In Greece olive tree AF systems have been considered in intercropping with wheat, barley, maize, and chickpea [9, 10]. In Italy, the imitation of alfalfa (*Medicago sativa* L.) or *Asparagus acutifolius* L. in olive rows provides profitable market niche [11–13]. Durum wheat and chickpeas are common Mediterranean plants, part of the Mediterranean diet and grown under the same environmental conditions as olive trees, they represent interesting candidates to be the associated crops. In Morocco, olive- (*Oleae uropaea* L.) agroforestry is widespread [14] and applied to conventional agriculture condition and proven its resilience over millennia. Several species of trees (e.g., fig, carob, quince), cereals (e.g., wheat, barley), grain legumes (e.g., faba bean, chickpea) grow with/under olive trees [15–17] evaluated

two annual crops (durum wheat and faba bean) in olive agroforestry in northern Morocco. Agroforestry improved individual grain weight by 39% for wheat and 17% for faba bean, and enhanced the protein content of wheat grains and straw by 4% and 9%. Olive agroforestry systems can have great LERs and produce high-quality grains, even beneath more arid circumstances than last appraisal in Europe [18].

### **19. Value addition**

To make the olive cultivation remunerative in Indian condition and to fetch good economic returns, new uses were need to explore for the fruitless olive trees. ROCL experimented with olive leaves and has come up with 'Olive tea', which has antioxidant properties and is creating awareness for its health benefits. The olive tea from Rajasthan has found market in UK with a price tag of Rs. 10,000 per kg, which shows the returns are high.

ROCL has also ventured into yet another herbal concoction, i.e., olive wine. Research is being conducted at Vidhyasagar University, West Bengal, Tripura University and Jiwaji University in Indore.

Another alternative, ROCL ventures were initiated was in agro-tourism. Olive tree landscaping is the latest fixation among the affluent. In the vast stretch of sandy terrain of the desert land, Rajasthan, the green stretches of olive plantations are welcomed as resort, based on the theme of olive agri-tourism.

Also another attraction with wood from the tree delicately carved into statuettes is making way in agro-tourism. Most of the demands come from farm houses, hotels, residential societies and high-end bungalows. That's how India, especially Rajasthan, has become an unlikely innovation hub for olives. Today about 150 farmers are growing it on over 900 hectares. Three industrial have come up to formulate the tea.

### **20. Incentives for olive cultivation**

Farmers reach 75 per cent appropriation on plants, 90 per cent appropriation on drop watering also Rs 3000 per hectare as fertilizers along with chemicals. Additionally, we get mechanical assistance of one experienced per 50 ha. Presently, Rajasthan farmers reach one olive plant as Rs 115, although farmers starting with other states buy it at the cost of Rs 150. The government of Rajasthan has declared Olive has plantation crop. Olive cultivation is expected to fetch about 5 times the profit that the farmers of Rajasthan currently fetch from wheat on a hectare land (**Figures 2** and **3**).

**Figure 2.** *Olive boundary plantation established at farmers field, Deligaon, Jhansi, India.*

**Figure 3.** *Farmer Sahab ram with olives, photo courtesy ROCL.*

### **21. Quality planting material production**

An attempt was made to multiply Olives through clonal techniques. The shoot tips collected from one and half year old plantation was used as planting material. The cuttings were quick dipped in IBA 6000 ppm solution and were placed in growing media (vermiculite). The cuttings started rooting after 25 days of planting. Overall cuttings showed 50 percent rooting (**Figure 4**).

**Figure 4.** *Quality planting material production.*

#### **22. Olive oil and market in India**

Though*Oleaeuropaea* L. (Olive Tree), grows enormously in Mediterranean countries, the output of the tree is surfing whole world as Olive oil, its main derived product, has experienced an increase in its majority due to its organoleptic attribute and its united useful health effects. Olive oil is considered as the premium product in the oil category whose production is the least in India, since it's not native to India and we are not cultivating this species, so as it is entirely imported from countries like Spain & Italy. In Indian continent, Rajasthan is the only place for the production of olive oil. Olive plants need chilling to flower and fruit the temperature should be below five degrees at night time and below16 to 20 degrees in the morning period. The Indian olive oil market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 9.12% in terms of Value and at a CAGR of 1.05% in terms of volume in coming years.

The India olive oil market size was priced at \$58.6 million in 2017, and is projected to reach \$127.5 million by 2025, growing at a CAGR of 9.9% from 2018 to 2025. When we analyses the characteristic of the crop oil, it is a viscous broth which is dislodged coming out of the fruit of the olive tree by pressing all olives. Olive oils have less smoke point of 240°Calsocan be consuming natural. This oil utilization is generally investigated healthful for it is united alongside a less difficult of disease of heart and convinced dealings along with colorectal also breast cancer. This oil is also a great origin of monounsaturated fatty acid also antioxidants like polyphenols, vitamins E & K, chlorophyll, also carotenoids. The olive oil corporation in India has endorsed appreciable development in the current years due to acceleration in health-attentive customers. The olive oil market has developed into great competing and expenditure conscious owed to the high capability and constant development of the olive oil marketing. The aspect such as expanding want from end-user companies such as food, personal care, pharmaceuticals, etc. and rising attention about health aspects is expected to drive the India olive oil market growth.

In accord with The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM), the market size of India's beauty, cosmetic, and grooming production was \$6.5 billion in 2016 also is predicated to reach \$20 billion by 2025. It's grows in utilization of cosmetic also beauty production are likely to contribute lucrative convenience as the improvement to forthcoming of the India market.

#### **23. Raj olive India's indigenous oil brand**

The oil contented in the fruit collected ranged from 9 to 14 per cent. The oil content of the olive in other countries varies between 12 and 16 per cent. The state will be launching its olive oil under the brand 'Raj Olive Oil'. One and other extra virgin and virgin oils are built by automated technique and are not chemically considered. The acceptable common of free fatty acids is greater in a virgin olive oil in comparison to the additional virgin variation. The country's olive oil imports are developing at a quick clip - from around 14,000 MT in 2013, implication are projected to shoot up to 42,000 MT by 2025 as progressively Indians favor olive oil for its healthy aspects. It's plenty as oleic acid amount, which can help prevent heart diseases. According to ROCL, India currently imports 14,500 metric tons of olive oil from countries like Spain, Italy and Greece, and the bottled varieties of extra virgin and pomace olive oil charge amount amid of Rs 700 and Rs 1000 a liter. Although the price of olive oil build upon international charges, we can encourage that indigenously-produced oil will be low cost than those transported.

#### **24. Deterrents to greater oil consumption**

The studies have been carried out in the west of the Mediterranean, the following oils such as Arbequina, Carrasquena, Cornicabra, Del Pomet, Hojiblanca, Llumero, Picudo, Seniero, Serrana and some Villalonga contains more than 80% of oleic acid. Lipids are important foods provide nutrition, among the total energy 30% has been intake from the lipids, intake of lipid percent has been dependable with age, weight, and possible sensitivities to pathologies of the consumer, hence among the total lipid intake 12 and 20 per cent has to be monounsaturated fats. Therefore, the active component characterization of monovarietal oils is essential at the moment, there is a clear need to replace the current industrial pastries made with different types of oils and fats, with EVOO product and the daily utilization of amidst 5 and 10 fruits or vegetables. Olive oil utilization has seen develops in the last couple of years as customers are becoming attain of the useful of olive oil management and its aftermath on health. There are three main types of olive oil Extra-virgin, Refined and pomace**.**

The pomace olive in 2017 assumed as the best contribution in expressions of profit in the Indian olive oil market and is expected to develop at a constant growth rate amid the predicted timings. These are applying to the pomace olive oil being a more comfortably costing and gladly accessible olive oil variety. Although the pomace olive oil is prepared, it is still investigated aim proved substitute to other oils in the market and hence is in high requirement as in comparison to the other different types of olive oils. However A deterrent to greater consumption has been its price - an imported one liter bottle of extra virgin can cost between Rs 800 and Rs 1000. A domestically produced one can be cheaper.

#### **25. Medical authorities' recommendations**

Olive oil possesses lot of medicinal properties. The high amount of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), particularly oleic acid, it plays vital role in nutrition, and contains high concentrations of polyphenols, tocopherols and phytosterols, it is important antioxidants and olive oil has been used as important nutrients in the Mediterranean diet. Olive oil prevents neurodegenerative disorders (Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease) and also acts as a cardiovascular and cerebral-vascular protector, due to these medicinal properties many neutraceutical industry has been working with olive oil. All these characteristics make EVOO an essential food component for health. EVOO, also vernacularly known as "liquid gold" is a natural product of inarguable value and not only in the financial sense of the term but also for its renowned properties and advantages on health. It is one of the recommended foods for its nutritive and is essentially a required of the MED, given that to the aspects connected with it.

Based on the chemical structures of EVOO, its coming under the lipophilic products since lipids is the main constituents, primarily MUFA, found by PUFA. This lipid fragments is responsible for preventive properties on cardiovascular disease, autoimmune and inflammatory disorders, provide anti-thrombotic and regulation effects of blood pressure although in a smaller quantities, other compounds such as tocopherols or polyphenols are also present, which are combined with the potent antioxidant and inflammatory activity of EVOO, among other features.

Oleic acid is oil that has the capability to reduce the effects of oxidative stress in the human body, the regulation of the levels of LDL-cholesterol without alteration of HDL-cholesterol and it consequently reduces the risk of heart attacks and other cardiac pathologies. Corresponding to the United States Department of Agriculture *Prospective Adaptation of the Mediterranean Crop Olive in India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101313*

(USDA) 1 tbsp, or 13.5 grams (g) of olive oil, contains 119 calories, 13.5 g of fat, among that 1.86 g is saturated fat rest of it unsaturated and also it provide vitamin E 1.9 milligrams (mg) and 8.13 micrograms (mcg) of vitamin K, apart from that in consists calcium and potassium, as well as polyphenols, tocopherols, phytosterols, squalene, and terpenic acids and other antioxidants. In the Spanish pharmacopeia as well as in other European pharmacopeias, a wide assessment is assigned to the treatment with of olive oil, thus it is recommended as in injectables, because of an accurate role in gynecology, in childhood to old ages. The authors of A Practical Guide on Medicinal Plants indicate that olive oil contains very beneficial oleic acid, phitosterina lecithin and enzymes, in addition to a bitter principle and pigments.

#### **26. Conclusion**

Government of India is promoting Olive cultivation under the National Mission on Oil seeds and Oil palm. The diverse agro climatic conditions in India, including the poor and marginal soils can be efficiently utilized for olive production. The government of India's ambitious target of doubling farmer's income can be easily achieved by promotion of Olive plantations in the country. Israeli methodology has grant Rajasthan develop into the core for *India's* new-begin love for *olives*. Rajasthan's tryst with olives and its achievement can now motivate further-more states to approve plantation of this tree, particularly on arid regions. ROCL has distributed nearly 4.5 lakh seedlings to Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, UP and NE. In 2017–2018 India imported 10914.86 metric tonnes of oil. That could have huge implications on the livelihood of people in the region. *Olea europaea* L. (Olive Tree) oil considered as golden ingredient in the diet by all food and medical expert across the globe, in addition to offering characteristic organoleptic properties, provides substances capable of preventing the appearance or development of diseases of various nature, from heart and circulatory diseases to metabolic disorders, including carcinogenic processes. To add superior plants to the cultivators, the state government, with Israel's help, has set up a centre of greatness at Jaipur's Bassirange.

#### **Author details**

Thangamani Dhandapani1 \*, K.B. Sridhar2 and S. Vimala Devi3

1 ICFRE-Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore, India

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

[1] Bandelj D, Jakse J, Javornik B. Assessment of genetic variability by microsatellite and AFLP markers. Euphytica. 2004;**136**:93-102

[2] Caballero JM, Río DC. The olive world germplasm bank of Spain. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS). 2008;**791**:31-38

[3] Ruguni E, Biasi R, Muleo R. Olive (Oleaeuropea var. sativa) transformation. In: Jain SM, Minocha SC, editors. Molecular Biology Of Woody Plants. Switzerland, AG: Springer Nature; Vol.2. 2000. pp. 245-279

[4] Barranco D, Trujillo I, Rallo P. Are 'Oblonga' and 'Fantoio' the same cultivar? Hort Science. 2000b; **35**:1323-1325

[5] Baldoni L, Pellegrini M, Mencuccini M, Angiolillo A, Mulas M. Genetic relationships among cultivated and wild olives revealed by AFLP markers. Acta Horticulturae. 2000; **521**:275-284

[6] Available from: https://www. oliveoiltimes.com/world/indiasnew-olive-oil-sector/26530

[7] Haouane H, El Bakkali A, Moukhli A, Tollon C, Santoni S, Oukabli A, et al. Genetic structure and core collection of the World Olive Germplasm Bank of Marrakech: Towards the optimised management and use of Mediterranean olive genetic resources. Genetica. 2011;**139**(9): 1083-1094

[8] Verma N, Shaheen R, Yadav SK, Singh AK. Olive (Oleaeuropea L.) introduction in India: Issues and prospects. Vegetos. 2012;**25**(2):44-49

[9] Pantera A, Burgess PJ, Losada RM, Moreno G, López-Díaz ML, Corroyer N, et al. Agroforestry for high value tree

systems in Europe. Agroforestry Systems. 2018;**92**:945-959

[10] Mantzanas K, Papanastasis V, Pantera A, Papadopoulos A, Burgess AP. System report: Olive agroforestry in Kassandra. Chalkidiki, Greece, Thessaloniki: Aristotle University; 2015. p. 8

[11] Rosati A, Mantovani D. System Report: Intercropping of Olive Orchards In Italy by Council for Research in Agriculture and the Analysis of Agricultural Economics - Research Center for Food and Nutrition, Via Ardeatina, Rome, Italy; 2015. p. 8

[12] Paris P, Camilli F, Rosati A, Mantino A, Mezzalira G, Dalla Valle C, et al. What is the future for agroforestry in Italy? Agroforestry Systems. 2019; **93**:2243-2256

[13] Mantino A, Ragaglini G, Tozzini C, Cappucci A, Mele M, Bonari E. Yield and nutritive value of alfalfa (*Medicago sativa* L.) in an olive (*Oleaeuropaea* L.) alleycropping practice. In: Book of Abstract 3rd European Agroforestry Conference. France: Montpellier; 2016. pp. 403-406

