The theory of quantum mechanics also violates Newton's second law of motion. This law, which states that every action is accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction, is used to predict the behavior of objects in the macro world. At the subatomic level, particle behavior is impossible to predict due to nonlocal interactions [54]. In quantum physics, statistical probability replaces Newtonian predictability [57].

Newtonian physics assumes the physical world is objective. At the macro level of classical physics, observation does not change the nature of what is being observed. This is not the case at the subatomic level where human observation influences subatomic particle behavior. For example, the expectations of the scientist appear to influence how subatomic particles behave [58]. At the subatomic level, Newtonian objectivity is replaced by quantum subjectivity. Subatomic interactions are not only unexplainable and unpredictable, but they are also, in some yet unidentifiable way, affected by the intentions of their observers [59].

It is apparent that the basic principles of quantum mechanics violate the laws of classical Newtonian physics. Newton's laws, however, still apply in the observable realm of everyday experience where quantum effects are suppressed, or, at least, camouflaged, by the Principle of Correspondence [57]. This principle, based on a mathematical formula called Planck's constant, shows that there is a strong relationship between an object's size and its susceptibility to quantum uncertainty. Consequently, until recently, scientists have been hesitant to apply quantum concepts to human behavior. Opinions are, however, shifting. Recent brain research suggests that we

are, indeed, quantum beings [60, 61]. Humans, like everything else in the universe, are composed of subatomic particles that originated from one common particle pool. Even though humans are material beings, subject to Newton's classical laws, they also have an invisible, nonmaterial dimension (the mind or consciousness) that may function according to quantum principles [59, 62].

### **5. Identifying the knowing/doing happiness gaps**

The research reviewed in this chapter suggests a gap between information in the scientific literature and the worldview of many, if not most, of the world's population. The first of these gaps relates to the subjectivity of human perception and the role of intention. Research in positive psychology and quantum physics demonstrates the subjectiveness of the three-dimensional world. Many people acknowledge that perception is reality; yet it appears that many others base their happiness on subjective, incomplete judgments regarding the material world. Perception research suggests that at least 80% of the information used to create a perception comes from the brain, while only 20% comes from external stimuli [63, 64]. New skills are needed—skills that can assist in neutralizing the tendency for selective perception, perceptual blindness, perceptual constancy, and premature cognitive commitment, all of which can be blocks to happiness [65, 66].

Renowned neuroscientist, Iain McGilchrist [67] writes: "The kind of attention we bring to bear on the world changes the nature of the world we attend to … Attention changes what kind of a thing comes into being for us: in that way it changes the world" (p. 28). Physicist Fred Alan Wolf agrees. He comments: "How matter appears depends on our minds' choice; reality is a matter of choice" ([64], p. 129). British physicist David Bohm [59] referred to the creation of matter as a cosmic dance choreographed by human perception. The implications for human happiness are self-evident.

A second gap relates to the role of paradox. Western cultures' over-reliance on logical, linear thinking has limited many people's ability to think paradoxically; yet a sustained sense of well-being necessitates paradoxical thinking. We do not live in a black-and-white universe. Opposites can co-exist. Positive psychology 2.0 research purports that authentic happiness necessitates acknowledging, and even embracing, unhappiness [22]. Paradox is also deeply embedded in quantum theory. Energy can manifest as both particle and wave, and the three-dimensional world of matter is composed solely of invisible energy [54].

It is difficult for many people to acknowledge the value of paradoxical or dialectical thinking. Logic and rationality have been highly valued for centuries. Aristotle's (384–322 B.C.) Law of the Excluded Middle paved the way for the Western world's obsession with logical thinking [66]. Yet, the complexities of contemporary society, coupled with radical new scientific discoveries, challenge the current accuracy of Aristotle's law. Recent research in fuzzy logic, based on the premise that the universe is non-binary, is now being widely used to inform the technological revolution [68]; yet many humans are still stuck in either/or thinking, believing things are one way or the other (e.g., good or bad; right or wrong).

Rosch purports that humans' obsession with binary thinking originates in the structure of the brain [68]. Even though the neocortex can create and choose among paradoxical options, many people operate out of the early reptilian and limbic centers which are incapable of conceptualizing seemingly contradictory options.

### *Identifying the Gaps between Biopsychosocial Research and Human Behavior… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107500*

Additionally, many continue to rely solely on left-brain cognitive processes, thus, perceiving only a limited perspective of "reality," failing to acknowledge that opposites co-exist. The implications for happiness are again self-evident.

A third knowing/doing gap relates to quantum theory's proposition that there is an infinite supply of energy in the universe. According to Einstein's famous formula E = mc2 , the energy contained in matter is equal to its mass multiplied by the speed of light squared. Therefore, even the smallest particle of matter contains a huge potential of concentrated energy [53]. The question becomes why do so many people have trouble accessing the physical energy that lies dormant in their bodies? The soaring statistics relating to burnout [69] and depression [70] suggest that many still feel victims of their environments rather than co-creators of their experiences.

Neuroscience research provides insight into solutions by providing evidence of the regenerative power of the human brain—not only to see things differently but to literally re-wire cognitive pathways [44] and to produce and release the so-called happiness and harmony hormones [28, 29]. Unfortunately, many, if not most, still believe happiness is a function of external events rather than a by-product of individual cognitions and behaviors. Taking responsibility for lifestyle decisions such as diet, exercise, sleep and relaxation, as well as paying conscious attention to mental processes, can impact brain chemistry and increase happiness and a sense of well-being [33, 35].

A fourth knowing/doing gap relates to ways of knowing. William James used the word noetic to describe the process of knowing without sensory input [71]. Both quantum theory and neuroscience research demonstrate the limitations of the human senses. Quantum field theory postulates that humans are connected to an infinite field of intelligence that lies beyond sensory perception [55, 72, 73]. Research suggests that mindfulness practices connect humans to this infinite field of possibility. Mindfulness transcends the limitations of the human senses which, due to human perceptual apparatus, always provide limited input. Numerous studies have found that mindfulness practices result in an increased ability to evaluate all possible choices, leading to improved decision-making [74, 75]. Borysenko [76] has found that meditation facilitates "inner listening" and leads to the identification of more creative choices. Increasing dopamine activity in the brain has also been found to be correlated with improved decision-making [77]; and eating high protein food creates increased levels of the precursor for dopamine [31]. These research findings raise questions regarding society's current focus on collecting and analyzing ever-more Big Data in order to find the right answers.

