**Conflict of interest**

*Tourism*

paradigm.

tive edge.

and/or services. The SQS model is required to interrelate all stakeholders in the recreational seaport (internally & externally) sector. The SQS model places emphasis on customer (internal & external) orientations and involves all recreational seaport units. It requires the active involvement and empowerment of staff and is based on a long-term commitment to the continuous improvement of the management

If the Malaysian government merely continues to increase capital expenditure to improve recreational seaport annually, the end result will be dismal. It will have limited positive impact on the recreational seaport attractiveness. Rather than allocating large amount of money solely for capacity expansion in recreational seaport, the same amount should be used to enhance the quality of management and embed the quality culture in the recreational seaport management and operations. Thus, for recreational seaport to be sustainable and be competitive in the face of risks, there is a need to manage these risks. Knowing how to identify risks, facet a value and a priority scale, design actions and device to minimise risks, and constantly monitoring them are essential to ensure recreational seaport survives and gives sustainable value. From a researcher viewpoint, it is interesting to use the SQS model in recreational seaport. It may provide the best strategic approach for recreational seaport at present and in the future to carve out a competi-

This chapter recognises the importance of introducing the SQS model in any recreational seaport. Further, this research, which has reviewed existing research on seaport quality, has contributed to improving the understanding of what seaport quality is. The main finding of the definition of seaport quality, and from my viewpoint, is that it is a very broad subjective matter to define. However, from the findings of existing literature, its definition would be categorised into three categories: seaport effectiveness, seaport reliability and seaport governance. In addition, this chapter helps recreational seaport managers and users understand clearly about recreational seaport quality. In short, this chapter serves as a guideline for the recreational seaport community to improve the quality of all relevant elements to

The attractiveness of recreational seaport is no longer based on strategic location but on the provision of efficient, prompt and quality services, excellent logistics and also land transport infrastructure and sea transport network. Recreational seaport has become commercial services and gateways. In fact, recreational seaports play a vital role in the domestic and international markets, if they can manage the services effectively and efficiently and be able to prevent unwanted consequences. Thus, constant evaluations need to be done by recreational seaport operators on its operations or processes, especially those related to providing marketing and selling of services to the end-users. It can be said that by improving the quality of the recreational seaport system and activities from any angle could improve the performance and competitiveness of this sector. Thus, to be sustainable and remain competitive in the face of risks, by adopting the SQS model can significantly reduce those risks and provide very good quality services and sustainable development of

The authors are thankful for the helpful comments of anonymous reviewers at Intech Open Book and the valuable suggestions given by anonymous referees. The authors would also like to thank the team doing this paper for their help, contribu-

tions and assistance in the preparation of this manuscript.

improve the performance of recreational seaport.

the recreational seaport industry.

**Acknowledgements**

**84**

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.


**2. Why is XOL based on XML?**

*Ontological Analyses in Science, Technology and Informatics*

Accompanying with the development of Internet, more infrastructure, application, and knowledge base are generated. In normal knowledge supported systems, domain expert will first considerate the software environment and self-knowledge background and then choose the suitable knowledge scheme and ontology for the system. However, when it comes to the cross applications or large knowledgeassisted system, ontologies in system need to be reused. First, knowledge scheme in different systems may exist difference from the expert's personal cognize. Second, it offers several ontology languages for each system; thus, different ontology schemes can show in different formats, which make it hard to communicate in different applications. Third, the increasing demand of openness and the sharing lead of ontology could be exchange. Therefore, an ontology exchangeable protocol

or new ontology language supporting to exchange should be redefined.

ontology information across incompatible applications.

ontologies' use, exchange, negotiation, and cocreation.

Note the following XOL definitions:

<[slot-attribute]></[slot-attribute]>

class during the tag pair of <name></name>.

value's type of the attribute and the data restriction.

<name> [class-name] </name>

To realize the need of an evaluation on ontology in bioinformatics, several researchers on the US evaluation team developed a new specific ontology language—XOL [2]. By flexible XML expression and simplified protocol, XOL (xml-based ontology exchange language) is able to express and exchange different

XOL is an ontology language developing for exchange ontology in cross applications. It takes inspiration from OKBC (a protocol used for open knowledge base, see in Ref. [3]) and Ontolingua (another ontology used for reusing and editing ontology, see in Ref. [4]). Its syntax is based on human-readable and high compatible XML document. XOL can also respect as one effective intermedia language in

All of above XOL elements are pertained to all ontologies. Between the pair of <class></class> defines the basic information of this ontology, like the name of the

Pair of <slot></slot> will depict the attribute and restriction of the class, like

The last tag <individual> </individual> will give an instance of self-class or

With the human-readable and self-defined XML syntax, XOL can express the ontology in a concise way. However, it may also lead to the ontology inconformity

multiclass. It is not allowed to use the subclass as the individual element.

**1.2 Motivation**

**1.3 Definition**

**1.4 A simple example**

<class>

</class> <slot>

</slot> <individual> <name></name> <type></type> <…></…> </individual>

**36**

Generally speaking, each ontology language makes up for using syntax and language protocol. To realize the essence of XOL, we will show the different classifications of ontology languages based on the syntax and semantic rules.

According to the use of syntax, we can classify the ontology languages into three types as follows:

HTML format: Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the basic document mark of the current web. To extend the semantic character of the HTML, ontology language like SHOE offers an effective way to support semantic annotation by more extended webpage label.

