*Article* **Fuzzy Governance Model**

**Enriqueta Mancilla-Rendón 1,\*, Carmen Lozano 1 and Enrique Torres-Esteva 2**

**Abstract:** This article aims to analyze the functions of corporate governance agents as a key part of the study and evaluation of the internal control by the independent auditor to propose a governance fuzzy model based on legality. This is a descriptive–hermeneutical study based on mercantile-securities law, the code of best practice of corporate governance, and auditing standards. The research design is cross-sectional and uses fuzzy logic theory as an alternative tool in contrast to classical mathematical models. The results suggest that corporate governance agents strongly influence the application of a management system. Evidence is given regarding the positive relationship between the functions of corporate governance agents as a management system. Additionally, the importance of an internal control management system as an inherent mechanism for governance is proven. The scientific value of this work lies in showing how the interaction between the application of mathematical models based on fuzzy set theory and the qualitative attributes of internal control policies and practices. It is a tool to evaluate governance as a management system for decision making. This work emphasizes that a model based on fuzzy sets is useful to evaluate a management system of internal control policies and procedures necessary to improve corporate governance.

**Keywords:** governance; fuzzy logic; management system


*Edited by Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska*

Tribology is a branch of science that deals with machine elements and their friction, wear, and lubrication. *Tribology of Machine Elements - Fundamentals and Applications* presents the fundamentals of tribology, with chapters on its applications in engines, metal forming, seals, blasting, sintering, laser texture, biomaterials, and grinding.

Published in London, UK © 2022 IntechOpen © FedotovAnatoly / iStock

Tribology of Machine Elements - Fundamentals and Applications

Tribology of Machine

Elements

Fundamentals and Applications

*Edited by Giuseppe Pintaude,*

*Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska*


**Phytotoxicity of Phenolic Acids From Cereals**

Héctor R. Bravo, Sylvia V. Copaja and Madeleine Lamborot

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55942

### **1. Introduction**

Allelopathic interactions between individuals of different plant species or those of the some species are caused by plant-produced allelochemicals. Once released into the environment, passively or actively they can influence germination, growth and development of neighboring plant either negatively or positively [1, 2]. Most allelochemicals are characterized by multi‐ functional phytotoxicity and are often also important for general defense. Generally stressed donor plants increased allelopathic activity due to increased production of allelochemical. Factors such as placement of residues, nutrient status, environmental conditions and microbial activity also affect allelopathy [3-5].

In recent years there has been an increasing focus on the prospects of exploiting allelopathy for controlling weeds but also insects and diseases. Allelopathy plays an important role in the agro ecosystem leading to a wide array of interactions between crop-crop, crop-weed and treecrop. Generally, these interactions are harmful to the receiver plants but provide a selective benefit to the donor. Several members of crops exhibit allelopathic interactions that play a significant role in the complex environment of the agro ecosystem.

The allelochemicals are released largely by plant residues that are left in the fields after the harvest of a crop or through use of cover crops. Research on allelopathic interactions has been focused in agricultural crops as on option in the development of integrated weed management strategies, reducing environmental effects and the cost of crop protection [6-10]. Secondary metabolites with allelopathic properties are thought to protect plants against competing plants. For instance, allelopathic activity of decomposing wheat (*Titicum aestivun* L.), and oat (*Avena sativa* L.) straw on some crop species has been reported (11). Allelopathic potential of rye [12-14] and rice [6, 15, 16] has been extensively studied. In cereals such as, maize (*Zea may* L.), wheat (*Titicum aestivun* L.), rye (*Secale cereale* L.), barley (*Hordeum vulgare* L.), rice (*Oryza*