Fuzzy logic's Law of Incompatibility is based on the premise that "as complexity rises, precise statements lose meaning and meaningful statements lose precision" ([68], p. 42). This law demonstrates the inverse relationship between the complexity of a situation and the value of ever-more data collection. Attempting to measure complex problems often increases their fuzziness. Human happiness mandates learning to balance sensory input with noetic processing. Reality is larger than any amount of data collected.

The fifth gap relates to the interconnectivity of everything. In quantum theory, two particles, once connected, remain connected even across distances of time and space [54]. Furthermore, due to their quantum entanglement, any measurement of one of these particles impacts the behavior of the second one (Principle of Nonseparability). Quantum computers, using the principles of quantum entanglement, are creating once unimaginable technological advances. This same principle has the capacity to transform our view of our relationships with each other and our planet.

Unfortunately, Western cultures with their focus on extreme individuality typically have not recognized the applicability of the non-separability principle to happiness. However, the neuroscience literature extends this concept to the macro level. For example, fNIS research demonstrates that when humans connect deeply to others by mirroring body movements and maintaining eye contact, their brains synchronize, resulting in increased empathy and cooperation, as well as an increased sense of well-being [47]. This discovery underscores the impact that humans have on each other. It also suggests that as each person begins to think and act differently, her/ his changes can impact the thoughts and behavior of others [78].

The sixth gap relates to the human desire for prediction and control. The stifling of this need often results in frustration and stress. Yet, research in a variety of disparate disciplines shines a spotlight on the futility of this desire. In quantum theory subatomic particles make unexpected quantum leaps that cannot be explained through a process of rational analysis; thus, at the subatomic level, the concept of predictability is null and void. This does not mean that subatomic movements are random. It means they are not the result of a local cause [54]. Wheatley explains ([79], p. 20):

*Our inability to predict individual occurrences at the quantum level is not a result of inherent disorder. Instead, the results we observe speak to a level of quantum interconnectedness … There is so much order that our attempts to separate out discrete moments create the appearance of disorder.*

Research in a variety of disciplines suggests that the physical universe is a selforganizing system with intelligence embedded in its structure, evolving into ever higher levels of complexity and coherency [53]. Chaos theory demonstrates how this principle works at the macro level where it has been found that the flapping of a butterfly's wings in Tokyo can influence the weather in New York (the so-called butterfly effect) [80]. At both the subatomic and the macro level, there appears to be an invisible ordering principle at work. If chaos is the engine of evolution, as Prigogine and Stengers [80] suggest, humans need to learn to ride the rapids of change gracefully, trusting in each other and life's self-organizing processes. The well-being literature consistently emphasizes the important role that trust in others plays in creating a sense of well-being [81–83]. Resisting change and resenting chaos decreases the capacity for human happiness, while trust increases a sense of well-being.

The final knowing/doing gap relates to the critical role that relationships play in human happiness and well-being. Classical neuroscience research into the so-called "social brain" demonstrates that humans are hardwired to connect with others [24]. The literature clearly confirms that human connection is required for optimal flourishing. Holt-Lunstad et al. [25] found a 50% increased likelihood of survival for research participants with stronger social networks, regardless of age, sex, or initial health status. Tiwari [27] found that the effect of loneliness on the human body is equivalent to that of smoking a pack of cigarettes each day over many years. Conversely, connection reduces anxiety and depression and releases oxytocin and dopamine; thus, increasing human happiness [26]. Much of the early happiness research focused on individual mastery and personal agency. The research above suggests that more attention must be given to the role relationships play in happiness and well-being.

Relationships also appear to be a basic design feature at the subatomic level, Quantum physics research documents that matter comes into existence only through relationships. Subatomic particles are abstractions whose properties are definable and observable only through their interactions with other particles.

Physics has not, however, always been viewed as a science of relationships. Newton saw particles as distinct entities with rigid boundaries, billiard balls moved around by

*Identifying the Gaps between Biopsychosocial Research and Human Behavior… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107500*

external forces [73]. Newtonian objects can influence each other's external behavior, but they cannot change each other's internal characteristics. This is not what happens in a quantum relationship where two particles can actually merge together, sharing boundaries and identities and thereby becoming a quantum system that is greater than the sum of the two individual parts. Research indicates that this "merger" phenomenon can also happen at the level of human consciousness as the brain activity of one person who is physically and sensorily isolated can influence another's brain processes [78].

## **6. Quantum skills**

These quantum physics discoveries, along with research in positive psychology and neuroscience, provide the conceptual foundation for seven quantum skills [53]. These skills are premised on a worldview that characterizes the universe as a dynamic, unpredictable, subjective, self-organizing system rather than as a static, predictable, objective machine. Such a view necessitates new skills that enable humans not only to **see** the world from a new perspective but to **be** in the world in a new way.

These quantum skills are designed to increase a sense of well-being by aligning individual behavior with relevant scientific breakthroughs. Currently, many of the discoveries of the past several decades remain at a level of abstraction that is unusable for those outside the scientific community. These quantum skills are an attempt to pragmatize these new discoveries and integrate them into human behavior so that those who use them can improve their sense of happiness/well-being by re-creating their lives from the inside out.

### **6.1 Quantum Seeing**

The first skill, *Quantum Seeing*, is based on the quantum discovery that the material world is not nearly as objective as most belief. Both quantum theory and research in human perception suggest that over 80 percent of what is seen in the external world is a function of internal assumptions and beliefs. Yet, many people have little regard for the subjectivity of external reality. The word "reality" is derived from the Latin words for think (*revi*) and thing (*res*). Reality, or at least the individual experience thereof, is directly related to those things that humans think about. Zukav ([84], p. 310) explains:

*Reality is what we take to be true. What we take to be true is what we believe. What we believe is based upon our perceptions. What we perceive depends upon what we look for. What we look for depends on what we think. What we think depends on what we perceive. What we perceive determines what we believe. What we believe determines what we take to be true. What we take to be true is our reality.*

Beliefs reinforce perceptions and perceptions reinforce beliefs; unfortunately, it is not easy to break this cycle. It is learned early and controlled primarily at an unconscious level of awareness. However, it is possible to become more aware of intentions and as intentions change, perceptions shift accordingly. Intention is the psychological process through which reality is constructed [85]. Intentions cause attention to focus on certain stimuli, while a plethora of other perceptual possibilities are totally ignored. The skill of *Quantum Seeing* is a reminder that a life of happiness requires clear intention.