XML format: Extensive Markup Language (XML) is a more human-readable and concise document for storing and defining different data. Ontology document made by XML format can easily locate by its hierarchical structure and semantic DTD tag.

RDF format: Resource Description Framework (RDF) is a new way to define ontology after XOL. It is a resource model always accompanied by a specific URI and extended specific XML-like label to depict the relation and knowledge model between the resources. It not only specifically and strictly expresses the data but also makes the alternation, merging, and inference possible.

According to language protocol of these languages, ontology language can divide into first-order predicate logic language, frame-based language, and concept-role restriction language.

First-order predicate logic language is the most accurate and original language in knowledge representation. The predicate formula is the formula formed by joining some predicates together with the predicate join symbol, like the largest formalized language Cyclo [5] and KIF [6].

Frame-based language is a language that includes the aforehand defining framework and simplified first-order logic language. Owing to excessive strict first-order predict logic and unreadable syntax, Ontolingua and frame logic are developed to remedy this defect.

Concept-role restriction language is an effort that most language currently adopts. This type of language offers a hierarchy way to represent the hyponymy by concept and the individual's signal. It reveals the relationship and value restrictions between different ontologies by role mark, like OML [7].

To note the difference between ontology languages in multiple syntax formats, we will give a detailed introduction for some ontology language with the technical developing route.

## **2.1 SHOE (HTML format)**

HTML had covered with a long history before the World Wide Web (WWW) appeared and is one of document standards of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). SGML offers a high standard and complicated description about the document resource. As SGML is hard to learn, use, and realize, researcher put forward the HTML in 1989 after considering the computer's ability. HTML is the mere application of SGML in the WWW times. After few years of great development, HTML is widely known in the web document district. Semantic Web, as the next generation of WWW, is also the use of the HTML syntax in the ontology language. We called this simple HTML ontology language as SHOE.

SHOE is a specification that describes an extension to HTML, which provides a way to semantically describe important information about HTML or other web documents [1]. It offers a hierarchical classification mechanism for HTML documents and non-HTML documents or subsections of HTML documents. The intent of this specification is to make it possible for user agents, robots, and so on, to gather truly meaningful information about web pages and documents, enabling significantly better search mechanisms and knowledge gathering. Let us take the SHOE as an example; it can divide into two steps as follows:

#### **Define an ontology**

<Ontology "ontology-unique-name" version = "1.0" backward-compatiblewith = "version list">

#### **Use an existing XOL ontology**

<Ontology-extends "ontology-unique-name" version = "Version" backwardcompatible-with = "version list" URL = "location">

This is a simple way to define ontologies containing rules. Ontology simply means an ISA hierarchy of categories and a set of relations between these categories in this SHOE specification. Categories will also inherit relations defined in parent categories. However, this specification does not as yet define any other forms of relationships (transitive closures, inverses, negations, etc.) and use the complicated and human-unreadable Hypertext Markup Language as the basic syntax.

#### **2.2 KIF**

At the same time, first knowledge interchange format was proposed by American National Standard (dpANS). Though many ontology languages are still developed, researcher in Standard University begins to design a language for the intercommunication. Interchange of knowledge or ontology thought out disparate computer systems (different programmers, different languages, and other discrepancy in interknowledge sharing). KIF language is logically comprehensive with declarative semantics.

In addition to these essential features, KIF is designed to maximize the implementability and readability. KIF provides a declarative language for describing knowledge. As a pure specification language, KIF does not include commands for knowledge base query or manipulation.

#### **2.3 GFP**

GFP is first motivated by the hierarchic framework design of frame-based knowledge representation systems (FRSs) used at the Stanford Knowledge Systems Laboratory for accessing Cyc, KEE, and Epikit [8]. FRSs can contain all of the database systems and knowledge systems or other frame-like projects. It is complementally developed to support knowledge sharing. It specifies a new protocol, Generic Frame Protocol (GFP), for connecting knowledge bases (KBs) in FRSs. In more detail, it provides numbers of operations to formulate a general interface for all of the FRSs. Also, complementary tools were also produced to keep independent and general operation generation. GFP shows well compatibility between different languages, including Java, C (client implementation only), and Common Lisp. Thus, some format conversations of languages are also needed.

#### **2.4 OKBC**

After GFP coming out, OKBC, a new protocol called Open Knowledge Base Connectivity, has taken it up in more implicit knowledge model and knowledge

**39**

**Figure 1.**

*The structure of Ontolingua.*

*Ontology Language XOL Used for Cross-Application Communication*

operation. It first uses some open ontology systems, such as EcoCyc, GKB Editor, and Ontolingua projects. With 2 years of development, OKBC quickly used in

OKBC handles the knowledge in more implicit representation formalism, which we called OKBC Knowledge Model in later years. This model not only supports an object-oriented representation of knowledge but also can found the commonly knowledge structure from different KRSs. Therefore, it can serve as an implicit knowledge interlingua by its powerful character in knowledge for all of the systems

Ontolingua, which accompanies with different ontology languages breaking out, can serve as a basic framework to support open or domain knowledge sharing system. The syntax of Ontolingua definition is based on GFP. It is motivated by the need of Summer Ontology Project, a pilot study in which researchers from several groups and institutions met weekly to design ontology of terms used in modeling electromechanical devices. **Figure 1** depicts the structure of

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91385*

several ontology sharing projects.

using OKBC.

Ontolingua.