© 2013 Bravo et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 Bravo et al.; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*sativa* L.) and sorghum (*Sorghum bicolor*) a variety of allelochemicals have been identified including hydroxamic acids, cumarines, alkaloids, flavonoids and phenolic acids.. The allelopathic activity of these cereals may arise from one or the combined action of a group of allelochemicals. For example, hydroxamic acids appear to be responsible for the allelopathic effect of wheat, maize and rye [13, 17-19], indole alkaloids in allelopathic effect of barley [20, 21] and phenolic acid in the allelopathic effect of rice and sorghum [15, 22-25]. Rye is an example of a plant which provides excellent weed suppression through allelopathic mecha‐ nism. Rye and its residues which strongly inhibit germination and seedling growth of several dicot and monocotyledonous plants species. Several studies have demonstrated the allelo‐ pathic characteristic of rye residues are in agreement with the contents of hydroxamic acids in the plants and their degradation products [17, 26-29]. The allelopathy of an allelochemicals depends on the target species, dose, structure and their physicochemical properties. Both biotic and abiotic factor can trigger the allelopathic potential of a plant [3, 30-33]. The effectiveness of allelochemicals is therefore considered to be highly dynamic.

(*Lactuca sativa*) and the alga *Chlorella vulgaris*, one of the most commonly used species in

Phytotoxicity of Phenolic Acids From Cereals http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55942 39

**Chemicals:** Carboxylic acids were obtained from a commercial source (Aldrich Chemical Co.)

**LogPHPLC values:** The capacity factor (k´) for the compounds used in this study were deter‐ mined from k´= (tR – tM)/ tM, where tR is the retention time of the compound and tM is the retention time of the non-retained compound (thiourea). RP-HPLC was carried out in a C18 column with mobile phase water (pH:3 phosphoric acid)/ acetonitrile 60:40 v/v [47]. The relation between k´ and n-octanol-water partition coefficients were established by linear regression of logk´ and logkow values obtained from the literature. LogPHPLC values were

**Germination assays:** 45 lettuce seeds were uniformly placed on Petri dishes covered with cotton film. In order to maintain individual compound concentrations, each plate was watered with 8 mL of an aqueous solution of 100 or 250 µg/mL of each compound. The plates were sealed and incubated at 25 ± 20 C in an 8:16 h light: dark cycle for 6 d. Controls were incubated only with water. Each assay was replicated three times Germination inhibition was expressed

microalgae toxicity bioassay testing [46].

**Figure 1.** Structure of phenolic acids.

derived from the relationship:

logPHPLC= 1.08 logk´+ 1.72

as percentage of the control.

**2. Experimental**

A basic step to understanding the allelophatic properties of a compound is to evaluate its phytotoxic properties. Phytotoxicity in plants may have some of the following effects: toxicity to the radicle growth of monocots and dicots; inhibitory effect on the energy metabolism of chloroplasts and mitochondria and modification of the binding affinity of the receptor sites of membranes. Parameters such as chemical stability, lipophilia, and acid-base or electrophilicnucleophile interactions can be involved in the molecular mechanism of action or the dynamic in the environment.

Lipophilia is an essential parameter to establish the quantitative structure-activity relationship of phytotoxicity.

The n-octanol/water partition coefficient (kow) provides direct information on lipophilicity that describes the tendency of distribution of a solute from the aqueous phase into organic constituents of environmental compartments and even into biological membranes [34,35]. This has made it one of the most commonly reported physico-chemical properties of drugs, pesticides and other chemicals [36-38].

Numerous researchers have realized that there is a close parallel between the retention of compounds in reverse phase high performance liquid chromatographic columns (RP-HPLC) and octanol-water partition coefficients (kow). This technique is rapid and has the advantages that small samples suffice, the substances need not be pure and the exact volume of the phases need not be known.

Studies have tried to link this correlation to biological activity [39-45]. However, lack of success may be due to insufficient homogeneity or chemical diversity in the data set.

To gain a deeper understanding of the potential allelopathic properties of phenolic acids, we compared the phytotoxic activity of a series of phenolic acids, some of which are present in cereal cultivars (Figure 1).

The structural effect and role of molecular lipophyilia determined from RP-HPLC method were analyzed from the standpoint of a structure-phytotoxicity relationship using lettuce seeds (*Lactuca sativa*) and the alga *Chlorella vulgaris*, one of the most commonly used species in microalgae toxicity bioassay testing [46].

