There is also an example of a kind of agricultural landscape on terraces on sedimentary deposits on slopes in ravines of ancient volcanic massifs:

9. Polyculture on dry terraces in the lower midlands of El Golfo in Frontera and Sabinosa on sedimentary slope deposits (Frontera). This is a landscape developed on sands, gravels and pebbles formed after the gravitational collapse that gave rise to the El Golfo valley. Given the origin of the sediments, it is necessary to clear and terrace the land to organize the crops (although we do not observe here the large, terraced slopes of other islands such as La Gomera).

A final example of a landscape related to agricultural activity is that of the subtropical fruit trees agrarian landscape class:

10. Open-air tropical pineapple and banana crops in irrigated greenhouses on the coastal platform of the El Golfo valley (Frontera). This is the most recent agricultural landscape on El Hierro. Its creation has been possible thanks to the availability of water for irrigation from the seventies of the last century and the "suelos de prestación" (transported soil) from the plateau of Nisdafe. Both elements have transformed these recent former "malpaíses" (aa lava flows) into a landscape of intensive agriculture whose production of bananas and tropical pineapples (and a few hectares of other tropical fruits) are mainly exported (Fig. 5).

Finally, as it could not be otherwise on an island with a long pastoral tradition (mainly sheep), we find up to five landscapes dominated by the livestock component (livestock-agricultural, or livestock-forest). These are the classes of livestock landscapes:

11. Livestock landscape of the Dehesa Comunal (Frontera, El Pinar). Livestock landscape unique in the Canary Islands, the Dehesa Comunal is a surviving remanant of a common grazing area established during the period of the Lordship in the old landowning regime. The area of the Dehesa Comunal covers some 4500 ha in the western part of the island. It corresponds to the steep slope on the leeward side that descends from 770 m above sea level to the sea.

Fig. 5 Tropical pineapple cultivation was the last significant crop to be incorporated into the agricultural landscape of El Hierro barely half a century ago

The distribution of El Cres and the Colonization Plan of the Dehesa Comunal that was approved in 1943 by the government of Franco's dictatorship brought some changes in this unique livestock landscape. The new distribution affected 300 ha of the Dehesa Comunal. This area corresponds to the higher, wetter and deeper soils of the Dehesa Comunal. El Cres was also divided into plots and given to the farming families of the region. After a few years of cultivation, the agricultural activity disappeared, but today the walls separating the plots and some livestock activities are still preserved (Martín 2006).

In the rest of the Dehesa Comunal, the Colonization Plan also ended up failing, as only a few infrastructures were carried out (small reservoirs, access tracks, parceling with stone walls, small reforestations). As in El Cres, the remains of the walls separating the plots built in the middle of Franco's colonization policy can still be seen today in the landscape, which is abandoned or underused (Martín 2006).

Paleo-landscapes and agrarian landscape enclaves

This categorization includes paleo-landscapes or extinct agrarian landscapes and agrarian landscape enclaves or those with minimal current extension, since elements already in ruins can be observed or some residual extensions of them are still preserved. They are interesting because they provide information on the richness of the island's agro-cultural heritage. Table 1 contains a description of these extinct and/or reduced enclaves.

Local Informants: Acknowledgements Javier Morales (Agricultural Engineer-Head of Agriculture and Fisheries Service of the Cabildo Insular de El Hierro). Francisco Febles (organic livestock farmer of El Pinar). Alfredo Hernández (Technician of the Protected Designation of Origin of Wines "El Hierro"). Jennifer Quintero Melián (Cooperative Manager El Hierro Frontera).

#### References

Felipe JR, Herrera MP (2019) Plan Hidrológico de El Hierro. Consejo Insular de Aguas de El Hierro, El Hierro. http://www.aguaselhierro. org/planificacion/plan/plan2015

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# Geomorphosites of El Hierro UNESCO Global Geopark (Canary Islands, Spain): Promotion of Georoutes for Volcanic Tourism

Javier Dóniz-Páez and Rafael Becerra-Ramírez

#### Abstract

Geotourism is a relatively recent concept and a novel kind of tourism, which has acquired a significant boom in the last decades, associated with the creation and consolidation of the UNESCO global geoparks network. There are two approaches to geotourism, one geological and the other geographical, much more global and inclusive of the elements of the natural and cultural heritage. In this chapter, we have chosen to use the geographical approach of geotourism, to apply it to the El Hierro global geopark and diversify the island's tourism, traditionally focused on diving and hiking, through geoforms (volcanic and non-volcanic), and its link with cultural heritage. For this, the most representative, preserved and accessible geomorphosites in the geopark have been identified, inventoried and selected, which can be visited through volcano tourism georoutes. To do this, a route is proposed in the El Faro-Orchilla geozone (GZH-07) of the geopark, since it is one of the best examples of recent monogenetic basaltic volcanism in the Canary Islands. This geozone has a high geodiversity and richness in its natural and cultural heritage, it is easily accessible and different geoforms and views of the island landscape can be seen along a 9.5 km route and 8 stops.

R. Becerra-Ramírez

J. Dóniz-Páez . R. Becerra-Ramírez Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands (INVOLCAN), Granadilla de Abona, Spain

#### Keywords

El Hierro geopark . Geomorphosites . Geotourism . Volcano tourism

#### 1 Introduction

Tourism, before the Covid-19 pandemic, has been one of the main global economic activities and its growth unstoppable (UNWTO 2019). Despite this, many mature sun and beach tourism destinations were already showing signs of decline before the current health crisis. This led to decreases in tourist arrivals and lack of renovation of tourist facilities and infrastructures (Hernández and Santana 2010), which, in turn, has caused stagnation and decline in these destinations (Simancas et al. 2020). Therefore, destinations require innovation and the creation of new tourism products and experiences. Consequently, in some destinations, new and sustainable tourism proposals are being developed such as geotourism or volcanic tourism (Dóniz-Páez et al. 2011, 2020a). Moreover, the diversity of geoforms in volcanic areas are very attractive (Németh et al. 2017) for visitors and especially for those interested in geotourism (Erfurt-Cooper 2018).

Geotourism has gained some momentum in recent decades (Dowling 2013; Dowling and Newsone 2018) as it has been associated with the creation and consolidation of a global network of geoparks. Geotourism is a relatively recent concept and a novel tourism modality (Pásková and Zelenka 2018) in which two types of approaches can be recognized: geological or geographical (Dowling and Newsone 2018), with the geographical approach being much more global and integrative (Tourtellot 2000; National Geographic 2010; Dóniz-Páez et al. 2020a, b). This has led to the development of geotourism initiatives, products and experiences, which though different from each other do not

J. Dóniz-Páez and N. M. Pérez (eds.), El Hierro Island Global Geopark, Geoheritage, Geoparks and Geotourism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07289-5\_8

J. Dóniz-Páez (&)

Geoturvol-Department of Geography and History, University of La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Geovol-Department of Geography and Territorial Planning, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
<sup>©</sup> The Author(s) 2023 87

have to be mutually exclusive (Dowling and Newsone 2018).

In the geopark of El Hierro, the geoforms directly condition the rest of the natural and cultural heritage. For this reason, in this study, we have opted for a geographical approach to geotourism, as it is much more in line with the reality of El Hierro. In this sense, the aim of this study is to identify, classify and select representative, preserved and accessible geomorphosites of El Hierro UNESCO Global Geopark. This will promote El Hierro's natural and cultural heritage and contribute to diversifying tourism on the island, currently focused on diving and hiking (Dóniz-Páez et al. 2011). It will also boost the economic development of El Hierro through the creation of volcanic tourism georoutes as seen in other volcanic areas aspiring to become geoparks (Becerra-Ramírez et al. 2020).

#### 2 Methodology

Following Bouzekraoui et al. (2017), the methodology used in this work consists of three stages: identification, classify and selection of volcanic geomorphosites of El Hierro's geopark for tourism georoutes. The identification of geomorphosites was performed by topographic, geological and geomorphological mapping at different scales, Dems of El Hierro and field work by members of the research team over the last 20 years on the island (Dóniz-Páez et al. 2011). For the classification of the geomorphosites, we used the methodological proposal by Dóniz-Páez et al. (2020b) on the diversity of volcanic geoheritage in the Canary Islands. In the selection of the volcanic geomorphosites, it was considered that they should be representative of the geomorphological diversity of the geopark of El Hierro. Moreover, they should be well preserved and accessible via the current road network of the island or through the maritime routes that diving companies usually take.

#### 3 Results and Discussion

The island of El Hierro is the smallest, geologically the youngest and geographically the westernmost of the Canary Islands. El Hierro is of volcanic genesis, and the oldest materials are from a million years ago. The island was formed from the polygenetic edifices of Tiñor (1.12– 0.88 Ma), El Golfo-Las Playas (545–176 ka) and Rift volcanism (158 ka-present) (Becerril et al. 2016; Aulinas et al. 2019). The general morphology is in the shape of a three-pointed star resulting from the seafloor fractures on which it has been built following three rifts (Carracedo 2008). In general, the volcanic materials of El Hierro are a succession of basaltic lavas, agglomerates of volcanic tuffs and monogenetic volcanoes (Carracedo 2008). It is still a volcanically active island complex, whose last eruption was underwater and occurred between 2011 and 2012 in the Sea of Calms, in the south of El Hierro. The island has also been subjected to the processes of erosion and accumulation giving rise to outstanding geomorphological landscapes.

#### 3.1 Geomorphosites of El Hierro Island

The classification of the geomorphosites of El Hierro corresponds to the proposal of Dóniz-Páez et al. (2020b). This groups the geomorphosites into volcanic landforms and processes or non-volcanic landforms and processes. Within the first group, they are divided into magmatic and hydromagmatic volcanic cones (monogenetic, polymagmatic and polygenetic), terrestrial and submarine lava flows (lava delta, pahoehoe, aa, blocks) and other volcano geoforms (dykes). Regarding non-volcanic landforms, the classification includes recent landforms, giant landslides and relict or fossil landforms.