**2.5 Ontolingua**

*Ontology Language XOL Used for Cross-Application Communication DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91385*

operation. It first uses some open ontology systems, such as EcoCyc, GKB Editor, and Ontolingua projects. With 2 years of development, OKBC quickly used in several ontology sharing projects.

OKBC handles the knowledge in more implicit representation formalism, which we called OKBC Knowledge Model in later years. This model not only supports an object-oriented representation of knowledge but also can found the commonly knowledge structure from different KRSs. Therefore, it can serve as an implicit knowledge interlingua by its powerful character in knowledge for all of the systems using OKBC.


**5. Conclusions**

The parameters that define the behavior of the particle estimator were described in paragraph 3. Although an analysis of the estimator's response can be made based on each of these parameters; here we will perform only one, for the number of particles of the estimator.

For this purpose, we rely on the experiment corresponding to the tracking of the six-rotor UAV, because it was simultaneously tracked by a positioning system. Therefore, taking as true the observation obtained from the positioning system, it was possible to determine the relative error corresponding to the particle estimator.

To observe the dynamic response and the internal state of the particle estimator, the relative error (upper graph) and the number of valid particles (lower graph) as a function of time were plotted on **Figure 10**.

This figure show the behavior of the estimator, as a function of the number of particles and in different colors, for values of 30 (red), 50 (magenta), 70 (blue) and 90 (green), the time between marks is the acquisition video time, which is 0.050 seconds.

As can be seen always at least a number of 6 frames are needed to begin reach the lock state, and the number of particles parameter does not affect this number to get this state. But when the number of the particles of the estimator it increase, decreases its relative error, increase the computer time process, and presents greater stability to maintain the lock.

Another parameter that improved the particle estimator response is the dispersion multiplying factor of the state variables. This multiplying factor is increased when the number of valid particles decrease, covering a wider area of search in the

**Figure 10.** *Dynamic response of the particle estimator.*

image. With this search strategy the estimator maintains its stability in the response to the lock with the objective, in a few frames.

After several execution of the algorithm in the experiment b); and varying different initialization parameters of the estimator, the values that produce an acceptable behavior are: number of particles 70 or higher, number of characteristic points of the SURF algorithm 70 or higher, threshold value of probability of similarity 90% or higher.

With the considerations in the initialization parameters of the particle estimator mentioned above, the state lock could be maintained with no more than two frames unlocked. And another observed feature is that the estimator could track the target even when the object is mostly occluded on its surface, for example when the UAV is behind trees (see **Figure 8**).

As a proposed improvement to enhancement to achieve better detection of the target when it is mainly occluded, or when the image is heavily contaminated with noise; it is to reformulate the main strategy. This strategy consists of decomposing the reference image into *NxN* sub-images, in sequence and with their corresponding identification. And for each sub-image a particle estimator is applied, having *NxN* particle estimators, each one looking for a part of the reference image. From there and starting with the first particle, we look for the particles with more probability, and that are located in the correct sequence; the average of these particles will give us the more likely position of the target to be follow. In case that no particles are found in the correct positions we can obtain the most probability position of the object to be followed as the position of the particle with the largest probability, or as the integration of the information provided by the *NxN* estimators.

#### **Acknowledgements**

Special thanks to the Post Graduate staff of the National Technological University – Buenos Aires Regional Faculty. And the staff of the Laboratories of the

Institute of Scientific and Technical Research for Defense: Thermal Imaging Laboratory for providing the images of the experience, and to the Digital Techniques Laboratory for carrying out the flight with the unmanned aerial vehicle.


**Acknowledgements**

The authors express sincere gratitude to all the researchers whose valuable data reported in their respective publications were cited in this chapter and contributed to the knowledge of the biological treatment technologies. We are also grateful to the reviewers whose constructive criticisms have benefitted the manuscript and brought it to the present form.


**2.7 Genetic diversities among 5 sub-populations of** *D. punctatus tabulaeformis* **Tsai** *et* **liu**

The pupae of 5 sub-populations of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis* were collected in Pingquan, Hebei Province(table28). And the gene diversity and genetic structure of them were assessed by SSR (table29).

Table 28. Origin of the tested *D. punctatus tabulaeformis* materials in Chengde City, Pingquan county

Genetic Diversity and Population Differentiation of Main Species

M: molecular marker(PBR322∕Msp I marker) Fig. 16. SSR profile amplified by primer SSR5

M: molecular marker(PBR322∕Msp I marker) Fig. 17. SSR profile amplified by primer SSR6

527 bp

110 bp

527 bp

110 bp

of *Dendrolimus* (Lepidoptera) in China and Influence of Environmental Factors on Them 339

1~6, 7~12, 13~18, 19~24, 25~30 are pop1, pop2, pop3, pop4, pop5 of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*;

1~5,6~10,11~15,16~20,21~25 are pop1, pop2, pop3, pop4, pop5 of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*;

three populations were grouped together into second branch (table31,figure18).

gene flow among sub-populations. A UPGMA dendrogram based on *Nei's* genetic distance showed 5 sub-populations of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis* Tsai *et* liu were clustered into two groups: the first branch in the dendrogram included pop1 and pop2, and the remaining

Table 29. SSR primers of the tested *D. punctatus tabulaeformis* materials in this study