**Figure 1.** Structure of phenolic acids.

### **2. Experimental**

*sativa* L.) and sorghum (*Sorghum bicolor*) a variety of allelochemicals have been identified including hydroxamic acids, cumarines, alkaloids, flavonoids and phenolic acids.. The allelopathic activity of these cereals may arise from one or the combined action of a group of allelochemicals. For example, hydroxamic acids appear to be responsible for the allelopathic effect of wheat, maize and rye [13, 17-19], indole alkaloids in allelopathic effect of barley [20, 21] and phenolic acid in the allelopathic effect of rice and sorghum [15, 22-25]. Rye is an example of a plant which provides excellent weed suppression through allelopathic mecha‐ nism. Rye and its residues which strongly inhibit germination and seedling growth of several dicot and monocotyledonous plants species. Several studies have demonstrated the allelo‐ pathic characteristic of rye residues are in agreement with the contents of hydroxamic acids in the plants and their degradation products [17, 26-29]. The allelopathy of an allelochemicals depends on the target species, dose, structure and their physicochemical properties. Both biotic and abiotic factor can trigger the allelopathic potential of a plant [3, 30-33]. The effectiveness

A basic step to understanding the allelophatic properties of a compound is to evaluate its phytotoxic properties. Phytotoxicity in plants may have some of the following effects: toxicity to the radicle growth of monocots and dicots; inhibitory effect on the energy metabolism of chloroplasts and mitochondria and modification of the binding affinity of the receptor sites of membranes. Parameters such as chemical stability, lipophilia, and acid-base or electrophilicnucleophile interactions can be involved in the molecular mechanism of action or the dynamic

Lipophilia is an essential parameter to establish the quantitative structure-activity relationship

The n-octanol/water partition coefficient (kow) provides direct information on lipophilicity that describes the tendency of distribution of a solute from the aqueous phase into organic constituents of environmental compartments and even into biological membranes [34,35]. This has made it one of the most commonly reported physico-chemical properties of drugs,

Numerous researchers have realized that there is a close parallel between the retention of compounds in reverse phase high performance liquid chromatographic columns (RP-HPLC) and octanol-water partition coefficients (kow). This technique is rapid and has the advantages that small samples suffice, the substances need not be pure and the exact volume of the phases

Studies have tried to link this correlation to biological activity [39-45]. However, lack of success

To gain a deeper understanding of the potential allelopathic properties of phenolic acids, we compared the phytotoxic activity of a series of phenolic acids, some of which are present in

The structural effect and role of molecular lipophyilia determined from RP-HPLC method were analyzed from the standpoint of a structure-phytotoxicity relationship using lettuce seeds

may be due to insufficient homogeneity or chemical diversity in the data set.

of allelochemicals is therefore considered to be highly dynamic.

in the environment.

38 Herbicides - Advances in Research

need not be known.

cereal cultivars (Figure 1).

pesticides and other chemicals [36-38].

of phytotoxicity.

**Chemicals:** Carboxylic acids were obtained from a commercial source (Aldrich Chemical Co.)

**LogPHPLC values:** The capacity factor (k´) for the compounds used in this study were deter‐ mined from k´= (tR – tM)/ tM, where tR is the retention time of the compound and tM is the retention time of the non-retained compound (thiourea). RP-HPLC was carried out in a C18 column with mobile phase water (pH:3 phosphoric acid)/ acetonitrile 60:40 v/v [47]. The relation between k´ and n-octanol-water partition coefficients were established by linear regression of logk´ and logkow values obtained from the literature. LogPHPLC values were derived from the relationship:

logPHPLC= 1.08 logk´+ 1.72

**Germination assays:** 45 lettuce seeds were uniformly placed on Petri dishes covered with cotton film. In order to maintain individual compound concentrations, each plate was watered with 8 mL of an aqueous solution of 100 or 250 µg/mL of each compound. The plates were sealed and incubated at 25 ± 20 C in an 8:16 h light: dark cycle for 6 d. Controls were incubated only with water. Each assay was replicated three times Germination inhibition was expressed as percentage of the control.

**Antialgal test:** Test compounds were dissolved in nutrient growth medium (Gibco) with the aid of either ultrasound or gentle heating. *Chlorella vulgaris* (Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Chile) was grown in nutrient growth medium. Samples were incubated at 250 C for 10 d in test tubes containing 4.0 x104 colony forming units (CFU) under continuous cold white fluorescent light with an intensity of 200 ft. c. The growth of *C. vulga‐ ris* was assessed by turbidity measured by the spectrophotometric method at 600 nm.