# **6.2 Quantum Thinking**

The second skill, *Quantum T*¡*in*¢*in*£, is derived from quantum physics research that demonstrates how the physical universe functions in seemingly illogical and paradoxical ways. The most obvious quantum paradox is that the three-dimensional material world is composed solely of invisible energy. Furthermore, this energy often makes sudden, totally unpredictable quantum leaps, tunneling through barriers in ways that are both illogical and impossible at the macro level of reality. For example, subatomic particles can borrow energy from the future to tunnel through barriers that Newtonian objects would be unable to penetrate [86]. This seemingly irrational and illogical process is the basis of a highly sensitive measuring instrument called a SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device). Because of the highly illogical quantum tunneling effect, physicians can now identify and treat minute abnormalities within the human brain. Paradoxical processes can result in highly pragmatic applications. Unfortunately, many people still do not grasp the importance of paradoxical thinking, relying primarily on logical, linear, left-brain cognitive processes.

In order to think more paradoxically, the capacities of the right hemisphere of the brain must be developed. The right brain can gather up seemingly unrelated ideas and arrange them into highly creative idea constellations, thereby, bypassing the left brain's propensity for binary thinking. The right brain hemisphere has another important creative advantage. It can process millions of visual images in microseconds and solve problems exponentially faster than the clock-bound left hemisphere. Thus, through the process of imagistic thinking people can escape the tyranny of time and enter a realm where seemingly opposite options can effortlessly superimpose themselves into highly creative solutions [87]. The skill of *Quantum T*¡*in*¢*in*£ is a prerequisite for discovering creative solutions to the complex, paradoxical challenges of the twenty-first century.

# **6.3 Quantum Feeling**

The third skill, *Quantum Feeling*, is based on the premise that humans are composed of the same energy as the rest of the universe and are, therefore, subject to universal laws of energy excitation. Research at the Institute of HeartMath suggests that the human heart is a primary source of power for the mind-body system [88]. The heart generates the strongest electromagnetic signal in the human body and the power of that signal is primarily a function of thoughts and emotions. Negative emotions (e.g., frustration, fear, anger, conflict, and stress) decrease coherence in the heart's electromagnetic waves, causing the mind-body system to lose energy. Positive emotions (e.g., love, caring, compassion, and appreciation) increase coherence, thus increasing energy. This research confirms what many already know intuitively. Negative emotions exhaust and positive emotions energize. Knowing this to be true does not, however, solve the pervasive epidemic of stress and conflict. Fast-paced schedules drain energy. Stress-filled jobs exhaust. Interpersonal differences create conflict. The skill of *Quantum Feeling* enables people to feel good internally, regardless of what happens externally.

Using this skill requires learning how to harmonize opposite feelings. The participants in Delle Fave et al.'s Eudaimonic and Hedonic Happiness research project selected "harmony" as the most important self-rated component of happiness. Harmony was defined as "balancing opposite elements into a whole" ([12], p. 199). *Identifying the Gaps between Biopsychosocial Research and Human Behavior… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107500*

The ability to balance the inevitable positive and negative aspects of living appears to be foundational to happiness. As people use the skill of *Quantum* ¤¥¥¦§*ng*, they become alchemists, learning how to change the chemistry of their bodies by harmonizing their internal feelings and making external lifestyle choices that lead to increased levels of dopamine and oxytocin. Using this skill increases awareness of the perceptual choice point between an external stimulus and a subsequent internal response and leads to the recognition that human happiness is not diminished by people or events, but rather by perceptual and lifestyle choices.

### **6.4 Quantum Knowing**

The fourth skill, *Quantum Knowing*, is derived from quantum field theory. Energy fields are, in the language of quantum theory, the ground state of all that is. Einstein once commented that "fields are the only reality" ([55], p. 211). The universe is not filled with energy fields; rather, the universe emerges out of an underlying quantum field. This underlying sea of potential appears to be infinite, omnipresent, and omnipotent. It is both indescribable and incalculable. The quantum field is believed to contain Bose–Einstein condensates which are the most highly ordered and highly unified structure yet found in the universe. Zohar [73] is one of a growing number of physicists who believe that Bose–Einstein processes in the brain may create the neurological structures that are prerequisites to human consciousness. If subsequent research validates a relationship between Bose–Einstein condensates and consciousness, it will lend support to the hypothesis that the quantum field itself is conscious. Consciousness, therefore, may not be a function of evolutionary sophistication, but instead may be the primary substance of physical reality. Wald ([72], pp. 1-2) explains:

*Mind, rather than emerging as a late outgrowth in the evolution of life, has existed always as the matrix, the source and condition of physical reality … the stuff of which physical reality is composed is mind-stuff. It is the mind that has composed a physical universe that breeds life, and so eventually evolves creatures that know and create.*

The universe is basically a set of signals or a field of information. It is much more like a Great Thought than the Great Machine metaphor of the Newtonian paradigm. *Quantum Knowing* is the ability to know intuitively—to connect in non-sensory ways with information in this quantum field of potentiality. Langer's theory of mindful decision-making suggests that gathering information does not necessarily lead to better decisions [75]. Reducing uncertainty through data collection is futile because even the amount of information that could be gathered about the simplest of decisions, such as buying a computer, can involve limitless research. Rather than focusing on gathering information, Langer's theory focuses on staying aware (mindfulness) [75]. Mindfulness is a prerequisite to transcending the limitations of the human sensory apparatus. It opens a connection to the quantum field of infinite information. Langer points out that a belief in "certainty" is actually a huge disadvantage. Certainty leads to mindlessness. When one is certain, s/he typically ceases to pay attention. However, uncertainty increases attentiveness both to external conditions and to internal intuitions. *Quantum Knowing* is the ability to live mindfully and know intuitively. It is a critical skill for sustaining a sense of well-being in the fast-paced, complex decisionmaking environment of the twenty-first century.