For genetic diversities, among 5 sub-populations of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*, in total, polymorphic bands were produced using 8 primers in SSR analysis method (table29, figure15-17). The percentage of polymorphic loci (*P*) was 80.00%, the mean number of alleles per locus (*A*) was 2.6250, and the mean expected heterozygosity per locus (*He*) was 0.3765. For the species level, *P*=87.50%, *A*=3.1250, *He*=0.4747(table30). From the summary of Fstatistics at polymorphic loci of 6 populations, we could found the *Fst* was 0.2159, which mean there show high genetic diversity among populations.The number of migrants per generation among populations (*Nm*) was 0.9081, suggesting the occurrence of rather low

1~5,6~10,11~15,16~20,21~25 are pop1, pop2, pop3, pop4, pop5 of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*; M: molecular marker (PBR322Msp I marker)

Fig. 15. SSR profile amplified by primer SSR4

1~6, 7~12, 13~18, 19~24, 25~30 are pop1, pop2, pop3, pop4, pop5 of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*; M: molecular marker(PBR322∕Msp I marker)

Fig. 16. SSR profile amplified by primer SSR5

338 The Dynamical Processes of Biodiversity – Case Studies of Evolution and Spatial Distribution

Table 29. SSR primers of the tested *D. punctatus tabulaeformis* materials in this study

1~5,6~10,11~15,16~20,21~25 are pop1, pop2, pop3, pop4, pop5 of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*;

For genetic diversities, among 5 sub-populations of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*, in total, polymorphic bands were produced using 8 primers in SSR analysis method (table29, figure15-17). The percentage of polymorphic loci (*P*) was 80.00%, the mean number of alleles per locus (*A*) was 2.6250, and the mean expected heterozygosity per locus (*He*) was 0.3765. For the species level, *P*=87.50%, *A*=3.1250, *He*=0.4747(table30). From the summary of Fstatistics at polymorphic loci of 6 populations, we could found the *Fst* was 0.2159, which mean there show high genetic diversity among populations.The number of migrants per generation among populations (*Nm*) was 0.9081, suggesting the occurrence of rather low

allele

3

1

2

3

4

3

3

6

Size range (bp)

78~188

161

155~160

217~333

193~207

234~430

187~220

158~241

Tm(°C)

52

50

50

50

51

52

52

50

Primer Sequences (5'—3') Number of

TCATCCCGAGTCCCACTCA ATTGCTCTTCCTATCTGGCTA GTTCTCGGTCGTGGTTTTAG AACCGCTTCCGCCGATTAC CTGGCACCCCGCCGATTAC AACAAAACAATTATAAACTCTTAC ACCAACTTCGACACCTTCT CACTGCCCCGAACCTATAC ACTTCTACTGCGTGTGAACT GTCCCTTTGTCCGATAATATG GGAGCACCAATGAAGAATGT GTTTCTACCTCATGGGATCTTTTAGCTC ACGTAAAACTAATCAA CTGTCCAAAGCAAACTATC CTGCTAGAGCTTTCTGTGTT AAGAATTTCAATTTAAGACTGAC

SSR4

SSR5

SSR6

SSR7

SSR8

SSR9

SSR10

SSR11

527 bp

110 bp

M: molecular marker (PBR322Msp I marker) Fig. 15. SSR profile amplified by primer SSR4

1~5,6~10,11~15,16~20,21~25 are pop1, pop2, pop3, pop4, pop5 of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*; M: molecular marker(PBR322∕Msp I marker)

Fig. 17. SSR profile amplified by primer SSR6

gene flow among sub-populations. A UPGMA dendrogram based on *Nei's* genetic distance showed 5 sub-populations of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis* Tsai *et* liu were clustered into two groups: the first branch in the dendrogram included pop1 and pop2, and the remaining three populations were grouped together into second branch (table31,figure18).

Genetic Diversity and Population Differentiation of Main Species

*Dendrolimus*

*tabulaeformis* **populations**

Community Tree

Community Sample

I

II

III

matter and nitrogen in soil(table32-36).

so main factor could not be judged(table37).

height

Note: I,II: pure forests; III: mixed forest.

plot

Note: I,II: pure forests; III: mixed forest

Diameter at breast height

III 8.5 13.5 0.5 Half

Table 32. Statistical results of stand condition investigation

Species number

of *Dendrolimus* (Lepidoptera) in China and Influence of Environmental Factors on Them 341

**3.1 The effect of environmental conditions on the genetic diversity of** *D. punctatus*

The genetic diversity among 3 natural populations of the Chinese pine caterpillar (*Dendrolimus punctatus tabulaeformis*) were tested by AFLP method in one *Pinus tabulaeformis*-*Dahurian larch* mixed forest and two *Pinus tabulaeformis* pure forests in Pingquan county. Besides, investigations on plant species diversity, forest crown density, incidence extent, gradient and exposure of three forest communities were taken, while dilution heat method and semi-micro Macro Kjeldahl method were used to determine the content of organic

The result of principle component analysis shows that the growth status is main factor which influent genetic diversity of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis* populations. Besides, site conditions had some effects on it. An integrated effect was produced by all site conditions,

Mixed forest has a great influence on gene flow among different populations of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*, because gene flow between populations in mixed forest and in pure forests was lower than that of two pure forests. Gene flow between populations in pure forest with larger species abundance and in mixed forest was higher than between population in pure forest with lower species abundance and in mixed forest, which showed that the correlation between gene flow among different populations and species abundance of pine forests is negative.