[14] Sofo A, Manfreda S, Dichio B, Fiorentino M, Xiloyannis C. The olive tree: A paradigm for drought tolerance in Mediterranean climates. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions. 2007;**4**:2811-2835

[15] Daoui K, Fatemi ZE-A. Agroforestry systems in Morocco: The case of olive tree and annual crops association in Saïs Region. In: Science Policy and Politics of Modern Agricultural System. Netherlands: Springer; Chapter 19. 2014. p. 281

[16] Razouk R, Daoui K, Kajji A, Ramdani A, Chergaoui A. Optimization of rain-fed intercropping system based

*Prospective Adaptation of the Mediterranean Crop Olive in India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101313*

on olive trees and annual crops in Northern Morocco. Montpellier: Third European Agroforestry Congress; 2016

[17] Temani F, Bouaziz A, Daoui K, Wery J, Barkaoui K. Olive agroforestry can improve land productivity even under low water availability in the South Mediterranean. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2021:307

[18] Ponozzo A, Bernazeau B, Desclaux D. Durum wheat in organic olive orchard: Good deal for the farmers. Agroforestry Systems . 2019;**94**:707-717

#### **Chapter 4**

## Olive Phenomenon from the Mediterranean Diet: Health Promotion via Phytochemicals

*Didar Üçüncüoğlu*

#### **Abstract**

The Mediterranean Diet contains fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains, fish and virgin olive oil (VOO) as a key component. It is well explained that those consumption has a number of positive health effects. It has been accepted for a long time that the leading compound in olive was oleic acid as a monounsaturated fatty acid. However, the latter researches were figured out that VOO rich in natural phenolics have multifaceted influence on major diseases including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disease, and metabolic disorders. Recent medical studies proved that oleocanthal and oleacein, characteristic bioactive biophenol-secoiridoids in VOO, success in the anti-inflammatory and in the antioxidant properties, respectively. It has more recently investigated that oleocanthal and hydroxytyrosol (HT) kills cancer cells (CCs). HT and oleuropein reduces breast cancer and cutaneous melanoma cancer cells both in number and aggressiveness, and inhibits CCs multiplying. It has been declared too many times that nutrition type is the strongest factor can be caused acute and chronic diseases. However, at the same time, nutrition can also prevent some of those heavy symptoms. The main purpose of presented chapter is to meet olive's bioactive molecules and to examine how to improve our health with diet.

**Keywords:** phytochemicals, health, olive, virgin olive oil, bioactive compounds

#### **1. Introduction**

*Olea europaea* is naturally cultivated in Mediterranean region. It's drupe fruit (olive), flowers & leaves, seeds, fibers and some of by-products (liquid and solid wastes) are used technologically by humans live in there, and also, this is an agricultural & economic culture of Mediterranean populations (Spain, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Morocco, Tunisia, in particular). However, olive oil is also produced in Australia and the USA and basically [1] consumed European Union Countries, United States, Turkey and China (**Figure 1**). The olive oil is the best demonstrated product that examined both its nutritional and medicinal properties. Ancient historical evidence recommended using VOO for stomach health and against to dermatological ulcer.

Nutritional quality of olives depends on various factors. Cultivar, genetic and biologic factors, soil structure, climatic conditions, harvest time, agricultural applications and extraction type are the most effective parameters [2]. These are

**Figure 1.** *Leading consumers of olive oil worldwide from in 2020/2021.*

also influence on the olive oil quality and its chemical composition. Free acidity determines chemical subtype of olive oils such as lampante, virgin, extra virgin, etc.

The edible oils are commonly well-known due to their unsaturated fatty acids and phenolic profiles. In particular, olive oil is rich in both monounsaturated fatty acids and polyphenols. These attributes basically related to consumption of the Mediterranean Diet. One tablespoon of olive oil contains approximately 120 kcal composed of 10 g monounsaturated lipid. The most important of polyphenols are phenolic acids such as ferulic and vanillic acids, phenolic alcohols like hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol, flavonoids and secoiridoids such as oleuropein [3].

Olive oil is contains triacylglycerols as major components (98–99%) and contains small quantities of free fatty acids, glycerol, phosphatides, pigments, flavor compounds, and sterols as minor components (1–2%). Approximate fatty acid composition of olive oil as fallows: 14–15% saturated fats (13% palmitic acid-C16:0 and 1–2% stearic acid-C18:0) and 85% unsaturated fats (60–70% oleic acid-C18:1, also known as ω-9 and 12–15% linoleic acid-C18:2, also known as ω-6 fatty acid, and 3% palmitoleic acid). This profile shows us olive oil composed of more monounsaturated than polyunsaturated fatty acids and it is free of trans (E-) form of fatty acids. Previous researches indicated that a higher proportion of monounsaturated fatty acids in diet cause a strong reduction in the cardiovascular disease (CVD) risks.

The polyphenols are natural antioxidants that link oil's bitter taste and astringency. Moreover, they raise the resistance capacity against to oxidation. The bioactive compounds namely phenolic antioxidants (oleic acid, squalene, terpenoids), simple phenols (hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol), secoiridoids (oleuropein, aglycone of ligstroside, and their respective decarboxylated dialdehyde derivatives, oleacein, oleochantal) and lignin, vitamin E contribute to oil different biologic character such as antitumor, antimicrobial and antioxidant effects via possible pathophysiological pathways generally associated with a decreased risk in breast, colon and skin cancer. It needs to be noted that the quantity of these bioactive molecules depends on many factors such as olive variety, environmental factors (altitude, cultivation practices), harvest time (unripe, semi, ripe olives the extraction and storage conditions [4].

Here, in this chapter, phytoactive compounds found in olive are determined chemically and then biologic mechanisms are described how they prevent us some chronic diseases.

#### **2. Phytochemicals**

#### **2.1 Phenolics and tocopherols**

The presences of phenolics and tocopherols affect radical scavenging activity and so, antioxidant capacity of olive oil. These chemicals also considered as a functional food component, contains different classes of phenols: simple phenols, phenolic acids, phenolic alcohols, secoiridoids, lignans, and flavonoids. According to EFSA [5], molecules from olive (hydroxytyrosyl and oleuropein complex) have beneficial effects on human health. The consumption of this complex approximately 2–15 mg/day is essential. The vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin and is composed by α-, β-, γ and δ-tocopherols and α-, β-, γ- and δ-tocotrienol isomers. α-tocopherol has the highest antioxidant activity in fat-riched foods. Moreover, vitamin E and phenol mixtures are very promising oil stabilizing agent during frying, thanks to its capacity to reduce acrolein and acrylamide production. According to EFSA's current scientific opinion [6] an average requirements of α-tocopherol could be 11–13 mg/day for adults. Extra virgin olive oil contains 100–760 mg/kg α-tocopherol [7, 8].

Mediterranean country peoples demonstrate a long life and lower case of the age-related diseases due to their food habits. Thus, the consumption of extra virgin olive oil has been clinically and experimentally associated with the health promoting properties of the Mediterranean diet. Extra virgin olive oil is characterized by a high amount of polyphenols as miracle pharmanutritional properties against to the development of several chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome and cancer. Squalene is a hydrocarbon composed in olive oil and acts as a weak antioxidant affect. Especially, its importance comes from the protective effect under heating against to the oxidative stress. Besides, the squalene quantity varies between 2 and 7 g/kg of olive oil. Scientific papers prove us the health benefits of squalene and its influence capability on cancer cells [9–11]. Meanwhile, tocopherols have attracted tremendous attentions because of their potential roles in preventing aging-associated diseases such as cardiovascular and Alzheimer's disease [12–14]. Oleacein and oleochantal (**Figure 2**) are among the major phenolics determined in virgin olive oil. These are the dialdehydic forms of the elenolic acid deriving from oleuropein and ligstroside, respectively. They have positive role in the treatment of cardiovascular pathologies, certain types of cancers, chronic inflammatory diseases, Alzheimer's disease, Helicobacter pylori infection [14]. Cutaneous melanoma is a type of cancer that is spreading in Europe. The relation between melanoma risk and consumption of olive oil has been recently studied. Oleuropein, the main secoiridoid glucoside present in the *Olea europaea* leaves have already been investigated in melanoma *in vitro* and *in vivo* models revealing their cytotoxic activity and anticarcinogenic action. Oleacein, another abundant secoiridoid in olive and leaves show antitumor activity via controlling the altered pattern of gene expression (transcripts and miRNAs) related to mTOR and BCL2 pathways in melanoma cells. Hydroxytyrosol, the most representative simple phenol of *Olea europaea* L. leaves and virgin oils, causes inhibition of melanoma cell proliferation activating caspase-3-dependent apoptosis [15, 16].

#### **2.2 Phytosterols**

Phytosterols, in other words plant sterols, are bioactive compounds of seeds, fruits, cereals, and nuts. They can be found in free form, esterified with fatty acids or conjugated with glycosides. Campesterol, β-sitosterol and stigmasterol are the most common phytosterols. Phytosterols are by-products of isoprenoid biosynthesis

#### **Figure 2.**

*Chemical structure of Oleacein and Oleochantal.*

pathway via squalene from acetyl coenzyme A. Its generation cascade involving more than 30 enzymes catalyzed reactions in similar cholesterol biosynthesis within cell membranes. All phytosterols contain one double bond at carbon-5 position and saturation of this double bond occurs either enzymatically in vivo or through hydrogenation. Both β-sitostanol and campestanol are the two most common stanols. In olive oil, they are esterified with fatty acids like esters of sitostanol (sitostanyl oleate) and esters of campestanol (campesteryl oleate). Human cells cannot synthesize those endogenously, so we have to obtain them from our diet. The daily intake of plant stanols (saturated sterols) is about 25 mg/day compared to sterols ranging from 150 to 400 mg/day which include 65% of intake as β-sitosterol, 30% as campesterol and 5% as stigmasterol. The maximum values of campesterol, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol were found in different types of olive oil 34.46 mg, 29.56 mg and 259.46 mg/100 g oil, respectively. Serum phytosterol level in humans should range from between 2.9 and 17.0 mg/L. Phytosterols are alcohols for organic chemistry, resemblance to cholesterol both in structure and in function. Their function in plant cells is to regulate the fluidity and permeability of cell membranes in a way similar to cholesterol in cell membranes of mammals. They can inhibit the absorption of cholesterol by its direct displacement from micelles. This reported as the cholesterol-lowering effect of phytosterols in humans. Additionally, phytosterols and their derivatives have high health benefits related to antiinflammatory, antiulcerative, antitumor, antibacterial, and cardioprotective properties [17–23].

#### **2.3 Chlorophyll and carotenoids**

The minor contents in olive oil give to its characteristic organoleptic and nutritional features. Among them, color pigments play an important role in oxidative stability during storage and in the preservation of its quality because of their antioxidant characteristics and prooxidant roles under light. The pigments used as indicators to indicate olive oil freshness or storing conditions. For example, low amount of pheophytins show a fresh, well-stored olive oil, while high presence of those indicate an old, bad-stored oil [24, 25]. Pigments are divided into two main

*Olive Phenomenon from the Mediterranean Diet: Health Promotion via Phytochemicals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96938*

groups in foods namely carotenoids and chlorophylls. Chlorophylls are responsible for the greenish color of extra virgin olive oil. On the other side, β-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin and xanthophylls called carotenoids are natural antioxidants found in various amount in olive oil. They have beneficial properties for human health. β-carotene appears to lower the risk of heart diseases, while lutein protects the eye retina from oxidative damage. Some other studies were showed that carotenoids exhibit bioactivities in photosynthesis, special antioxidant properties and produce improvements in cognitive function and cardiovascular health [26–30].

#### **3. Clinical and experimental studies on chronic diseases**

The potential health advantages caused by olive oil consumption, particularly within the context of the Mediterranean diet, have been extensively investigated. As mentioned before, olive oil consumption was found to be beneficial for some of chronic non communicable diseases [31]. Below-explained clinical results are also given in **Table 1** with references.

#### **Table 1.**

*Experimental and clinical studies about olive, nutrition and health [32–42].*

#### **3.1 Cardiovascular diseases (CVD)**

A comprehensive work included 101,460 cases of Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) and 38,673 cases of stroke participants revealed that after every 25 g increase in olive oil consumption, the risk of CHD was reduced by approximately 4%, while the risk stroke was decrease by 26%. Another research aimed to assess the consumption of monounsaturated fatty acids and olive oil intake on human mortality was applied 32 sample group contains total 841,211 cases. Overall, higher oil intakes lead to a lower risk for all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, cardiovascular events and stroke. On the other hands, the other lipid origin such from animal had no significant positive effect on morbidity and mortality in this work. A research including 3106 individuals search try to detect the potential mediators of the olive oil/CVD relationship. The daily consumption between 1 mg and 50 mg resulted in a significantly more pronounced decrease in C-reactive protein and interleukin-6. The other study examined the effect of high versus low concentration of polyphenol in olive oil on CVD risk factors in clinical trials. It was found that high polyphenol olive oil has beneficial effects on malondialdehyde, oxidized-LDL, total cholesterol and HDL cholesterol, suggesting that olive oil may have cardioprotective properties. A comparative research, which aimed to explain the effects of olive oil or some of other edible oils consumption on blood lipids, showed that olive oil intake significantly diminish total cholesterol, LDL and triglyceride less, but increased HDL more than the others. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is one of the most common chronic degenerative diseases and it carries a considerable risk factor for CV disorders and mortality. Noce et al., [43] study shows that daily use of high phenolic contents from extra virgin olive oil contributes anti-inflammatory and antioxidant action in nephropathic patients. Consequently, the essential role has been highlighted again here that a well-balanced nutritional-diet therapy plays in the clinical management of CKD cases and the eventual improvements in patient's life style, performing positive effects on CKD symptoms.

