4.1.6. Knowledge

Some interviewees suggested more knowledge through research and dissemination as a factor enabling mitigation in the cultural heritage sector. This is consistent with the literature, which emphasises the role of new knowledge and skills to develop new sustainable strategies for heritage conservation to face climate change uncertainty [51].

### 4.1.7. Energy Compensation Strategies

Some interviewees suggested the application of energy compensation schemes. This is where parts of a system that are ine fficient in their use of energy can benefit from the energy surplus produced by the e fficient parts. In relation to cultural heritage, this can be done at di fferent scales: city district and building. In the first case, di fferent buildings in the same district can share energy. For instance, the energy needed for historical buildings can be supplied by the surplus energy produced by new energy e fficient buildings or from o ff-site renewable sources of energy. GHG emission reductions through such a trading allowance is a cost-saving measure that was proposed by Cassar [51]. In the second case, one interviewee mentioned the possibility to meet the energy requirements for parts of a historical building where no refurbishment is allowed with the energy saved by improving the thermal performance of other parts of the buildings where modifications are permitted.

### *4.2. Barriers to Climate Change Mitigation In The Cultural Built Heritage Sector*

In addition to the factors found to enable climate change mitigation in the cultural built heritage sector, the interviewees also identified a number of barriers. These barriers were grouped into nine themes: 'economic factors', 'lack of regulation', 'value', 'material procurement and sustainability certification', 'user behaviour', 'loss of traditional skills', 'lack of knowledge', 'incompatible solutions' and 'diversity'. Figure 4 shows the number of interviewees mentioning each of the identified enablers as well as their percentages. Eleven interviewees, i.e., the 24% of the total number of interviewees, mentioned 'economic factors' as a barrier to climate change mitigation in cultural heritage sector. Table 3 provides examples of quotes from the interviewees in relation to each enabling factor.

**Figure 4.** Percentage of interviewees mentioning each barrier (*n* is the number of interviewees mentioning the barrier).

### 4.2.1. Economic Factors

The interviewees perceived economic factors as an important barrier to climate change mitigation in the cultural built heritage sector as restoring historical buildings is expensive. Thus, financial resources can help with conservation efforts when they are limited or not available. The lack of money to restore cultural heritage can also have negative consequences on the inherent historical, cultural and social values embedded in heritage sites. For example, an interviewee stated: "There is an economic aspect that prevails over the social, historical and cultural value." (Table 2). The adoption of cheaper solutions and in particular the loss of original material can influence the historical and cultural values of the site, as well as weaken the identity of a place. The economics of conservation is therefore an important criterion to consider when retrofitting historical buildings [43].

### 4.2.2. Lack of Regulation

A significant barrier perceived by the interviewees is the lack of regulation when adapting cultural heritage to mitigate climate change. The interviewees highlighted that stronger regulations are required to force the owners of heritage assets to adapt properly. An interviewee mentioned the example of a UNESCO WHS, where detailed guidelines were carefully designed and provided to the local community, but people did not follow them due to lack of enforcement. An interviewee from another WHS mentioned misinterpretation of the regulations as an issue, where the components of historical buildings were replaced with similar substitutes, albeit made of different materials characteristics, varying in shape and colour from the original components. Such substitution can decrease the authenticity of a heritage site. There are parallel examples between the information provided by the interviewees and case study examples reported in the literature. Yarrow [48], for instance, reported the concern of a conservation officer regarding a retrofitting where the building owners substituted the historical components for new ones claiming that they 'looked the same'. Devolution of the regulations to the local level was also mentioned as a problem by one interviewee, because, in some cases, a lack of financial and human resources put cultural heritage preservation in second place. The lack of protocols

and guidelines to help heritage managers adapt cultural heritage assets to climate change was also highlighted by Sabbioni et al. [8].


**5. Conclusions**

Given the increased penetration of wind power in the energy mix of current power systems, the need for public standard (i.e., generic) WT models to perform transient stability analysis is growing. IEC 61400-27-1, published in February 2015, defined four generic WT dynamic models able to be adapted to any particular WT vendor's commercial model. As it was published relatively recently, very few validation works with field data have been performed. Hence, TSO, DSOs, WT manufacturers and other stakeholders do not currently have evidence of the generic WTs' accurate response. The present work has validated three different generic WT topologies (type 3A, type 3B and type 4A) with six different actual variable-speed WTs from three manufacturers (Siemens–Gamesa, Senvion and ENERCON).

First, both IEC validation approaches, the play-back and the full system, were implemented, finding that when the play-back approach is used, the simulated voltage is identical to the measured voltage. In fact, when using the full system approach, the measured voltage experiences a slight hysteresis at voltage dip clearance, which cannot be represented by the simulations due to the lack of hysteresis in the transformer model.

Regarding the DFIG WT model validations, type 3B presented larger validation errors than type 3A, which is due to the crowbar protection system. In fact, the generic crowbar model implemented in type 3B is a simplification of a quite complex model.

Furthermore, the type 4 WT models provided a highly accurate response, for both active and reactive power, with respect to the three different type 4A WTs considered. In the case of the *ENERCON E-126* WT, a larger deviation between field and simulation was found, which was based on the particular representation of the current injection for this WT. In this sense, if a deeper voltage dip occurs, the active power results will be affected by the current limitation, which would yield a more accurate validation result.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, A.H.-E., P.E.S. and E.G.-L.; methodology, A.H.-E., F.J.-B., P.G., S.F. and J.F.; software, J.L.S.-A., P.G. and S.F.; validation, A.H.-E., F.J.-B., P.G., S.F. and E.G.-L.; writing—original draft preparation, A.H.-E.; supervision, J.F., P.E.S. and E.G.-L.