Crown

I 7.9 11.6 0.6 Ubac 31.7° 1 II 7.8 10.9 0.5 Adret 34.3° 2

> Individual number

Table 33. Species diversity index analysis of 3 populations in *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*

density Exposure Gradient Incidence

Simpson s diversity index

1 20 285 0.7962 2.9628 2 16 327 0.8400 2.9936 3 17 307 0.8619 3.1770

4 25 499 0.8722 3.3170 5 15 728 0.8387 2.9772 6 20 392 0.8184 2.9746

7 29 1021 0.8363 3.3473 8 31 868 0.8627 3.4626 9 29 949 0.8055 3.1790

adret 36.0° 3

extent

Shannon-weaver diversity index

**3. The effect of environmental conditions on the genetic diversity of**

Note: *A:* Number of alleles per locus; *Ae:* Effective number of alleles per locus; *I:* The Shannon information index;

*Ho:* Observed heterozygosity; *He:* Expected heterozygosity; *P:* Percentage of polyporphic loci

Table 30. Genetic diversity parameters of 5 sub-populations in *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*

Note: See table 3-1 for abbreviations of population codes.

Table 31. Nei's genetic identity and genetic distance of 5 sub-populations in *D. punctatus tabulaeformis*

Fig. 18. Phylogenetic relationship of 5 sub-populations of *D. punctatus tabulaeformis* based on Nei's distance of SSR markers and clustered using UPGMA


*2.1. Search Strategy, Study Selection, Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria*

The search for this systematic review with meta-analysis was performed on several electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and SciELO) during January 2020. These databases were queried using the Boolean operator tools with the following search strategy—((((((depression) OR anxiety) OR post-traumatic stress disorder)) AND ((((((hallucinogens) OR entheogens) OR psychedelics) OR classic hallucinogens) OR serotonergic hallucinogens) OR serotoninergic hallucinogens)) AND (psilocybin) AND ((((((clinical trials) OR human) OR humans) OR man) OR woman) OR patients). The references' lists of the relevant studies were also checked to find further works. Following the PRISMA statement [11], titles and abstracts of the selected articles were initially screened and the full texts of those considered important were subsequently analyzed in detail [12]. The selection process of the studies was performed independently by two authors, with a third being consulted in case of disagreements. The defined inclusion criteria were—studies in humans presenting a true control group; studies in patients with depression and anxiety associated with a life-threatening disease; drug psilocybin; use of Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) to assess depression and/or State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to assess anxiety.

BDI was first proposed by Beck et al., 1961 [13] and it is one of the most used scales to assess the severity of depressive symptoms. It is a self-reported questionnaire, consisting on 21 items that measure characteristic attitudes and symptoms of depression. STAI is a self-report questionnaire divided in 2 subscales, called STAI-Trait and STAI-State. STAI allows the detection of the presence and severity of current symptoms of anxiety and a generalized propensity to be anxious. It contains 40 items, 20 of them concerning STAI-State and the remaining 20 concerning STAI-Trait [14].


**2. Theoretical background**

as a means to satisfy the selfish interests and desires of business owners and managers [1]. The bankruptcy of the massive energy firm Enron in the USA triggered severe criticism over finances, firms, and capital used without morality; it also emphasized the need for morality among chief executive officers (CEOs). Under the free market economy, firms only emphasized showy leadership skills to produce maximum financial results in a short period of time: they made the error of determining the success of a leader only in terms of financial success [2].

194 Leadership

Accordingly, researchers began to study the limitations of the existing forms of leadership [3–5]. They also showed interest in authentic leadership, whereby the leader is honest with himself/herself and strives to achieve goals based on genuine relationships with subordinates [6–8]. Authentic leadership indicates leadership that constantly practices self-awareness and self-regulation while exerting a positive influence on the leader, subordinates, and the organization [9]. In other words, authentic leaders perceive themselves in terms of an understanding of who they are by determining the advantages and disadvantages of their egos and making efforts to reduce the gap between their ideal egos and present egos through self-regulation. Unlike conventional leadership that affects performance by powerfully exerting authority over work and subordinates, leaders who are honest with themselves instead of others contribute more greatly to the long-term and short-term performance of organizations and teams.

Along with the changes in the leadership paradigm, another adjustment that modern organizations are facing is the expansion of the team-based system. This system began to expand in order to promote greater organizational performance and efficiency. It has now established its place in countless firms and become the most important unit for organizational performance. Korean firms are also actively using the team-based system to increase productivity, as in other countries. Further, the human resource (HR) system has changed to the extent that evaluation and reward are also based on teams. This approach places more stress on the leadership of the team leader who is the immediate supervisor of a team. The team leader's authentic leadership may have a significant effect on the attitudes and behaviors of team members. Accordingly, this study will analyze the effects of team leaders' authentic leadership on employees' well-being. Recently, an increasing amount of attention is paid to the well-being of employees within an organization, an approach that appears to produce good results [10]. Studies on performance have mostly focused on tangible and objective performance, such as hard performance [11]. Thus, the current study will consider employees' well-being, which can represent soft performance [12], as the key outcome variable, thereby determining the effects of team leaders' authentic leadership on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. While hedonic well-being is intended to gain happiness by obtaining pleasure and avoiding pain, eudaimonic well-being seeks profound happiness and self-realization beyond present pleasure and satisfaction [5, 13, 14].

Furthermore, it is argued that relational cohesion among team members in a situation whereby a team's performance leads to an organization's performance may moderate the effects of authentic leadership on employees' well-being. Since task interdependence increases among team members and teamwork is important, the effects of relationships among team members may be significant alongside the leadership style of the team leader. Relational cohesion shows an awareness that integrated social entity should be maintained among people in terms of their relationships [15]; thus, it can be a driving force that leads to high performance.