The island has 230 volcanic cones amounting to 0.8 cones/km2 (Becerril et al. 2016). They are monogenetic basaltic volcanoes of magmatic (Hawaiian, Strombolian and violent Strombolian and Vulcanian dynamics) and hydromagmatic dynamics, built by lapilli, scoria, spatter and lavas of diverse morphology with open, closed and multiple craters. Although most of the volcanic cones are monogenic, some examples of polymagmatic volcanism, such as Tanganasoga can be recognized (Dóniz-Páez et al. 2020b). These volcanoes produced large terrestrial lava flows of varied morphology of pahoehoe, aa and blocks with the formation of lava deltas (Tamaduste, Tacorón…) and some of the most diverse lava fields of the Canary Islands (Los Lajiales) (Beltrán Yanes and Dóniz-Páez 2009). However, in some areas of the island, examples of submarine lavas can be observed, such as in La Caleta. Although the greatest diversity of volcanic geoheritage corresponds to volcanic cones and lava flows, in El Hierro Geopark, other volcanic (dikes) and non-volcanic (San Andres fault) geoforms can be found.

El Hierro is a geologically young island in which the volcanic landforms are very important, but non-volcanic landforms and processes are also present. Among these recent landforms, we can mention the cliffs, the ravines, alluvial and colluvial deposits and several red (Hoya Verodal) and black sand beaches. In relation to relict or fossil non-volcanic landforms, they are not very common though some beaches and small dunes in Arenas Blancas stand out. However, the giant landslides such as those of Tiñor, El Golfo, Las Playas and El Julan (Carracedo 2008) are the geoforms that best define the current morphology of El Hierro.

#### 3.2 Selection of Geomorphosites

Taking into account the diversity of the geomorphological heritage identified in the previous section, the most representative, best preserved and most accessible geomorphosites of El Hierro can be selected. This is important when designing itineraries and georoutes for volcanic tourism. In this sense, according to the classification of landforms and relief processes above. Table 1 shows the main geomorphosites of each of the categories defined according to Dóniz-Páez et al. 2020b.

#### 3.3 Georoutes for Volcanic Tourism

The diversity of direct volcanic and non-volcanic landforms and processes in El Hierro's geopark means multiple georoutes can be created for volcanic tourism. Depending on the criteria chosen, specific georoutes can be created according to certain features, such as basaltic cinder cones, hydromagmatic volcanoes, recent lava fields, giant landslides, coastal landforms, etc. However, volcanic tourism georoutes can also be chosen according to a broader perspective that encompasses a wide variety of elements of the natural and cultural heritage of the geopark (Fig. 1).

In this work, we have decided to develop a volcanic tourism georoute according to the geographical approach of geotourism. The place chosen for the itinerary is the El Faro-Orchilla-lava flow geozone (GZH-07) of the geopark. The selection of Orchilla lava delta is due to the richness of its natural and cultural heritage and its easy accessibility

Table 1 Main geomorphosites

selected of El Hierro geopark

(Dóniz-Páez et al. 2019). The diversity of this geozone is associated with the presence of one of the best examples of recent monogenic, basaltic magmatic volcanism in the geopark, where different types of volcanic edifices can be identified (cinder cones, spatter cones, hornitos, etc.) built by lapilli, spatter, lavas, bombs, etc. and with varied shapes (Ring-shaped cones, horseshoe-shaped cones, multiple scoria cones, volcano without crater, etc.), spectacular lava fields with pahoehoe, aa and block morphologies with lava tubes and channels and accretion balls. In addition to the volcanic forms, other morphologies such as fossil and active cliffs, beaches, ravines and important alluvial fans can be observed. In this geozone, the cultural heritage is associated with the volcanic heritage through the use of the volcanic tubes and jameos (volcanic caves) by the population for residences or livestock huts, quarries for the extraction of lapilli, various infrastructures associated with the use of water and, above all, the presence of the Orchilla Lighthouse and the Monument to the Zero Meridian, which are two tourism icons of El Hierro. It is also worth mentioning the impressive panoramic views of the whole area of El Julan, one of the four giant landslides in El Hierro. Furthermore, this is the starting point of the GR-131 trail that runs through the whole of the Canary Islands. For all these reasons, the geopark stands out for its interesting local values and for its scientific, didactic and tourism interest (Table 2; Fig. 2).

The volcanic georoute has eight stops and a total distance of 9.5 km divided into two parts (Fig. 3). The main itinerary runs along the HI-503 La Montaña road towards the Virgen de Los Reyes hermitage in La Dehesa and continues along a detour towards the Orchilla Lighthouse for 6.5 km. The

Source Prepared by authors

Fig. 1 Several geomorphosites selected in El Hierro UNESCO Global Geopark: Hornito in Lomo Negro cinder cone (a); Chamuscada monogenetic basaltic volcano (b); Hoya Verodal tuff ring (c); Hoya Fileba hydromagmatic volcano (d); Tanganasoga polymagmatic volcano (e); Tiñor ediffice (f); Pahoehoe lava flows in Bahía de La Hoya (g); Aa lava flow in Tacorón (h); La Arena volcanic red sand beach (i); Talusses in El Golfo (j); Las playas giant landslides (k); Fossil sand in La Caleta (l)

Table 2 Natural and cultural volcanic heritage of Orchilla geozone georoute

Source Prepared by authors

Geomorphosites of El Hierro UNESCO Global Geopark … 91

Fig. 2 Key stops on the volcanic georoute in the Orchilla Geozone GZH07. The numbers refer to Table 2

Fig. 3 Volcanic georoute of Orchilla Geozone (GZH-07) of El Hierro Global Geopark. Source Modified from Dóniz-Páez et al. (2019)

along the HI-504 track and heads towards the Zero Meridian Monument. It is a round trip of about 3 km. The maximum elevation is 464 m at stop 1 and the minimum 0 m at stop 8, which is the pier of La Laja de Orchilla. Although the entire georoute can be done by car, it is recommended that stop 5– stop 6 of the Monument to the Zero Meridian and return is completed on foot or bicycle because of the difficulties there may be for road traffic, since it runs through the deposits of alluvial fans.

#### 4 Conclusions

Although it is true that the current health crisis has contributed to diversifying the tourism offer in many regions, before this pandemic, many destinations had already created new tourism products and experiences based on the promotion of local heritage. In the case of geotourism, for some years now, initiatives have been developed around two approaches (geological and geographical) that are complementary to each other. Indeed, volcanic tourism has been a reality in volcanic areas for some years now. Even so, it can be said that geotourism is still a relatively recent, innovative and sustainable form of tourism, closely linked to the management of geoparks. In this sense, the island of El Hierro has opted for a tourism distinct from the Canary Islands as a whole, one based on sustainability and the promotion of local geographical heritage and mainly focused on hiking and diving. Therefore, this paper has evaluated the volcanic geoheritage on the island, which led to the creation of a geopark in 2014 following the underwater eruption of the Tagoro volcano in 2012. For this purpose, different volcanic and non-volcanic geomorphosites have been identified, classified and selected to be representative, preserved and accessible examples of the geodiversity of El Hierro and of its cultural heritage. These geomorphosites are incorporated in geotourism georoutes from a geographical approach in the geopark, increasing and diversifying the tourism offer on the island. The Orchilla geozone has been selected for the proposed volcanic tourism georoute based on the diversity of its volcanic forms (volcanic cones and lava flows), those from erosion and accumulation (landslides, ravines, cliffs, deposits, beaches, etc.) and the interesting cultural heritage linked to a historically inhospitable region with a semi-arid climate. We must also mention the good accessibility, the existence of several approved trails, the presence of a bathing and leisure area (Las Lajas) and two of the most significant tourist icons of El Hierro (the Orchilla Lighthouse and the Zero Meridian Monument). In this work, we have developed a model georoute for volcanic tourism in the geopark, however, depending on the geomorphosites identified and selected, many other georoutes can be developed.

secondary itinerary turns off at stop 5 at the Orchilla volcano Acknowledgements This research was supported by project VOL-" TURMAC, Fortalecimiento del volcano turismo en la Macaronesia (MAC2/4.6c/298)", and is co-financed by the Cooperation Program INTERREG V-A Spain-Portugal MAC (Madeira-Azores-Canarias) 2014–2020, http://volturmac.com/.

#### References

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# Birdwatching as a New Tourist Activity in El Hierro Geopark

Rafael Ubaldo Gosálvez Rey, Adrián Navas Berbel, and Diego López de la Nieta González de la Aleja

#### Abstract

Bird watching is one of the most popular ways of getting close to nature, laying the foundations for what is now known as Birdwatching or Birding, nowadays a niche within ecotourism. The Canary Islands are an exceptional centre for ornithological tourism, standing out for the presence of six endemic species that are exclusive worldwide. In this context, the island of El Hierro is the least visited island for bird watching in the Canary Islands archipelago, even though it has been designated as a Biosphere Reserve and Geopark. This paper aims to lay the foundations for the development of ornithological tourism on the island of El Hierro, following the methodology proposed by Gosálvez Rey (El Valle de Alcudia y Sierra Madrona, 2009), Puhakka et al. (PLoS One 6, 2011) and the Ornithological Tourism Strategy for the Canary Islands (SEO/Birdlife in Estrategia de Turismo Ornitológico para la Macaronesia, 2016). A geographical analysis of the diversity of species is addressed, the most suitable trails and points for birdwatching are indicated and the mechanisms for promoting this tourist activity are outlined. The island of El Hierro has 22 species and subspecies of birds of interest for birdwatching, the best areas for birdwatching being the Natura 2000 sites (EU) and Birdlife International's IBAs. The island of

GEOVOL-IHE, Department of Geography and Territorial Planning, University of Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM), Ciudad Real, Spain e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
A. Navas Berbel . D. López de la Nieta González de la Aleja Department of Geography and Territorial Planning, University of Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM), Ciudad Real, Spain e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
D. López de la Nieta González de la Aleja e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
R. U. Gosálvez Rey

Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands (INVOLCAN), Granadilla de Abona, Spain

El Hierro is served by a network of paths provided by the Cabildo de El Hierro and the Spanish government's Caminos Naturales programme, complemented by a set of fourteen lookout that serve as strategic points for bird watching. The challenge for the island of El Hierro will be to develop birdwatching that respects and even enhances natural values, avoiding endangering the species observed and their habitats.