**Funding:** This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and European Union FEDER, which supported this work under Project ENE2016-78214-C2-1-R, as well as the Agreement signed between the UCLM and the Council of Albacete to foster Research in the Campus of Albacete.

**Acknowledgments:** The authors would like to express their appreciation to the wind turbine manufacturers Enercon, Senvion and Siemens–Gamesa for their technical support, as well as to the rest of the members of Working Group 27 of IEC Technical Committee 88 in charge of the development of IEC 61400-27.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.


*Edited by Sanghyun Lee*

Germanium is an elemental semiconductor, which played an important role in the birth of the semiconductor but soon was replaced with silicon. However, germanium is poised to make a remarkable comeback in the semiconductor industry. With this increasing attention, this book describes the fundamental aspects of germanium and its applications. The contributing authors are experts in their field with great in-depth knowledge. The authors strongly feel that this contribution might be of interest to readers and help to expand the scope of their knowledge.

ISBN 978-1-78984-031-5

Advanced Material and Device Applications with Germanium

Published in London, UK © 2018 IntechOpen © La\_Corivo / iStock


**Abstract**

Corporate social responsibility originates from the company's behavioral problems. Corporate governance can be considered an environment of trust, ethics and moral values and in recent years has gained enormous importance. In addition, other factors that have been responsible for the new corporate governance paradigm are a stricter respect for the environment and the demand for greater corporate responsibility towards its shareholders and customers. Ecosystem load capacity is described with resource consumption input–output models. In line with this, the company should not use more than one resource that can be regenerated. Considering an organization as part of a broader social and economic system implies that these effects must be taken into account, not only for the measurement of the costs and value created in the present, but also in a future perspective for the company. In this context banks, which carry out the fundamental role as financial intermediaries, are linked with different stakeholder interests, both in economic and social field. This chapter analyzes the main novelties which has influenced corporate governance of them by reviewing its main phases. The chapter secondly addresses the specific features of board of directors by analyzing a sample of 25 banks defined as Global Systematically Important Institutions in 2018 following the EBA guidelines.

**Keywords:** corporate social responsibility, corporate reputation, financial institutions


**3. Classification of pests**

Stored insect pests are grouped into two types. This grouping is made according to the basis of the feeding ability of the insects in whole or previously damaged grain. They are classified as primary and secondary pests.

#### **3.1 Primary insect pests**

Primary insect pests cause damage to the previously undamaged kernel or new grain. Stored grain pests are classified as major and minor pests based on the damage they cause. These insects can be classified as external feeders and internal feeders based on their feeding behavior.

#### **3.2 Secondary insect pests**

**Secondary feeders**. As the name indicates these pests are secondary because these pests attack on already infested crops these generally feed on cut and broken seeds, molds, dead insects, animal wastes, e.g., common mites, cheese mites, etc. Damage caused by these pests results in loss of germination, contamination like ball formation, and webbing besides deterioration of grains. Damage caused by these pests results in fungal activity, moisture migration across the stored grains.


**4.1. Biological pathways of activation**

The complement system is responsible for innate immunity and can be activated by either classical, alternative or lectin pathways. Using lentinan, pachyman and pachymaran polysaccharides, it has been demonstrated that 1,3-β-glucans use the alternative pathway of complement activation for generating an immune response since they show an increased consumption of C3 and C5 proteins from the complement cascade [57]. Additionally, opsonization is an important component of innate immune response. Typically complement protein C3b gets coated on pathogens and is later detected by complement receptor 1 or deactivated to form iC3b for regulation. In the presence of 1,3-β-glucans, iC3b can be detected by complement receptor 3 (CR3) or dectin-1 and this mechanism can be exploited for attacking cancer cells coated with iC3b [8]. Although the effect of CR3 has been negligible in immune activation in murine models [9,58], functional CR3 is essential for phagocytosis in human neutrophils [59].

Most of the existing studies have focused on macrophages and neutrophils but some 1,3-βglucans such as lentinan are responsible for stimulation of T-cells and natural killer cells and hence affect the acquired immune response [60,61]. Curdlan has also been used to demonstrate increased proliferation of lymphocytes, which can in turn enhance the immune response [62]. Oxidative burst is yet another immunomodulatory effect that has been demonstrated by 1,3-βglucans. While curdlan has shown the induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase in rat macrophages [63], other 1,3-β-glucans have shown an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species [62]. Some studies have demonstrated that immune activation is only possible by linear 1,3-β-glucans [64] while others emphasize that complex branching is important for most effective stimulation of immune response [65]. Although, several aspects of the biological pathways of activation have been discovered, further studies are necessary to gain a better understanding of the intricate interactions between 1,3-β-glucans and the immune system.

#### **4.2. Tumor suppression**

The use of 1,3-β-glucans in cancer therapy has been present in Japan since 1986, where they have been used for gastric, lung and cervical cancers [66]. Lentinan and pachymaran have demonstrated high tumor inhibition ratios of 99.6% and 96%, when tested against subcutaneous implantation of sarcoma 180 in mice [64]. It is hypothesized that the effect of lentinan and pachymaran is highly dependent on the activation of T-lymphocytes because the removal of the thymus from mice caused a suppression of antitumor effects from the 1,3-βglucans [60]. Additionally, it is also speculated that deactivation of protein helices might be important for antitumor effects because a study has demonstrated that only polysaccharides that deactivated bovine serum albumin showed antitumor activity [67]. Besides lentinan and pachymaran, other 1,3-β-glucans have also exemplified tumor suppression. Some of the prominent examples are scleroglucan with an inhibition ratio of 90.4%, curdlan with inhibition of 99-100% [68], grifolan with inhibition of 97.9% [69] and 1,3-β-glucan from *Agaricus blazei* with inhibition of 99.3% [65]. These results have been encouraging and hence 1,3-β-glucans have been used in combinatorial therapies with antibodies in implanted human tumor xenografts from melanoma, epidermoid carcinoma, breast carcinoma, metastatic lymphoma and daudi lymphoma. The mice had higher survival rates in the presence of 1,3-β-glucans as compared to treatment with antibodies alone [12].