#### **2.1. Authentic leadership and employees' well-being**

Authentic leadership is "a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development" ([16], p. 94). Researchers present slightly different elements of authentic leadership; however, self-awareness and self-regulation are commonly provided by many researchers [4, 6, 17]. Self-awareness is realizing and clearly perceiving a leader's values, identity, and purposes [6, 9]. This is a concept that includes acting toward a true self based on the perception that one must know oneself and understand the relevant vision and belief [18]. Self-regulation is about conducting certain behaviors and regulating such behaviors to minimize the gap between the ideal self and the real ego established through self-awareness [4, 6].

In addition, relational transparency and balanced information processing between a leader and team members are viewed as constructs of authentic leadership. Relational transparency indicates that the leader can honestly show his/her ego to others including team members. In other words, the leader can open-mindedly talk about and reveal his/her negative aspects and shortcomings in addition to any positive aspects [16]. The way in which the leader, who is at a higher level in terms of the organizational hierarchy, reveals his/her weaknesses without constraint to team members and makes efforts to become closer in terms of relationships encourages the team members to trust the leader [16, 19]. Such trust ultimately contributes to building reliable and meaningful leader-member relationships [20]. Balanced information processing is objectively analyzing, reviewing, and processing related information in terms of the leader's decision-making. In other words, it indicates the ability of the leader to accept objections to his/her ideas and to accept criticisms of mistakes. In general, people have difficulty objectively analyzing or accepting criticisms and negative feedback about their weaknesses and faults. However, authentic leaders make efforts to accept such information, regardless of whether it decreases or increases self-esteem, as long as it is for the development of the organization and its members [4].

Since a leader is someone in a position who can affect the mental state of organizational members [21], he or she may affect employees' well-being. In the sense that authentic leaders are those who strive to make a positive organization by being honest to colleagues, team members, and the organization through self-awareness and self-regulation [9, 4, 12, 22], authentic leadership will have positive effects on employees' well-being and health [23, 24]. Well-being is a cognitive representation, optimal function, and experience of individuals regarding the nature and experience of well-being [13]. In particular, many researchers thus far have conducted studies on well-being by classifying it into hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well-being, referring to the former as subjective well-being and the latter as psychological well-being [25].

true potential beyond hedonic well-being, which makes them satisfied with their present lives, and enjoy a pleasant experience without stress. It may also have positive effects on eudaimonic well-being, through which employees intend to live a life that helps others. These positive effects occur because meaning is what builds a crucial dimension of eudaimonic well-being. Authentic leaders make efforts to reduce the gap between realistic egos and ideal egos through self-regulation of behaviors based on self-awareness. Thus, their efforts to overcome limitations and become closer to ideal egos promote eudaimonic well-being, which represents employees' search for true self. This situation arises because a leader's authenticity stimulates team members' individual growth and helps them set

The Effects of Authentic Leadership on Employees' Well-Being and the Role of Relational Cohesion

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76427

197

According to social learning theory, people determine how to behave based on the information they have obtained [32]. Thus, as employees consider as their role model an authentic leader who does his/her best to understand his/her goals and visions, and try to model themselves on the leader, they also give meaning and purpose to their lives and experience eudaimonic well-being, whereby they constantly strive for introspection and self-realization. In other words, as employees watch their team leader who makes constant efforts to clearly understand the driving forces in life and find a true self-image, they also make efforts to find

In particular, authenticity requires leaders and their team members to change their egos' identities in the process of achieving true worth and the organization's missions [33]. This approach stimulates employees to accurately perceive who they really are in life. Authentic leaders also require team members to discover their possible selves by developing in addition to accomplishing the organization's mission [34]. This requirement has positive effects on eudaimonic well-being, whereby employees constantly make focus on introspection and self-realization. Accordingly, authentic leaders who are honest with themselves create a positive and supportive environment to build a positive mood [23], thereby helping employees develop the utmost potential and encouraging them to find

meaning and purpose in life. In this sense, the following hypothesis is established.

**2.2. Moderating effect of relational cohesion on employees' well-being**

**H2:** A team leader's authentic leadership will have positive effects on employees' eudai-

Relational cohesion may boost this relationship whereby a team leader's authentic leadership positively affects employees' well-being. This is because it is not too much to say that successful task performance in a team with high task dependency depends on how well a collaborative mood is formed among team members. The role of the team leader is important in successfully achieving the team's and the organization's goals; however, the relationship among team members, who must perform tasks together every day, is also highly important, in the sense that relational cohesion may contribute to their well-being. Relational cohesion is defined as "the perception by individuals in an exchange relation that their relationship is a distinct and unifying social entity" [15]. In other words, employees build trust among themselves depending on how close they are in their relationships with other team members

self-consistent goals [19].

monic well-being.

out exactly who they are and develop their best potential.

Authentic leaders do not pretend to like something when they do not. Rather, they clearly understand their motives and desires in life. They are positive role models who can overcome stress in an organization where anxiety and mistrust are rampant because they do not feel uncomfortable about objectively examining their flaws and limitations. Accordingly, employees experience hedonic well-being, whereby they consider their stress-free conditions satisfactory and think that they have achieved the things that they wanted. Further, employees feel satisfied with their present lives because they see socialized authentic leaders who sacrifice themselves to achieve the goals of employees and the organization.