### **6.5 Quantum Acting**

The fifth skill, *Quantum Acting*, is premised on the quantum concept of non-separability and its byproduct, non-local causation. At the subatomic level, two systems once connected remain connected, even across great distances of time and space. Any measurement of one of these systems affects the second system instantaneously. These complex "from a distance" interactions are explained by a uniquely quantum principle, the principle of non-separability, which violates the most basic principle of relatively—that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. Even though Einstein never accepted the principle of non-separability, today this principle is a fundamental concept in quantum theory. One technological application is the development of quantum computers that have the capacity for all their components to respond instantaneously to a change in the state of one component. The capacity of quantum computers is breathtaking. This technology is still in its infancy, yet quantum computers are already capable of performing all possible computations simultaneously (quantum parallelism). Strings of hydrogen atoms hold bits of information rather than arrays of transistors. Atomic encoding enables a quantum computer to simulate the behavior of any quantum system using quantum processes such as superimposition and nonlocal correlation.

Non-local causation, also referred to as quantum entanglement, is transforming life as it is presently known through astounding technological advances; but more importantly, this same principle has the potential to shift our view of ourselves and our relationship to others and the physical universe. Gribbin ([89], p. 229) explains why:

*They (research studies) tell us that particles that were once together in an interaction remain in some sense parts of a single system, which responds together to further interactions. Virtually everything we see and touch and feel is made up of collections of particles that have been involved in interactions with others right back through time, to the Big Bang in which the universe as we know it came into being. The atoms in my body are made of particles that once jostled in close proximity in the cosmic fireball with particles that are now part of a distant star, and particles that form the body of some living creature on some distant, undiscovered planet. Indeed, the particles that make up my body once jostled in close proximity and interacted with the particles that make up your body.*

Everything in the universe is a part of a correlated, complex whole in which each part influences and is influenced by every other part. *Quantum Acting* is the ability to act with concern for the whole—the whole self, the whole community, and the whole planet. This skill can be used to design lives of impeccable action—lives that focus on intentions that are good for both the individual and the larger system. Each responsible choice not only influences that individual's future choices; it also, because of quantum entanglement, influences the future choices of others as well. Everyone is in non-local correlation with everyone (and everything) else, and each action influences the well-being of the whole system.

### **6.6 Quantum Trusting**

The sixth skill, *Quantum Trusting*, is the ability to trust life, recognizing that we live in an intelligent universe. Bohm's concept of subatomic particles with "quantum potential" suggests that directions received from the quantum field influence the

### *Identifying the Gaps between Biopsychosocial Research and Human Behavior… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107500*

behavior of subatomic particles [90]. Bohm acknowledges that this potential has such complexity that any attempts at prediction are futile; however, our inability to make predictions does not mean that a system's evolution is totally random. It simply means that it cannot be explained.

Bohm's concept of an invisible ordering principle applies to the subatomic world of quantum phenomena. Chaos theory, based on classical physics and applicable to the macroscopic world, has a similar concept, the strange attractor. This is a computer term used to trace the evolution of a chaotic system. As chaos theory would predict, a computerized system in chaos behaves in a totally unpredictable manner. However, over time even the most chaotic systems never go beyond certain phase space boundaries, the boundary of the strange attractor. Strange attractors provide visual images of a world in which structure emerges out of chaos. Structured chaos is a remarkable paradox. It suggests that we function in a universe that is both orderly and chaotic, a world that displays structure without clockwork regularity—potentiality without predictability.

*Quantum Trusting* is the ability to trust life's ever-evolving process. As people learn this skill, they begin to focus on the mystery of existence, rather than on their mastery over it. They become less intent on manipulating life and more intent on appreciating it. Happiness often comes unexpectedly when people release their obsession with searching for it and learn to trust life and each other. Learning how to trust life's process by releasing the need to predict and control outcomes is an important skill, and a critical step towards happiness and well-being.

### **6.7 Quantum Being**

The seventh skill, *Quantum Being*, is based on the relational structure of the universe. At the quantum level, matter comes into existence only through relationships.  At the level of human behavior, the literature suggests a wide range of social variables that correlate with happiness and well-being ranging from time spent with family and friends to participation in social, civic, religious, and volunteer activities [91–93]. Some scholars believe that relational factors are the most robust correlates of subjective well-being [81]. Joshanloo [1] notes that the relationship of positive interpersonal relationships to happiness appears as a key factor in both Eastern and Western research studies, though activities associated with relationships may be expressed in culturally diverse ways [94].

*Quantum Being* is the ability to create and sustain healthy relationships. It is through relationship that human potential is released. When relationships are approached with openness and vulnerability, change happens. These encounters often provoke unresolved issues and reopen psychological wounds, thus giving each party the opportunity to learn and heal or deny and project. Authentic relationships are, therefore, psychological mirrors. In them, people can see themselves reflected.

The skill of *Quantum Being* requires that humans own their feelings rather than project them onto others. As they learn to do so, they discover that all relationships are extraordinary learning opportunities; and they begin to suspect that none of them occur without reason. They also discover that those who have the most to teach them are not always their favorite people, but they are valuable contributors to their psychological well-being.

# **7. Summary and future recommendations**

Over 50 years ago renowned psychiatrist Carl Jung predicted a conceptual integration of psychology and physics. He wrote [95]:

*Sooner or later, nuclear physics and the psychology of the unconscious will draw closer together as both of them, independently of one another, and from opposite directions, push forward … If research could only advance far enough, therefore, we should arrive at an ultimate agreement between physical and psychological concepts (p. 261).*

The era that Jung foresaw has arrived. Research has now identified common themes in disciplines as diverse as psychology and physics. Unfortunately, these discoveries have impacted the material world more than the subjective realm of well-being. For example, discoveries in quantum mechanics enabled a technological revolution that has totally transformed society over the past 100 years; however, these discoveries have not yet led to a significant shift in human beliefs or behaviors. This chapter attempts to do so by showing the relationship of these quantum breakthroughs to other paradigm-breaking research in positive psychology and neuroscience and integrating these findings into a set of quantum skills.

The research suggests that as humans master these seven quantum skills, they will learn to more fully utilize both of the brain's hemispheres and greatly expand the capacity of the brain's highest processing center, the neocortex. In so doing, they will be able to transcend the basic survival programming of our ancient reptilian brains (the R-complex) and the pain/pleasure mechanisms of the limbic system. Wade's research [60] suggests that as people learn to fully utilize the capacity of the neocortex, conscious awareness increases; thus, giving increased ability to make conscious choice regarding thoughts and actions that support well-being.