#### Keywords

Birdwatching . Conservation . El Hierro . Ecotourism . Birds

#### 1 Introduction

Of the various options for humans to approach nature, birdwatching is one of the most popular. Birdwatching started in the late nineteenth century as an alternative to scientific hunting and developed thanks to public awareness campaigns and the emergence of ornithological organizations (Szczepańska et al. 2014). United Kingdom and United States were pioneers in birdwatching and in the creation of societies, such as the Royal Society for the Protection Birds in 1889 and the National Audubon Society in 1905, to the point that birdwatching became a main leisure activity for large segments of their populations (López Roig 2008). Private entrepreneurs saw an opportunity in its commercialization laying the foundations of what is now called "ornithological tourism", "avitourism", birdwatching or birding (Jones and Buckley 2001), today considered as a niche within nature tourism (Şekercioğlu 2002; Biggs et al. 2011). Ornithological tourism has been defined by Rivera (2007) as an activity that involves travelling from a place of origin to a specific destination with the aim of observing the local avifauna in their natural environment, providing economic benefits for destinations.

R. U. Gosálvez Rey (&)

In the last twenty years, ornithological tourism has experienced a boost in Spain from private and public initiatives, especially projects linked to European funds for rural development (Gosálvez Rey 2009). These initiatives aim to generate a specialized economic sector that includes guide services, accommodation, restaurants, car rental or construction of infrastructures such as observatories and visitors' centres.

Currently, our country is one of the main birdwatching destinations for ornithological tourists, representing 10% of ornithological tourism packages that British operators have in their sales catalogues worldwide (SEO/Birdlife 2016), which demonstrates the potential that Spain has for ornithological tourism. The most consolidated destinations for this activity in Spain are Andalusia, especially Doñana, Campo de Gibraltar, Extremadura and the Pyrenees.

In this context, the Canary Islands could become an exceptional centre for ornithological tourism given their mild climate, splendid landscapes and good transport links. The ornithological interest exists as they are home to some 90 breeding species and more than 380 that visit the islands throughout the year (AVIBASE), with six exclusive endemic species worldwide: Bolle's Pigeon, Laurel Pigeon, Fuerteventura Stonechat, Tenerife Blue Chaffinch, Canary Islands Chiffchaff and African Blue Tit. These give the Canary Islands the richest avifauna of all the Macaronesian archipelagos (SEO/Birdlife 2016). This has led BirdLife International to consider the Canary Islands as an EBA (Endemic Bird Area), thus making it the only EBA in Western Europe. Despite this ornithological strength, this tourism product has very little weight in the tourism market of the archipelago, where sun and beach tourism are still the leaders (SEO/Birdlife 2016). In fact, there are only two privates companies dedicated to birdwatching, Birding Canarias and Aves Ecotours, which are struggling to make progress.

The island of El Hierro is the furthest away from the African continent and the smallest of the Canary archipelago, despite its small size, it contains the whole range of habitats present in the Canary Islands, except for the scrubland of summits. There are areas of 'Monteverde' (forested hills), Canary Island pine and juniper woodlands where it is relatively easy to observe endemic bird species and subspecies of the archipelago. Birds of open farmland, birds of prey, corvids and important numbers of gulls and migrant birds can be observed in La Dehesa and on the Llanos de Nisdafe. Finally, seabirds can be observed from the Orchilla lighthouse, La Restinga, the Roques de Salmor or in the Bahía de Naos-Hoya de Tacorón. Despite this, it is the least visited island for birdwatching in the Canary archipelago, even though the whole island has been designated by UNESCO as a Biosphere Reserve and Geopark.

This work aims to lay the foundations for the development of ornithological tourism on the island of El Hierro: an area of great interest for birdwatching where, to date, 178 species of birds have been indexed (AVIBASE), of which almost fifty breed regularly on the island. To do this, a geographical analysis of the diversity of species is conducted indicating the main taxa of tourist interest; the places and routes that provide the best spots for birdwatching and the mechanisms available to promote this tourist activity without affecting the conservation of the birds and their habitats.

#### 2 Methods

We followed the methodology proposed by Gosálvez Rey (2009), Puhakka et al. (2011) and the action programme contained in the Ornithological Tourism Strategy for Macaronesia in the Canary Islands promoted by SEO/Birdlife (2016).

The geographical analysis of the distribution of bird species on El Hierro has considered three aspects: total species richness, number of endemic taxa and number of endangered species. This makes it possible to determine the "target" species that would attract an ornithological tourist to visit El Hierro. For this purpose, the information contained in the atlases of breeding and wintering birds of Spain (Martí and Del Moral 2003; SEO/Birdlife 2012) and in the Canary Islands Natural Inventory Bank (BIOCAN) has been considered. For the location of places of interest for birdwatching on El Hierro, the SPAs-Natura 2000 network and the Important Birds Area (IBA) network (Viada 1998) were used as starting points. Information contained in the websites of birdwatching companies and blogs (Reservoir Birds, BirdForum, juanjoramoseco.com) was also consulted. The network of trails and paths of El Hierro (Hikes of El Hierro and Traditional Paths of El Hierro Nature Trail) serves as a basis for designing ornithological tourist packages based on the distribution of birds and those areas where it is more likely to observe them, thus identifying the areas with the greatest potential for birdwatching. The free software QGIS (version 3.16.1) has been used to consult all the spatial data and generate maps, data related to the objectives of this study are shown in Fig. 1.

#### 3 Is It Worth Travelling to El Hierro for Birdwatching? Geographical Analysis of Bird Diversity

Birds, like other fauna, are intimately conditioned by the factors of the ecological environment in which they live. Relief, climate and water, vegetation and human activity are the main factors that explain the distribution of the different species of birds on the island of El Hierro.

Carrascal and Palomino (2002) analysed inter-island variations in the number of nesting land bird species in the Canary and Savage archipelagos, concluding that variations in species richness increased with increasing island size and greater habitat diversity and decreased with increasing distance from the mainland. The island of El Hierro is therefore the island with the lowest value of nesting bird richness in the Canary archipelago.

However, one of the simplest measures used to estimate the biological diversity of a territory is the richness or number of species which, although it is not a good indicator of the complexity of diversity, is easy to obtain and is often used as a first approximation (Margalef 2005; Lomolino et al. 2016). The species richness of birds presents on the island of El Hierro as of 2021 is 178 taxa according to AVIBASE. Of these, 31 species belong to the phenological category of rare or accidental, 42 are breeding species and the rest are migrants or habitual winterers (Martí and Del Moral 2003; SEO/Birdlife 2012). Of these 178 species, 21 are included in the Canary Islands catalogue of protected species, with the Canary Island Raven as the only species in danger of extinction and the Osprey, Manx Shearwater, Bolle's Pigeon and Laurel Pigeon as vulnerable. The rest are included in the category of species of interest for the Canary Island ecosystems or in the category of special protection.

The spatial distribution of birds on El Hierro responds to the variety of habitats present on the island, a variety that is dependent on two main factors: the altitudinal gradient, with geomorphological, climatic and biogeographical implications, and the action of human activity that has developed on this island. There are currently six main types of habitats for birds (Fig. 2): forest areas (Canary Island pine forests, Monteverde and juniper woodlands); open spaces and extensive agrosystems (coastal scrubland, grasslands and crops); cliffs, islets, rocks and volcanic Badlands; the coastal strip and its beaches; artificial wetlands (reservoirs and artificial ponds); and urban areas. A detailed description of them is beyond the scope of this paper, so we recommend consulting their characterization in Martín and Lorenzo (2001), in Fernández-Palacios et al. (2001) and in del Arco Aguilar and Rodríguez Delgado (2018).

In this analysis, what we are interested in highlighting is whether there are birds of interest on this island to justify the arrival of ornithological tourists. Considering the area of distribution at European level, the category of threat and the phenological status of the birds present on El Hierro, a total of 21 species and subspecies of birds have been selected (Table 1; Fig. 2) for which an ornithological visit to this island is essential.

#### 4 Areas and Trails for Bird Watching in El Hierro

For a territory to become a tourist destination for birdwatchers, not only must there be species of interest, there must also be places where it is relatively easy to observe birds, and there must be a level of infrastructure to cater for this tourist activity. At present, the island of El Hierro has these three elements: birds of interest, the possibility of visiting places where it is easy to watch birds (Fig. 3) and an infrastructure of roads, trails and lookouts.

The best areas for bird watching are those where there is a good chance of seeing the most emblematic species, while at

Fig. 2 Some species of interest for ornithological tourism on the island of El Hierro: a African Blue Tit, b Berthelot's Pipit, c Yellow-legged Gull, d Atlantic Canary, e Common Kestrel, f Canary Islands Raven. Author photographs Rafael Ubaldo Gosálvez Rey

Source: Prepared by authors

\*Subpecies exclusive to the island of El Hierro

the same time not disturbing them excessively and, if possible, in a safe and orderly way. In the case of the island of El Hierro, there are two networks of areas of interest for birdwatching: the Special Protection Areas for Birds (SPAs-Natura 2000) of the European Union and the Important Bird Areas (IBAs) developed by Birdlife International. In addition to these areas, there are other European (SAC-Natura 2000) and regional protection organisations as well as ones of international recognition by UNESCO (Biosphere Reserve and Geopark). Overall, 100% of the surface area of the island of El Hierro is covered by them (Table 2).

If we focus on SPAs, we should point out that they were created in 1979 following the approval of the Birds Directive, the first regulation issued by the European Union for nature conservation. The Birds Directive identifies 200 endangered taxa for which it is necessary to designate special protection areas. Since 1992, SPAs have been integrated

Fig. 3 Main habitats for fauna on the island of El Hierro: a Canary Island pine forest in El Julan, b Monteverde on the escarpment of El Golfo, c Juniper woodlands in La Dehesa, d Agrosystems in the Llanos

de San Andrés, e Cliffs and Roques de Salmor, f Urban habitat, Valverde. Author photographs Rafael Ubaldo Gosálvez Rey

into Natura 2000, together with the Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), following the approval of the Habitats Directive. Natura 2000 constitutes of a network of protected areas to guarantee the conservation of biodiversity within the framework of the European Union. Three areas on El Hierro have been declared SPAs: Garoé, El Hierro and Gorreta and Salmor.

