**Transformation of Soybean Oil to Various Self-Assembled Supramolecular Structures**

Arumugam Gnanamani, Varadharajan Kavitha, Ganesan Sekaran and Asit Baran Mandal *Central Leather Research Institute (CSIR), Adyar, Chennai India*


**3. Dynamic behaviour of pile**

A variety of design procedures have been adopted by design guidelines and codes for assessing the behaviour of piles in liquefiable ground. Dynamic loading during earthquake be superimposed onto the working loads of the piles. Predicting seismic response of pile foundations in liquefied soil layers is much more complex due to uncertainties in the mechanisms involved in soil–pile-superstructure interaction (different dynamic loads, the stiffness and shear strength of the surrounding soil and pore water pressure generation). In practice, different design procedures have been used for the seismic design of pile-supported structures. The Japanese Highway Code of Practice (JRA) [27], for example, advises the practicing engineers to consider both of the loading conditions mentioned above. However, it suggests a separate bending failure check for the effects of kinematic and inertial forces. Similarly, BS EN ISO 2008 [30] advises pile design against bending due to inertial and kinematic forces arising from the deformation of the surrounding soil. In the event of liquefaction, Eurocode 8 also suggests that "the side resistance of soil layers

**189**

*The Dynamic Behaviour of Pile Foundations in Seismically Liquefiable Soils: Failure…*

load due to inertia and soil movement causes bending failure.

that are susceptible to liquefaction or to substantial strength degradation shall be ignored". The NEHRP [28], on the other hand, focuses on the bending strength of the piles by treating them as laterally loaded beams and assuming that the lateral

Since the mid-1960s, significant research has been conducted to understand the dynamic behaviour of pile foundations in liquefiable soils using various experimental techniques as well as various numerical modelling methods. These investigations can be divided into three categories: field observations (case histories), laboratory tests (dynamic centrifuge experiments, shaking table tests and full-scale field tests), and numerical modelling (Winkler analyses with linear-elastic or hysteretic soil behaviour, finite-element analyses). These will be discussed in detail in the

This section provides a brief review of case histories. This can help to appropriately understand the phenomena involved and to identify important aspects of pile-soil-interaction behaviour. These case histories are primarily from the past 50 to 60 years, which describes the observed of some of the damaged piled founda-

Iwasaki [51] reported the results of investigations on seismic damages to highway bridges during major eight earthquakes in Japan (occurred in 1923 to 1983). Their observation described that many of reinforced concrete buildings, highway bridges and other structures sustained considerable damage due to liquefaction of sandy soils (e.g., Showa Bridge 1964, Yuriage Bridge 1978, Shizunai Bridge 1982, Gomyoko Bridge 1983). The Showa bridge collapse has been a case history of interest in many publications and it was as an iconic example of the detrimental effects of liquefaction-induced lateral spreading on the ground. Hamada [2] argued that a more plausible explanation could be offered based on the ground displacements suffered due to liquefaction induced lateral spreading. In this respect, the JRA code [27] tried to formalise this research and presented methods of estimating the loading due to lateral spreading ground on pile foundations. This problem was revisited by Yoshida et al. [52] and they collated a number of eye-witness accounts to establish the timing of the bridge collapse as well as the lateral spreading of the river banks. It was suggested that lateral spreading of the surrounding ground started after the bridge had collapsed. Madabhushi and Bhattacharya [21] reanalysed the bridge and showed that lateral spreading hypothesis could not explain the failure of the bridge. A similar explanation was reported by Kerciku et al. [53]. As a final remark, Bhattacharya et al. [12, 54] and Mohanty et al. [55] suggested that the Showa Bridge could have collapsed because of bending, buckling, and combined

The Niigata Family Court House building was a four-storey building constructed on concrete pile foundations. Hamada [2] suggested that one pile suffered relatively modest damage, as it did not penetrate into the deeper, non-liquefied ground. Madabhushi et al. [56] concluded that the laterally spreading ground around the

Further example on the probability of identifying collapse mechanisms is the Kandla Port one of the largest ports in India, located in the western state of Gujarat. Following the Bhuj earthquake of 2001, there was some damage to the port facilities [49]. Dash et al. [57] used conventional analysis of a single pile or a pile group to predict collapse. They concluded that the foundation mats over the non-liquefied crust shared a considerable amount of load of the superstructure and resisted the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94936*

**3.1 Field observations (case histories)**

tions from the literature (see **Table 1**).

action of bending of pile foundations.

complete collapse of the building.

piles caused the observed distress in these piles.

following subsections.

### *The Dynamic Behaviour of Pile Foundations in Seismically Liquefiable Soils: Failure… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94936*

that are susceptible to liquefaction or to substantial strength degradation shall be ignored". The NEHRP [28], on the other hand, focuses on the bending strength of the piles by treating them as laterally loaded beams and assuming that the lateral load due to inertia and soil movement causes bending failure.

Since the mid-1960s, significant research has been conducted to understand the dynamic behaviour of pile foundations in liquefiable soils using various experimental techniques as well as various numerical modelling methods. These investigations can be divided into three categories: field observations (case histories), laboratory tests (dynamic centrifuge experiments, shaking table tests and full-scale field tests), and numerical modelling (Winkler analyses with linear-elastic or hysteretic soil behaviour, finite-element analyses). These will be discussed in detail in the following subsections.