The authors hypothesize that using these quantum skills will result in increased happiness as measured by a subjective sense of well-being. Research is needed to test the efficacy of these skills to accomplish this hypothesized result. Such a project would need to be based on a culturally inclusive definition of happiness that aligns with the research reviewed in this chapter. Future opportunities for disseminating these quantum skills include the design of a comprehensive, cross-cultural curriculum for teaching these skills at a variety of age levels. This chapter is a call for the academic community to test and teach these skills, thus reducing the current knowing/doing gap and helping to create global flourishing.

*Identifying the Gaps between Biopsychosocial Research and Human Behavior… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107500*

# **Author details**

Charlotte Shelton1 \* and Sarah Hon2

1 Rockhurst University, Kansas City, MO, USA

2 The University of Kansas Health System, Kansas City, KS, USA

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited.

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# **Chapter 29** A Path to Happiness

*Sara Spowart*

# **Abstract**

Happiness may be viewed as a subjective state where one feels generally content with their life condition and levels of wellbeing. However, happiness can be a complex and vague topic that requires clarity, questioning and discernment.  These factors and others are explored throughout this chapter. A theory titled the "Integrative Theory of Happiness" is proposed that encompasses multiple aspects of wellbeing. A comparison of United States and Latin America cultural values is compared to better understand foundations of happiness. This chapter provides insight, overview and a deeper understanding of some of the most noteworthy factors of happiness from a global perspective.

**Keywords:** happiness, well-being, mental health, happiness theory, connection

# **1. Introduction**

Although it may not always be clear, the guiding principle both consciously and unconsciously for many endeavors is happiness. In general, a majority of our behavior is decided by what we think or feel will have the greatest benefit and the least amount of negative consequence. This principle can be applied and understood in a range of circumstances that include situations of absolute poverty and violence, to situations of the most wealthy and privileged. Individuals generally act from a position of doing whatever they believe is most positive for themselves with the least amount of negative consequence. Yet, this positive to negative balance in decisionmaking and behavior is based on one's own belief system and understanding. If an individual believes they will feel best through altruistic behavior, they will act in ways they believe are altruistic whenever possible. If one believes they will feel best by being (what they perceive to be) negative, they may act negatively whenever possible. If one believes fame or wealth leads to happiness, they will likely focus on achieving wealth or fame. If one believes sex, relationships, or a certain body image leads to happiness, they may focus on this for their sense of well-being. In some cases, individuals feel that engaging in harmful behaviors such as self-cutting, drug and alcohol abuse, lying, gambling, new relationships, overspending, abnormal eating, etc. is the way to feel happiest. The point is that the individual belief system is the determining factor in the decision-making process [1, 2].

Therefore, investigating one's belief system is important for identifying the logic and inaccuracies regarding happiness. When one's belief system is not investigated

or questioned, the result can be ongoing, reactive, unconscious behaviors and patterns. Through the use of mindfulness methods, conscious belief restructuring, an ongoing investigation of reactive patterns, and learning information on what actually improves happiness, an individual's happiness levels can substantially improve. This chapter provides an overview of some faulty and effective cultural belief systems that impact happiness and wellbeing, as well as data on the most important factors for happiness. A general integrative theory of happiness is proposed at the end of the chapter that integrates this data into a more concise framework for understanding [1, 2].

### **2. Overview on happiness**

First, let us discuss what is meant by happiness in this chapter. Happiness here is defined as a subjective state where one feels content with their lives overall and is mostly satisfied by their life condition. However, the experience of happiness can also be cultural in perspective and related to comparing one's life to that of others. For example, in the United States the cultural philosophy is to define well-being through Gross Domestic Product or GDP, not through Gross National Happiness (GNH) levels. GNH was created by the government of Bhutan and is the method the government uses to measure its population's well-being and collective happiness. With the creation of the GNH index, Bhutan has become a symbol for prioritizing happiness as part of its society and culture. By contrast, the United States generally stands out as valuing happiness through economic growth, wealth and production. The World Happiness Reports further supports this by demonstrating that the United States highly values money and economic growth as a measure of well-being [3].

In consideration of the different cultural and national approaches to well-being, the Easterlin Paradox is also relevant. The Easterlin Paradox was identified by Richard Easterlin in 1974. He was the first economist to research happiness data. He found that there is a certain point where happiness varies directly with income among and within countries. However, over time happiness does not continue to increase in an upward direction even if income continues to grow. Another way of explaining this is that once an individual is out of absolute poverty or a certain level of poverty in their society, there are more significant factors impacting one's level of happiness. Income and wealth are not the ultimate determining factors for happiness. However, they are likely the most significant variables in general when an individual is living in absolute poverty [3].

The World Happiness Reports, first initiated in 2012 also further supports data regarding the relationship between income, happiness and absolute poverty. The World Happiness Reports are publications from independent experts and the Sustainable Development Solutions Network in conjunction with Gallup World Poll data. This collection of data is a vital joint assessment and resource for ongoing trends regarding current world happiness levels, relevant findings and aberrations in our understandings of happiness. The data from the World Happiness Reports also demonstrates, in conjunction with the Easterlin Paradox, that once an individual is no longer living in a state of absolute poverty, economics are not the most important factor for well-being and happiness. If one is out of absolute poverty, there are other important factors for happiness such as mental health, authentic connections, and belief systems that become more significant [4, 5].

# **3. Latin America case study**

To better understand the differences in data and findings regarding happiness research, it is worthwhile to consider case studies of both positive and negative outliers. Latin America has demonstrated itself to be an unusual and unexpected positive outlier in research on happiness data. A major component identified in Latin America is the priority of happiness and close relationships as a part of purpose and life value. The data from the World Happiness Reports demonstrates that in Latin America there is a focus on happiness, relationships and love as a valuable and worthwhile life endeavor. In general, this may be considered more valuable than the individual attainment of status and wealth. In essence, the belief system regarding happiness is generally different with a greater concentration and focus on daily happiness, love and connection [6–8].