#### Garoé (ES10000102)

This area is in the north-eastern sector of El Hierro. It consists of the Macizo de Ventejís on whose windward slopes are the remains of the laurel forest that populated the whole area in the past. There is a peculiar agricultural landscape in the Llanos de San Andrés or Nisdafe, in which pastures and crops predominate. This area has great cultural value due to the magical character that the mountains had for the bimbaches (indigenous inhabitants), highlighting the famous Garoé, sacred tree for the bimbaches and symbol in the coat of arms of the island of El Hierro. The birds that justify the declaration of this area as a SPA are the Eurasian Sparrowhawk, Common Buzzard, Canary Common Chaffinch, Common Kestrel and Long-eared Owl.

#### El Hierro (ES0000103)

This SPA has an altitudinal range that goes from the coastline to 1501 m above sea level, which favours the appearance of different microclimates responsible, in turn, for the main habitats that appear on the island. This wide range of habitats facilitates a great diversity of birds, identifying some 35 species, including seabirds, raptors and endemic passerines. Among the seabirds, Bulwer's Petrel, Cory's Shearwater, Barolo Shearwater, European Storm Petrel, Band-rumped Storm Petrel and Common Tern stand out. Raptors are represented by Osprey, Eurasian Sparrowhawk, Common Kestrel, Common Buzzard and Long-eared Owl. The passerines include the Canary Common Chaffinch (subsp. ombriosa), African Blue Tit (subsp. ombriosus), Atlantic Canary, Berthelot's Pipit, Canary Island Raven, Bolle's Pigeon and Laurel Pigeon.

#### Gorreta and Salmor (ES10000104)

Located in the north–north eastern part of the island of El Hierro, it is a large cliff with drops of up to 1000 m, in the easternmost part are the Roques de Salmor. The main importance of this area are the colonies of seabirds, where several species nest and reproduce such as Bulwer's Petrel, Cory's Shearwater, Barolo Shearwater, European Storm Petrel (with one of the largest national populations), Band-rumped Storm Petrel and Osprey. Other bird species of interest include Common Kestrel, Common Buzzard, Canary Island Raven, Western Barn Owl and Canary Island Chiffchaff.

The Important Bird Areas programme is an initiative of the European Commission, which arose to help compare national contributions to the lists of SPAs in the Birds

Table 2 Figures of protection of

Source Biodiversity Data Bank of the Canary Islands

Directive. Its design and methodology were entrusted to Birdlife International, and it was applied in Spain by SEO (Viada 1998). On the island of El Hierro, seven IBAs have been identified based on these criteria (Fig. 3): Macizo de Ventejís, Llanos de Nisdafe, Roques de Salmor, Monteverde de Frontera, western coast of El Hierro, La Dehesa and Bahía de Naos-Hoya de Tacorón.

#### IBAs to Conserve Forest Birds and Birds of Prey: Macizo de Ventejís and Monteverde de Frontera

s The cataloguing of the Macizo de Ventejís as an IBA i due to the presence of an important population of Canary Island Common Chaffinch (subsp. ombriosa) and the presence of raptors and various subspecies of endemic

passerines, including one of the main populations of Canary Island ravens (90–100 pairs), a species in danger of extinction.

Monteverde de Frontera occupies a wide strip of El Golfo escarpment, hosting the best representation of the Canary Island laurel forest and its stages of degradation on the island of El Hierro. The presence of Bolle's Pigeon (the only population on the island), Canary Island Common Chaffinch (subsp. ombriosa) and the Atlantic Canary earned this area its designation as an IBA, in addition to the presence of forest raptors, various subspecies of endemic passerines and a pair of Osprey.

#### IBAs for Open Space Bird Conservation: Llanos de Nisdafe and La Dehesa

Llanos de Nisdafe is an area characterised by an agro-livestock matrix, in which there are some patches of scrub and heathland. It is a very important area on the island for steppe birds, mainly the Eurasian Stone-curlew and Berthelot's Pipit, and it is a feeding area for various birds of prey and a prime enclave for migrating birds and wintering birds. Its declaration as an IBA is based on all this and, above all, on the presence of Atlantic Canary populations.

La Dehesa is an IBA located to the west of the island of El Hierro dedicated to pastures and agricultural crops, with a Juniper Juniperus turbinata woodland and some plantations of foreign pines. This area is of great interest for steppe birds (Eurasian Stone-curlew and Berthelot's Pipit), for migrant birds and for the presence of substantial populations of Common Kestrel.

#### IBAs to Conserve Seabirds: Roques de Salmor, Bahía de Naos-Hoya de Tacorón and Western Coast of El Hierro

These three IBAs share the same type of ecosystems: coastal cliffs and rocky islets to the north (Roques de Salmor), the south (Bahía de Naos-Hoya de Tacorón) and, above all, on the western coast of the island, extending along the coastal strip and into the sea. These are areas of great interest for the reproduction of Ospreys and seabirds, especially the European Storm Petrel and Band-rumped Storm Petrel, Bulwer's Petrel, Cory's Shearwater, Roseate Tern, Common Tern and Yellow-legged Gull.

#### The Network of Trails, Paths and Lookouts of El Hierro Constitute the Basic Infrastructure for Ornithological Tourism

The island of El Hierro has two networks of well-consolidated and signposted paths and trails, one was promoted by the Cabildo (Island Government) of El Hierro in accordance with the international standards of the ERA (European Ramblers Associations) and approved by the FEDME (Spanish Federation of Mountain Sports and Climbing), Hiking of El Hierro, and another dependent on the government of Spain attached to the Natural Trails programme (Traditional paths of El Hierro Natural Trail). Both networks use as their main axis the so-called Camino de la Virgen, 37.3 km long, which links Tamaduste with the Orchilla jetty and has the category of Great Route (GR) (Fig. 4). The Cabildo's network of trails is complemented by eleven Short Route (PR) trails and three local trails (SL), all of which are signposted and have panels with information of interest about the environment and the route itself. This network totals 256 km and covers all the areas of interest for birdwatching on El Hierro. The Nature Trail along the traditional trails of El Hierro is made up of two long-distance trails (Fig. 4): the GR-131 or Camino de la Virgen, which crosses the island through its centre, and a 112 km circular trail that runs around the perimeter of the island, making it possible to visit the different areas and places identified as being of interest for birdwatching.

This network of paths and trails is complemented by a set of nine lookouts (Fig. 4) which, although they were created for scenic and geological purposes, serve as genuine birdwatching points, especially seabirds and birds of prey, as they are located from the coastal cliffs to the peaks of the island. Our proposal is to use these networks of paths and lookouts as a support for birdwatching and the development of ornithological tourism.

#### 5 Birdwatching as a Basis for Bird Conservation: The MacaroAves Project and the Strategy for the Canary Islands

Birdwatching as a tourist activity must contribute to the development of rural areas and the conservation of birds and their habitats, otherwise it is not worth implementing. To achieve this, planning must guide and develop this new economic activity, otherwise it could become a new source of problems in the form of disturbance to endangered species and their habitats. In this sense, since 2016, the Canary Islands have had an Ornithological Tourism Strategy developed within the framework of the MacaroAves project, financed with European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Macaronesia Transnational Cooperation Programme for the period 2007–2013. With a budget of 141,204€, this project was carried out by four partners: SEO/Birdlife in the Canary Islands, SPEA in Madeira, ART in the Azores and Biosfera in Cape Verde. The MacaroAves project aims to make tourism compatible with bird conservation through the implementation of a series of actions: the development of a strategy for ornithological tourism throughout Macaronesia; the identification of the places of

Fig.4 Birdwatching in the El Hierro geopark

greatest interest for ornithological tourism; measures to support the creation of infrastructures; the promotion of this tourism sector as a complementary resource for tourists visiting these archipelagos; the training of local guides and the development of environmental awareness activities.

In the case of the Canary Islands, the main materials produced during the project were the drafting of the Ornithological Tourism Strategy in the Canary Islands, the installation of information panels in demonstration areas in Tenerife and Fuerteventura, the preparation of a guide map of places for birdwatching in the Canary Islands and the organization of a training course in ornithological tourism.

The Ornithological Tourism Strategy of the Canary Islands has identified the potential impacts that poorly planned ornithological tourism could have on birds (SEO/Birdlife 2016). These impacts have been highlighted in multiple works (McFarlane and Boxall 1996; Şekercioğlu 2002; Steven et al. 2011, 2015) and are a concern when implementing birdwatching as a tourism activity.

The challenge for SEO/Birdlife (2016) is to develop ornithological tourism that respects and even enhances natural values based on four fundamental pillars: ensuring the compatibility of activities for the local population and visitors; promoting the conservation of nature (birds, habitats and landscapes); carrying out actions with scientific rigour; and applying a code of ethics and a set of good practices to avoid endangering the species observed. It is worth mentioning that little of this project reached El Hierro, only the creation of a map with fourteen places to observe birds.

In 2018, the Cabildo (Island Government) of El Hierro produced an Ecotourism Guide for the Biosphere Reserve and Geopark of the island (Ramos Melo and González del Campo 2018), containing a section dedicated to birdwatching. This guide provides tips for visiting throughout the year and details species and the places where they can be observed. These places are the forest roads of Mencáfete and Jinama, the Llanía spring and the Hoya del Pino recreational area to observe birds of prey and birds typical of the "Monteverde"; Llanos de Nisdafe and San Andrés for birds of steppe and agricultural environments, the reservoirs of Frontera to see migratory waterfowl and the port of La Restinga and the Orchilla lighthouse to observe marine and migratory birds.

#### 6 Conclusion

On the island of El Hierro, little attention has been paid to birdwatching as a tourist activity even though the island is a Biosphere Reserve and Geopark and has numerous nationally and internationally recognised sites. Indeed, the island has bird fauna of great interest due to its endemicity, sites where it is relatively easy to observe the different species and

a basic infrastructure of paths and lookouts that allow visitors to travel around the island to conduct this new tourist activity. However, only recently has the Cabildo (Island Government) of El Hierro incorporated bird watching as an activity to be developed in the Biosphere Reserve and Geopark (Ramos Melo and González del Campo 2018).