According to the self-determination theory, authentic integration may have positive effects on well-being. A leader's authenticity decreases employees' worries and concerns, relieves depressive symptoms, and lowers excessive stress. Moreover, authentic leaders form supportive relationships that increase employees' life satisfaction and lower negative effects [26]. These effects in turn positively influence hedonic well-being, which enables team members to experience pleasure and avoid negative experiences. The psychological support and empowerment provided by authentic leaders make team members satisfied with present conditions. Ultimately, a team leader's authentic leadership has positive effects on well-being by developing the self-determination of employees based on their absolute trust and positive emotions [22]. In this sense, the following hypothesis is established.

**H1:** A team leader's authentic leadership will have positive effects on employees' hedonic well-being.

Eudaimonic well-being indicates profound happiness pursued by humans as social beings [19, 27]; however, there is insufficient empirical research on the concept compared with hedonic well-being. However, recent studies argue that eudaimonic well-being is relatively a more important concept in positive psychological functioning [28]. While hedonic well-being is about enjoying present happiness (feeling good), eudaimonic well-being is finding oneself as a social being and getting closer to true happiness (being good) [29]. Well-being in a true sense is making efforts to find one's ego and feeling authentic happiness [5].

Discovering the meaning of work and helping team members find their callings are important roles of a leader [30]. In this sense, authentic leadership may bring psychological wellbeing through the positive process of making team members' lives more meaningful [31]. Authentic leadership focuses on self-development for employees in order to display their true potential beyond hedonic well-being, which makes them satisfied with their present lives, and enjoy a pleasant experience without stress. It may also have positive effects on eudaimonic well-being, through which employees intend to live a life that helps others. These positive effects occur because meaning is what builds a crucial dimension of eudaimonic well-being. Authentic leaders make efforts to reduce the gap between realistic egos and ideal egos through self-regulation of behaviors based on self-awareness. Thus, their efforts to overcome limitations and become closer to ideal egos promote eudaimonic well-being, which represents employees' search for true self. This situation arises because a leader's authenticity stimulates team members' individual growth and helps them set self-consistent goals [19].

Since a leader is someone in a position who can affect the mental state of organizational members [21], he or she may affect employees' well-being. In the sense that authentic leaders are those who strive to make a positive organization by being honest to colleagues, team members, and the organization through self-awareness and self-regulation [9, 4, 12, 22], authentic leadership will have positive effects on employees' well-being and health [23, 24]. Well-being is a cognitive representation, optimal function, and experience of individuals regarding the nature and experience of well-being [13]. In particular, many researchers thus far have conducted studies on well-being by classifying it into hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well-being, referring to the former as subjective well-being and the latter as psychological

Authentic leaders do not pretend to like something when they do not. Rather, they clearly understand their motives and desires in life. They are positive role models who can overcome stress in an organization where anxiety and mistrust are rampant because they do not feel uncomfortable about objectively examining their flaws and limitations. Accordingly, employees experience hedonic well-being, whereby they consider their stress-free conditions satisfactory and think that they have achieved the things that they wanted. Further, employees feel satisfied with their present lives because they see socialized authentic leaders who sacrifice

According to the self-determination theory, authentic integration may have positive effects on well-being. A leader's authenticity decreases employees' worries and concerns, relieves depressive symptoms, and lowers excessive stress. Moreover, authentic leaders form supportive relationships that increase employees' life satisfaction and lower negative effects [26]. These effects in turn positively influence hedonic well-being, which enables team members to experience pleasure and avoid negative experiences. The psychological support and empowerment provided by authentic leaders make team members satisfied with present conditions. Ultimately, a team leader's authentic leadership has positive effects on well-being by developing the self-determination of employees based on their absolute trust and positive emotions [22]. In this sense, the following hypothesis

**H1:** A team leader's authentic leadership will have positive effects on employees' hedonic

Eudaimonic well-being indicates profound happiness pursued by humans as social beings [19, 27]; however, there is insufficient empirical research on the concept compared with hedonic well-being. However, recent studies argue that eudaimonic well-being is relatively a more important concept in positive psychological functioning [28]. While hedonic well-being is about enjoying present happiness (feeling good), eudaimonic well-being is finding oneself as a social being and getting closer to true happiness (being good) [29]. Well-being in a true

Discovering the meaning of work and helping team members find their callings are important roles of a leader [30]. In this sense, authentic leadership may bring psychological wellbeing through the positive process of making team members' lives more meaningful [31]. Authentic leadership focuses on self-development for employees in order to display their

sense is making efforts to find one's ego and feeling authentic happiness [5].

themselves to achieve the goals of employees and the organization.

well-being [25].

196 Leadership

is established.

well-being.

According to social learning theory, people determine how to behave based on the information they have obtained [32]. Thus, as employees consider as their role model an authentic leader who does his/her best to understand his/her goals and visions, and try to model themselves on the leader, they also give meaning and purpose to their lives and experience eudaimonic well-being, whereby they constantly strive for introspection and self-realization. In other words, as employees watch their team leader who makes constant efforts to clearly understand the driving forces in life and find a true self-image, they also make efforts to find out exactly who they are and develop their best potential.