#### **3.2 Cancer**

There are too actual clinical meta-analysis researches. They are mainly focused between olive oil consumption and various cancer types. 37,140 participants from 19 case–control studies were revealed that extra virgin olive oil intake was associated with low probability to have any type of cancer, compared with the lowest quality of olive oil intake. The other study evaluated the effect of olive oil consumption on breast cancer risk. The results stated that olive oil can decrease the risk of breast cancer as well as other types of cancer. Another comprehensive research, included 150,000 females from 5 cohort and 11 retrospective case control studies, demonstrated that higher olive oils consumption showed a protective effect against breast cancer. Some clinical studies show that the mixtures of phytosterols have inhibitory effect on 5α-reductase, give rise to apoptosis, alter testosterone metabolism, change urine flow and prostate volume. On the other hand some other experimental studies explain that phytosterols prevent lipoprotein oxidation, inhibit cell growth and the expression of caveolin-1, decrease cell proliferation, reduce or inhibit hyper proliferation of colonocytes, reduce in tumor size. These are the various mechanisms to express anticancer features from phytosterols of olives and olive oils [19, 44]. More recently, Bartolomei [45] provides a huge dataset to characterize of olive oils antioxidant properties, both in vitro by Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC value), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP value), and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assays, and at the cellular level in hepatic (HepG2) and intestinal (Caco-2) cells. One of the highlighted results of this

*Olive Phenomenon from the Mediterranean Diet: Health Promotion via Phytochemicals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96938*

**Figure 3.** *Risk factors in diabetes mellitus.*

study was to determine the antioxidant effects of phenolic compounds in an extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) extract, using either in vitro assays or liver and intestinal cell models, rather than the effects of single phenols, such as hydroxytyrosol or oleuropein. The selective trans-epithelial transport of some oleuropein derivatives was observed for the first time in differentiated Caco-2 cells in this research.

#### **3.3 Type II diabetes**

Risked factors for diabetes Mellitus (DM) has been described [46] as fallows: physical inactivity, first degree relative with DM, members of high-risk ethnic populations (such as African Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, Asian American and Pacific Islanders), women who delivered baby, hypertension, HDL cholesterol <35 mg/dL, triglycerides >250 mg/dL, women with polycystic ovary sendrome, HbA1C ≥ 5.7%, impaired glucose tolerance, ımpaired fasting glucose, obesity, insulin resistance and finally history of CVD (**Figure 3**). It was proved that 10 g daily increasing intake of olive oil was caused 9% reduced risk of type-II diabetes, while when the highest quality olive oil intake category was compared to the lowest quality intake category, it was revealed a 16% reduced risk of diabetes. This metaanalysis collected data from 187,068 individuals, participating in 4 cohort studies and 29 trials. Therefore, this meta-analysis provides beneficial evidence concerning the risk of type II diabetes consuming olive oil [42].

#### **4. Conclusion**

In biological systems, free radical reactions are associated with aging, cancer, cardiovascular disease, optical disease, and neurodegenerative disease. Antioxidants are used to prevent such reactions and are therefore supporting health. Regular consumption of olive oil has a strong correlation with prevention of cardiovascular disease, immune function, and gastrointestinal (GI) disease. Olive oil improves the curing of mortal diseases like cancer and liver disease. Dietary use of olive oil is therefore helpful in maintaining good health. The present chapter evaluating the effect of olive oil consumption on human health, identified the protective effects

of olive oil on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, as well as on cardiovascular events. Olive oil consumption exhibits a protective role against overall and particularly breast cancer occurrence, as well as diabetes mellitus type 2. In general, benefits which have been recorded from the intake of pure olive oil have also been recorded from the adoption of a health-promoting lifestyle, based on the principles of the Mediterranean diet. Diets including plants foods, fish, and seafood and preferably including plant oils and low-fat dairy products are associated with a lower risk of most chronic diseases. In conclusion, the aggregated evidence corroborates that the specific impact of olive oil consumption is beneficial for human health, and particularly for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases, several cancers, and diabetes mellitus.

### **Conflict of interest**

The author declares no conflict of interest.

### **Author details**

Didar Üçüncüoğlu Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, Çankırı Karatekin University, Çankırı, Turkey

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Olive Phenomenon from the Mediterranean Diet: Health Promotion via Phytochemicals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96938*

#### **References**

[1] International Olive Council (IOC), 2021. Retrieved from https://www. statista.com/statistics/940532/olive-oilconsumption-worldwide-by-leadingcountry/ (Accessed in 26.02.2021)

[2] Martakos I, Kostakis M, Dasenaki M, Pentogennis M, Thomaidis N. Simultaneous Determination of Pigments, Tocopherols, and Squalene in Greek Olive Oils: A Study of the Influence of Cultivation and Oil-Production Parameters. Foods. 2019;9(1):31. DOI:10.3390/foods9010031

[3] Zeb A, Murkovic M. Olive (*Olea europaea* L.) Seeds, From Chemistry to Health Benefits. Chapter 100 - Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention 2011; 847-853, Academic Press. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-375688-6.10100-8

[4] Vita di S. Extra virgin olive oils storage: Effect on constituents of biological significance, Chapter 24. Editor(s): Victor R. Preedy, Ronald Ross Watson, Olives and Olive Oil in Health and Disease Prevention, Academic Press. 2021;291-297, ISBN<PHONE_NUMBER>284. DOI:10.1016/ B978-0-12-819528-4.00029-8.

[5] EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, N. a. A. N. (2011) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to oleic acid intended to replace saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in foods or diets and maintenance of normal blood LDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID 673, 728, 729, 1302, 4334) and maintenance of normal (fasting) blood concentrations of triglycerides (ID 673, 4334) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Journal 9, 2043.

[6] EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, N. a. A. N. (2015) Scientific opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to polyphenols in olive and protection

of LDL particles from oxidative damage (ID 1333, 1638, 1639, 1696, 2865), maintenance of normal blood HDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID 1639), maintenance of normal blood pressure (ID 3781), "anti-inflammatory properties" (ID 1882), "contributes to the upper respiratory tract health" (ID 3468), "can help to maintain a normal function of gastrointestinal tract" (3779), and "contributes to body defences against external agents" (ID 3467) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061. EFSA J.l 9, 2033.

[7] Lucci P, Bertoz V, Pacetti D, Moret S, Conte L. Effect of the Refining Process on Total Hydroxytyrosol, Tyrosol, and Tocopherol Contents of Olive Oil. Foods. 2020; 9:292. DOI:10.3390/ foods9030292

[8] Dugo L, Russo M, Cacciola F, Mandolfino F, et al. Determination of the Phenol and Tocopherol Content in Italian High-Quality Extra-Virgin Olive Oils by Using LC-MS and Multivariate Data Analysis. Food Analytical Methods. 2020; 13:1027-1041. DOI: 10.1007/s12161-020-01721-7

[9] Newmark HL. Squalene, olive oil, and cancer risk: A review and hypothesis.Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev.1997,6, 1101-1103

[10] Rodriguez-Rodriguez, R.; Simonsen, U. Natural Triterpenoids from Olive Oil: Potential Activities AgainstCancer. InNatural Compounds as Inducers of Cell Death; Diederich, M., Noworyta, K., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2012; Volume 1, pp. 447-461.

[11] Chira M, Rigane G, Calas-Blanchard C et al. Phenolic, tocopherols and squalene profiles (HPLC-UV) of chemlali-sfax olive oil according to extraction procedure. Revue Roumaine

de Chimie 2020; 65:2, 179-190 DOI: 10.33224/rrch.2<IP_ADDRESS>

[12] Azzi A. Many tocopherols, one vitamin E. Molecular Aspects of Medicine. 2018;61:92-103. DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2017.06.004

[13] Zhang L, Wang S, Yang R, et al. Simultaneous determination of tocopherols, carotenoids and phytosterols in edible vegetable oil by ultrasound-assisted saponification, LLE and LC-MS/MS. Food Chemistry 289 (2019) 313-319. DOI: 10.1016/j. foodchem.2019.03.067

[14] Macciola V, Cuomo F, de Leonardis A. IMPORTANCE OF OLEacein and oleochantal on the oxidative stability of extra virgin olive oil measured by Rancimat. La rivista italiana delle sostanze grasse. 2020; XCVII. https://www.innovhub-ssi. it/kdocs/1990259/2020\_Vol.\_97\_-\_ Art.\_03\_Macciola.pdfRuzzolini, 2018;

[15] Cirmi S, Celano M, Lombardo GE, Maggisano V, Procopio A, Russo D et al. Oleacein inhibits STAT3, activates the apoptotic machinery, and exerts anti-metastatic effects in the SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Food Funct. 2020;11 (4), 3271-3279. DOI: 10.1039/d0fo00089b

[16] Carpi S, Polini B, Manera C, Digiacomo M, Salsano JE, Macchia M, Scoditti E, Nieri P. miRNA Modulation and Antitumor Activity by the Extra Virgin Olive Oil Polyphenol Oleacein in Human Melanoma Cells. Frontiers in Pharmacology 2020;11. DOI:10.3389/ fphar.2020.574317

[17] Uddin MS, Sarker MZI, Ferdosh S, et al. Phytosterols and their extraction from various plant matrices using supercritical carbon dioxide: a review, J. Sci. Food Agric. 2015;95:7, 1385-1394.

[18] Ogbe RJ, Ochalefu DO, Mafulul SG, Olumide OB. A review on dietaryphytosterols: their occurrence, metabolism and health benefits, Asian J. Plant Sci. Res. 2015;5:4, 10-21.

[19] Shahzad N, Khan W, Shadab MD, Ali Asgar et al. Phytosterols as a natural anticancer agent: Current status and future perspective. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 88 (2017) 786-794. DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.01.068

[20] de Figueiredo LC, Bonafe EG, Martins JG, Martins, AF et al. Development of an ultrasound assisted method for determination of phytosterols in vegetable oil. Food Chemistry. 2018; 240:441-447. DOI:10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.07.140

[21] Huang J, Xu M, Fang YJ, Lu MS, Pan ZZ, Huang WQ, Chen YM, Zhang CX, Association between phytosterol intake and colorectal cancer risk: acase-control study, Br. J. Nutr. 2017; 117:6, 839-850.

[22] Wang H, Liu H, Guo B, Lan D et al. A novel poly (NMA-co-DEA-co-EDMA) monolithic column as a sorbent for online solid-phase extraction and its application in the determination of beta-sitosterol in plant oil samples, Food Chem. 2019; 278:594-600.

[23] Silva ACA, Baggio SR, Mariutti LRB, Bragagnola N. Onestep rapid extraction of phytosterols from vegetable oils. Food Research International 2020;130:108891 DOI:10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108891

[24] Giuliani A, Cerretani L, Cichelli A. Chlorophylls in olive and in olive oil: Chemistry and occurrences. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.2011;51, 678-690.

[25] Cayuela JA, Yousfi K, Carmen Martínez M, García, JM. Rapid Determination of Olive Oil Chlorophylls and Carotenoids by Using Visible Spectroscopy.J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc.2014;91, 1677-1684

*Olive Phenomenon from the Mediterranean Diet: Health Promotion via Phytochemicals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96938*

[26] Tapiero H, Townsend DM, Tew KD. The role of carotenoids in the prevention of human pathologies. Biomed Pharm.2004;58, 100-110.

[27] Fieor J, Bra K. Potential role of carotenoids as antioxidants in human health and disease. Nutrients, 2014;6, 466-488.

[28] Hashimoto H, Sugisaki M, Yoshizawa M. Ultrafast time resolved vibrational spectroscopies of carotenoids in photosynthesis. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Bioenergetics. 2015;1847(1), 69-78. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2014.09.001

[29] Egeland ES. Carotenoids. In The Physiology of Microalgae; Borowitzka M, Beardall J, Raven J. Developments in Applied Phycology; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2016;6.

[30] Eggersdorfer M, Wyss A. Carotenoids in human nutrition and health. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 2018; 652, 18-26.

[31] Foscolou A, Critselis E, Panagiotakos D. Olive oil consumption and human health: A narrative review. Maturitas 2018;11860:66. DOI:10.1016/j. maturitas.2018.10.013

[32] Pelucchi C, Bosetti C, Negri E, Lipworth L, La Vecchia C. Olive oil and Cancer risk: an update of epidemiological findings through 2010. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2011; 17, 8: 805-812, DOI: 10.2174/138161211795428920

[33] Psaltopoulou T, Kosti RI, Haidopoulos D, Dimopoulos M, Panagiotakos DB. Olive oil intake is inversely related to cancer prevalence: a systematic review and a metaanalysis of 13800 patients and 23340 controls in 19 observational studies. Lipids Health Dis. 10. 2011; 127. DOI: 10.1186/1476-511X-10-127

[34] Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G. Monounsaturated fatty acids, olive oil and health status: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies, Lipids Health Dis. 2014; 13:154. DOI: 10.1186/1476-511X-13-154

[35] Martínez-González MA, Dominguez LJ, Delgado-Rodríguez M. Olive oil consumption and risk of CHD and/or stroke: a meta-analysis of case-control, cohort and intervention studies. Br. J. Nutr. 2014; 112, 2:248-259. DOI: 10.1017/S0007114514000713

[36] Schwingshackl L, Christoph M, Hoffmann G. Effects of olive oil on markers of inflammation and endothelial function-a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 2015; 7, 9: 7651-7675, DOI: 10.3390/ NU7095356

[37] Hohmann CD, Cramer H, Michalsen A, Kessler C, Steckhan N, Choi K, Dobos G. Effects of high phenolic olive oil on cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Phytomedicine 2015; 22, 6:631-640, DOI: 10.1016/j. phymed.2015.03.019

[38] Xin Y, Li XY, Sun SR, Wang LX, Huang T. Vegetable oil intake and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 2015;16, 12: 5125-5135. DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2<IP_ADDRESS>25

[39] Ghobadi S, Hassanzadeh-Rostami Z, Mohammadian F, Nikfetrat A, negar H Ghasemifard, Raeisi Dehkordi, Faghih S. Comparison of blood lipid-lowering effects of olive oil and other plant oils: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of 27 randomized placebo‐controlled clinical trials. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2018; 8: 1-15. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1438349

[40] George ES, Marshall S, Mayr HL, Trakman GL, Tatucu-Babet OA, Lassemillante A-CM, Bramley A,

Reddy AJ, Forsyth A, Tierney AC, Thomas CJ, Itsiopoulos C, Marx W. The effect of high-polyphenol extra virgin olive oil on cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2018; 30, 1-138, DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1470491

[41] Schwingshackl L, Lampousi AM, Portillo MP, Romaguera D, Hoffmann G, Boeing H. Olive oil in the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies and intervention trials, Nutr. Diabetes 2017; 7, 4:e262. DOI: 10.1038/nutd.2017.12

[42] Haldar S, Long Hui Wong, Shia Lyn Tay, Jörg J Jacoby, Pengfei He, Farhana Osman, Shalini Ponnalagu, Yuan Rong Jiang, Hwee Peng Rebecca Lian, Christiani Jeyakumar Henry, Two Blends of Refined Rice Bran, Flaxseed, and Sesame Seed Oils Affect the Blood Lipid Profile of Chinese Adults with Borderline Hypercholesterolemia to a Similar Extent as Refined Olive Oil, The Journal of Nutrition, 2020;150:12, 3141- 3151, DOI:10.1093/jn/nxaa274

[43] Noce A, Marrone G, Urciuoli S, Di Daniele F, Di Lauro M, Pietroboni Zaitseva A, Di Daniele N, Romani A. Usefulness of Extra Virgin Olive Oil Minor Polar Compounds in the Management of Chronic Kidney Disease Patients. Nutrients. 2021; 13(2):581. DOI:10.3390/nu13020581

[44] Stark AH, Madar Z, Olive oil in the prevention of breast and colon carcinogenesis, Chapter 28. Editor(s): Victor R. Preedy, Ronald Ross Watson, Olives and Olive Oil in Health and Disease Prevention, Academic Press. 2021;337-345. ISBN<PHONE_NUMBER>284. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-819528-4.00047-X.