The greater focus on happiness, love and connection as a daily value in Latin America is in line with some research on mindfulness which highlights that just by noticing things on a day-to-day basis you increase the frequency of the lived experience. For example, the more you focus on anxiety and attaching to feelings of anxiety, the more the anxiety escalates. The more you focus on feelings of sadness and triggers for depressive thoughts and feelings, the more these increase. Our belief system plays an important role in what we focus on and then this becomes more cemented through neuropathways in the brain. The more we have certain types, frequency and concentration of thoughts, the greater the concentration of neuropathways in the brain regarding those thought-forms. Therefore, in the case of Latin America, if there are stronger cultural norms for focusing on happiness, love and connection on a day-to-day basis, this may create more of that lived experience through perception and regular focus [6–9].

### **4. United States case study**

Another unique case study within the Gallup World Poll data and the World Happiness Reports is the United States. The United States has seen declining levels of well-being for over a decade despite regular increases in GDP every year. The United States case study demonstrates that past a certain level of wealth, happiness and well-being do not continue to increase. Also, as Latin America reflects the importance of family and social support, the United States demonstrates the importance of family and social support in an inverse manner. Specifically, through the issues of loneliness, fragmented social and family relationships, broken social communities and the rise of addiction and mental illness, one can see the important role that relationships, community and connections play in happiness and wellbeing [10–12].

In the United States, income per person has increased approximately three times since 1960, but happiness and well-being levels have not increased. Most recently, since 2013 per capita GDP has continued to rise but happiness levels have fallen. This is in direct contrast to conventionally held beliefs on the relationship between per capita GDP and wellbeing. It also demonstrates the Easterlin Paradox. The US was ranked 3rd among 23 OECD countries in 2007 for happiness and wellbeing, and fell to 19th of 34 OECD countries in 2016. From 2006 to 2016 the United States level of social support, experience of personal freedom, and amount of charitable donations all declined, while the perception of government and business corruption increased.

These factors point to a reality that the falling happiness, mental health and wellbeing levels in the United States are due to a social, not an economic crisis [10–12].

The data comparing 2006/2007 wellbeing levels demonstrates that repairing social norms and conditions back to 2006/2007 levels would most quickly and reliably create the gains in happiness needed to improve mental health and wellbeing. The issues with social concerns in the United States are not insignificant. Trust in the government is currently at its lowest level in modern history as is the perception of a rise in corruption. Income inequality is at its highest levels in US history with the top 1% experiencing nearly all the gains from economic growth in the last few decades and the lower 50% continuing to experience greater poverty. This phenomenon shows that there is an expanding lower class and a decreasing middle class in the United States. Furthermore, research conducted in the US compared to other countries found that helping behaviors in the US have declined sharply from 2001 to 2011 compared to other developed countries. However, the decline in US happiness levels is not only a social crisis, it is also a health crisis that is being shown in increased mortality rates. This increase in mortality rates is directly associated with drug and alcohol abuse, suicidal ideation, obesity and mental illness [10–12].

Major factors in the United States contribute to the decline in social and family connections, support, loneliness and isolation. These include the rise in addiction and the addiction crisis in the United States. There has been an ongoing crisis with heroin and methamphetamine use, and currently there is a growing fentanyl overdose crisis. During the COVID-pandemic more Americans died every day from drug overdoses than from COVID-19. Addiction leaves not only a potentially lethal crisis for the individual, but also causes severe damage to families, relationships and society as a whole. It leads to higher levels of crime, violence and greater mistrust among people. It harms society on many levels and contributes to the overall decreasing levels of American happiness. The data shows that improving and repairing social conditions is the most effective way to increase and improve US levels of happiness. This may require changes in government policy and cultural values to successfully achieve [10–12].

# **5. Mental health: a significant happiness variable**

Aside from the above discussed variables, the most significant variable according to the World Happiness Reports for happiness is mental health. Mental illness is a worldwide health phenomenon. Mental illness does not only occur in wealthy countries as has been stereotypically believed. The most recent data from the World Gallup Poll and the World Happiness Reports demonstrates that the vast majority of individuals with mental illness live in low and middle-income regions of the world. The majority of these mental health conditions relate to anxiety and depression disorders. In 2013, at least 1 in 10 people suffered globally from these conditions at any one time. These numbers are even higher today. Furthermore, the 2013 statistic is likely to be lower than actual prevalence rates given stigma and cultural considerations in reporting, the understanding of mental illness and availability of access to data [13, 14].

Child and adolescent behavior and mental health issues further contribute to prevalence rates with an additional estimated 100 million cases worldwide. Prevalence rates are significant between countries but there is much less variation when groups of countries are clustered together by income level. In 2013, the World Health Organization estimated that 7.1% of adults in high income countries suffered from

depression, 7.6% in upper middle-income, 6.4% in lower middle income and 6% in low income. The data also reflects that among those with depression, there is a much higher number of women than men. Depression represents the greatest disability factor according to the World Health Organization. This data has been further supportive in identifying a relationship between mental illness and national levels of happiness. In Western, Eastern and Central Europe, those who suffer from anxiety and depression experience 12–14 years of lived disability due to their condition [13, 14].

A major consideration in the incredible burden of mental illness is the lack of adequate mental health care and treatment for those who are suffering. There is a significant worldwide treatment gap between identified need and actual service provision. In 2013, the treatment gap for schizophrenia for example was approximately 32%. However, even more telling, for all other conditions including more commonly identified issues such as anxiety, depression, and alcohol dependence, the treatment gap was greater than 50%. Worse than this, even when disability due to mental illness is severe, the treatment gap is still very significant. In 2013, only 10–30% of severe cases received services in low and middle-income countries compared to 25–60% in high income regions. The countries with the highest rates of treatment services included the United States, Spain, and Belgium for severe, moderate and mild mental illness [13, 14].

This treatment gap has severe consequences for society. Untreated mental illness creates major costs to society that come not only in monetary form but also through strained use of the healthcare system, lost productivity, educational underachievement, increased levels of violence, addiction, crime, less effective use of resources, breakdown of social and family relationships, worsening physical health and obesity, and lower overall development of human and societal potential. Treatment for mental illness has important implications for life expectancy, quality of life and the burden of disability. For example, admittance to the hospital for mental health reasons improves life expectancy by an estimated 15–20 years [13, 14].