Ornithological tourism is a solid complement to sun and beach tourism as it favours the development of tourist infrastructures in the interior, is not affected by seasonality and is compatible with short holiday periods or short breaks, an important tool for de-seasonalising tourism. However, it obliges the island's tourism sector to present a differentiated and expert offer for a specific and specialist public. The Geopark and the Biosphere Reserve of El Hierro should make significant efforts in the coming years to support and encourage the development of this new tourist activity, relying on the Ornithological Tourism Strategy for the Canary Islands developed by SEO/Birdlife in the framework of the MacaroAves project. The challenge is, moreover, to do so without deteriorating or endangering these valuable resources, i.e., the birds and their habitats.

#### References

Hikes of El Hierro. http://senderosdelhierro.com/elhierro-en.php

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# Cultural Seascapes in the 'Sea of Calms' and La Restinga Coast

Raquel De la Cruz-Modino, Cristina Piñeiro-Corbeira, Shankar Aswani, Carla González-Cruz, David Domínguez, Paula Ordóñez García, Agustín Santana-Talavera, and José Pascual-Fernández

#### Abstract

El Hierro has been characterized by the balance between human development and environmental sustainability. The island was historically far from the mass tourism developments dominant on the other Canary Islands. Tourism accommodations in El Hierro are few compared to more developed coastal areas in the Archipelago, and recreational activities are mainly linked to cultural and natural sites and resources. This chapter focuses on La Restinga fishing village and its coasts, where the 'Sea of Calms' and one multiple-use Marine Reserve (MR) are located, both of which became popular over the last decade. The tourist development experience has promoted a new way of looking at the sea and conceptualizing its

Instituto Universitario de Investigación Social y Turismo.

Universidad de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
C. González-Cruz e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
D. Domínguez e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
A. Santana-Talavera e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
J. Pascual-Fernández e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
C. Piñeiro-Corbeira BioCost Research Group, Universidad de La Coruña, A Coruña, Spain e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Present Address: S. Aswani Departments of Anthropology and Ichthyology and Fisheries Science, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
P. Ordóñez García Green Shark, La Restinga, Spain e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
habitats and populations. In 2014, after the submarine volcano eruption occurred in 2011, we estimated that at least 25,391 dives had been carried out in the diving spots established by the MR and other diving sites close to La Restinga. Despite the difficulties experienced after the volcano eruption, a unique imaginaire has been consolidated, thanks to the image of the island's exclusive nature and iconic elements. In addition, the rapid recovery of the destination is an excellent example of how the tourism system can adapt and incorporate unexpected events such as volcanic eruptions.

#### Keywords

Tourism . Seascape . Cultural landscape . Submarine volcano eruption

#### 1 Introduction

Marine and coastal seascapes are undoubtedly linked to historical human developments, including a long history of human-environmental interactions across time and space and the accompanying footprints of human activities in the marine environment. Such deep historical interactions have been recorded archaeologically and ethnographically in several locations in the world, including Australia (McNiven 2018), the USA (Erlandson and Jones 2002), Chile (Latorre et al. 2017), and the Canary Islands (Spain) with aboriginal populations (Rodríguez Santana 1996). In the European context, remarkably, the coasts of southern Andalusia (Spain) are home to so-called 'Corrales de Pesca' (e.g., Florido del Corral 2011, 2014), which exemplify the richness of cultural seascapes that encompass the complexity and diversity of human and environmental relations. They include, but are not limited to, local and territorial knowledge, ichthyological knowledge, and issues of historical-cultural identity related to anthropogenic structures. According to the 2004 European

© The Author(s) 2023 105

J. Dóniz-Páez and N. M. Pérez (eds.), El Hierro Island Global Geopark, Geoheritage, Geoparks and Geotourism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07289-5\_10

R. De la Cruz-Modino (&) . C. González-Cruz . D. Domínguez . A. Santana-Talavera . J. Pascual-Fernández

Landscape Convention, landscape concerns natural, cultural, and anthropogenic components as well as their interconnections. Thus, the historical and current forms of human development in different areas and the socio-economic relationships play a role in the cultural foundation of understanding the constitution of cultural seascapes. These undoubtedly include the socio-cultural processes related to leisure time that have conditioned the perception of seascapes (Rodríguez-Darias et al. 2016), incorporating the tourist gaze (Urry and Larsen 2011), and recreational interest and uses (Piñeiro-Corbeira et al. 2020).

In Island contexts, seascape has been regarded as a limiting factor and a part of a more extensive territory in which the sea belongs to the same space as the cultural and economic interconnection of people living on the island (Hau'ofa 1994). Moreover, besides island size and orography, seascape determines the level of openness in which islands may also be exposed to cultural influences from a wider variety of sources (Pungetti 2017), including island colonization, ecological adaptation, and the modern context of economic development such as tourism. Of course, the territory is rarely homogeneous (Crowley 1989), and human adaptations and resource usage may vary, resulting from various cultural seascapes in different island contexts. In the Canary Islands, the linkages with distant cultures date back at some level to the Phoenician-Punics, first, and the Romans later (del Arco Aguilar 2021). It is unclear yet how deep these ancient relationships were. However, the Spaniard conquest (1402–1496) opened the Archipelago to the European trade, converting some islands into a strategic hub for trade between the American, African and European continents (Vieira 2004; Macías 2009), promoting the introduction and development of some agricultural products, especially sugar (Macías 2009). For centuries their ports were an obligatory stop on all routes to the Southern Hemisphere. Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria ports became essential coal deposits in the Atlantic, particularly during the nineteenth century (Suárez Bosa 2004). Later, the Archipelago went into the health and tourism businesses. Several places on the islands became centers for patients and rich families from Europe (González Lemus and Miranda Bejarano 2002). Marine tourism, including cruises and coastal recreational activities focused on the sea and sun resources, increased and intensified until well into the second half of the twentieth century. Currently, the European commodities demands are still present in large coastal areas and Canarian landscapes. Tourist resorts have occupied the seascape since the 1960s and intensified in the 1980s. The Canary Islands has one of the highest population densities in Spain, and most of the population lives on the coast. Some coastal tourist areas have densities similar to Central-European cities. Most of the 415,287 regulated accommodations in 2017 were concentrated on the four islands with a consolidated tourism sector (Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote) (Simancas Cruz and

Peñarrubia Zaragoza 2019). In contrast to these macro processes in some of the islands in the archipelago, El Hierro has been characterized by the balance between human development and environmental sustainability. El Hierro's port was built during the second half of the twentieth century. According to the official tourist accounts, El Hierro has traditionally received fewer tourists than other islands (e.g. 268,405 passengers arrived at the airport in 2019 of whom approximately 133,325 were tourists, according to the Canary Islands Institute of Statistics1 ). The island was not included in the aforementioned trans-oceanic trade routes and was far from the tourist developmental movements on the other islands. Tourism accommodations are few compared to more developed coastal areas in the Archipelago. In 2019 there were only 23,721 travellers staying in tourist establishments in El Hierro.2 Recreational activities are mainly linked to cultural and natural sites and resources, tangible and intangible ones. On the southern tip of the island, the Marine Reserve (MR) 'Punta de La Restinga-Mar de Las Calmas' (La Restinga Point-Sea of Calms) was declared as MR with fishing interest (Jentoft et al. 2012). This chapter focuses on La Restinga and its coasts, where the 'Sea of Calms' and the above-mentioned MR are located (Fig. 1), both of which became the most popular coastal tourist destination in El Hierro over the last decades (De la Cruz Modino et al. 2010). The Sea of Calms takes its name from the, almost year-round, excellent weather conditions in these waters, due to the protection from the dominant winds provided by the island's mountains. The Sea of Calms extends from La Restinga on the east to the Punta Orchilla Lighthouse, the westernmost place in Spain.

#### 2 La Restinga and the Sea of Calms

There was no stable population living in La Restinga until the middle of the twentieth century, although some historians have pointed out that the pier was used as early as 1922 (Acosta Padrón 2003). Initially, some families from the nearby farming village of El Pinar used to go fishing to La Restinga certain times of the year, but it was a temporary endeavour. They used to sleep in caves, between their small boats, or in small huts made with branches and a lichen called 'orchilla' (Galván Tudela 1997). In the 1940s, some

<sup>1</sup> Source: Canary Islands Institute of Statistics. Canary Islands Regional

Government. 2000–2019. Service Sector. 2 However, there is an extensive parallel tourist accommodation offer among second residences and holiday-houses, employed by tourists without being officially counted.

Fig. 1 La Restinga and the Sea of Calms

small-scale fishers from La Gomera (Canary Islands) arrived at La Restinga, and soon established the first permanent settlement. The reasons for these families to move to La Restinga are linked to Francoist repression (Pascual-Fernández et al. 2018) and the conditions in La Gomera (López Felipe 2002). On La Restinga coast and the Sea of Calms (Fig. 1), the good weather allowed fishing throughout the year, and the early permanent fishing settlers could exchange seafood for crops and livestock products with El Pinar and, over time, establish family ties (Pascual-Fernández et al. 2018).

According to the EU definition, fishing activity in La Restinga can be termed as 'small-scale coastal fishing' carried out by fishing vessels with an overall length under 12 m and not using towed gear (Pascual-Fernández et al. 2020), even though many fishers switch their fishing gear from season to season depending on the available species. They employ very selective fishing gear, mainly hand-held artifacts such as canes, hooks and lines, and harpoons and traps for morays or shrimps. Fishers from La Restinga fish mainly within a mile offshore and return to the homeport every day and combine demersal (e.g. blacktail comber, groupers, alfonsinos) and pelagic fisheries (e.g. skipjack tuna, bluefin tuna), especially for tuna, which is sometimes caught around other islands. Tuna fisheries have been relevant for the entire Canarian fleet and promoted the development of the fishing industry in the southwest coasts of the entire archipelago during the past century. At the end of the 1950s, some tuna canning companies became interested in La Restinga, and began buying local catches and installed an ice factory (De la Cruz Modino 2012). Despite the difficulties that accompany the marketing of artisanal fishery products, the fishermen set up a local cooperative with the support of the government of the island (Cabildo Insular) in 1990 (Galván Tudela 1990), which manages most of the products today (Pascual-Fernández et al. 2018). Besides tuna fishing, fishers from La Restinga catch wahoo with harpoons, a legacy of their Gomera origins. These fishers have also developed specific techniques, such as the 'puyón', which is used to target parrotfish (Sparisoma cretense). Fishers snorkel around the rocky bottoms to target individual fish using just a line and a hook, taking advantage of the clear waters.