Subsequently, water soluble 1,3-β-glucans have been derived to improve the usability of these polysaccharides. Some examples of these polysaccharides include carboxymethylpachymaran with tumor inhibition ratio of 99.6%, hydroxymethylpachymaran and hydroxypropylpachymaran with up to 100% tumor inhibition when assessed against solid sarcoma 180 at a dose of 5 mg/kg [70]. Several derivatives of curdlan including carboxymethyl, glucosyl, sulfoethyl and sulfopropyl attachments to the backbone have also retained antitumor activity [71,72]. These examples demonstrate the versatility of 1,3-β-glucans in cancer inhibition and thus these polysaccharides can be modified to suit the desired application.

### **4.3. Infection prevention**

564 The Complex World of Polysaccharides

resistance, disease immunity and wound healing [56].

**4.1. Biological pathways of activation**

phagocytosis in human neutrophils [59].

**4.2. Tumor suppression**

activation and this response has been utilized for varied applications including cancer

The complement system is responsible for innate immunity and can be activated by either classical, alternative or lectin pathways. Using lentinan, pachyman and pachymaran polysaccharides, it has been demonstrated that 1,3-β-glucans use the alternative pathway of complement activation for generating an immune response since they show an increased consumption of C3 and C5 proteins from the complement cascade [57]. Additionally, opsonization is an important component of innate immune response. Typically complement protein C3b gets coated on pathogens and is later detected by complement receptor 1 or deactivated to form iC3b for regulation. In the presence of 1,3-β-glucans, iC3b can be detected by complement receptor 3 (CR3) or dectin-1 and this mechanism can be exploited for attacking cancer cells coated with iC3b [8]. Although the effect of CR3 has been negligible in immune activation in murine models [9,58], functional CR3 is essential for

Most of the existing studies have focused on macrophages and neutrophils but some 1,3-βglucans such as lentinan are responsible for stimulation of T-cells and natural killer cells and hence affect the acquired immune response [60,61]. Curdlan has also been used to demonstrate increased proliferation of lymphocytes, which can in turn enhance the immune response [62]. Oxidative burst is yet another immunomodulatory effect that has been demonstrated by 1,3-βglucans. While curdlan has shown the induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase in rat macrophages [63], other 1,3-β-glucans have shown an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species [62]. Some studies have demonstrated that immune activation is only possible by linear 1,3-β-glucans [64] while others emphasize that complex branching is important for most effective stimulation of immune response [65]. Although, several aspects of the biological pathways of activation have been discovered, further studies are necessary to gain a better understanding of the intricate interactions between 1,3-β-glucans and the immune system.

The use of 1,3-β-glucans in cancer therapy has been present in Japan since 1986, where they have been used for gastric, lung and cervical cancers [66]. Lentinan and pachymaran have demonstrated high tumor inhibition ratios of 99.6% and 96%, when tested against subcutaneous implantation of sarcoma 180 in mice [64]. It is hypothesized that the effect of lentinan and pachymaran is highly dependent on the activation of T-lymphocytes because the removal of the thymus from mice caused a suppression of antitumor effects from the 1,3-βglucans [60]. Additionally, it is also speculated that deactivation of protein helices might be important for antitumor effects because a study has demonstrated that only polysaccharides that deactivated bovine serum albumin showed antitumor activity [67]. Besides lentinan and pachymaran, other 1,3-β-glucans have also exemplified tumor suppression. Some of the prominent examples are scleroglucan with an inhibition ratio of 90.4%, curdlan with inhibition Most common infections are caused by bacteria and fungi and since 1,3-β-glucans can induce inflammatory response, these glucans can be used for providing infection resistance. It has been shown that when administering 1,3-β-glucan to mice, their survival against *Staphylococcus aureus* infection increased from 70% to 97% [73]. Other 1,3-β-glucans such as glucan phosphate, laminarin and scleroglucan have been studied in detail for assessing their pharmacokinetic profile following oral administration in rats. It has been observed that these glucans are able to translocate from the gastrointestinal tract to systemic circulation. The glucans were able to increase secretion of interleukins, increase expression of dectin-1 on macrophages and increase expression of toll-like receptor 2 on dendritic cells. Thus, these effects increase the long-term survival of rats from 0% to 40% when challenged with *Candida albicans* fungal infection and from 0% to 50% when challenged with *Staphyloccous aureus* bacterial infection [74].

When considering larger mammals, infection resistance in pigs, dogs and horses has also found applications of 1,3-β-glucans. When piglets were fed with β-glucans after weaning, they demonstrated lower infection from enterotoxigenic *Escherichia coli*, which was highlighted by decreased diarrhoea and decreased content of inoculated *Escherichia coli* in the faeces as compared to control groups. These results present a significant advancement in veterinary medicine for pigs because the immunity of pigs usually suffers severely right after weaning and the current vaccines against *Escherichia coli* take a long period to be effective [20]. In the case of horses, the administration of 1,3-β-glucan to pregnant mares has been able to increase the cellular immune response in foals. This becomes very useful for preventing premature deaths of neonates [75]. While most studies have focused on the effects of 1,3-β-glucans on improving innate immunity, when these polysaccharides are administered to dogs, they showed enhancement in humoral immunity as indicated by changes in serum IgM and IgA levels [18].

