities, with the strong move globally to online education. Fifty years ago, distance education was transformed by the beginning of the open university movement. This transformation was based on the values and vision of educators. These values and visions need to be just as important as the policy environment, demand, and ICT access, for open and distance education in a digital age.

#### **References**

UNESCO. (2016). *Statistical yearbook* (2016th ed.). New York: United Nations.

Weller, M. (2014). *The battle for open: How openness won and why it doesn't feel like victory*. London: Ubiquity Press.

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*3.8. Statistics*

To test for the significant difference between the parameters, one-way ANOVA with the significance level set at 0.05 was used for presenting the normal distribution of data. The Tukey test was used as a post hoc test. The Kruskal–Wallis test with the significance level set at 0.05 was additionally used for data with the risk of not the following a normal distribution. All statistical analysis were performed using the OriginPro 2015 (OriginLabs) software. Averaged values are presented with standard deviation values.