[45] Bartolomei M, Bollati C, Bellumori M, Cecchi L, Cruz-Chamorro I, Santos-Sánchez G, Ranaldi G, Ferruzza S, Sambuy Y, Arnoldi A, Mulinacci N, Lammi C. Extra Virgin Olive Oil Phenolic Extract on Human Hepatic HepG2 and Intestinal Caco-2 Cells: Assessment of the Antioxidant Activity and Intestinal Trans-Epithelial Transport. Antioxidants. 2021; 0(1):118. DOI:10.3390/antiox10010118

[46] Msopa E, Mwanakasale V. Identification of risk factors of diabetes mellitus in bank employees of selected banks in Ndola town. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews. ISSN 1871-4021, 2019; 13, Issue 2: 1497-1504. DOI:10.1016/j. dsx.2018.11.062

#### **Chapter 5**

## The Impact of Olive Oil and Mediterranean Diet on the Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases

*Muhammad Akram, Rumaisa Ansari, Naheed Akhter, Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin, Sadia Zafar, Muhammad Ishaque, Naveed Munir, Luigi Sciarra, Giulia My, E.C. Gianvito Matarrese, Zefferino Palamà and Muhammad Riaz*

#### **Abstract**

The Mediterranean diet has a lot of health benefits but especially because it lowers the incidence of cardiovascular diseases. It has been shown that food components, certain nutrients and the pattern of the diet lowers the risk of several diseases such as diabetes, certain cancers, obesity, respiratory disorders, mental health and cognitive decline, bone diseases (osteoarthritis), healthy aging and quality of life among more others. It has been concluded from studying the mechanism responsible for lowering these risks that food combinations, food nutrients, presence of non-nutritive substances, lifestyles habits and the cooking techniques all together make the Mediterranean dietary pattern into a tool that can not only prevent but can also be used as a way of treatment for these medical ailments. As part of the essential dietary fat, consumption of extra virgin olive oil is the main feature of Mediterranean diet. Olive oil is noted to have anti-bacterial characteristics, involved in improving the endothelial function in young females, and is hypothesized to have epigenetic effects interplay offering protection from cancers due to the presence of beneficial monounsaturated fats. The presence of antioxidants contributes to the inflammation protecting properties of the olive oil. Olive oil has high quantities of antioxidants and offers numerous benefits for cardiovascular health, such as protection of LDL from oxidation and lowering of the high blood pressure as well as offers protection from diabetes mellitus. The Mediterranean diet and the Olive oil consumption also have a fundamental impact in secondary prevention, such as in patients with atrial fibrillation that underwent catheter ablation.

**Keywords:** Mediterranean diet, olive oil, cardiovascular diseases, benefits of olive oil consumption, atrial fibrillation

#### **1. Introduction**

Native to the Mediterranean region, olive tree also known as *Olea europaea* is considered to be one of the oldest trees still present (**Figure 1**). The fruits and products obtained from the olive tree such as olive oil have been used for a long time for the diet and nutritional demands of the residing population in the Mediterranean regions. As part of the Mediterranean culture olive trees have been cultivated and harvested for a long time. Olives are taken and subsequently used for olive oil extraction. The importance of the use of olive oil in both daily and cultural practices is evident by the fact that the Greek philosophers began to search on its medicinal and nutritional properties by as early as the seventh century BC. Particularly ingestion of olive oil and its use as an ointment for treating ailments related to dermatological ulcers and stomach was recommended by both Hippocrates and Aristotle who recognized the health benefits attributed to the olive oil consumption [1]. Mediterranean countries such as Turkey, Spain, Greece, Morocco, Italy and Tunisia are involved in most (70%) of the olive oil production [2]. Apart from these some other countries such as USA and Australia are also involved in the production of olive oil. Different types of olive oil with different profiles of polyphenol content are being produced by a single country [3] showing that olive oil of different varieties and qualities exists. Nutritional characteristics of different types of olive oil also differ.

Animal fats mainly constitute the saturated fatty acids, while the fats of vegetables mostly contain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Especially, olive oil obtained from the fruits of olive tree consists of both the polyphenols and monounsaturated fatty acids. Even today, the health benefits of consuming olive oil in place of fats of other origins remain unexcelled and is most likely attributed to the extraordinary chemical composition of olive oil [4]. However, the benefits of the olive oil for human health have been mostly evaluated in attribution to the consumption of the Mediterranean diet [5], whereas its individual beneficial impact on human health remains to be confirmed by more research [6].

**Figure 1.** *Millennial olive tree in Italy, Puglia, San Vito dei Normanni (Mrs. Teresa Village).*

#### *The Impact of Olive Oil and Mediterranean Diet on the Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97146*

There are different types of the marketed olive oil with difference in their potential healthful impacts and include pomace oil, refined olive oil, virgin olive oil and extra virgin olive oil etc. [7]. In context of research the different types of olive oil are often not individually evaluated for their potential health benefits and therefore the difference in their beneficial properties is not properly evaluated. Extra virgin olive oil is the most naturally made olive oil and is produced within the first 24 hours after the harvest and from the very first pressing of the olives. Extra virgin olive oil is obtained by the mechanical means rather than the chemical and no excessive heating is underwent during its extraction as the temperature for extraction is fixed at degrees lesser than 28°C. The acidity or free fatty acid level of the oil is lesser than 0.8 percent contributing to the oil's optimal odor and taste. It should be noted that olive fruit contains different types of hydrophilic phenolic compounds such as simple phenolic compounds, complex phenolic compounds and lignans. Simple phenolic compounds include vanillic, coumaric, galls, caffeic acids, tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol etc. whereas complex phenolic compounds contain secoiridoids such as ligstroside and oleuropein. Lignans found in the olives include pinoresinol and 1-acetoxypinoresinol etc. Extra virgin olive oil has the highest amounts of phenolic compounds as compared to the virgin olive oil [8]. Lignans on the other hand, are not found in any refined olive oils but only found in extra virgin olive oil [9]. Because of these extraordinary compositions extra virgin olive oil is the most beneficial to human health as compared to other refined oils and is used as a precautionary tool against the cardiovascular diseases [10]. Virgin olive oil just like the extra virgin olive oil also arises from the very first pressing of the fruits of olive tree but the acidity levels are a little higher in comparison i.e. lesser than 2 percent. Virgin oil contains in its composition the hydrophilic phenols such as phenolic acids alcohol, lignans, flavonoids and secoiridoids [11]. But because these compounds are present in comparatively lower levels, its consumption is not as healthful as compared to the extra virgin olive oil. But the consumption of virgin olive oil as compared to the other refined oils is still recommended [12]. Another types of marketed olive oil is the refined olive oil which is refined by chemical and thermal means in order to get as much oil from the pulp of olives as possible. This pulp is the leftover of the first pressing of olives. Acids and alkalis are the chemical agents used for the purpose of refinement. This process of oil extraction results in oil with higher fat and acidic content as compared to the extra virgin and virgin olive oil. Therefore, olive oil obtained and refined this way lacks the optimal odor, taste and natural antioxidants. As compared to the olive oils obtained from the first pressing of olives, the refined olive oil has lesser antioxidant potential. Moreover, p-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, p-coumaric acid, o-coumaric acid, vanillic acid and p-hydroxybenzoic acid present in the refined olive oil offer very little protection and no antioxidant potential [13]. Pomace oil is another type of the marketed olive oil and is produced as a by-product in the production of extra virgin olive oil. This oil is obtained by heating the olive seeds, skins and pulp. The remaining oil is extracted by the use of hexane as a solvent. The resultant oil obtained is then further refined and therefore it offers very limited beneficial effects on human health as the antioxidant potential is very low. Still more other types of oils produced through more poor practices e.g. glampante oil. These oils, unless refined, are not considered to be suitable for human use [14].

#### **2. Mediterranean diet and cardiovascular diseases**

The Mediterranean diet was defined in 1960 by Ancel Keys circa [15] and is one of the most well known and most studied dietary pattern in the world [Medscape,

**Figure 2.**

*Oil-Garlic and Pepper. The application of oil in the kitchen leads to this famous dish in the all the Mediterranean diet. On the right-side pure drop of extra virgin olive oil (Gianvito Matarrese EVO Restourant Alberobello-Italy).*

PubMed impact]. The Mediterranean diet has a lot of health benefits but especially because it lowers the incidence of cardiovascular diseases. It has been shown that food components, certain nutrients and the pattern of the diet lowers the risk of several diseases such as diabetes, certain cancers, obesity, respiratory disorders, mental health and cognitive decline, bone diseases (osteoarthritis), healthy aging and quality of life among more others [16]. It has been concluded from studying the mechanism responsible for lowering these risks that food combinations, food nutrients, presence of nonnutritive substances, lifestyles habits and the cooking techniques all together make the Mediterranean dietary pattern into a tool that can not only prevent but can also be used as a way of treatment for these medical ailments [17–20]. As part of the essential dietary fat, consumption of extra virgin olive oil is the main feature of Mediterranean diet. Apart from the healthy proportion of the amount and type of fatty acids present in olive oil [21], it is consumed along with a large amount of vegetables as a salad dressing for cooked or raw legumes and vegetables (**Figure 2**). Even though the inhabitants of the Mediterranean countries lack knowledge regarding the benefits of olive oil for human health, they have believed that the long lives of their populations are attributed to the usage of olive oil in their diets.

#### **3. Impact of olive oil consumption on human health**

It has been revealed from the studies by The Global Burden of Disease that the rate of incidence of chronic illnesses such as cardiovascular diseases including coronary artery disease and hypertension have been persistently increasing [22]. It has been revealed that this increase in the rate of these diseases is most likely related to the adoption of unfavorable behaviors and unhealthy dietary patterns [23]. Therefore, the protective qualities of certain dietary patterns such as Mediterranean diet especially its certain components such as olive oil has been studied and evaluated for their beneficial effects on human mortality and morbidity [6]. Olive oil is noted to have anti-bacterial characteristics [11], involved in improving the endothelial function in young females [24], and it has been hypothesized to have epigenetic effects interplay offering protection from cancers [25] due to the presence of healthful monounsaturated fats. The presence of antioxidants contributes to the anti-inflammatory properties of the olive oil. Olive oil has high quantities of antioxidants and offers numerous benefits for cardiovascular health [26], such as protection of LDL from oxidation and lowering of the high blood pressure as well as offers protection from diabetes mellitus [27].

#### **4. Mechanism of actions of virgin olive oil as part of Mediterranean diet to prevent cardiovascular disorders**

Atherosclerosis development is becoming one of the major risk factors in people having hypertension, diabetes and hypercholesterolemia [28–30]. During the pathogenesis of hypertension, inflammation causing factors imposes oxidative stress by activating the mononuclear leucocyte by enhancing the production of wide range of cytokines which directly exert oxidative stress on the blood vessels and might lead to the development of atherosclerosis. It was reported that hypertension may develop due to variations in the arterial vasodilation/vasoconstriction particularly due to the modifications of the synthesis of molecules like NO, a potent relaxing factor, and ET1 a potent vasoconstrictor released by endothelium. It was reported in non-smoking women that when Mediterranean diet containing EVOO was given to these women for 1 year, this caused a decrease in hypertension with higher level of serum NO along with changes in gene expression including eNOS upregulation that played important role in the regulation of blood pressure, dilate the blood vessels with a number of vaso-protective and anti-atherosclerotic roles; and caveolin 2 down-regulation was also reported. Caveolin 2 can trap the eNOS and ultimately inhibit the enzyme [31]. Moreover, in patients at high risk of cardiovascular disorders when given EVOO as part of MeDiet, a significantly decrease in the systolic and diastolic blood pressure were reported [31–33] and same effects were also reported in metabolic syndrome patients for giving the MeDiet with EVOO for parallel 2 years [34].

Storniolo et al. [31] explored very interesting findings when used MeDiet containing EVOO both in moderate hypertensive and healthy volunteers and found that EVOO did not decrease the blood pressure in healthy individuals although a drop in blood pressure in moderate hypertensive patients was reported. Approaches to explore the nutritional values of MeDiet supplemented with EVOO is one of the most interesting side as EVOO have potential to reduce the development of chronic disorders like type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome an obesity by regulating the metabolism of glucose and lipids in our body. It was reported that hyperglycaemic and hypercholesterolemic conditions are leading cause of the development of cardiovascular disorders or aggravating the atherosclerotic process. Violi et al. [35] explored that administration of MeDiet containing the EVOO significantly regulate the postprandial metabolic profile including the decreased blood glucose, LDL-C and ox-LDL levels and an increased level of insulin was also reported in healthy volunteers. Moreover, the impact of EVOO (10 g) in MeDiet has the potential to normalize the blood glucose level in post-prandial glycaemic patients with impaired fasting glucose. The mechanisms accounting for the positive effect of EVOO are related to increasing up-regulation, as EVOO reduces dipeptidyl peptidase-4 activity with consequent increase in glucagon-like peptide-1 concentration which regulates postprandial glycaemia by up-regulating insulin secretion [36].