1,3-β-glucans have also been used in aquatic animals as exemplified by the use of schizophyllan with 60-80% survival rate and lentinan and scleroglucan with 55-75% survival rate when tested against *Edwardsiella tarda* bacteria attack on *Cyrinus carpio L.* carp. The survival rate was also increased when infected with *Aeromonas hydrophila* with survival of 60% with schizophyllan, 70% with lentinan and 80% with scleroglucan administration. In the absence of glucans, the carp underwent complete mortality upon any infection [76]. These results have been repeatable when tilapia and grass carp is exposed to *Aeromonas hydrophila* [77]. As more studies are conducted on the use of 1,3-β-glucans, the quality of veterinary health care can be improved further and these results can eventually be transferred to human applications.

In addition to bacterial and fungal resistance, 1,3-β-glucans have also demonstrated promising results against malaria [78], herpes simplex virus [79] and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [80-82]. Expanding on HIV research, various complexes have been synthesized with curdlan sulfate in order to enhance the efficacy of the polysaccharide. Some prominent examples include covalent conjugation of azidothymidine to curdlan sulfate for drug delivery to the lymph nodes and bone marrow [83] and conjugation of fullerene C60 with curdlan for combining their anti-HIV effects [84].


**Abstract**

The visual identification of inconsistencies in patterns is an area in computing that has been understudied. While pattern visualisation exposes the relationships among identified regularities, it is still very important to identify inconsistencies (irregularities) in identified patterns. The significance of identifying inconsistencies for example in the growth pattern of children of a particular age will enhance early intervention such as dietary modifications for stunted children. It is described in this chapter, the need to have a system that identifies inconsistencies in identified pattern of a dataset. Also, techniques that enable the visual identification of inconsistencies in patterns such as fault tolerance and colour coding are described. Two approaches are presented in this chapter for visualising inconsistencies in patterns namely; visualising inconsistencies in objects with many attribute values and visual comparison of an investigated dataset with a case control dataset. These approaches are associated with tools which were developed by the authors of this chapter: Firstly, ConTra which allows its users to mine and analyse the contradictions in attribute values whose data does not abide by the mutual exclusion rule of the dataset. Secondly, Datax which mines missing data; enables the visualisation of the missingness and the identification of the associated patterns. Finally, WellGrowth which explores Children's growth dataset by comparing an investigated dataset (data obtained from a Primary Health Centre) with a case control dataset (data from the website of World Health Organisation). Instances of inconsistencies as discovered in the explored datasets are discussed.

**Keywords:** missing data, contradictory, inconsistent, pattern, ConTra, visualisation, bad data

## **1. Introduction**

It is often said that data is the lifeline of research. Due to the importance of data, several research areas such as machine learning, data science, data mining, data analytics and big data has been devoted to the full study and understanding of data. The use of data driven marketing (DDM) as an effective tool in determination of a strategic part of business management is proposed in [1] while the development of data-driven planning for management decision making is advocated in [2]. Also, there is a need for data driven research through open data source [3]. Also, it is noted in [4] that in order to effectively plan an experiment, there is need for preliminary data as a starting point. Even so, the need for valid data in research cannot

be overemphasised. In fact, invalid and inconsistent data could inadvertently impart negatively on results of a research. The authors in [5] pointed out the importance of data validation for systematic software development. Similarly, the authors in [6] explained the importance of health records for diagnosis and treatment purposes. In general the need for valid data is indeed a concern that cuts across every research area. The study of big data has been found to have great impact on scientific discoveries and value creation [7]. The study continues to gain recognition as the quest for tools and measures for validating data continues. Also, [8] explains that the presence of noise hampers the induction of Machine Learning models from data, and can also make the training time longer. Noisy data according to [9] cannot be avoided but rather dealt with. Data, whether structured, semi-structured, or unstructured must be scrutinised with utmost care. The rigour of validating data could be tasking and are usually left in the hands of data scientists.

Data scientists acquire datasets from different environments which in most cases could be noisy. A noisy dataset contains uncertain and inconsistent data that could arise from missing values, imprecise data, and contradictory values, among others. The work of a data scientist includes among others, to explore big dataset in order to find interesting patterns and build supporting arguments for decision making. Such interesting patterns are likely to exclude noise in the form of conflicting or missing data in the dataset which do not support the arguments presented by the analyst. Data which are inconsistent with decision supporting facts should also be analysed. An approach to this analysis is to visually explore the patterns of the decision support data and associated inconsistencies.

Visual analytics is defined in [10] as the science of analytical reasoning facilitated by interactive visual interfaces. Data visualisation is useful for data cleaning, exploring data structure, detecting outliers and unusual groups, identifying trends and clusters, spotting local patterns among others [11]. The visual platform and representations enables better understanding and facilitates analytic as well as deductive reasoning. On the same note, visual analysis of data is important in understanding data and has been found to yield fruitful results in research. According to [12], visual analysis of data enables grasping the multidi-mensional "information reality" from the perspective of users. Visual analytics entails more than a mere visualisation. In fact, it can rather be seen as an integral approach to decision-making, combining visualisation, human factors and data analysis [13]. Visual analytics from another perspective is a data representation approach that employs interactive visualisation to integrate human judgement into algorithmic data-analysis processes [14]. Thus, visual representation of data plays a vital role in data interpretation and analysis.

It is important to analyse interesting patterns and associated noise from big datasets so as to identify the hidden patterns and knowledge in them. Unfortunately, some data scientists advocate deleting or not including the noisy data instead of visually depicting the noise and reporting the analyses. Certainly, deleting inconsistent data from a noisy dataset will increase the incompleteness in the dataset thereby reducing the soundness of the information retrieved from the dataset. Consequently, the noise in a dataset should be tolerated and its tolerance will enable the avoidance of losing interesting information about the dataset. The analysis of incomplete biological data of an organism for example, enhances the understanding of the abnormalities in the organism. Incomplete biological data existing in datasets from laboratory investigations such as data about genes and proteins provides clues to genetic disorder.