In addition, we observed that caffeic acid did not inhibit germination but it stimulated seedling growth, particularly the root elongation of lettuce, in the concentration range 50-500 µgmL-1. Since measuring seedling length is often complicated due to curling and other morphological alterations, seedling fresh weight may be a better bioindicator to evaluate stimulation activity. Figure 2 shows the relation of the percentage of fresh biomass increase with respect to caffeic acid concentration; the greatest increase was observed at 250 µgmL-1.An increase in plant growth produced by a chemical structure stimulator may be related to the stimulation of auxininduced growth or to an improvement of the growth substrate because of organic matter enrichment. Further studies are necessary to establish the cause of the stimulation observed.

Phytotoxicity of Phenolic Acids From Cereals http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55942 41

**Figure 2.** Effect of caffeic acid on fresh biomass increase of lettuce seedlings with respect to control (values corre‐

The phytotoxicity of the compounds involved in allelopathic effects depends upon the target species. Microalgae responded rapidly to environmental changes owing to their short germi‐ nation time. Green microalgae such as *Chlorella* are taxonomically classified as plants bearing some similarity to higher plants. For this reason, a microalgae test may be used to evaluate herbicidal activity against higher plants [46]. The phytotoxicity of carboxylic acids was also

spond to the mean of three samples, replicate values had errors below 5% in all cases).

Percentage inhibition was obtained as 100 (Ts – Tc)/(100 – Tc), where Ts is the sample trans‐ mittance and Tc the control transmittance.

### **3. Results and discussion**

Table 1 shows the germination inhibition activity of phenolic acids (Figure 1). In the concen‐ tration range studied (100 – 250 µgmL-1), cinnamic, p-bromo, p-chloro and benzoic acids showed the highest levels of germination inhibition of lettuce seeds. The effect of water-soluble inhibitor compounds associated with allelopathic plants is often more pronounced on the growth of an indicator than on its germination, and depends on the dose and the receptor plant. In fact, previous studies demonstrated that when phenolic acids are exuded from wheat, barley, wild oat and cucumber plants [24, 25], they did not inhibit germination but did inhibit the growth of *Brassica kaber* at a lower concentration than those used in our assays.

**Table 1.** Inhibitiory effect (%) on germination of lettuce seeds (*L. sativa*), antialgal activity (*C. vulgaris*) and values of logk´ and log PHPLC of phenolic acids.

Each value corresponds to the mean of three samples; replicate values showed errors below 5% in all cases. ND: not determined. The data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA.

In addition, we observed that caffeic acid did not inhibit germination but it stimulated seedling growth, particularly the root elongation of lettuce, in the concentration range 50-500 µgmL-1.

**Antialgal test:** Test compounds were dissolved in nutrient growth medium (Gibco) with the aid of either ultrasound or gentle heating. *Chlorella vulgaris* (Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, University of Chile) was grown in nutrient growth medium. Samples were incubated at 250 C for 10 d in test tubes containing 4.0 x104 colony forming units (CFU) under continuous cold white fluorescent light with an intensity of 200 ft. c. The growth of *C. vulga‐*

Percentage inhibition was obtained as 100 (Ts – Tc)/(100 – Tc), where Ts is the sample trans‐

Table 1 shows the germination inhibition activity of phenolic acids (Figure 1). In the concen‐ tration range studied (100 – 250 µgmL-1), cinnamic, p-bromo, p-chloro and benzoic acids showed the highest levels of germination inhibition of lettuce seeds. The effect of water-soluble inhibitor compounds associated with allelopathic plants is often more pronounced on the growth of an indicator than on its germination, and depends on the dose and the receptor plant. In fact, previous studies demonstrated that when phenolic acids are exuded from wheat, barley, wild oat and cucumber plants [24, 25], they did not inhibit germination but did inhibit