Migration is part of the history of La Restinga, not just because of its origins. During the second half of the

twentieth century, many islanders migrated to other islands and to South America, especially Venezuela. Some of them later returned but, generally, not to the primary sector. Many migrants built apartments, as did others living in other islands. One inmigrant family began promoting scuba diving among the German market, even though the airport was still rudimental and had a small passenger terminal until the 1990s. Later, the scuba-diving businesses expanded, led mainly by foreign families. A generous offer of fresh-fish restaurants consolidated thanks to the local fleet and the involvement of fishing households and women especially (Fig. 2). These changes rendered the community less dependent on fishing, but they maintained the fishing culture and traditions. Since 2000, the population of La Restinga has increased slightly from 443 to 631 inhabitants, 346 men and 285 women.3 In addition to socio-demographic and territorial change, the tourist development promoted a new way of looking at the sea and conceptualizing its habitats and populations under a new gaze that seeks recreation in marine contemplation. However, these two ways of considering the ecosystem, productive and contemplative, have not been antagonistic in La Restinga. On the contrary, the local population, which maintains critical control over the coastal resources (partly thanks to the declaration of the MR), has established synergies with the service sector, taking advantage of the opportunity opened by tourism development. This has helped give stability to the marketing of different fish products and helped overcome the historical imbalance between men and women in the local population, through the creation of new employment possibilities (De la Cruz Modino and Pascual-Fernández 2005).

#### 3 The Marine Reserve and the Marine Tourism Development

The Sea of Calms is a fragile ecosystem with a high biodiversity, exceptional underwater visibility, and a warm sea surface temperature, making it potentially a great tourism destination, especially for scuba divers (Pascual-Fernández et al. 2015). Some subtropical species are the spotfin burrfish (Chilomycterus reticulatus) (Fig. 3f), different rays (e.g., Mobula tarapacana, Myliobatis aquila, Dasyatis pastinaca, Taeniura grabata) (Fig. 3b), and sharks such as the angel shark (Squatina squatina) and the smalltooth sand tiger shark (Odontaspis ferox) (Fig. 3h) occasionally seen in the Sea of Calms (Barría et al. 2018). Also, sea turtles (mainly Caretta caretta) (Fig. 3a) and various marine mammals such as dolphins (e.g., Tursiops truncatus, Stenella frontalis) (Fig. 3e), Bryde's whale (Balaenoptera brydei), and two beaked whale species, Cuvier's (Ziphius cavirostris) and Blainville's (Mesoplodon densirostris) (Arranz et al. 2014) are common along these coasts. The narrow underwater shelf, with caves, cliffs, and rocky and sandy habitats, add to the spectacular seascape. Some benthic species, such as groupers (Epinephelus marginatus, Mycteroperca fusca) (Fig. 3c), and the common spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas) (Fig. 3d), inhabit the rocky and sandy bottoms. La Restinga hosts a statue of a famous grouper called 'Pancho', who died in 2011 and has become a symbol of the natural marine landscape of the area. Before its death, fishers and tourism operators reached an agreement not to fish for groupers, highlighting the importance of Pancho for the destination.

There are currently 15 marine tourism companies in El Hierro, offering various products (e.g., scuba diving, recreational fisheries, leisure). We have identified 34 marine tourism products, which focus on multiple coastal resources. Most companies and activities are located in La Restinga and the MR and work year-round.

The MR was declared in 1996, covering 750 ha, with the support and active involvement of local small-scale fishers and scientists from the University of La Laguna (Tenerife). We consider this MR as an example of a co-governance system, where fishers, scientists, and government cooperated to support the sustainable development of small-scale fisheries and the conservation of marine resources (Pascual-Fernández et al. 2015) (Table 1).

In 2011, in the middle of the 2008–2014 economic crisis in Spain the underwater volcano Tagoro erupted giving rise to a novel shallow submarine volcano, seriously affecting marine life, as well as fishing and other marine activities along the coast of El Hierro. In the immediate wake of the volcanic eruption, La Restinga villagers were temporarily evacuated, and professional fishers abandoned all fishing activities from October 2011 to March 2013. However, recreational fishing remained active on parts of the island. Studies from the University of La Laguna showed the area has recovered (Lazzari 2015; Mendoza et al. 2020), and commercial fishers agree. Between 2013 and 2014, fishers came back to their main traditional small-scale fisheries and fishing grounds (Piñeiro-Corbeira et al. 2022). Also, marine tourism activity in the area entirely recovered (Fig. 4). In 2014, we estimated that at least 25,391 dives had been carried out in the diving spots established by the MR and other diving sites close to La Restinga. We also estimated that 2621 diving tourists arrived, spending 609,384 euro in scuba-diving alone during that year (Ordoñez García 2014).

Despite the difficulties experienced after the volcano eruption, a unique imaginaire (Dela Santa and Tiatco 2019) has been consolidated, thanks to the image of the island's exclusive nature and iconic elements, such as Pancho the

<sup>3</sup> Source: National Institute of Statistics. Spanish Government. 2020 Demography and population. Register. Population by municipalities. Nomenclator. Santa Cruz of Tenerife.

Fig. 2 Territorial development in La Restinga. Source Grafcan

can adapt and incorporate unexpected events. An example of such capacity is the increase in sports events along the Sea of Calms, such as the 'Travesía a nado Volcán las Calmas' (Las Calmas Volcano Swimming Tour). This event, unlike the

grouper and the MR itself. The cultural landscape is created through a seascape that combines two visions: the local view and the tourist gaze. In addition, the rapid recovery of the destination is an excellent example of how the tourism system

Fig. 3 Marine habitats and species in the Sea of Calms. Source Buceo El Bajón

Source De la Cruz Modino and Pascual-Fernández (2013)

traditional Open Foto-Sub, is available to all participants, not only divers.

As the situation stabilised, the Spanish government proposed the creation of a Marine National Park in the Sea of Calms along the affected coasts. The proposed area included two existing protected areas, one Natura 2000 site and one Special Protection Area (SPA). The proposal focused on the protection of the volcanic cone as well as known marine

Fig. 4 Small-scale fisheries and marine tourism activities in La Restinga and the Sea of Calms. Source: Buceo El Bajón (a, c, e, g, h); Manu Machín Quintero (b, f); Raquel De la Cruz Modino (d)

mammal habitats. Commercial fishers supported the proposal through their cofradía (fishers' organization) (Bavinck et al. 2015). However, the recreational fishers opposed it because they felt that a National Park would restrict recreational fishing. Since then, conflicts between recreational fisher groups and small-scale fishers became acrimonious (Pascual-Fernández et al. 2015), although different stakeholders have tried to mediate. Some of them appeared in the local marine governing arena for the first time, such as NGOs that did not take part in the MR creation. The situation, apart from the conflict, is symptomatic of how the cultural landscape is changing with the entry of so many new actors on the territory. The park as projected does not focus on simply protecting fishery resources, as the MR intended, but rather on 'marine resources'. It is also not intended as a fisheries management tool, but rather from the perspective of marine governance, which affects many more public and private agents from the civil society, such as new administrations, not only the traditional fishing responsible. Thus, the protection of the Sea of Calms is not just about the management of fisheries but about marine governance as a whole.

#### 4 Concluding: Cultural Landscape Besides Natural and Fishing Heritage

The landscape, at the intersection between nature and culture, both past and future, as Pungetti and Makhzoumi stated, has a discursive elasticity that encourages its use as a framework for an elastic culture (Pungetti 2017). The Sea of Calms and La Restinga coasts are undoubtedly linked to the fishing tradition, which constitutes the 'sense of place' (Galván Tudela 2003) of this village, which was built in the twentieth century around fishing families that depended on the natural resources of this area and pelagic fish. This natural landscape is particularly fragile due to the small submarine platform surrounding the Island, so fishers are conscious of the need to secure these resources. The MR was built upon this need, but at the same time facilitating the preservation of a submarine and cultural beautiful seascape for visitors, encompassing traditional fishing activities together with marine and scuba diving tourism while securing the natural values of the area (Pascual-Fernández et al. 2018). However, the experience of La Restinga and the Sea of Calms also reveals the active role played by the visitor's gaze, with which locals cohabit. Along with fishers and tourists, new stakeholders and new images (Chuenpagdee et al. 2020) emerge on the Sea of Calms and its resources. As well as environmental emergencies, especially climate change and its effects, including ocean warming and marine ecosystems collapse (Bulleri et al. 2020) may leave their footprint on the cultural landscape. These facts highlight the seascape's dynamism and stakeholders' diversity. The seascape of La Restinga plays an essential role in the provision of cultural services and, despite the difficulties experienced after the submarine volcano eruption, this small-scale fishing village has been consolidated in the tourism market by taking advantage of its remoteness, pristine nature, and exclusivity values.

Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Cajacanarias Foundation and Fundación Bancaria "La Caixa" [grant number 2017REC23], the Ramón Areces Foundation through the XVII Call for Social Research Grant [grant number CISP17A5887]. This work was also founded by the INTURMAR project [grant number ProID2017010128] and the START-BLUE project [grant number ProID2021010029] integrated into the 'Smart Specialization Strategy of the Canary Islands RIS-3 co-financed by the Operational Program FEDER Canarias 2014–2020' from the Canary Islands Research Agency (ACIISI). RCM, JPF and AST would also like to acknowledge the Macarofood project (Interreg-MAC/2.3d/015), with the support of the European Regional Development Fund. We also would like to thank Mel Cosentino, Manu Machín Quintero and Buceo "El Bajón" for collaborating in the development of this chapter.