The importance of identifying inconsistencies in pattern can also be evident in survey dataset. A survey on pattern of menstruation can reveal a pattern that ladies between the ages of 20 to 30 years old who have not seen their menstruation

**27**

*Visual Identification of Inconsistency in Pattern DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95506*

ing from Hormonal aberrations for instance.

to properly provide analytical reports that expose the issues.

quantifications like intervals or conveying variance through raw data".

Consequently, the authors of this chapter emphasise the need for visualising inconsistencies in identified data patterns by explaining existing approaches and implementing novel approaches for visual analysis of inconsistencies in patterns. In Section 2, a detailed explanation on the concept of inconsistencies in pattern is given. In Section 3, two approaches for visualising inconsistencies in patterns are presented. The visual analyses of inconsistencies in objects with many attribute values and the visual comparison of an investigated dataset with a case control dataset is described. These approaches and their associated tools which were developed by the authors are discussed in the same section. The WellGrowth application is discussed in the same section. The WellGrowth app integrates the use of fault tolerance and colour coding to visualise inconsistent pattern while using data curated from Nsukka Medical Centre (NMC) and data from the website of World Health Organisation (WHO) as their control studies. A comparison of ConTra, Datax and WellGrowth Apps is presented in

Section 4 while Section 5 is the conclusion and research focus for future work.

Any inconsistent data associated to a pattern reduces the quality of findings presented by the analyst about the pattern. An assessment of such inconsistent data can increase the trustworthiness of the findings from the analyst. There are everyday instances of inconsistent data in identified patterns which are likely to mar the patterns. Meade and Craig in [15] explain how inconsistent data from careless respondents of students' survey can be identified among data patterns common among respondents of the survey. Patterns derived from survey data can be associated to contradictory or incomplete responses. Also, patterns discovered in biological investigations can be associated to inconsistent and incomplete data. A gene expression dataset whose columns includes gene name, tissue name, expression and experiment ID can contain inconsistent data in an identified pattern where many experiments are performed for a particular gene in a particular tissue. An expression can be detected,

**2. Inconsistencies in patterns**

for more than two months are pregnant. This pattern does not mean that all ladies of this same age bracket who have not seen their menstruations for more than two months from the survey data are pregnant. Obviously, there can exist ladies suffer-

Also, respondents to survey questions may provide inaccurate responses, such as giving many consecutive items a response of "4" or repeating a pattern of "1, 2, 3, 4, 5…." as explained in [15]. Such purposefully deceptive or even contradictory responses are herein assessed as inconsistencies in patterns and should be portrayed visually as the wrong side of analysis. An example of inconsistency in a survey pattern involving giving many consecutive items a response of "4" is a pattern that shows responses that do not give many consecutive items a response of "4". It is therefore important to identify such inconsistencies in patterns of interest in order

The importance of identifying and assessing inconsistent data is explained in works such as [15–17] but very few publications exist in the area of visually identifying inconsistencies in patterns of interest [18]. There is therefore a need to have a system that enables the visual analysis of inconsistencies in patterns of interest in a dataset. This is to provide data users with a holistic understanding of data of interest. It is stated in [18] "Of 612 data visualizations from 121 articles published online in February 2019 by a set of leading purveyors of data journalism, social science surveys, and economic estimates, 449 (73%) presented data intended for inference, but only 14 (3%) portrayed uncertainty visually, either by depicting explicit

#### *Visual Identification of Inconsistency in Pattern DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95506*

*Applications of Pattern Recognition*

be overemphasised. In fact, invalid and inconsistent data could inadvertently impart negatively on results of a research. The authors in [5] pointed out the importance of data validation for systematic software development. Similarly, the authors in [6] explained the importance of health records for diagnosis and treatment purposes. In general the need for valid data is indeed a concern that cuts across every research area. The study of big data has been found to have great impact on scientific discoveries and value creation [7]. The study continues to gain recognition as the quest for tools and measures for validating data continues. Also, [8] explains that the presence of noise hampers the induction of Machine Learning models from data, and can also make the training time longer. Noisy data according to [9] cannot be avoided but rather dealt with. Data, whether structured, semi-structured, or unstructured must be scrutinised with utmost care. The rigour of validating data

could be tasking and are usually left in the hands of data scientists.

decision support data and associated inconsistencies.

data interpretation and analysis.

proteins provides clues to genetic disorder.

Data scientists acquire datasets from different environments which in most cases could be noisy. A noisy dataset contains uncertain and inconsistent data that could arise from missing values, imprecise data, and contradictory values, among others. The work of a data scientist includes among others, to explore big dataset in order to find interesting patterns and build supporting arguments for decision making. Such interesting patterns are likely to exclude noise in the form of conflicting or missing data in the dataset which do not support the arguments presented by the analyst. Data which are inconsistent with decision supporting facts should also be analysed. An approach to this analysis is to visually explore the patterns of the

Visual analytics is defined in [10] as the science of analytical reasoning facilitated by interactive visual interfaces. Data visualisation is useful for data cleaning, exploring data structure, detecting outliers and unusual groups, identifying trends and clusters, spotting local patterns among others [11]. The visual platform and representations enables better understanding and facilitates analytic as well as deductive reasoning. On the same note, visual analysis of data is important in understanding data and has been found to yield fruitful results in research. According to [12], visual analysis of data enables grasping the multidi-mensional "information reality" from the perspective of users. Visual analytics entails more than a mere visualisation. In fact, it can rather be seen as an integral approach to decision-making, combining visualisation, human factors and data analysis [13]. Visual analytics from another perspective is a data representation approach that employs interactive visualisation to integrate human judgement into algorithmic data-analysis processes [14]. Thus, visual representation of data plays a vital role in