**Phenolic acid Germination inhibition (%) antialgal activity (%) logk´ log PHPLC**

Cinnamic 77.0 98.7 5.1 11.3 0.30 2.08 Benzoic 2.6 86.3 0.0 0.0 0.23 1.97 p-hydroxy- benzoic 0.0 5.3 0.0 0.0 - 0.41 1.28 Vanillic 2.1 4.2 0.0 0.0 - 0.37 1.32 Caffeic 0.0 0.0 100 100 - 0.51 1.17 Gallic 0.0 0.0 57.6 81.1 - 1.15 0.48 p-bromo benzoic 16.3 83.1 47.7 48.3 0.98 2.78 p-cyano benzoic 35.6 53.4 11.3 17.7 - 0.1 1.61 p-chloro benzoic 100 100 ND ND 0.83 2.62

**250 (µgmL-1)**

**(µgmL-1) 100 (µgmL-1)**

**Table 1.** Inhibitiory effect (%) on germination of lettuce seeds (*L. sativa*), antialgal activity (*C. vulgaris*) and values of

Each value corresponds to the mean of three samples; replicate values showed errors below

5% in all cases. ND: not determined. The data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA.

the growth of *Brassica kaber* at a lower concentration than those used in our assays.

**100 (µgmL-1) 250**

*ris* was assessed by turbidity measured by the spectrophotometric method at 600 nm.

mittance and Tc the control transmittance.

**3. Results and discussion**

40 Herbicides - Advances in Research

logk´ and log PHPLC of phenolic acids.

Since measuring seedling length is often complicated due to curling and other morphological alterations, seedling fresh weight may be a better bioindicator to evaluate stimulation activity. Figure 2 shows the relation of the percentage of fresh biomass increase with respect to caffeic acid concentration; the greatest increase was observed at 250 µgmL-1.An increase in plant growth produced by a chemical structure stimulator may be related to the stimulation of auxininduced growth or to an improvement of the growth substrate because of organic matter enrichment. Further studies are necessary to establish the cause of the stimulation observed.

**Figure 2.** Effect of caffeic acid on fresh biomass increase of lettuce seedlings with respect to control (values corre‐ spond to the mean of three samples, replicate values had errors below 5% in all cases).

The phytotoxicity of the compounds involved in allelopathic effects depends upon the target species. Microalgae responded rapidly to environmental changes owing to their short germi‐ nation time. Green microalgae such as *Chlorella* are taxonomically classified as plants bearing some similarity to higher plants. For this reason, a microalgae test may be used to evaluate herbicidal activity against higher plants [46]. The phytotoxicity of carboxylic acids was also examined against the fresh water green alga *Chlorella vulgaris*. The percentages of *in vitro* growth inhibition are given in Table 1: gallic, caffeic and p-bromo benzoic acids showed the highest antialgal activity.

activity against higher plants [46]. The phytotoxicity of carboxylic acids was also examined against the fresh water green alga *Chlorella vulgaris*. The percentages of *in vitro* growth inhibition are given in Table 1: gallic, caffeic and p-bromo benzoic acids

The chemical mechanism of the phytotoxicity of phenolic acids is not well understood. However, carboxylic acids and phenols are known to induce uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation in mitochondria and chloroplasts. The uncoupling activity depends upon carboxylic function ionization. Pka values of the series studied were in the small range 4.0-4.5; therefore the substantial differences between the observed activities may not depend upon the ionization of the O-H bond of

Hansch [48], proposed a theory to rationalize the relationship between the chemical structure and biological activity of auxins. The hypothesis assumes that auxins with an aromatic ring and side chain react with a plant substrate via two points, one on the side chain and another on the aromatic ring. A critical step should be the movement of the compounds from solution to the action sites. The lipophilia parameter is essential in the penetration rate and dynamics in the physiological system. This hypothesis must be

Although cinnamic and caffeic acids have identical side chains, they showed opposite phytotoxicities. At the concentration of 250 μgL-1, cinnamic acid had the highest germination inhibition activity and low antialgal activity, while caffeic acid stimulated the growth of lettuce seedlings and showed the highest antialgal activity. This suggests that the difference of activity may arise from the structure of the aromatic ring. Compounds with carboxylic function bonding at the aromatic ring and with hydroxyl group substituents such as p-hydroxy benzoic acid, vanillic, caffeic and gallic acids did not show germination inhibition effects but the p-