High level of lipids contents is one of the second one major risk factor for the development of cardiac disease but MeDiet supplemented with EVOO have significant impact to reduce the total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) and non-HDL-cholesterol (non-HDL-C) levels to prevent the cardiovascular risk [36]. Hernáez et al. [37] reported on administering the MeDiet particularly containing EVOO for 1 year to patients at high cardiovascular risk and investigated an improvement in the HDL functions including the cholesterol efflux capacity, modulation in the metabolism of cholesterol, improvement in antioxidant as well as antiinflammatory properties, and increased vasodilatory properties. Moreover, it was also found by Covas et al. [12] that taking phenolic olive oils increases the HDL-C, decreased the total cholesterol/HDL-C ratio, decreased LDL-C/HDL-C ratio as

well as decrease in triglycerides (TG) level. A study carried out in patients having metabolic syndrome reported that consumption of MeDiet supplemented with EVOO for 2 years significantly reduced the blood glucose level, increase insulin, decrease total cholesterol as well as TG and improved the HDL-C level as compared to control group. Such findings explored that Mediterranean-style diet containing EVOO is an emerging therapeutic strategy to modulate cardiovascular disease risk in metabolic syndrome [34]. During an experimental study it was also found that EVOO along with corn oil have role in improving the total cholesterol, LDL-C, VLDL-C, Apolipoprotein-B, Apolipoprotein-A and LDL particle concentrations and this improvement was observed in more significant individuals given corn oil compared with EVOO intake. Moreover, the findings of some investigations are summarized in **Table 1** and the targets of Me Diet supplemented with EVOO to prevent the cardiovascular diseases risk factors are represented in **Figure 3**.

#### **Table 1.**

*Scientific based investigations carried out to investigate the Mediterranean diet containing extra virgin olive oil on preventing the cardiovascular disorders.*

*The Impact of Olive Oil and Mediterranean Diet on the Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97146*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Major targets of Mediterranean diet containing extra virgin olive oil to prevent the development of cardiovascular diseases.*

#### **5. Olive oil for cardiovascular diseases in secondary prevention**

If the effect of the Mediterranean diet and olive oil in primary prevention appears almost obvious, it is surprising to be in secondary prevention in cardiovascular diseases. The Lyon Diet Heart Study provided information about outcomes after acute myocardial infarction. This randomized, secondary prevention trial in patients analyzed the incidence of myocardial infarction and cardiovascular deaths. Mediterranean diet was able to significantly reduce the occurrence of all-cause and cardiovascular death [42]. PREDIMED study pointed out the reduction in CD40 expression on monocytes surface, and a further decrease in C-reactive protein and IL-6 in Mediterranean diet group (plus olive oil and plus nuts) with a significant reduction in the expression of adhesion molecules. These molecular changes suggest a protection of atherosclerotic plaques from instability resulting in a reduction in cardiovascular events after a heart attack [38].

However, it is surprising how the effect of olive oil is also protective against the incidence of arrhythmias as demonstrated in the laboratory by Bukhari group [43] and as demonstrated by the sub analysis of the PREDIMED trial suggests that extra virgin olive oil in the context of a Mediterranean dietary pattern may reduce the risk of atrial fibrillation [43].

However, it will be exciting to study the PREDIMAR project, a randomized, single-blind trial testing the effect of a Mediterranean diet enriched with extra virgin olive oil to reduce tachyarrhythmia relapses after atrial fibrillation ablation. If the study hypothesis will be confirmed, the utility of the Mediterranean diet enriched with extra virgin olive oil in slowing the progression of AF will be proven and it could actually become a true healing weapon, on a par with the most recent interventional cardiological technological innovations [44].

#### **6. Conclusion**

It has been concluded from studying the mechanism responsible for lowering the cardiovascular risks that food combinations, food nutrients, presence of non-nutritive substances, lifestyles habits and the cooking techniques all together make the Mediterranean dietary pattern into a tool that can not only prevent but can also be used as a way of treatment for these medical ailments. As part of the essential dietary fat, consumption of extra virgin olive oil is the main feature of Mediterranean diet. Olive oil possess anti-bacterial properties, involved in improving the endothelial function in young females. It has been hypothesized that the olive oil has epigenetic effects offering protection against cancers due to the presence of monounsaturated fats. The presence of antioxidants contributes to the anti-inflammatory properties of the olive oil. Olive oil has high quantities of antioxidants and offers numerous benefits for cardiovascular health, such as protection of LDL from oxidation and lowering of high blood pressure. Various studies have shown that the intake of olive oil offers cardioprotective properties contributed by the high poly phenolic content as well as the presence of antioxidants and its curative effect is not limited to primary prevention, but also to secondary prevention in unexpected fields such as in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias. Olive oil has many biological activities due to the presence of many important secondary metabolites such as antioxidant and other useful bioactive components that suggests the future use of olive oil in pharmaceutical preparations in pharmaceutical industries.

*The Impact of Olive Oil and Mediterranean Diet on the Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97146*

### **Author details**

Muhammad Akram1 \*, Rumaisa Ansari1 , Naheed Akhter2 , Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin3 , Sadia Zafar4 , Muhammad Ishaque1 , Naveed Munir5 , Luigi Sciarra6 , Giulia My7 , E.C. Gianvito Matarrese8,9, Zefferino Palamà7 and Muhammad Riaz10

1 Department of Eastern Medicine, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan

2 College of Allied Health Professional, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan

3 Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB), Nigeria

4 Department of Botany, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan

5 Department of Biochemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan

6 Cardiology and Electrophysiology Unit, Policlinico "Casilino", Rome, Italy

7 Cardiology and Electrophysiology Unit, Villa Verde Hospital, Taranto, Italy

8 University of Bilkent, Ankara, Turkey

9 EVO Restaurant, Alberobello, Italy

10 Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of Sargodha, Pakistan

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

[1] Nomikos NN, Nomikos GN and Kores DS. The use of deep friction massage with olive oil as a means of prevention and treatment of sports injuries in ancient times. *Archives of medical science: AMS*. 2010; 6: 642.

[2] Rossi R. The Eu Olive and Olive Oil Sector Main Features, Challenges and Prospects. *European Parliamentary Research Service; European Parliament: Brussels, Belgium*. 2017: 12.

[3] Vossen P. Olive oil: history, production, and characteristics of the world's classic oils. *HortScience*. 2007; 42: 1093-100.

[4] La Lastra C, Barranco M, Motilva V and Herrerias J. Mediterrranean diet and health biological importance of olive oil. *Current pharmaceutical design*. 2001; 7: 933-50.

[5] Grosso G, Marventano S, Yang J, et al. A comprehensive meta-analysis on evidence of Mediterranean diet and cardiovascular disease: are individual components equal? *Critical reviews in food science and nutrition*. 2017; 57: 3218-32.

[6] Buckland G and Gonzalez CA. The role of olive oil in disease prevention: a focus on the recent epidemiological evidence from cohort studies and dietary intervention trials. *British Journal of Nutrition*. 2015; 113: S94-S101.

[7] Gorzynik-Debicka M, Przychodzen P, Cappello F, et al. Potential health benefits of olive oil and plant polyphenols. *International journal of molecular sciences*. 2018; 19: 686.

[8] Bianchi G. Lipids and phenols in table olives. *European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology*. 2003; 105: 229-42.

[9] Tripoli E, Giammanco M, Tabacchi G, Di Majo D, Giammanco S and La Guardia M. The phenolic compounds of olive oil: structure, biological activity and beneficial effects on human health. *Nutrition research reviews*. 2005; 18: 98-112.

[10] Bogani P, Galli C, Villa M and Visioli F. Postprandial antiinflammatory and antioxidant effects of extra virgin olive oil. *Atherosclerosis*. 2007; 190: 181-6.

[11] Servili M, Esposto S, Fabiani R, et al. Phenolic compounds in olive oil: antioxidant, health and organoleptic activities according to their chemical structure. *Inflammopharmacology*. 2009; 17: 76-84.

[12] Covas M-I, de la Torre R and Fitó M. Virgin olive oil: a key food for cardiovascular risk protection. *British Journal of Nutrition*. 2015; 113: S19-S28.

[13] Papadopoulos G and Boskou D. Antioxidant effect of natural phenols on olive oil. *Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society*. 1991; 68: 669-71.

[14] Bondioli P, Mariani C, Lanzani A, Fedeli E, Mossa A and Muller A. Lampante olive oil refining with supercritical carbon dioxide. *Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society*. 1992; 69: 477-80.

[15] Keys A, Mienotti A, Karvonen MJ, et al. The diet and 15-year death rate in the seven countries study. *American journal of epidemiology*. 1986; 124: 903-15.

[16] Dinu M, Pagliai G, Casini A and Sofi F. Mediterranean diet and multiple health outcomes: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies and randomised trials. *European journal of clinical nutrition*. 2018; 72: 30-43.

[17] Corella D, Coltell O, Macian F and Ordovás JM. Advances in understanding the molecular basis of *The Impact of Olive Oil and Mediterranean Diet on the Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97146*

the mediterranean diet effect. *Annual review of food science and technology*. 2018; 9: 227-49.

[18] Radd-Vagenas S, Kouris-Blazos A, Singh MF and Flood VM. Evolution of Mediterranean diets and cuisine: concepts and definitions. *Asia Pacific journal of clinical nutrition*. 2017.

[19] Vasto S, Buscemi S, Barera A, Di Carlo M, Accardi G and Caruso C. Mediterranean diet and healthy ageing: a Sicilian perspective. *Gerontology*. 2014; 60: 508-18.

[20] Ortega R. Importance of functional foods in the Mediterranean diet. *Public health nutrition*. 2006; 9: 1136-40.

[21] Garcia-Martinez O, Ruiz C, Gutierrez-Ibanez A, Illescas-Montes R and Melguizo-Rodriguez L. Benefits of olive oil phenolic compounds in disease prevention. *Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Formerly Current Drug Targets-Immune, Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders)*. 2018; 18: 333-40.

[22] Vos T, Barber RM, Bell B, et al. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. *The Lancet*. 2015; 386: 743-800.

[23] Wagner K-H and Brath H. A global view on the development of non communicable diseases. *Preventive medicine*. 2012; 54: S38-S41.

[24] Moreno-Luna R, Muñoz-Hernandez R, Miranda ML, et al. Olive oil polyphenols decrease blood pressure and improve endothelial function in young women with mild hypertension. *American journal of hypertension*. 2012; 25: 1299-304.

[25] Menendez JA and Lupu R. Mediterranean dietary traditions for the molecular treatment of human cancer: anti-oncogenic actions of the main olive oil's monounsaturated fatty acid oleic acid (18: 1n-9). *Current pharmaceutical biotechnology*. 2006; 7: 495-502.

[26] Schwingshackl L, Christoph M and Hoffmann G. Effects of olive oil on markers of inflammation and endothelial function—a systematic review and meta-analysis. *Nutrients*. 2015; 7: 7651-75.

[27] Guasch-Ferré M, Hruby A, Salas-Salvadó J, et al. Olive oil consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes in US women. *The American journal of clinical nutrition*. 2015; 102: 479-86.

[28] Hollander W. Role of hypertension in atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. *The American journal of cardiology*. 1976; 38: 786-800.

[29] Choy P. Siow YL, Mymin D, OK. *Lipids and atherosclerosis Biochem Cell Biol*. 2004; 82: 212-24.

[30] Selvin E, Coresh J, Golden SH, Boland LL, Brancati FL and Steffes MW. Glycemic control, atherosclerosis, and risk factors for cardiovascular disease in individuals with diabetes: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. *Diabetes care*. 2005; 28: 1965-73.

[31] Storniolo CE, Casillas R, Bulló M, et al. A Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra virgin olive oil or nuts improves endothelial markers involved in blood pressure control in hypertensive women. *European journal of nutrition*. 2017; 56: 89-97.

[32] Davis CR, Hodgson JM, Woodman R, Bryan J, Wilson C and Murphy KJ. A Mediterranean diet lowers blood pressure and improves endothelial function: results from the MedLey randomized intervention trial. *The American journal of clinical nutrition*. 2017; 105: 1305-13.

[33] Medina-Remón A, Tresserra-Rimbau A, Pons A, et al. Effects of total dietary polyphenols on plasma nitric oxide and blood pressure in a high cardiovascular risk cohort. The PREDIMED randomized trial. *Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases*. 2015; 25: 60-7.

[34] Esposito K, Marfella R, Ciotola M, et al. Effect of a Mediterranean-style diet on endothelial dysfunction and markers of vascular inflammation in the metabolic syndrome: a randomized trial. *Jama*. 2004; 292: 1440-6.

[35] Violi F, Loffredo L, Pignatelli P, et al. Extra virgin olive oil use is associated with improved post-prandial blood glucose and LDL cholesterol in healthy subjects. *Nutrition & diabetes*. 2015; 5: e172-e.

[36] Reiner Ž, Catapano AL, De Backer G, et al. ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: the Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). *European heart journal*. 2011; 32: 1769-818.

[37] Hernáez Á, Castañer O, Goday A, et al. The Mediterranean Diet decreases LDL atherogenicity in high cardiovascular risk individuals: a randomized controlled trial. *Molecular nutrition & food research*. 2017; 61: 1601015.

[38] Casas R, Sacanella E, Urpi-Sarda M, et al. The effects of the mediterranean diet on biomarkers of vascular wall inflammation and plaque vulnerability in subjects with high risk for cardiovascular disease. A randomized trial. *PloS one*. 2014; 9: e100084.

[39] Casas R, Sacanella E, Urpí-Sardà M, et al. Long-term immunomodulatory effects of a mediterranean diet in adults at high risk of cardiovascular disease in the PREvención con

DIeta MEDiterránea (PREDIMED) randomized controlled trial. *The Journal of nutrition*. 2016; 146: 1684-93.

[40] Casas R, Urpi-Sardà M, Sacanella E, et al. Anti-inflamsmatory effects of the Mediterranean diet in the early and late stages of atheroma plaque development. *Mediators of inflammation*. 2017; 2017.

[41] Yu E, Ruiz-Canela M, Guasch-Ferré M, et al. Increases in plasma tryptophan are inversely associated with incident cardiovascular disease in the Prevencion con Dieta Mediterranea (PREDIMED) Study. *The Journal of nutrition*. 2017; 147: 314-22.

[42] De Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin J-L, Monjaud I, Delaye J and Mamelle N. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. *Circulation*. 1999; 99: 779-85.

[43] Bukhari IA, Mohamed OY, Almotrefi AA, et al. Cardioprotective Effect of Olive Oil Against Ischemia Reperfusion-induced Cardiac Arrhythmia in Isolated Diabetic Rat Heart. *Cureus*. 2020; 12.