Despite its demonstrated significance for health, economic and societal outcomes, no country in the world spends more than 15% of their health budget on mental healthcare. Mental health is one of the greatest factors for one's levels of happiness and is connected to one's closest relationships, experience of love, family and support. Positive outlier countries such as England and Wales spend close to 15% of their health budget on mental health. They have seen major improvements in years and cost due to disability as a result of increased access and use of mental health services. The mental health programs in England and Wales have demonstrated that there are lowcost and effective mental health treatments that can be made widely available. There is now a significant body of evidence for the societal and economic harm caused by the lack of mental health treatment in a population. It is economically progressive and increases national happiness levels to incorporate large scale mental health programs [13, 14].

### **6. Authentic connection: a significant happiness variable**

Another important variable for happiness is authentic connection and relationships. One of the most significant studies for understanding happiness has been the Harvard Study of Adult Development. This is one of the world's longest running studies on adult development and the factors that contribute to health and happiness. In 1938 during the Great Depression, researchers created the Harvard Study of Adult Development with Dr. Grant and Dr. Glueck. This was a study intended to track the happiness and health of adults throughout the lifespan. The first cohort consisted of 268 Harvard sophomores all approximately 19 years old, Caucasian, male and from the Harvard classes of 1939–1944. The second cohort consisted of a group of 456 Caucasian men from Boston neighborhoods. The men in the second cohort were selected at ages 11–16 years by Drs. Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck and many were from lower-income neighborhoods and families. At present, a majority of these participants have passed away and the study is being continued through participation from their children and grandchildren. With the original Harvard and Boston City cohorts there was physical and mental health testing done every 2 years, 5 years and 5–10 years. The participants completed questionnaires every 2 years on their physical and mental health, job enjoyment, the quality of their marriages, and other significant variables. The participants provided health data every 5 years regarding their physical health, and in-depth interviews every 5–10 years on their relationships, work and life changes [15, 16].

This study has been very significant and supports the Easterlin Paradox as well as the data found in the World Happiness Reports regarding Latin America and the United States for happiness. It found that the most important factor in happiness and well-being is the quality of our authentic connections and close relationships. Significant major themes identified from this study are that authentic connections are critical and loneliness causes significant mental and physical health concerns. Another important finding was that in our relationships the most relevant factor in our happiness is the quality of our closest relationships, not the number of social connections or whether you have a committed relationship. It was identified that the experience of loneliness was significant for levels of unhappiness. Loneliness here refers to the perception of isolation and experience of unwanted absence of social connection and closeness with others. It causes psychological pain and can result in depression, anxiety, and other physical and mental health concerns. At least 1 in 5 individuals in the U.S. experiences loneliness at any time and this has negative implications on longevity, well-being and happiness. This number is projected to increase globally in regions with growing elderly populations and decreased family support. The Harvard Study of Adult Development shows very clearly that close relationships are vital for protecting our bodies and our brains. In summary, according to this study, the most significant predictor of happiness is the experience of positive, authentic connection [15, 16].

# **7. Proposed happiness theory framework**

An overview of the above-discussed elements regarding happiness demonstrates the need for a more comprehensive theoretical framework to understand happiness. Certain underlying factors can be identified from the data we currently have to create an integrative framework. The inclusion of mindfulness and present moment awareness, belief system reflection and restructuring, mental health and biology are all important components for an integrative happiness framework. Other significant aspects include the factors of empathy, compassion, gratitude and acceptance. This integrative framework is referred to as an "Integrative Theory of Happiness" for the remainder of this chapter [15–18].

An Integrative Theory of Happiness is significant because happiness is largely a subjective experience and qualifiers for individual life satisfaction and well-being may

### *A Path to Happiness DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107413*

change throughout the life span. Therefore, an adaptable framework that addresses changing life situations but also constant underlying components is needed. Central components of mindfulness, biology and belief systems are critical for this framework. Mindfulness and present moment awareness are significant because much unhappiness is caused by mental thought patterns directed excessively on the past and negative projections about the future. The practice of learning to maintain concentration and focus on the present moment helps one to more directly address issues in their current life circumstances with greater clarity and attention. It assists in creating greater insight and the ability to make positive behavior and thought pattern changes. It also helps with concentration on new thought patterns and feelings and increasing positive affect [9, 17, 19].

Biology is another central component in the Integrative Theory of Happiness. It has been established in many models of development that in general, one's basic biological needs should be met to attain adequate happiness levels. This includes aspects such as sufficient sleep, food, water, exercise, and a healthy weight. It also refers to concerns regarding neurochemistry levels of dopamine, serotonin and oxytocin in the brain and body. In addition to this is the importance of neuroplasticity and neural networks in the brain. Specifically, the understanding that what we focus on everyday throughout the day, reinforces and creates neural network pathways that strengthen certain thought and feeling patterns. By mindfully and intentionally focusing on positive thoughts and feelings, this can create new neuropathways in the brain so that an individual perceives and responds to a situation differently. Through intentional focus and mindfulness concentrated on thoughts that increase happiness, the brain can function towards a more positive overall perception [9, 17, 19].

Lastly, the element of belief systems is another central component for happiness within the Integrative Theory of Happiness. The element of belief systems has an array of significant components such as one's beliefs about themselves, their values, their relationships, their purpose, their life, etc. Possibly most importantly here is the understanding of one's own beliefs about happiness in comparison to how one is living. In the assessment of this element there is also the identification, restructuring and reframing of harmful, unhelpful or negative belief systems. This should also help to increase empathy, compassion and connection with others as well as improve relationships. This element in the framework addresses beliefs on authentic connection, gratitude, compassion, empathy and acceptance [17–19].

Research from Dr. Gottman is revealing here for its perspective on the power of positive thought and emotion patterns. Specifically, Dr. Gottman found in his research through the Gottman Institute that one of the most important components of happiness is the quality of our close relationships and support system. They identified a 5:1 ratio of positive to negative emotions in conflict that is needed to maintain healthy connections. They also identified the significance of empathy, feelings of security, appreciation, and calm for maintaining positive connections. The concepts identified in their research can also be applied to a larger framework and understanding for the relationship we have with ourselves [20, 21].