These results suggest that part of the phytotoxicity may be related at the step of interaction of the aromatic ring with the substrate

As mentioned above, the kow determined from the traditional shake-flash method is generally accepted as being a useful parameter in structure-activity relationship studies of correlation with biological activity of compounds and the dynamic processes of a chemical in the environment. It is now almost equally accepted that the correlation between the capacity factor (k´) obtained

A linear regression between the capacity factor (k´) and logkow from literature sources was obtained (R2 = 0.99). From this

8 9

Phytotoxicity of Phenolic Acids From Cereals http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55942 43

Figure 3. Relationships between the logkow (literature data) and determined logk´ values. (Phenolic acids: 1 = gallic; 2 = caffeic; 3 = p-hydroxy

Even on the basis of the limited number of compounds studied, the correlation obtained shows a promise as a simple; direct and rapid method for the estimation of lipophilicity parameters of new phenolic acids and or those for which this data does not exist.

Positive and negative logk´ values were obtained, which may arise from the lipophilic character of the aromatic substituents. Lipophilia values can be obtained from the parameter pi (ߨ (as a measure of the lipophilic properties of the aromatic substituents

= 1.02;

benzoic; 4 = vanillic; 5 = p-cyanobenzoic; 6 = benzoic; 7 = cinnamic; 8 = p-chlorobenzoic; 9 = p-bromobenzoic).

**Figure 3.** Relationships between the logkow (literature data) and determined logk´ values. (Phenolic acids: 1 = gallic; 2 = caffeic; 3 = p-hydroxy benzoic; 4 = vanillic; 5 = p-cyanobenzoic; 6 = benzoic; 7 = cinnamic; 8 = p-chlorobenzoic; 9 =

Even on the basis of the limited number of compounds studied, the correlation obtained shows a promise as a simple; direct and rapid method for the estimation of lipophilicity parameters

Positive and negative logk´ values were obtained, which may arise from the lipophilic character of the aromatic substituents. Lipophilia values can be obtained from the parameter pi (*π* ) as a measure of the lipophilic properties of the aromatic substituents [49]. Compounds with negative logk´ have substituents with negative *π* values (*π*CH3) = - 0.04; *π*(OH) = - 0.62; *π*(CN) = - 0.31) and compounds with positive logk´ have zero or positive *π* values (*π*H = 0; *π*Br-

More clarity about the lipophilic effect of the substituents on the capacity factor is obtained from the relation between logk´ values for p-substituent compounds and the *π* values. Figure 4 illustrates that logk´ increased linearly with the lipophilic character of the substituents.

These results suggest strongly that part of the lipophilic properties of phenolic acids arise from

of new phenolic acids and or those for which this data does not exist.

the different lipophilic characters of the aromatic ring substituents.

‐1.6 ‐1.2 ‐0.8 ‐0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2

2 3

1

logk´

5

4

With this in mind, we established a RP-HPLC method to evaluate the lipophilia of phenolic acids, as shown in figure 3.

regresion log PHPLC values were derived by a single equation (see experimental). Tabla 1 gives the logk´and logHPLC values

6

7

showed the highest antialgal activity.

considered to understand the mechanism of action the phenolic acids.

bromo, p-chloro and p-cyano derivatives showed significant activity.

plant and the lipophilic-hydrophilic balance may have a fundamental role.

from RP-HPLC method and kow to be used for simple and rapid estimation of partition coefficients.

carboxylic function.

0

0.5

1

1.5

log kow

p-bromobenzoic).

*π*Cl-

= 0.7).

2

2.5

3

The chemical mechanism of the phytotoxicity of phenolic acids is not well understood. However, carboxylic acids and phenols are known to induce uncoupling of oxidative phos‐ phorylation and photophosphorylation in mitochondria and chloroplasts. The uncoupling activity depends upon carboxylic function ionization. Pka values of the series studied were in the small range 4.0-4.5; therefore the substantial differences between the observed activities may not depend upon the ionization of the O-H bond of carboxylic function.