#### References

of fisheries and aquaculture, vol 7. MARE Publication Series. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 219–240

challenges. In: Pascual-Fernández JJ, Pita C, Bavinck M (eds) Small-scale fisheries in Europe: status, resilience and governance. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 253–281

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

# Submarine Eruption of El Hierro, Geotourism and Geoparks

William Hernández Ramos, Victor Ortega, Monika Przeor, Nemesio M. Pérez, and Pedro A. Hernández

#### Abstract

The year 2011 remained in the memory of the residents of the island of El Hierro (Canary Island, Spain) because of the volcanic episode that originated in its vicinity. From the beginning of the first precursory signs in July 2011, the island's inhabitants reminded that the islands' geological origin is volcanic and, what are the consequent threats of living on them. The eruption, however, has occurred in the marine realm leaving the only threats to the population, strong earthquakes, and diffuse emission of volcanic gases. The Tagoro eruption has not caused any loss of human life, however, its major impact indirectly affected the economy of the residents of the village of La Restinga, in whose vicinity the volcano originated. From a scientific point of view, the eruption has provided an enormous field of observation of the volcanic phenomenon. With the information obtained during the monitoring of the volcano, there is more insight into possible future eruptions. A volcanic product that has never been seen before (Restringolites) was found thanks to this eruption, which is why this volcano was so particular from a petrological point of view. The eruption affected the island's economy, and it also had negative consequences on Herreño tourism. The inhabi-

W. Hernández Ramos (&) . V. Ortega . N. M. Pérez . P. A. Hernández

Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands (INVOLCAN), Granadilla de Abona, Spain e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
V. Ortega e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
N. M. Pérez e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
P. A. Hernández e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
M. Przeor . N. M. Pérez . P. A. Hernández Institute of Technology and Renewable Energy (ITER), Granadilla de Abona, Spain e-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
tants of the island, wanting to recover the pre-eruptive economic levels and attract tourists, who, due to the false catastrophic descriptions about the eruption, stopped coming, have taken decisive steps. El Hierro, having peculiar geomorphological and geological characteristics, was the perfect candidate to obtain the Geopark status. In this way, the island of El Hierro, being the Biosphere Reserve since 2000, became also the Geopark since 2014.

#### Keywords

El Hierro . Historic eruption . Geopark . Restinga . Tagoro

#### 1 Underwater Eruption of El Hierro

The submarine eruption of El Hierro at the end of 2011 is the first of the twenty-first century in the Canary Islands and is the only one in historical period on the island. The eruption of the Tagoro volcano was an eruptive event very well documented by multiple agencies (e.g. Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (INVOLCAN), Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN), Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (IGME), Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), etc.) and managed by Civil Protection with the aim of reducing damage to the population. The eruption originated on the seabed, at a depth of 400 m, in the vicinity of the fishing village of La Restinga (Fig. 1). The economic activity of this area is based on the primary and tertiary sectors, with fishing and diving tourism being the most developed activities.n. However, this volcanic eruption in the vicinity of this area so closely linked to the sea caused direct and indirect consequences on the economy of the residents of La Restinga. The economy of the residents of La Restinga. Even so, thanks to technological and scientific advances, excellent measurements have been obtained before and during the underwater eruption. The locations of the

J. Dóniz-Páez and N. M. Pérez (eds.), El Hierro Island Global Geopark, Geoheritage, Geoparks and Geotourism, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07289-5\_11

Fig. 1 Location of the Tagoro Volcano south of La Restinga in El Hierro

earthquakes, the deformation of the island, the values of diffuse outgassing of volcanic gases, thermal images and bathymetric representations, allowed us to estimate with great precision the volume of the emitted material. In this sense, although the volcanic hazards linked to the eruption (seismicity, terrain deformation and gas emission) generated risks that affected to a greater or lesser extent the Herreña population, there were no human casualties.

The aim of this chapter is to analyze how the eruption developed from the pre-eruptive to the post-eruptive period and the importance of this volcanic event for the development of the Herreño geopark.

#### 1.1 Pre-Eruptive Period

The pre-eruptive period of the submarine eruption of the island of El Hierro lasted 83 days, starting on 17 July 2011 after the onset of the seismic shock recorded by the geophysical network of the National Geographic Institute (IGN) (Padilla et al. 2013; Pérez-Torrado et al. 2012a, b; Domínguez Cerdeña et al. 2018; Melián et al. 2014; López et al. 2012; Hernández et al. 2013; Pérez et al. 2012, 2014, 2015; Padrón et al. 2013; Ibáñez et al. 2012; Carracedo et al. 2012; Rivera et al. 2013, Sandoval-Velasquez et al. 2021; Rodríguez-Losada et al. 2015; García-Yeguas et al. 2014; Blanco et al. 2015). The seismicity produced had a migratory character (Fig. 2). Throughout the 3-month pre-eruptive period, 12,000 seismic events occurred, migrating in a pattern from the north (El Golfo) to the south (El Julan and the Mar de las Calmas) of the island indicating the movement of magma at depth and the search for the weakest pathways in the crust to emerge (Ibáñez et al. 2012).

Together with seismicity, the IGN recorded ground deformation and an increase in endogenous gas emissions (Pérez et al. 2014; Melián et al. 2014). However, seismicity starred the pre-eruptive period, with earthquakes reaching magnitudes of up to 4.4, creating uncertainty about the place of origin of the new volcano due to its constant spatial migration. On October 8, the largest seismic event in the pre-eruptive stage originated at a depth of 15 km and about 3–4 km from La Restinga. This earthquake was caused by the opening of a hydraulic fracture when magma was injected into the cortical levels (Pérez-Torrado et al. 2012a, b). Some authors claim that the beginning of the eruption was on 10 October, when the harmonic tremor started (Martí

Fig. 2 Location of seismic events recorded by IGN (www.ign.es) up to 5 March 2012 on the island of El Hierro. The colors show different seismic phases described by Ibáñez et al. (2012); the star in red shows the location of the submarine eruption. Source Melián et al. (2014)

et al. 2013). However, the first visible evidence of the eruption appeared on October 12 (Pérez et al. 2014). They are the change in color of the seawater, which went from light green to dark brown in the vicinity of La Restinga, as a result of the chemical interaction of seawater with the discharge of hydrothermal fluids at high temperature and magmatic gases. This volcanic manifestation was called the mancha (Pérez et al. 2014). The new volcano (Fig. 1) under construction started to be installed on the southern slope of the submarine base of El Hierro.

The main consequences for the population were due to the multiple earthquakes and their high magnitudes. In this sense, on September 23rd the yellow warning level was established in the traffic light which was composed of three colours: red, yellow and green. The most significant measures were the closure of the Los Roquillos tunnel (between the municipalities of La Frontera and El Valverde) and the evacuation of La Restinga. However, in early October 2011 as seismic activity experienced a decrease in frequency and magnitude, the residents of La Restinga returned to their homes. On October 8, 2011 a volcano-tectonic event of higher magnitude (4.4 Ml) occurred and two days later the volcanic tremor started (Ibáñez et al. 2012). The major seismic events caused landslides, rock falls and fear among the population, however, they did not cause major damage among the island's residents. However, the day before the eruption, the residents of La Restinga were evacuated to Valverde as a precaution and to improve the management of the volcanic crisis. volcanic crisis.

#### 1.2 Course—Characteristics of the Volcanic Event

During the eruptive stage from October 12, 2011 to March 5, 2012 (206 days) a total of 2500 earthquakes and harmonic tremor (www.ign.es) were recorded. After the start of the eruption, the number of earthquakes was decreasing as the energy accumulated by the magmatic intrusion at depth was released through the eruption. However, on October 20, in the area of El Golfo, the largest number of events and the highest magnitudes were recorded, accompanied by a greater release of pyroclastic material from the eruptive source. These events were interpreted at first as a possible opening of a new eruptive mouth in the north of the island, but no other eruption occurred in the vicinity of it (Perez-Torrado et al. 2012a, b).

\* The ground deformation experienced as a result of the eruption was of the order of 40 mm in the vertical component and 50 mm in the horizontal component (www.ign.es), with the largest deformation recorded at La Frontera (Fig. 3), with intrusion volumes for the year 2011 estimated at 2.1 107 m3 (Pérez et al. 2014).

The geochemical data also indicated an increase in the diffuse emission of CO-type volcanic gases2 (Fig. 4), H2S, and a significant change in 3 He/He4 ratio and 222 Rn activity values (Melián et al. 2014).

In the early stages of the eruption, floating pyroclasts appeared on the sea surface. These volcanic bombs and slags, which were seen for the first time on 15 October 2011, were named Restingolites (Perez-Torrado et al. 2012a, b). It is the first time that pyroclast with white, siliceous cores and black basanitic crust has been studied and documented (Perez-Torrado et al. 2012a, b). Its peculiarity is due to the enormous chemical contrast represented by the product itself. This material emerged from the volcano to the water surface in the first eruptive phases and, contrary to materials with basaltic components, floated in the sea. After the first week of the eruption, the Restingolites stopped appearing on the water surface and on the nearby beaches, and another volcanic product, the "lava baloons" or hollow volcanic bombs, were found inside them (Perez-Torrado et al. 2012a, b). Their collection was complicated because the seawater invaded the interior of the pyroclasts and they lost their buoyancy. This type of volcanic product has been previously documented during submarine eruptions (Clague et al. 2000; Gaspar et al. 2003). In addition to the volcanic materials emitted, discoloration of the water due to gases from the volcanic activity itself was evident, discoloring to different shades of brown, red and green (Fig. 5).