Dr. Gottman points to the 'small things often' approach. This is a form of active mindfulness through the noticing and application of positive thoughts, feelings and behaviors throughout the everyday experience. This theory is that small, deliberate, regular positive efforts over time have a major impact on the well-being of relationships. However, this is also true regarding belief systems in terms of happiness. By making numerous, small, positive thoughts, feelings and behaviors a priority on a day-to-day basis one can change the experience of individual wellness over a lifespan [20, 21].

Part of understanding and addressing this 'small things often' approach is for individuals to continually understand what is worth focusing on and what is counterproductive for their happiness. As mentioned above, the aspects of empathy, compassion, gratitude, and acceptance are all important for happiness levels in conjunction with authentic positive connection. Empathy here refers to the ability to recognize, understand and share the thoughts and feelings of another being. It is a critical part of positive relationships and also helps increase levels of personal happiness. Empathy allows an individual the ability to understand painful circumstances and interactions from multiple perspectives instead of one's own limited viewpoint. It provides a greater bird's eye view that can decrease negative emotions in troubling and disturbing situations through better insight and understanding [22].

Another component of the proposed framework is compassion. Compassion is related to empathy in many ways. Compassion may include empathy and is another characteristic that can help increase individual happiness levels. It refers here to understanding or having empathy for another person's pain and then working to alleviate their suffering. Compassion can be applied to a person but it can also include other living creatures such as animals. Compassion is from the Latin root meaning "to suffer together." Compassion can improve individual levels of happiness because like empathy, it gives greater insight and perspective into challenging situations and negative or harmful behaviors. Also, self-compassion is a very strong protector and support for individual well-being in almost any circumstance.

The other identified factors in this proposed framework are acceptance and gratitude. These two factors are in many ways tied together. Acceptance and gratitude involve not resisting, reacting negatively and fighting against unwanted circumstances. These factors require a shift in perspective from observing what one feels is negative or neutral, to observing the positive and good. These factors allow for greater flexibility and adaptability to unexpected or unwanted changes in life and helps one to be happy in a multitude of circumstances. Concepts referred to as Radical Acceptance and Radical Gratitude exemplify the value of these variables as well as their practical application. Radical acceptance may be seen as the ability to accept without judgment, situations that are beyond one's control. It promotes non-attachment as a method to increase subjective well-being and happiness levels. Radical gratitude is another approach that is effective in conjunction with acceptance. It promotes the perspective of thankfulness and appreciation to everything in life. This includes embracing and being appreciative not only for the positive but for what is perceived as negative. It can be a powerful transformative tool to alter one's perspective of unhappiness and anger at the way things are, to appreciation and insight into the value of the way things are. It can also promote detachment and letting go. These two concepts can be applied together to improve individual levels of well-being and manage almost any negative circumstance one encounters. They can be applied to belief systems to help reframe and empower an individual to feel more hopeful, positive and in control of their life [25, 26].

Taken together, the elements of gratitude, compassion, acceptance and empathy are significant in conjunction with authentic connection for improved levels of happiness and wellbeing. In addition to this, the approach of small things being important is worthwhile to apply for happiness. By noticing small ways to improve gratitude, compassion, acceptance, empathy and authentic connection throughout our day and every day, we can alter step by step our levels of happiness. In this way, through dayby-day mindful noticing and application of these variables, one's perspective, brain, body and mind can experience improved levels of happiness and wellbeing.

# **8. Conclusion**

The research from the World Happiness Reports demonstrates that once an individual is not living in absolute poverty, the most important factor for happiness and well-being is the quality of one's authentic positive connections. The factors identified in the Integrative Happiness Theory are significant for the human experience, the well-being of societies, families, and even the economies of nations. To deny or devalue the significance of authentic positive connections, gratitude, empathy, compassion and acceptance is to undermine a very important piece of happiness. It is also denying something that has great meaning for the human experience. For many parts of the world, a general cultural or societal shift may be needed to better highlight these factors and be considered valuable. If the importance of authentic positive connection, gratitude, empathy, acceptance and compassion is not better emphasized in countries such as the United States, it could lead to even greater declines in happiness and worsening social deterioration. It is a worthwhile investment to incorporate these factors as an approach to increase happiness levels on a large scale.

# **Author details**

Sara Spowart College of Public Health, University of South Florida, FL, USA

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### *A Path to Happiness DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107413*

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# *Edited by Floriana Irtelli and Fabio Gabrielli*

This book is a collection of chapters on happiness and well-being. It includes contributions from scientists from all over the world, who present different, multifaceted, dialectically open perspectives and sensitivities regarding happiness. The authors discuss happiness and well-being from biological, biopsychosocial, anthropological, and philosophical points of view.

Published in London, UK © 2023 IntechOpen © Michele Jackson / iStock


**Author details**

Joanne Travaglia Centre for Health Services Management, School of Public Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia

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© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**Yasuhiko Hotta**

Yasuhiko Hotta (DPhil.) is the Director in the Sustainable Consumption and Production Area, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. Hotta holds a Dphil in International Relations from the University of Sussex (2004). He has been involved in both policy initiatives and research projects in relation to sustainable resource circulation such as the G8's 3R Initiative, Working Group for 3R Policies for Southeast and East Asia at Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA), and the OECD's Working Party for Resource Productivity and Waste. From 2016 to 2021, Hotta served as a theme leader of Theme 3 of the PECoP-Asia research project for SCP in Asia. He is also a part-time lecturer for the Tokyo Institute of Technology. In 2021, Hotta was appointed as the Vice President of Asia Pacific Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (APRSCP).


**Author details**

Mario De La Fuente1 \*, David Fernández-Calviño2 , Bartosz Tylkowski3 , Josep M. Montornes3 , Magdalena Olkiewicz3 , Ruth Pereira4,5, Anabela Cachada4 , Tito Caffi6 , Giorgia Fedele6 and Felicidad De Herralde7

1 UPM-Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain

2 Faculty of Science, Department of Plant Biology and Soil Science, UVIGO-University of Vigo, Ourense, Spain

3 Eurecat, Centre Tecnològic de Catalunya, Tarragona, Catalunya, Spain

4 Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal

5 GreenUPorto, Sustainable Agrifood Production Research Centre, Edifício de Ciências Agrárias (FCV2), Vairão, Portugal

6 Department of Sustainable Crop Production (DI.PRO.VE.S.), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza, Italy

7 IRTA-Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology, Caldes de Montbui, Spain

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.