It is important to analyse interesting patterns and associated noise from big datasets so as to identify the hidden patterns and knowledge in them. Unfortunately, some data scientists advocate deleting or not including the noisy data instead of visually depicting the noise and reporting the analyses. Certainly, deleting inconsistent data from a noisy dataset will increase the incompleteness in the dataset thereby reducing the soundness of the information retrieved from the dataset. Consequently, the noise in a dataset should be tolerated and its tolerance will enable the avoidance of losing interesting information about the dataset. The analysis of incomplete biological data of an organism for example, enhances the understanding of the abnormalities in the organism. Incomplete biological data existing in datasets from laboratory investigations such as data about genes and

The importance of identifying inconsistencies in pattern can also be evident in survey dataset. A survey on pattern of menstruation can reveal a pattern that ladies between the ages of 20 to 30 years old who have not seen their menstruation

**26**

for more than two months are pregnant. This pattern does not mean that all ladies of this same age bracket who have not seen their menstruations for more than two months from the survey data are pregnant. Obviously, there can exist ladies suffering from Hormonal aberrations for instance.

Also, respondents to survey questions may provide inaccurate responses, such as giving many consecutive items a response of "4" or repeating a pattern of "1, 2, 3, 4, 5…." as explained in [15]. Such purposefully deceptive or even contradictory responses are herein assessed as inconsistencies in patterns and should be portrayed visually as the wrong side of analysis. An example of inconsistency in a survey pattern involving giving many consecutive items a response of "4" is a pattern that shows responses that do not give many consecutive items a response of "4". It is therefore important to identify such inconsistencies in patterns of interest in order to properly provide analytical reports that expose the issues.

The importance of identifying and assessing inconsistent data is explained in works such as [15–17] but very few publications exist in the area of visually identifying inconsistencies in patterns of interest [18]. There is therefore a need to have a system that enables the visual analysis of inconsistencies in patterns of interest in a dataset. This is to provide data users with a holistic understanding of data of interest. It is stated in [18] "Of 612 data visualizations from 121 articles published online in February 2019 by a set of leading purveyors of data journalism, social science surveys, and economic estimates, 449 (73%) presented data intended for inference, but only 14 (3%) portrayed uncertainty visually, either by depicting explicit quantifications like intervals or conveying variance through raw data".

Consequently, the authors of this chapter emphasise the need for visualising inconsistencies in identified data patterns by explaining existing approaches and implementing novel approaches for visual analysis of inconsistencies in patterns. In Section 2, a detailed explanation on the concept of inconsistencies in pattern is given. In Section 3, two approaches for visualising inconsistencies in patterns are presented. The visual analyses of inconsistencies in objects with many attribute values and the visual comparison of an investigated dataset with a case control dataset is described. These approaches and their associated tools which were developed by the authors are discussed in the same section. The WellGrowth application is discussed in the same section. The WellGrowth app integrates the use of fault tolerance and colour coding to visualise inconsistent pattern while using data curated from Nsukka Medical Centre (NMC) and data from the website of World Health Organisation (WHO) as their control studies. A comparison of ConTra, Datax and WellGrowth Apps is presented in Section 4 while Section 5 is the conclusion and research focus for future work.


**Author details**

Prince Sharma1,2\*, Veerpal Singh Awana1,2 and Mahesh Kumar1,2

1 National Physical Laboratory (CSIR), New Delhi, India

2 Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


C H A Y A ! D IN N ER W ITH TH E M AYA .

CU R ATED B Y: AN ABEL FORD

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from a University of Belize student, a home in Belmopan, and the residence of the Governor General

**Figure 9.** The Opening invitation to the Exhibit of the cultural Institute of Mexico in Belize. Credit: Mexican Embassy Belize. **Figure 9.** The Opening invitation to the Exhibit of the cultural Institute of Mexico in Belize. Credit: Mexican Embassy Belize.

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**Figure 10.** Contemporary Place Settings with Tradition Maya Kitchen in the background. Credit: Adma Chuc. **Figure 10.** Contemporary Place Settings with Tradition Maya Kitchen in the background. Credit: Adma Chuc.

The storytelling in the exhibit resonated and led to a major partnership with the Director of the Museum of Belize, Alexis Salazar. He envisions a new exhibit on archaeology and environment that links to the new Belize heritage education curriculum. El Pilar is the model they identify to develop educational materials to enrich learning for students and teachers, with emphasis on "Transformation and Connections: The World of the Ancient Maya." This is a strand of the Belizean Studies Project that incorporates geography and history, both pre-Contact and recent. The Museum of Belize staff are developing their exhibit with the El Pilar team. Plans to create the didactics and build a virtual introduction to the forthcoming exhibit are underway. *4.3. Community Partnerships*  Our relationships with rural and urban leaders in the community are strong. As the education The storytelling in the exhibit resonated and led to a major partnership with the Director of the Museum of Belize, Alexis Salazar. He envisions a new exhibit on archaeology and environment that links to the new Belize heritage education curriculum. El Pilar is the model they identify to develop educational materials to enrich learning for students and teachers, with emphasis on "Transformation and Connections: The World of the Ancient Maya." This is a strand of the Belizean Studies Project that incorporates geography and history, both pre-Contact and recent. The Museum of Belize staff are developing their exhibit with the El Pilar team. Plans to create the didactics and build a virtual introduction to the forthcoming exhibit are underway.