On November 8, 2011 the largest earthquake associated with the eruption of La Restinga was recorded; 2 km from the north coast of the island, with a depth of 21 km and Fig. 3 Time series of GPS coordinates for the FRON station from 2011 to the end of 2013, whose reference station is located at GMAS (Maspalomas). Solid red circles represent the elevation determined by the IGN (www. ign.es); first row- horizontal displacement in East–West component; second row-horizontal displacement in North–South component; third row- vertical displacement. Source Pérez et al. (2014)

magnitude 4.6Ml (Ibáñez et al. 2012). Since November 24, the volcanic activity had a decrease, noting a drop in seismicity. The newly formed volcano was emitting pillow lavas at depth along with pyroclasts. From 13 February 2012 the tremor was decreasing in amplitude and volcanic activity was markedly reduced, indicating that the end of the eruption was approaching (Ibáñez et al. 2012). After several days without apparent volcanic activity, on March 5, 2012 the IGN reported the end of the eruption.

The IEO made a bathymetric sweep in which the geomorphology of the slope before and after the volcano emerged can be appreciated. The IEO vessel Ramón Margalef, in the last bathymetric campaign, established that the volcanic cone was 88 m below sea level and the volume of the emitted material was 145 \* 106 m3 (Perez-Torrado et al. 2012a, b).

The peculiarities of the volcanic event of El Hierro are marked mainly by the volcanic products originated in it as well as by the migratory activity of the seismicity.

During this stage, the main concerns of the authorities were the explosiveness of the eruption as the volcanic cone grew and approached the water surface. The eruption may have been explosive (surtseian activity) and considered hydromagmatic due to the contact of magma with water. In

Fig. 4 CO flux maps 2 of El Hierro Island constructed from an average of 100 samples using the sGs method. Figure Melián et al. (2014)

the case that the eruption had emerged, it could have violently released gases and could have been explosive, so estimating the height of the new volcano with bathymetric studies was of vital importance.

#### 1.3 Post Eruption

The eruption of the Tagoro volcano did not produce any fatalities despite the fact that it was located 1 km off the

Fig. 5 Photograph taken at the source of the submarine volcano by INVOLCAN scientific staff. INVOLCAN SCIENTIFIC STAFF

coast of the village of La Restinga. Seismicity lasted until the following years with high activity and deformation continued until 2013. A decrease in the amount of endogenous gases emitted into the atmosphere was observed. However, this fissural eruption could have had a greater impact on the population and their property if it had had an explosive activity.

#### 2 The Geopark of El Hierro

#### 2.1 Tourism in the Context of the Submarine Eruption

The submarine eruption of the Tagoro volcano had, as has been pointed out, important consequences on the Herreña economy and especially on tourism (Arístegui 2015). During the underwater eruption the main source of the island's economy suffered a severe blow. In December 2011, figures showed that 70% of businesses were closed due to the crisis (https://elpais.com/sociedad/2012/01/19/actualidad/

1327003592\_267319.html). The figures provided by the Canary Islands Institute of Statistics (ISTAC) prove this. Taking as a reference the year before the eruption, the occupancy rate data for this municipality in October 2010 was 14.5%, in the same month but a year later, when the eruption occurred, the occupancy rate fell to 0.7%. This led to the declaration of a state of social emergency in the three Herreño municipalities and even caused emigration to other islands. Although there were public voices from the locals saying that the volcano was not dangerous, fear and uncertainty set in and caused the unprecedented collapse of this economic activity on the island (https://elpais.com/sociedad/ 2012/01/19/actualidad/1327003592\_267319.html).

This hard time was fostered, in part, by the media's lack of knowledge of this type of event. Parallel to the eruption, there was intense media pressure that caused a false level of alarm to be perceived. In addition, social networks were the focus of hoaxes for visitors, as falsely catastrophic situations were described. These events caused serious damage to the image of El Hierro and caused the tourists present to leave the island (López Moreno 2013). So much so, that the occupancy rate for the year 2011 suffered a slight decline of 1%, compared to the previous year. However, the crisis was even greater the following year, as this percentage fell from 18% in 2011 to 13% in 2012 (ISTAC). If we consider the activity rate for the municipality of El Pinar, to which La Restinga belongs, during the third quarter of 2011 it can be seen that it suffered a decrease of 3.78% compared to the previous quarter of the same year. This is the second largest decline in the activity rate only surpassed by the world crisis COVID-19 (ISTAC).

The underwater eruption caused diving and fishing activities to come to a standstill. The eruption caused sharp temperature gradients, acidification of the water, sulphur and iron concentration (Arístegui 2015). In this context, the Cabildo of El Hierro wanted to reactivate the tourism sector and when the risk traffic light went down to yellow, it wanted to install three viewpoints of geological interest for the observation of the eruption. This was intended to counteract the massive cancellations of bookings in the last months of 2011 (https://www.hosteltur.com/151880\_hierropromociona-fenomeno-volcanico-comom-nuevo-atractivoturistico-html) through geotourism.

#### 2.2 The Birth of the Geopark of El Hierro

When the eruption ended on March 5, 2012, a new era for tourism on the island began at the same time. The actions that were carried out had as a maxim to take advantage of this fact to relaunch the visit of people. It was then that the idea of turning the island into a geopark was born. This management figure is promoted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and focuses on a sustained local development that is allowed to manage both cultural and natural heritage, with special emphasis on the volcanic geodiversity of the island (www.elhierrogeoparque.es).

The creation of the Geopark of El Hierro was included in the planning of medium and long term actions to boost the battered economy of El Hierro after the eruption of the submarine eruption. The actions were agreed in several areas such as the Council of Ministers of 28 October 2011, or orders PRE/293636/2011 and IET/460/2012 in which, among other issues, sectoral measures were established to support the promotion of tourism, industrial and business revitalization and the promotion of Information Technology and Communication in El Hierro. The aim of the official bodies was to achieve economic sustainability through the "El Hierro Geopark" brand with initiatives by both public and private business entities (Poch et al. 2015).

The Cabildo of El Hierro and the Ministry of Industry, Energy and Tourism agreed and developed a proposal for the candidacy of El Hierro to join the European Geoparks Network. This proposal was presented in Lesvos (Greece) from 3 to 14 September 2012 and organized by the University of the Aegean with the collaboration of the Global and European Geoparks Network (www.europapress. es/epsocial/responsables/noticia-herro-presienta-portugalcandidatura-entrar-red-europea-geoparques-20120919180113. html).

The process was long and the premises that had to be fulfilled were the following (https://proxecto.xeoparquecaboortegal.gal/ es/que-es-que-es-un-geoparque/): That it was a geographically

unified territory, with unique geological references and with a certain visual attraction and content for visitors. That there is an entity with management capacity in charge of carrying out an integral strategy related to the conservation of resources, research, education, tourism and economic and social development. That this strategy is in place even before the presentation of the candidacy, with actions to enhance the value of geology and measures to ensure maximum social participation, since geoparks should be built from the bottom up. That there are sufficient economic resources to support the action plan, which can then be carried out directly or with the collaboration of companies and organizations in the territory.

The administrations carried out different improvement works with the aim of responding to the premises to be fulfilled. Among others, the rehabilitation of the Cueva de la Pólvora, the recovery of the Bien de Interés Cultural Fuente de Isora, the opening of the volcanic tube of the Cueva de Guinea, the improvement of the visitor centre Árbol Garoé or the reopening of the Parque Cultural El Julan, with guided routes with ethnographic, historical and geological information. With all this, on 23 September 2014, more than two years after submitting its candidacy, El Hierro was declared a Geopark, thus becoming the first geopark in the Canary Islands. UNESCO took into account several aspects for its inclusion in the European and global network of geoparks, among which stand out that it was a Biosphere Reserve since 2000, that it has seven protected natural areas (Nature Reserves of Mencafete, Roques de Salmor, Tibataje, Protected Landscapes of Ventejís and Timijiraque, Rural Park of Frontera and Natural Monument of Las Playas) that represent 60% of the territory or the experience gained during the crisis of the submarine eruption (www.rtve.es/noticias/ 20140923/isla-hierro-declarada-geoparque-unesco/1016824. shtml).

#### 2.3 A New Era for El Hierro

One of the main boosts for the economy of El Hierro after the submarine eruption was its declaration as a geopark and the promotion of volcanic geotourism on the island. The geopark area covers the entire emerged island and about 300 km2 of sea area around El Hierro. Thus, in addition to including the large landslides that are the protagonists in the definition of the geomorphology of El Hierro, the submarine eruption of the Tagoro volcano (Poch et al. 2015) is also included as one of the geozones of the geopark. All these initiatives and the passage of time have made diving regain strength through activities that have been developed for several decades, such as the Open Fotosub underwater photography contest. Likewise, from the public administrations, initiatives were carried out that also had to do in some way with the observation or study of underwater geological activity. For this reason, the Biosphere, Geology and Geopark Interpretation Centres were built (Poch et al. 2015).

#### 3 Conclusion

The Tagoro eruption between 2011 and 2012 in El Hierro, being submarine in nature, did not cause major damage, although it could have been disastrous if it had originated on land. The only volcanic hazards that took place during the pre- and eruptive period were earthquakes of greater magnitude, however, they did not cause major damage to the population. The deformation of the terrain and the geochemical activity of the gases did not pose a problem for the citizens of the island. More scientific interest was aroused by the volcanic product never seen before-Restingolites, as well as the fact that it was the last volcanic eruption in the Canary Islands for 40 years and the first historical eruption in El Hierro.

On the other hand, the submarine eruption had a significant impact on the Herreña economy. The employment rate fell both for the year as a whole and during the month in which the eruption began. After the end of the eruption there was a turning point that changed the conception of the island and of tourism on El Hierro. In this context, the possibility of turning the island into a Geopark was raised. The attractiveness of its volcanic nature was an important factor, but the fact that the eruption took place below the surface was a major factor, as it added to the attraction it already had for diving activities prior to the eruption. The administrations at both regional and national level were coordinated so that the island ended up being part of the network of geoparks around the world, and this fact was ratified in 2014. In this way El Hierro became the first geopark in the Canary Islands, thus changing the image of the island forever.

#### References

system: relation to the 2011–2012 submarine eruption. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 119:6976–6991. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014 JB011013

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creative commons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

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2.3.7. Statistical Analysis

The statistical analysis was performed to establish the effect of the GR content on the properties of the PLA/PBAT matrix. The significant differences in all the properties were statistically assessed at 95% confidence level according to Tukey's test using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) by means of OriginPro2018 software (OriginLab, Northampton, MA, USA).