[44] Barrio-Lopez M, Ruiz-Canela M, Ramos P, et al. PREvention of recurrent arrhythmias with Mediterranean diet (PREDIMAR) study in patients with atrial fibrillation: Rationale, design and methods. *American heart journal*. 2020; 220: 127-36.

#### **Chapter 6**

## Olive Oil Production in Albania, Chemical Characterization, and Authenticity

*Dritan Topi, Gamze Guclu, Hasim Kelebek and Serkan Selli*

#### **Abstract**

Olive tree is present to the Western and Southern regions of Albania, alongside Adriatic and Ionian Sea, two body waters of the Mediterranean basin. Genetic studies have revealed the existence of 22 native olive cultivars, while several introduced foreign olive cultivars are present. Two most important olive cultivars respectively, exploited in the olive oil production, and table olive, are *Kalinjot* and *Kokërrmadh Berati*. Olive fruit production ranks the country 20th in the world. Olive tree comprises an important permanent crop with considerable potential for the Albanian economy. Principal component analyses (PCA) of fatty acids in OO displays their differentiation according to the cultivar and their region. Chemometric analysis gives support to the differentiation of OO according to the olive *cv.* in terms of phenolic compounds. Secoiridoids are found in abundance, *3,4-DHPEA-EDA* and *p-HPEA-EDA* as dominant compounds, especially in *Kalinjot* olive oils. Albanian OO shows high levels of aroma compounds with (*E*)-2-hexenal as the principal aroma compound. Its concentrations reach up to 40411 μg/kg in *Kalinjot cv.,* much higher compared to *Bardhi Tirana* cv (27542.7 μg/kg). The authenticity of OOs constitutes an opportunity for domestic production and certification according to the geography or origin and present an important resource to the development of a sustainable economy.

**Keywords:** Olive oil, *Kalinjot*, *Bardhi Tirana*, Phenolic compounds, Albania

#### **1. Introduction**

In the last decades, the interest in olive tree (*Olea europaea* L.), an important crop for Mediterranean countries, has been extended to other regions of the world, such as Australia, North and South America, due to its valuable products; olive oil and table olive [1]. *Olea europea* L. is an evergreen plant-derived from tropical and subtropical species. It is native to the Mediterranean region, tropical and central Asia, and other parts of North Africa. Fossil remains of olive species have been found in Italy, France, and many other countries. Olive tree includes many clusters and more than 2600 cultivars, many of which may be ecotypes. Native olive *O. oleaster* and cultivated olive *O. sativa* are the main species in the Mediterranean [2].

The geography of Albania has shaped the climate characteristics, with South and Western regions typical of the Mediterranean climate while the Eastern and Northern regions with typical continental climate (**Figure 1**). Olive tree is cultivated mainly in the regions with Mediterranean climate, by penetrating the

**Figure 1.** *Land use in Albania [3].*

mainland through the river valleys, up to 560 m altitudes. Genetic studies have found 22 native olive cultivars strictly distributed into six regions - Berat, Elbasan, Kruja, Lezha, Tirana and Vlora. Native cultivars, namely: *Boç, Frëng, Kalinjot*, *Karre, Kushan, Kotruvs, Kokërrmadh Berati, Mixan, Kokërrmadh Elbasani, Micka, Krips, Managjel, Nisjot, Peperri*, *Ulli deti, Ulli i zi, Ulli bardhë Lezha, Sterbjak, Ulli i kuq, Bardhi Kruja, Bardhi Tirana (Bianco di Tirana)*, and *Ulli i bardhë Berati* [4, 5].

According to their area of plantation, they are classified as 'Principal' and 'Secondary' cultivars. *Kalinjot* is the most distinguished native olive cultivar and is distributed in over 50% of the country's plantation area. Other native cultivars important for the local economies are *Bardhi Tirana* and *Mixan*. *Kokërrmadh Berati* cultivar is the primary representative and consequently the most abundant table olive in Albania. The remaining cultivars presented in the study were classified as Secondary cultivars [5]. Olive cultivation is closely linked with local comunities for a long period. Olive cultivar names are conected with regions, as well as the olive fruit name, in albanian (ulli).

#### **1.1 Olive tree cultivation and production**

The olive tree dominates the country's permanent crops with 10.28 million in a total of 13.82 million fruit trees, or 74.4%. The main regions where the olive tree is cultivated are Vlora, Fieri, Berat, and Elbasan (**Table 1**) [6, 7].

The entire agriculture sector and especially permanent crops suffered in the last in the alternation of the 20th century with the 21st the consequences of economic transition (**Figure 2**). The arable land reform distributed the entire area to the small farms. This was a big reverse step toward the permanent crop's cultivation, which suffered the most, with negative consequences such decrease in tree

#### **Table 1.**

*Permanent crops data in 2019 ( 1000).*

**Figure 2.** *Area of olive trees during 1989–2019 (in ha) [6].*

numbers, and productivity. Only around 2010 because of the central government policy, focusing the priority on agriculture, and especially to crops that countries already have high productivity, the interest in olive culture highly increased. A steady increase was observed in the number of trees and the area planted. Currently, over 47000 ha are planted with olive tree, or 7.6% of the arable land [6, 8].

FAO statistics on olive fruit production ranks Albania the 20th in the world, with 98313 tons. The world production during 2019 harvesting year reached 19.46 million tons, with Albania's contribution of 0.51% [8]. A total of 8.23 out of 10.28 million olive trees are under production [6]. The olive oil production was calculated to as 20,038 tons, contribution up to 95% of domestic demands. Data on olive oil consumption increased to five liters per capita, being the highest level among the non-European Union member countries [9]. With an average production varying to 40,000 tons olive fruit, a sharp increase was evident in 2008 as well as in the following years (**Figure 3**) [10]. A key role to this positive trend was the application of support schemes subsidizing local farmers. Currently the annual production fluctuates in 100000 tons of olives. Intensive production belongs to three regions: Berat (38,000 tons), Fier (33,000 tons) and Vlora (17,000 tons), with figures belonging to 2019 [6].

#### **1.2 Table olive production**

The olive fruits are exploited in 79 percent for olive oil production, while the remaining goes to table olives production. Country holds the global record for table olive consumption per capita. According to International Olive Council, table olive consumption was 10.8 kilograms per capita [9]. *Kokërrmadh Berati* cv is the most distinguished native cultivar used as table olive. It is mainly present in the Berati region. Other olive cultivars used as table olive are not industrially processed but used only locally by families. Another important olive cultivar, *Kalinjot* is used both to extract olive oil, as well as table olive. Their nutritional profiles show small differences regarding to the main fatty acids (**Table 2**). Their n/6/n-3 ratio is around 10, showing very good profiles of unsaturated FA, compared to other distinguished olive cultivars worldwide [11]. Both are classified as High-Content Oleic Acid cultivars.

**Figure 3.** *Annual production for olive fruits during 1989–2019, in Albania [6].*

*Olive Oil Production in Albania, Chemical Characterization, and Authenticity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96861*

**Table 2.**

*Fatty acid profiles and nutritional interest of two main table olive cultivars (%).*

#### **1.3 Olive oil extraction industry in Albania**

OO extraction is organized in small extraction mills, with only 1/3 of their extraction capacity exploited. OO production is reached mainly in Southern and Central parts of the country, comprising Vlora, Fieri, Berati, Elbasani and Tirana regions. These regions, in total they comprise more than 80% of the olive trees in production [12, 13]. The extraction process produces high amounts of Olive Husk (OH) and Olive Mill Wastewaters (OMWW). Their disposal in the environment is a critical issue to the Mediterranean countries. It has been shown that the OMWW disposal into surface waters influence negatively in their biodiversity due to high organic load and toxic substances. The OMWW composition varies qualitatively and quantitatively according to the olive variety, climate condition, cultivation practices, the olive storage time and olive extraction process. Composed of 83–92% water, 4–16% organic matter, and 1–2% minerals, constitute a potential for exploitation as irrigation source and fertilizer in arable lands [13, 14]. Solid residues show high interest if they are used in soil enrichment with potassium (K) and other minerals. Up to 254.85 mg/kg of K, 20 mg/kg magnesium on dry weight basis is found [14, 15].

Regions where the extraction lines are stationed face the deteriorating situation in the environmental conditions. OMWW discharge to surface waters, solid waste disposal produces bad odors on a large perimeter, disturbing the community. The OMWW amounts produced is 125–<sup>137</sup> <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup> kg, while the OH approximately to <sup>60</sup> <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup> kg with a fluctuation in a yearly basis [15]. Traditionally, olive husk is used as feedstuff to animals or burned to farmers' houses. Recently, showing the high interest for exploitation of OH by-products, an investment in processing plant is operating at capacity 2.5 ton/hour for production of pellets.

#### **2. Olive oils characterization and authenticity**

#### **2.1** *Kalinjot cv.* **Olive oils**

Unique in its nutritional and sensory characteristics [16], VOO plays a vital role as the primary source of fats in the traditional Mediterranean diet [1, 17].

*Kalinjot*, the most important olive cultivar, gives the main contribution to the national level on the OO production. It covers 70% of the plantations'structure, to Vlora and Mallakastra regions, and relatively resilient to drought and cold weather (**Figure 4**). Fruit and stone weight, respectively to approximate values of 3.6 g and 0.5 g, with the extractability rate that varies up to 28% w/w. Fatty acid composition for olive oils obtained from different locations from Vlora and Mallakastra regions, in different harvesting years the last decade (**Table 3**) [18–22].

The main fatty acid, Oleic acid, interval is 68.03–76.83%; with linoleic acid interval 7.85–14.22% and palmitic acid interval 8.54–13.62%. The Linolenic acid content range is 0.63–0.89% lying under the value established by EU legislation to olive oil (**Table 3**).

As expected, no statistically significant differences were observed between fatty acids of Kalinjot olive oils, and therefore the data presented refer to all samples analyzed. The distribution of fatty acid composition of the oil samples studied is shown in **Table 1** and covers the normal range expected for olive oil. The Kalinjot OO has a high percentage of oleic acid, with an average value of 74.25 and an interquartile range of 1.899 (the difference between samples percentiles), and a low percentage of linoleic acid, with an average value of 9.788 and an interquartile range of 1.471.

#### **Figure 4.**

*(A) Olive tree cultivation regions in Albania; (B) Vlora region, classifyed as: traditional, intensive and superintensive groves. Olive tree cultivation regions in Albania, Vlora region [12].*

*Olive Oil Production in Albania, Chemical Characterization, and Authenticity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96861*

#### **Table 3.**

*Fatty acid mean, maximum and minimum values to Kalinjot OO.*

**Table 4.**

*Total phenolic content in OO from native cv (mg gallic acid/kg).*

Principal component analysis given in **Figure 5** displayed the distribution of Kalinjot OO samples from different location within regions of Vlora and Mallakastra. As it can be seen in the chart, according to the PCA biplot, the samples were well categorized. The samples coded with numbers 1, 2, 6, 7, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23 and 24 were positioned on the positive F1 axis while the remaining were on the negative F1 axis. In addition to those, samples coded as 29 and 30 were positioned on the negative F1 axis and clearly separated from other OO samples. OO sample (29) belong to Nisjot olive cv., another olive cv of the Vlora and Mallakastra region, while the OO sample (30) belonged to the same olive cultivar, Kalinjot, but from a different geographical region, Central Albania.

**Figure 5.** *Sample distribution for Kalinjot OO samples from different locations within regions of Vlora and Mallakastra.*

#### **2.2 Fatty acid composition**

Fatty acid profiles from twenty-six different olive cv are presented in **Table 6**. Oleic (C18:1), palmitic (16:0), linoleic (C18:2), and stearic (C18:0) acids, are primary FA in decreasing order. Results revealed that the fatty acid content falls in the average percentage intervals described by FAO and IOOC [23]. These olive varieties presented a significant variation in oleic acid (OA). They are clustered into two groups containing Oleic acid, low-OA cultivars: *Krips Kruja* (66.24%) and *Peperri* (66.27%); and high-OA cultivars: *Kalinjot*, *Bardhi Tirana*, *Mixan*, *Frëng*, *Bardhi Kruja*, *Managjel*, *Ulli deti* (from *70.*87 to 76.58%) [24]*.* Aparacio and Luna [25] have suggested a correlation between the cultivars' chemical composition and the pedoclimatic conditions. These variations are probably more related to genetic factors than to environmental conditions.

Palmitic acid is found at concentrations five to eight-fold lower than OA, i.e., between 9.41% (*Kalinjot*) to 12.87% (*Ulli deti*), with no considerable differences among them. The content of linoleic acid (LA) varied from 5.73% (*Frëng)* to 15.19% (*Krips Kruja*), whereas the content of alfa-linolenic acid showed a small variation from 0.38% (*Ulli deti)* to 0.94% (*Sterbjak*) [11, 24]*.*

**Table 5.**

*Total phenolic compounds of OO from Albanian olive cultivars (mg/kg).*

#### *Olive Oil Production in Albania, Chemical Characterization, and Authenticity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96861*

**Table 6.**

*Fatty acid profiles for OO rom different cultivars (%).*

*Olive Oil Production in Albania, Chemical Characterization, and Authenticity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96861*

Results showed a similarity among Albanian studied cultivars and other cultivars from Italy and Greece [25]. Comparison of olive cultivars from this region with data of cultivars from the Southern Mediterranean showed a profile with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids [26, 27]. Statistical analyses revealed differences among the cultivars for individual fatty acids (p < 0.05) (**Table 6**): only the primary fatty acids, C16:0, C18:1 (n-9), and C18:2 (n-6), presented differences among each other statistically.

Foreign olive cultivars were introduced last century during sixties, with two Italian cv. *Frantoio* and Leccino. Nowadays this olive cultivars are well adopted. Palmitic acid concentrations are higher 13,09% (*Leccino*) and 14.16% (*Frantoio*) compared to OO from native olive cv. There is a similarity in respect to OA among two foreign cv and others, while their LA concentrations were very low 4.68% (*Leccino*) and 6.64% (*Frantoio*), compared to OO from Albanian olive cultivars. The content of alfa-LA acid was 0.52% from both foreign cultivars [19].

A similarity was found in FA profiles among Albanian OO from native cultivars and OO from Italy and Greece [24]. In our study, the comparison of olive cultivars with cultivars' data from the Southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea showed a profile with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids [26, 27]. Statistical analyses reveal differences among the cultivars for individual fatty acids (p < 0.05) (**Table 6**): only the primary fatty acids, C16:0, C18:1 (n-9), and C18:2 (n-6), presented differences among them statistically.