#### outreach moves along, changes in the dynamics, the reshuffling of advocates, and the incorporation of greater diversity support the expansion outward from Cayo to the rest of Belize and beyond. We *4.3. Community Partnerships*

have found a new groundswell of interest in the forest garden based on mutual respect, which builds on a long-standing alliance with the Institute of Archaeology that began with Harriot Topsey's vision [36]. This foundation has brought in the endorsements of the San Ignacio Hotel, the Governor General, the National Library Service, the Mexican Embassy, and now the Museum of Belize. Our growing partnerships are widely recognized in the region through participation in events, projects, and activities beyond Belize. Private sector engagement has been remarkable, with funding and support from the Belize City Rotary Club, Belize Natural Energy, BRC printing, and Belize Electric Company Limited, and the San Ignacio Resort Hotel. Who would have imagined that paying a courtesy call to the Governor General would result in a fund-raising event to support school Our relationships with rural and urban leaders in the community are strong. As the education outreach moves along, changes in the dynamics, the reshuffling of advocates, and the incorporation of greater diversity support the expansion outward from Cayo to the rest of Belize and beyond. We have found a new groundswell of interest in the forest garden based on mutual respect, which builds on a long-standing alliance with the Institute of Archaeology that began with Harriot Topsey's vision [36]. This foundation has brought in the endorsements of the San Ignacio Hotel, the Governor General, the National Library Service, the Mexican Embassy, and now the Museum of Belize.

gardening? Our growing partnerships are widely recognized in the region through participation in events, projects, and activities beyond Belize. Private sector engagement has been remarkable, with funding and support from the Belize City Rotary Club, Belize Natural Energy, BRC printing, and Belize Electric Company Limited, and the San Ignacio Resort Hotel. Who would have imagined that paying a courtesy call to the Governor General would result in a fund-raising event to support school gardening?

We regularly appear on radio and television shows to promote our mantra on the benefits of forest gardens in rural and urban areas, in private and public spaces. We applaud the Cayo Town Board for the vegetables planted outside their town hall. Fruit trees and home-grown crops are planted as the traditions tell us, to heal the landscape, shade the soil, build fertility, conserve water, and care for people. Lectures and presentations about the Maya forest at schools and clubs, with students, teachers, and the

general public, raise the question of what we can do for our world. AF and CET have been keynote speakers at several local and international events to raise awareness of these issues. CET has promoted El Pilar and forest gardens at the Department of Education Principals conference and the convention of the National Credit Union League, where she shared the podium with the US Ambassador to Belize. AF is active on the international front, including UNESCO panels on Exploring Frameworks of Tropical Forest Conservation [37] and the Max Planck PanTropica workshop [38]. Her work on Maya forest gardens and the domesticated landscape involved her with the Indian Institute of Technology Madras interdisciplinary workshop on the Republic of Plants. All our presentations highlight the wealth untold of the forest by increasing visibility and participation at all levels [39].

As the visibility of the heritage of the forest gardens grows, we attract more individuals from many walks of life. The story still unfolds as the journey continues. The impact of the pandemic in Belize highlights the urgency for gardening, and this new situation has brought a greater appreciation for the importance of food sovereignty.

#### **5. Sustaining Partnerships and Lessons Learned**

The combined networks of AF and CET attracted supporters to the El Pilar education outreach programs, which are sustained by guiding principles and accumulated experience. It is essential to develop reciprocal partnerships and to build on lessons learned from events and activities. As the collaboration evolves, we continue to recognize one another's strengths and strategically leverage support for our endeavors. The resilience of this relationship is based on mutual respect and common concern for the legacy of the Maya forest. The passion that emanates from this collaboration draws attention and inspires engagement among more supporters. We see success as measured by the achievement of clear goals and building of trust rather than acquiring prizes and trophies, and we realize that determination, honesty, and steadfast commitment are the most important elements of our proposed community projects.

Partnerships develop with experience, and the narration here is based on extensive outreach efforts. Our prior experience facilitated the launching of several community projects, and we found there was still much to learn. We are aware that themes evident to our team need to be made clear and unambiguous to partners, and through this process of clarification, we discover and recognize our underlying suppositions. Assumptions about existing knowledge must be reviewed and common ground explored to achieve productive ends. We obtain strength from developing models that influence existing paradigms and honor cultural diversity. For example, global themes of climate change and biodiversity relate directly to our work with Maya forest gardens, providing reference points that people and institutions recognize. By connecting to this prominent issue, we have gained support from a wider cross section of the populace.

Our experience demonstrates that trust can be gained by listening without judgement and creating safe spaces for experts to express themselves. This approach expands potentials for reciprocity to meet mutual objectives. Through staging celebratory events, participating in local activities, and collaborating with community programs, we have been able to demonstrate inclusiveness and formally engage to recognize our partnerships in the community. Such an inclusive agenda provides a platform to establish relationships with collaborative projects and memoranda of understanding, and we have developed a resource database of individual and institutional contacts by building on this dynamic.

From our experience, we identify nine fundamental components that help to establish and sustain vital community relationships:

Learning lessons is a continuous process as a project engages in adventurous new undertakings. We have found that respecting partners, and validating their diverse knowledge and experiences, is critical to successfully building an inclusive project. This means striving to honor the opinions and backgrounds of others by giving them space for expression. We also must identify controversies, both obvious and subtle, that arise from the meeting of different perspectives. Listening to our partners' perspectives, and attempting to distinguish common ground among all participants, have proved to be simple yet invaluable strategies to address such issues. We meet challenges with facilitation, exercised with patience and timing, to negotiate objectives, and we remember that acknowledging mutual aims draws in people and resources. As events and programs evolve, new supporters emerge, and we must constantly remind ourselves to recognize who we can work with and trust our accumulating intuition. We see the emphasis on the participation of youth advancing a sustainable future. Self-assessment is an ongoing process involving relationships, goals, and the relevance of activities, and this reflection provides an opportunity for team members to express themselves and shape the direction of future endeavors.