In particular, authenticity requires leaders and their team members to change their egos' identities in the process of achieving true worth and the organization's missions [33]. This approach stimulates employees to accurately perceive who they really are in life. Authentic leaders also require team members to discover their possible selves by developing in addition to accomplishing the organization's mission [34]. This requirement has positive effects on eudaimonic well-being, whereby employees constantly make focus on introspection and self-realization. Accordingly, authentic leaders who are honest with themselves create a positive and supportive environment to build a positive mood [23], thereby helping employees develop the utmost potential and encouraging them to find meaning and purpose in life. In this sense, the following hypothesis is established.

**H2:** A team leader's authentic leadership will have positive effects on employees' eudaimonic well-being.

#### **2.2. Moderating effect of relational cohesion on employees' well-being**

Relational cohesion may boost this relationship whereby a team leader's authentic leadership positively affects employees' well-being. This is because it is not too much to say that successful task performance in a team with high task dependency depends on how well a collaborative mood is formed among team members. The role of the team leader is important in successfully achieving the team's and the organization's goals; however, the relationship among team members, who must perform tasks together every day, is also highly important, in the sense that relational cohesion may contribute to their well-being. Relational cohesion is defined as "the perception by individuals in an exchange relation that their relationship is a distinct and unifying social entity" [15]. In other words, employees build trust among themselves depending on how close they are in their relationships with other team members who perform the tasks with them. Based on the foregoing argument, a strong perception of relational cohesion in the sense that team members have an extremely close, collaborative, and united relationship with their teammates increases their level of well-being, thereby producing a strong synergy with the effect of authentic leadership.

consent from the HR personnel of each firm after explaining the intent and importance of this study. We stated that the results of the research analysis are to be used for research purposes only and feedback of the results would be provided. We conducted three interviews with the HR personnel to ensure the adequacy and comprehension of the terms used in the survey. We then distributed the revised questionnaire to 1100 participants. After eliminating copies of the questionnaire that contained inappropriate and omitted responses for the key variables, an analysis was conducted on the data of 950 participants. These participants consisted of 98 employees in manufacturing, 570 in finance, and 282 in public enterprises. The demographic characteristics of the participants show that 48% are male and 50% are female and that their

The Effects of Authentic Leadership on Employees' Well-Being and the Role of Relational Cohesion

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76427

199

In order to reduce common method bias that may damage the validity of measurement in the survey and contaminate the study results [36]), a survey on authentic leadership was conducted first. *Relational cohesion* and *well-being* variables were measured from the same employ-

The operational definition of authentic leadership is "being honest to oneself with high moral and ethical values and acting consistently with the values they expressed." The survey consisted of 21 items representing awareness, unbiased processing, behavior, and relational orientation [37]. Higher scores indicate higher perceptions of a team leader's authentic lead-

The operational definition of relational cohesion is "perceiving one's relationship with teammates as collaborative, close, and highly cohesive." It was measured by seven adjectives developed by [35] as semantic differential scales. Conflicting words such as "cooperative" for higher scores and "conflictual" were arranged for the opposite side, making participants

The operational definition of hedonic well-being is "achieving the things they wanted and enjoying a satisfying life." It was measured by five items using the satisfaction with life scale

The operational definition of eudaimonic well-being is "clearly having goals and directions of life for introspection and self-realization." It was measured by five items related to the pur-

20s' age is 528 and 30s' age is 312, with 83% of them college graduates.

ership. See **Table 1** in Section 4 for the detailed items of the questionnaire.

mark the words that best described their relationships with teammates.

pose of life and individual growth among the measurement items of [39].

ees after 2 weeks to allow for a time interval.

**3.2. Measures**

*3.2.1. Authentic leadership*

*3.2.2. Relational cohesion*

*3.2.3. Hedonic well-being*

*3.2.4. Eudaimonic well-being*

of [38].

According to social exchange theory, social exchange formed as team members perform tasks creates positive or negative global feelings, which promote intrinsic motivation and may affect employees' emotions [15]. A team's performance is determined by the success of exchange tasks, which further motivates employees who strongly perceive that relational cohesion maintains positive relationships with teammates. Because relational cohesion shows high immersion for a team since it focuses on the relational aspect of team members [35], it makes such team members perceive that they are currently living satisfactory lives. They also feel hedonic well-being because they have achieved the things they wanted. If teammates have a relationship that is too distant, conflicting, breakable, disruptive, and individual-oriented, they have a lower level of trust among themselves. This may result in negative effects on the well-being of individuals. However, if teammates perceive high relational cohesion, they have an improved ability to deal with a situation and experience hedonic well-being, which lowers stress. Employees working in a team must have more active contact and cooperation with their teammates to successfully perform the team's tasks. Thus, if they perceive high relational cohesion, they tend to maintain positive relationships with their teammates, thereby feeling more high-dimensional psychological well-being. Consequently, they experience eudaimonic well-being by making efforts to constantly develop their potential and give meaning and purpose to their lives beyond hedonic well-being.

The effects of authentic leadership of a team leader who strives to understand team members' motives and needs, and truly care for them, lead to the greater hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing of employees because of the interaction with relational cohesion. In this sense, the following hypotheses are established.

**H3:** Relational cohesion will have a moderating effect on the relationship between authentic leadership and employees' hedonic well-being. In other words, higher relational cohesion will increase the positive effects of authentic leadership on employees' hedonic well-being.

**H4:** Relational cohesion will have a moderating effect on the relationship between authentic leadership and employees' eudaimonic well-being. In other words, higher relational cohesion will increase the positive effects of authentic leadership on employees' eudaimonic well-being.