Different authors suggest the ratio C18:1/C18:2 on evaluating VOO's oxidative stability, with a proposed minimum accepted value of 7.0. Among Albanian OO, two olive cultivars, *Frëng,* and *Nisjot* exhibited higher values, 13.37 and 19.54, respectively, while the remaining cultivars produced monovarietal olive oil with good oxidative stability. Only two olive cultivars, *Krips,* and *Peperr,* exhibited lower values, 4.4 and 4.5, respectively [11, 19].

Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied in order to determine the relations between fatty acid compositions in the OO samples. Based on the results of the PCA, two different principal components were determined, and these two components described 95% of the total variability of the experimental data. The PCA biplot of the fatty acids detected in the OO samples is shown in **Figure 6**. According to the PCA biplot, OO samples were well categorized. As seen in

**Figure 6.** *PCA of FA profiles obtained from OO of different olive cultivars present in Albania.*

**Figure 6** and **Table 6**, the OO samples coded as 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28 and 31 were positioned on the positive F1 axis while the other OO samples were on the negative F1 axis.

Regarding the cultivar *Kalinjot*, OO samples have been taken from some regions of the country, because this cultivar is more widespread and more productive for olive oil. OO *Kalinjot* cv from Vlora region, no 2, and *Kalinjot* cv from Mallakastra region, no 33, fall very close, indicating the opportunity to produce OO with designated origin. OO samples no 24, 27 and 30, belonging to Kalinjot cv, fall together, telling the possibility yo produce OO from this cultivar and to authenticate them (**Table 7**). The same interesting picture belong two samples belonging to *Bardhi*

#### **Table 7.**

*Sampling sites for OO Kalinjot cv. to the Vlora and Mallakastra regions..*

*Olive Oil Production in Albania, Chemical Characterization, and Authenticity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96861*

*Tirana* cv, no 3 and 25, harvested from the region with the same name. OO samples respectively olive cultivars *Boç* (1), *Ulli i kuq* (6), *Peperr* (7), *Ulli deti* (8) belonging to coastal regions of Durres fall together with the olive cv from Kruja region, no 20 (*Krips Kruja*). Another interesting conclusion is similarity among OO samples belonging to olive cv from Tirana region *Ulli i zi Tirana* (11), *Micka* (12) with the olive cv *Bardhi Kruja* (21), from region with the same name. Three regions Tirana, Kruja and Durres, fall very close, Central Albania, while the olive cv show their expansion route. Through PCA box plot is found another connection among olive cv from Berat and Lezha regions. There are similarities among OO samples coded 5 (Sterbjak, Lezha region and 18, Kokerrmadh Berati, as well as OO no 4, Ulli bardhe Lezha, and 17, Kotruvs, Berati. OO no 9 belonging to Mixan cv., that belongs to Elbasan geographical region si different compared to other monocultivar OO. Very interesting is the isolation of two introduced Italian olive cv *Leccino* (19) and *Frantoio* (28).

#### **2.3 Phenolic compounds in Albanian OO**

Phenolic compounds in Olive oils usually range between 50 and 1000 ppm (mg/ kg) depending on the cultivars, pedoclimatic conditions, maturity stage of the fruit, and extraction conditions [28]. OO is celebrated not only for its nutritional value but also for the content of minor compounds of pharmacologically active principles, belonging to the nutraceutical family, otherwise known as functional foods, such as polyhydroxylated phenolic and catecholic species [17] (**Figure 7**). A variety of over 230 chemical compounds, approx. 2% of the weight found in the VOO's unsaponifiable fraction, such as polyphenols, tocopherols, sterols, flavors [29–31]. Polyphenols present in VOO, are classified into two groups: lipophilic phenols (tocopherols) and hydrophilic or polar phenols [32, 33]. The hydrophilic phenols (HP) present in the VOO belong to different classes: phenolic acids, phenyl ethyl alcohols, secoiridoids, hydroxy-isochromans, flavonoids, and lignans [31]. Phenolic compounds show many health benefits, including reducing the risk factors of coronary heart disease, the prevention of several chronic diseases (for example,

**Figure 7.** *PCA of phenolic compounds in six OO from Albanian native olive cv.*

atherosclerosis), cancer, chronic inflammation, strokes, and other degenerative disorders [29, 34]. EFSA has concluded that polyphenols in olive are the health claims'subject. The claimed effects are "reduces oxidative stress," "antioxidant properties," "lipid metabolism," "antioxidant activity, they protect body cells and LDL from oxidative damages." An amount of 5 mg hydroxytyrosol and its derivatives (e.g., oleuropein complex and tyrosol) in olive oil should consume daily to bear the claim [35].

Results on Total Polyphenol Content (TPC) indicate that *Bardhi Tirana* variety presented the highest values, 445.03 16.83 mg/kg Gallic Acid in olive oil. In contrast, *Frëng* cultivar shows the lowest levels, 42.78 7.04 mg GAE/kg olive oil (**Table 4**). Results also show significant differences among cultivars, which may correlate to the cultivar, rather than agriculture practices or other factors. The comparison of TPC content in the ten studied cultivars with different cultivars, already published from Albania [18], and neighboring countries reveal that these cultivars are like cultivars from the Toscana Region (Italy) and Dalmatian Coast (Croatia) [26]. *Montedoro et al.* [36] have grouped the monovarietal olive oils according to the three groups' total phenol content. A classification for studied VOO is: "low" (50–200 mg/kg) *Ulli i Zi, Frëng, Krips, Mixan,* and *Peperri* cultivars; "medium" (200–500 mg/kg) *Bardhi Tirana, Bardhi Kruja*, *Managjel, Kalinjot,* and *Ulli deti* cultivars. The results obtained for the studied cultivars relate mainly to the cultivar differences. The results show that the studied olive oils' polyphenol content had significant differences (*p* < 0.05) among the cultivars. The actual stage of agriculture in Albania does not have a premise for irrigation of the olive plantations. Furthermore, concerning the maximum and minimum temperature values in the different regions, respectively, gives evidence that differences are not significant; hence, differences reported on the TPC content do not come due to climatic conditions. The TPC values of *Bardhi Tirana* are comparable with *Koreiniki* (Greece), *Picual* (Spain), and *Frantoio* (Italy) cultivars [25, 26].

Data on Total Polyphenol Content (TPC) indicate that OO from *Bardhi Tirana* cv present high values, 445.03 16.83 mg GA/kg OO. In contrast, *Frëng* cv OO has the lowest levels, 42.78 7.04 mg GA/kg (**Table 4**) [18, 19]. Total phenolic content in OO compared with OO from neighboring countries reveals that these cultivars are similar to cultivars from the Toscana Region (Italy) and Dalmatian Coast (Croatia) [26]. TPC values among studied cultivars resulted in statistically different. *Montedoro et al.* (*1992*) have grouped the monovarietal olive oils according to the three groups' total phenol content. The studied cultivars are classified as: "low" (50–200 mg/kg) *Frëng and Mixan* cultivars; "medium" (200–500 mg/kg) *Bardhi Tirana, Bardhi Kruja*, and *Kalinjot* olive cultivars. The results obtained can be related mainly to the cultivar differences. The results show that the studied olive oils' polyphenol content had significant differences (*p* < 0.05) among the cultivars. *Bardhi Tirana* samples are comparable with *Koreiniki* (Greece), *Picual* (Spain), *Frantoio* (Italy) and *Memecik*, *Ayvalik* and *Gemlik* (Turkey) cultivars [25, 26, 36].

Studying of Albanian OO from different cultivars by LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS of has found the presence of 18 phenolic compounds. Based on their chemical structure, they were grouped as secoiridoids (6), phenolic alcohols (5), phenolic acids (4), flavonoids (2), and phenolic aldehyde (1) [37]. The highest amount of phenolic compounds was determined in *Ulli-i-Zi* cv. from Tirana region (259.65 mg/kg) followed by *Kalinjot* cv. from Vlora region (248.34 mg/kg), *Bardhi Tirana* cv. from Tirana region (220.46 mg/kg), *Kalinjot* cv. from Himara region (198.54 mg/kg), *Krips Kruja* cv. from Kruja region (106.00 mg/kg) and *Bardhi Kruja* cv. from Kruja region (54.20 mg/kg) (**Table 5**) [38].

In the study conducted by Topi et al., (2020), the results on phenolic compounds agreed with the same concentration pattern of all VOO in the literature with *Olive Oil Production in Albania, Chemical Characterization, and Authenticity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96861*

the highest being *3,4*-*DHPEA-AC* (76.03 mg/kg), followed by *3,4*-*DHPEA* (11.36 mg/kg), *p*-*HPEA* (7.01 mg/kg), oxidized hydroxytyrosol (1.53 mg/kg) and the last as hydroxytyrosol quinone (1.21 mg/kg). The highest values for 3,4-*DHPEA-AC* (76.03 mg/kg) belonged to *Kalinjot* cv. from the Vlora region, followed by *Ulli-i-Zi* cv. (65.17 mg/kg). Phenolic alcohol pattern in Albanian VOOs is consistent with published data from Spanish cv. *Picual* [39], Turkish cv. *Halhali* [40] and Croatian olive oils [41]. Hydroxytyrosol levels (3.97–11.36 mg/kg) in the *Kalinjot* cv. VOO samples, in both regions, were observed higher when compared with different Greek olive *cvs*. [40], yet exhibited a lower value compared to Croatian olive oils *Krvavica* cv. (14.9–21.9 mg/kg) [41].

Additionally, PCA was applied to generate models for the classification of OO samples in terms of total phenolic contents. It can be observed that three groups were mainly formed on the plot, of these, *Krips Kruja* and *Bardhi Kruja* cv. as a group were positioned on the positive F1 axis, while the remaining samples were located on the negative axis. The formation of this group is expected as these two *cvs*. Had the lowest values of total phenolic content. On the other hand, *Ulli-i-Zi* cv. is seen to be clearly separated from the others, expectedly as it had the highest content of phenolics.

#### **2.4 Olive oil aroma compounds**

Aroma compounds are the main criteria affecting consumer acceptance and preference and also their purchasing power remarkably. Investigation on aroma compounds in *Kalinjot* and *Bardhi Tirana* OO indicate the aroma differences between oils obtained from two main Albanian olive varieties from different regions. (*E*)-2-hexenal is found as the principal compound in both these olive *cvs.* [13]. A total of 24 aroma compounds in *Kalinjot cv*. comprising: aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, esters, terpenes, phenols, and alkenes were detected; meanwhile, in *Bardhi Tirana cv*. 17 aroma compounds including aldehydes, alcohols, esters, and phenols. The aroma compounds in Kalinjot OO varied from 36700 to 40411 μg/kg, much higher compared to Bardhi Tirana *cv*. OO (27542.7 μg/kg). Different regions and varieties play a key role in the concentration and profile of volatile compounds in the samples under study. (*E*)-2-Hexanal in *Kalinjot* (37.2–39.1%) and *Bardhi Tirana* OO (55.5%) is found lower comparing with Italian Leccino *cv*. (73%) [41], but higher compared to Croatian OO from Masnjaca cv (27.6–28.9%) [42]. Volatile compounds present in high concentrations to Kalinjot *cv.* OO were hexanal (6.6– 9.8%), 3-hexenal (4.6–9.8%), 3-penten-2-ol (7.7–9.4%), (*E*)-3-hexenyl acetate (4.0–8.8%), (*Z*)-3-hexenol (2.9–4.1%), (*E*)-2-hexenol (1.4–3.1%), *β*-ocimene (n.d-4.2%) and hexanol (n.d-4.2%) [13].

Total alcohols in *Kalinjot* OO vary between 6903 and 9375 μg/kg, and in *Bardhi Tirana* OO 6874 μg/kg. The main C-5 alcohol resulted is 3-penten-2-ol in the range 2504–3442 μg/kg. This alcohol was found in higher levels compared to olive oils from Greek, Italian and Spanish olive cultivarssuch as Croatian cv. *Coratina* [43], Italian cv. *Leccino*, Spanish *cv. Cornicabra* and *Arbequina*, Greek *cv. Koroneiki* and *Adramytini* [39], and Turkish *cv*. *Halhali*, [44]. Total content of terpenes in Kalinjot OO varies 1895–2941 μg/kg, while the presence of *β*-ocimene may serve to distinguish OO both in olive cv and region. Terpene compounds give olive oils characteristic floral odors. (*E*)-3-Hexenyl acetate and methyl salicylate are two esters found in OO from both *Kalinjot* and *Bardh Tiranai* cultivars. Another ester found only in OO from Kalinjot is 2-butoxyethyl acetate. (*E*)-3-hexenyl acetate concentrations vary between 2705 and 3555 μg/kg in Kalinjot OO, while are found in lower levels to *Bardhi Tirana* OO (1107.7 μg/kg). The esters concentration compared with Greek cultivars is lower, however, higher when compared with Italian and Spanish

*cv*. [42]. This ester compound gives olive oils pleasant and fruity odor notes. In conclusion, 2-butoxyethyl acetate may use as molecular marker to distinguish OO from these two cultivars.

#### **3. Conclusions**

Despite the modest contribution in global OO production, world ranking 20th, olive tree comprises an important permanent crop with considerable potential for the Albanian economy. OO with certified origin will increase the value of the final product. With a contribution of 0.51% to total world production, OO production reached 20,038 tons contributing almost to 95% of domestic demands. Interestingly, table olive consumption ranks the country the 1st in world. Principal component analyses (PCA) for OO samples from Kalinjot cv. displayed the differentiation with OO samples. The authenticity of OOs originating from Vlora region constitutes an opportunity for domestic production. In parallel, PCA of OO from different native and foreign olive cv. displayed differentiation regarding fatty acids.

Phenolic compounds found to be significantly different among the olive oil samples of different cultivars. *3,4-DHPEA-AC* was determined as the main phenolic compound. Secoiridoids are found in abundance, *3,4-DHPEA-EDA* and *p-HPEA-EDA* as dominant compounds, especially in *Kalinjot* OO. It was found that Albanian VOOs had lower levels of flavonoids consisting of luteolin and apigenin. Studies in OO aroma compounds from main cv indicate that Albanian OO is considered with high content OO with aroma compounds. (*E*)-2-hexenal is found as the principal aroma compound. *Kalinjot* OO concentrations vary between 36700 and 40411 μg/kg, much higher compared to *Bardhi Tirana* OO (27542.7 μg/kg).