Based on the guiding principles of interaction, we have determined nine basic lessons to consider as we promote the community model:

The application of these principles and lessons are a continuing work in progress, as every step in building relationships requires constant reassessment. With each innovative event, every new activity, and all collaborative programs, we must evaluate the principles and appraise the progress and challenges that brought the endeavor to fruition. We see the only way forward as involving constant diagnosis and reflection.

## **6. Results: Recognizing the Past, Valuing the Present, Embracing the Future**

This review of our efforts in the Maya forest is an example of how education outreach projects are invigorated with local collaboration. Shared goals and intentions are essential. When the priorities of archaeological projects include diverse entities and individuals, new horizons and unanticipated achievements can be reached. Local and international interests in tangible heritage loci and intangible cultural traditions create the platform for interactive development of relationships and the identification of common ground. We show here that archaeological projects in the Maya area are in a special position for creating unique partnerships. These projects derive from the academy, articulate with the government, bring appeal to heritage attractions, and have associations with the communities where they work. Required elements to build community partnerships include the recognition of specific valued tangible heritage, a formal information outlet, an education link, and an honored cultural tradition. Each provide fertile ground for cultivating collaborations.

Our project recognizes four educational pillars that revolve around the heritage of the ancient Maya. We have identified the protected area of the El Pilar Archaeological Reserve for Maya Flora and Fauna as the principal pillar of community identity with its unique feature of Archaeology Under the Canopy [20]. We have emphasized the wealth of the Maya monuments, yet there are more recent connections to lumber and chicle camps. Much of Cayo's historic wealth was based on wood cutting and chicle bleeding, activities that continued into the 1980s. The wealth of the Maya forest—the product of ancient Maya creativity—is much more than this lumber and chicle.

The Maya forest garden is the wealth untold that underpins our four education pillars. It is found at the El Pilar Archaeological Reserve and is celebrated at the urban Cayo Welcome Center. It is revealed at the *Chak Ha Col* outfield of Master Forest Gardener Narciso Torres and is the vision of the rural *Känan K'aax* School Garden. The Maya forest is the result of ancient Maya land-use practices that still link to traditional forest gardeners from the villages all over the region today. Creative outdoor education opportunities are guided by these traditional farmers and provide young and old with the chance to explore the nexus of culture and nature.

We share the narrative of our work in progress as we continue to discover the legacy of the Maya forest garden and the riches of El Pilar. The illustrious Maya civilization has been exalted but disconnected from the heritage on which it was founded. People have been taught that the Maya disappeared! Alfonso Tzul, a Maya historian and Master Forest Gardener from San Antonio village in Cayo, puts it succinctly and dramatically [40]: You are talking to one!

Belize is developing a new education program that highlights heritage focused on "Transformation and Connections." The aim is to increase understanding of how people's interactions with each other and the environment have and continue to shape Belize (http://www.belizeanstudies.com/). The four pillars of El Pilar figure significantly in this new evolving agenda and will be the core of forthcoming exhibitions with the Museum of Belize that explore peaceful ways of knowing and being.

This is our way forward with lessons that will prove to be useful for Maya anthropological archaeology. Through our growing education outreach activities we sustain mutually beneficial partnerships with citizens. We are creatively envisioning local education and tourism based on the intangible heritage of the forest garden by way of exhibits and field trips. This showcases heritage land management as a conservation and development strategy from the home to the archaeological setting. The project engages with Government and Non-Governmental Organizations with cosponsored projects, programs, and events that bring attention to new ways of knowing and being. The Cayo Welcome Center presents a meeting place for tours that introduce the public, citizen scientists, and international researchers to the value of community participation. These processes reveal the logistics, the practicalities, and the nitty-gritty considerations that play out on the ground.

Where is the wealth and the heritage of Belize? It is on the path of discovery, and we see our program as a catalyst. We recognize that it is in the local traditions that have a cosmopolitan and eclectic source from the deep historical past of the Maya. Building on this creative pre-Contact foundation come adaptations by the Garifuna, and later the gardens of the new Belize with North Americans, Europeans, Chinese, Indians, and Central Americans as contributors, creating a complexity that provides a rich source of different ways of knowing. From the diversity of Belizean heritage, a global forest garden emerges with different sources of knowledge generating a vital base for health and well-being. The distinctiveness of Archaeology Under the Canopy models ways in which we can learn from nature. As we recognize the past and value the present, we invite ourselves to embrace a future guided by forest gardeners and sharing the gifts of the Maya from nature.

**Author Contributions:** All three authors contributed comparable to the whole. C.E.T. composed and governed themes and substance, A.F. contributed general historical content and bibliography, and S.H.III was instrumental in formal organizational development and overview. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This education outreach project received funding from Exploring Solutions Past: The Maya Forest Alliance, National Geographic Society, and the New England Biolabs Foundation.

**Acknowledgments:** Our decades long engagement with Belize archaeology has been enabled, supported, and encouraged by the Belize Institute of Archaeology and the National Institute of Culture and History. Our community outreach has been supported by National Geographic Society and the New England Biolabs Foundation. Pilot education outreach supported by Education Foundation of America. Collaborative exhibits with the Belize National Library Service and the Mexican Embassy were essential in the development of our research with the Museum of Belize and Belizean Studies Committee. We thank the community and forest gardeners as well as all the individuals who have help to make the education outreach a success.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

## **References**

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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