#### **Author details**

Dritan Topi1 \*, Gamze Guclu<sup>2</sup> , Hasim Kelebek<sup>3</sup> and Serkan Selli<sup>2</sup>

1 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania

2 Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey

3 Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Adana Alparslan Turkes Science and Technology University, Adana, Turkey

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Olive Oil Production in Albania, Chemical Characterization, and Authenticity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96861*

#### **References**

[1] Tous J: The influence of growing region and cultivar on olives and olive oil characteristics and their functional constituents. In: Olives and olive oil as functional foods: bioactivity, chemistry, and processing. Edited by: A. Kiritsakis, F. Shahidi. Chichester, UK, Hoboken, NJ. John Wiley & Sons, 2017.

[2] Therios I: Olives. CABI, UK; 2009. pp. 425.

[3] Map of Land Use in Albania. http:// www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/atlas\_east\_ europe/albania-landuse.jpg) University of Texas. 1990.

[4] Kafazi N: *Vecorite morfologjike dhe agrobiologjike te varieteteve te Ullirit.* Tirana: ILB, 1980.

[5] Thomaj F. Panajoti Dh. *Olive cultivars* (1 ed). Tirana: ILB; 2003. ISBN 99927 941 86.

[6] Agriculture Statistical Yearbook; 2020. Source of information: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. h ttp://www.instat.gov.al/media/3658/sta tistical-yearbook-2020.pdf.

[7] FAO (2018): Accessed on the web address: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/ #data/QC

[8] Wordbank; 2020. https://data.worldba nk.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA?loca tions=AL. (Access on 19/01/2021).

[9] OLIVE COUNCIL; 2020. https:// www.internationaloliveoil.org/wpcontent/uploads/2020/12/OT-W901-23- 11-2020-C.pdf

[10] MACP (Ministry of Agriculture and Consumer Protection). Study on the actual olive tree cultivation and its perspectives in Albania. 2009. (in Albanian).

[11] Topi D, Thomaj F, Shabani M, Carvalho AP, Gomes AM: The analytical and nutritional study of the Albanian autochthonous table olive *Kokërmadh Berati*. *Proceedings of 6th Central European Congress on Food-CEFood Congres*s. 2012a. Novi sad, Serbia.

[12] MAFCP; 2009: Study on actual Olive cultivation and its developing perspectives. Ed: Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Protection. Tirana. Albania.

[13] Topi D, Amanpour A, Kelebek H, and Selli S: Screening of aroma profiles in Albanian cvs. Kalinjot and Bardhi Tirana olive oils using purge and trap extraction technique. *RISG Rivista Italiana Sostanze Grasse*; 2019;96(2):101-108.

[14] Dermeche S, Nadour M, Larroche C, Moulti-Mati F, Michaud P: Olive mill wastes: Biochemical characterization and valorization strategies. *Process Biochemistry*; 2013; 48:1532-1552.

[15] Topi D, Beqiraj I, Seiti B, Halimi E: Environmental impact from olive mills waste disposal, chemical analysis of solid wastes and wastewaters. *Journal of Hygienic and Engineering Design*. 2014; 7: 44-48.

[16] Bendini A, Cerretani L, Carrasco-Pancorbo A, Gómez-Caravaca A. M, Segura-Carretero A, Fernández-Gutiérrez A: Phenolic Molecules in Virgin Olive Oils: A Survey of Their Sensory Properties, Health Effects, Antioxidant Activity, and Analytical Methods. An Overview of the Last Decade. *Molecules*; 2007; 12:1679-1719.

[17] Sindona G: A marker of Quality of Olive oils: The Expression of Oleuropein. In: Olives and Olive oil in Health and Disease Prevention. Editors V. R. Preedy and R. R. Watson. Elsevier. London, UK. 2010. pp. 95-100.

[18] Topi D, Thomaj F, Carvalho AP. Gomes A: Analytical Evaluation of Six Monovarietal Virgin Olive Oils from Kruja Region in Albania. *2nd International ISEKI\_ FOOD Conference*. 2011a. Milano, Italy.

[19] Topi D, Thomaj F, Halimi E: Virgin Olive Oil production from the major olive varieties in Albania. *Poljoprivreda i Sumarstvo*; 2012b; 58(2):87.

[20] Velo S. and Topi D: Study of *Kalinjot* extra virgin olive oil, fatty acids profiles, and trans-isomers. *Journal of Hygienic and Engineering Design,* 2015;12:129-135.

[21] Velo S. and Topi D: Analytical study of *Kalinjot* olive cultivar in the southern regions of Albania. III International Congress, "Food Technology, Quality, and Safety," 2016. 25-27.

[22] Velo S. and Topi D: Characterization of *Kalinjot* and *Nisiot* Monocultivar Virgin Olive Oils produced in Albania. *Asian Journal of Chemistry;* 2017; 29 (6), 1347-1350.

[23] Angerosa F, Campestre Ch, Giansante L: Analysis and Authentication. In Boskou B. *Olive Oil Chemistry and Technology,* Champaign, USA: AOCS Press; 2006; Vol. 1, pp. 450.

[24] Topi D, Thomaj F, Carvalho AP, Gomes A: Characterization of olive varieties from Albania: Fatty acid profile and total phenolic content. *Food Technologists, Biotechnologists and Nutritionists*; 2011b. 185.

[25] Aparicio R, and Luna. G: Characterization of monovarietal virgin olive oils. *European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology*. 2002; 104: 614–627.

[26] Pinelli P, Galardi C, Mulinacci N, Vincieri FF, Cimato A, Romani A: Minor polar compound and fatty acid analyses in monocultivar virgin olive oils from Tuscany. *Food Chemistry*; 2003; **80**: 331-336.

[27] Haddada M, Krichène Dh, Manai H, Oueslati I, Daoud D, Zarrouk M: Analytical evaluation of six

Monovarietal virgin olive oils from Northern Tunisia. *European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology*; 2008; **110** (10):905–913.

[28] Kiritsakis AK, Nauos GG, Polymenoupoulos Z, Thomai T, Sfakiotakis EY: Effect of fruit storage conditions on olive oil quality. *Journal of American Oil Chemists Society*; 1998; **75**: 721-724.

[29] Servili M. Sordini B. Esposto S. Urbani S. Veneziani G. Di Maio I. Selvaggini R. Taticchi A: Biological Activities of Phenolic Compounds of Extra Virgin Olive Oil. *Antioxidants*, 2014;3:1-23. doi:10.3390/ antiox3010001.

[30] De Medina V, Priego-Capote F, de Castro L: Characterization of monovarietal virgin olive oils by phenols profiling. *Talanta*; 2015; 132:424–432.

[31] Del Monaco G, Officioso A, D'Angelo S, La Cara F, Ionata E, Marcolongo L, Squillaci G, Maurelli L, Morana A: Characterization of extra virgin olive oils produced with typical Italian varieties by their phenolic profile. *Food Chemistry*. 2015; 184:220–228.

[32] Seguera-Carretero A, Memendez-Menendez J, Fernandez-Gutierrez A: Polyphenols in Olive Oil: The importance of phenolic compounds in the chemical composition of olive oil. In: In Olives and Olive oil in Health and Disease Prevention. Editors: V. R. Preedy and R. R. Watson. Elsevier. London, UK. 2010; Pp. 167-175.

[33] El Riachy M, Priego-Capote F, Leon L, Rallo L, Luque de Castro MD: Hydrophilic antioxidants of virgin olive oil. Part 1: Hydrophilic phenols: A key factor for virgin olive oil quality. *European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology*. 2011; **113**:678–691

[34] Cicerale S, Conlan X.A, Sinclair AJ. Keast RS: Chemistry and health of olive *Olive Oil Production in Albania, Chemical Characterization, and Authenticity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96861*

oil phenolics. *Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition*. 2009; 49(3): 218-236. DOI: 10.1080/<PHONE_NUMBER>1856223.

[35] EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA), *EFSA Journal*, 2011;9(4):2033 (25 pp.). doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2033. Available online: www.efsa.europa.eu/efsajournal.

[36] Kelebek, H., Kesen, S., & Selli, S. Comparative study of bioactive constituents in Turkish olive oils by LC-ESI/MS/MS. *International Journal of Food Properties*, 2015; **18**(10), 2231-2245.

[37] Montedoro, G, Servilli, M, Miniati, E: Simple and hydrolysable Phenolic Compounds in Virgin Olive oil. 1. Their extraction, separation, and quantitative and semi quantitative evaluation by HPLC. *Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry*. 1992;*40:*1571-1576.

[38] Topi D, Guclu G, Kelebek H, Selli S: Comparative elucidation of phenolic compounds in Albanian olive oils using LC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS. *Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies;* 2020; 43(5-6):203-212.

[39] Oliveras-Lopez J, Innocenti M, Giaccherini C, Ieri F, Romani, A, Mulinacci N: Study of the phenolic composition of Spanish and Italian monocultivar Extra Virgin Olive Oils: Distribution of lignans, secoiridoidic, simple phenols, and flavonoids. *Talanta*. 2007; **73**:726–732

[40] Bayram B, Esatbeyoglu T, Schulze N, Ozcelik B, Frank J, Rimbach G: Comprehensive Analysis of Polyphenols in 55 Extra Virgin Olive Oils by HPLC-ECD and Their Correlation with Antioxidant Activities. *Plant Food Hum Nutr.* 2012; **67**:326–336

[41] Kulisić-Bilusić T, Melliou E, Giacometti J, Causević A, Corbo S, Landeka M, Magiatis P: Phenolics, fatty acids, and biological potential of

selected Croatian EVOOs. *European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology*. 2017; **119**(10):1700108.

[42] Luna, G, Morales, MT, & Aparicio, R: Characterization of 39 varietal virgin olive oils by their volatile compositions. *Food Chemistry*. 2006;*98*:243–252.

[43] Sarolić M, Gugić M, Tuberoso G, Jerković I, Suste M, Marijanović Z, & Kuś M: Volatile Profile, Phytochemicals and Antioxidant Activity of Virgin Olive Oils from Croatian Autochthonous Varieties *Masnjaca* and *Krvavica* in comparison with Italian Variety Leccino. *Molecules*. 2014;*19*:881–895.

[44] Kesen S, Kelebek H, & Selli S: Characterization of the volatile, phenolic and antioxidant properties of monovarietal olive oil obtained from cv. *Halhali*. *Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society*. 2013;*90*:1685–1696.

#### **Chapter 7**

## Cooking with Extra Virgin Olive Oil

*Ana Florencia de Alzaa, Claudia Guillaume and Leandro Ravetti*

#### **Abstract**

Mediterranean cultures have used Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO) as the only source of cooking oil for centuries, with their diet showing the highest amount of scientifically proven health benefits. However, there is a common misconception that EVOO is not suitable for cooking given its relatively lower smoke point, despite no scientific evidence that support this. This chapter aims to provide an overview of how EVOO is healthier, safer, and more stable to cook with than other common edible oils. Furthermore, this chapter aims to present EVOO's suitability for use on Teflon coated pans, which is another common myth.

**Keywords:** extra virgin olive oil, cooking oils, smoke point, nutrient content, key minor components, bioactives

#### **1. Introduction**

Olive oil occupied a key role in ancient Roman cooking and its culinary use expanded along with the Roman Empire, laying the foundation for what we now refer to as the Mediterranean diet. The culinary use of olive oil takes four basics forms: as a preservative, as a cooking medium, as an ingredient and as a condiment [1]. This chapter has a central focus on EVOO as a cooking medium.

As a cooking medium EVOO has a many functions, such as transferring heat from the heat source to the food, acting as a lubricant to prevent food from sticking to the cooking surface, adding flavour, crust and creating a more visually appealing look to the food [1]. It is an extremely healthy oil to use for all types of cooking and there is a lot of existing and emerging research related to the health benefits due to high levels of antioxidants (some of which are unique to EVOO) and the ability of the oil to enhance the health attributes of some ingredients once cooked [2–4].

However, myths related to cooking with EVOO have been prevalent from time to time, creating a lot of confusion for consumers.

#### **2. Debunking the myths**

Some of the prevalent myths related to cooking with EVOO are listed in **Table 1**.

**Table 1.**

*Myths related to cooking with EVOO.*

#### **2.1 Performance of edible oils when heated**

Chemical reactions such as hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerisation are prone to occur when edible oils are heated. Heating oils at high temperatures or for long periods of time can generate decomposition products such as free fatty acids (FFAs), alcohols, cyclic compounds, and polymers. Several factors can affect or influence these reactions, such as the type and quality of the oil, the kind of food used in cooking, the time and temperature of cooking and the food/oil ratio. These chemical reactions can affect both the nutritional value and the organoleptic properties of the oil. In addition, some of the products formed through oil decomposition may have adverse effects on human health. Physical changes in oil occur during heating and include increased viscosity, darkening in colour, and increased foaming. At the same time, the smoke point of the oil decreases [14–18].

There are two major properties of cooking oils commonly believed to dictate the behaviour of that oil, and subsequent safety when exposed to high cooking temperatures: smoke point and oxidative stability. While oxidative stability is a reasonable

predictor of an oils' ability to withstand heat, initial smoke point has proven to have very little correlation with the oils' stability under heat while cooking, and the formation of polar compounds [5].

#### **2.2 What is smoke point and why is it an unreliable measure of oil performance when heated?**

The smoke point is defined as the temperature at which a visible and continuous bluish smoke appears. At this point sufficient volatile compounds, such as FFAs and short chain oxidation products are emerging and evaporating from the oil.

The smoke point of an oil generally increases as the FFA content decreases, and the degree of refinement increases [19, 20].

The smoke point should not be considered a reliable measure of an oil's stability and suitability for cooking for the following reasons:

**Figure 1.** *Smoke point determination equipment.*

#### *2.2.1 What measurements we should use instead to determine oil suitability for cooking*

When heating oils, the process of fat oxidation is accelerated. Fat oxidation is where fat molecules interact with oxygen, leading to the potential formation of harmful compounds. Many authors agree that oxidative stability is the best predictor of the behaviour of oil during cooking [5, 16, 25].

Industrially and technically, the ability of an oil to withstand heat is measured by its resistance to the formation of polar compounds.