Hansch [48], proposed a theory to rationalize the relationship between the chemical structure and biological activity of auxins. The hypothesis assumes that auxins with an aromatic ring and side chain react with a plant substrate via two points, one on the side chain and another on the aromatic ring. A critical step should be the movement of the compounds from solution to the action sites. The lipophilia parameter is essential in the penetration rate and dynamics in the physiological system. This hypothesis must be considered to understand the mechanism of action the phenolic acids.

Although cinnamic and caffeic acids have identical side chains, they showed opposite phytotoxicities. At the concentration of 250 µgL-1, cinnamic acid had the highest germination inhibition activity and low antialgal activity, while caffeic acid stimulated the growth of lettuce seedlings and showed the highest antialgal activity. This suggests that the difference of activity may arise from the structure of the aromatic ring. Compounds with carboxylic function bonding at the aromatic ring and with hydroxyl group substituents such as p-hydroxy benzoic acid, vanillic, caffeic and gallic acids did not show germination inhibition effects but the pbromo, p-chloro and p-cyano derivatives showed significant activity.

These results suggest that part of the phytotoxicity may be related at the step of interaction of the aromatic ring with the substrate plant and the lipophilic-hydrophilic balance may have a fundamental role.

As mentioned above, the kow determined from the traditional shake-flash method is generally accepted as being a useful parameter in structure-activity relationship studies of correlation with biological activity of compounds and the dynamic processes of a chemi‐ cal in the environment. It is now almost equally accepted that the correlation between the capacity factor (k´) obtained from RP-HPLC method and kow to be used for simple and rapid estimation of partition coefficients.

With this in mind, we established a RP-HPLC method to evaluate the lipophilia of phenolic acids, as shown in figure 3.

A linear regression between the capacity factor (k´) and logkow from literature sources was obtained (R2 = 0.99). From this regresion log PHPLC values were derived by a single equation (see experimental). Table 1 gives the logk´and logPHPLC values

activity against higher plants [46]. The phytotoxicity of carboxylic acids was also examined against the fresh water green alga *Chlorella vulgaris*. The percentages of *in vitro* growth inhibition are given in Table 1: gallic, caffeic and p-bromo benzoic acids

The chemical mechanism of the phytotoxicity of phenolic acids is not well understood. However, carboxylic acids and phenols are known to induce uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation in mitochondria and chloroplasts. The uncoupling activity depends upon carboxylic function ionization. Pka values of the series studied were in the small range 4.0-4.5; therefore the substantial differences between the observed activities may not depend upon the ionization of the O-H bond of

Hansch [48], proposed a theory to rationalize the relationship between the chemical structure and biological activity of auxins. The hypothesis assumes that auxins with an aromatic ring and side chain react with a plant substrate via two points, one on the side chain and another on the aromatic ring. A critical step should be the movement of the compounds from solution to the action sites. The lipophilia parameter is essential in the penetration rate and dynamics in the physiological system. This hypothesis must be

Although cinnamic and caffeic acids have identical side chains, they showed opposite phytotoxicities. At the concentration of 250 μgL-1, cinnamic acid had the highest germination inhibition activity and low antialgal activity, while caffeic acid stimulated the growth of lettuce seedlings and showed the highest antialgal activity. This suggests that the difference of activity may arise from the structure of the aromatic ring. Compounds with carboxylic function bonding at the aromatic ring and with hydroxyl group substituents such as p-hydroxy benzoic acid, vanillic, caffeic and gallic acids did not show germination inhibition effects but the p-

These results suggest that part of the phytotoxicity may be related at the step of interaction of the aromatic ring with the substrate

A linear regression between the capacity factor (k´) and logkow from literature sources was obtained (R2 = 0.99). From this

Figure 3. Relationships between the logkow (literature data) and determined logk´ values. (Phenolic acids: 1 = gallic; 2 = caffeic; 3 = p-hydroxy

rapid method for the estimation of lipophilicity parameters of new phenolic acids and or those for which this data does not exist.

showed the highest antialgal activity.

considered to understand the mechanism of action the phenolic acids.

bromo, p-chloro and p-cyano derivatives showed significant activity.

plant and the lipophilic-hydrophilic balance may have a fundamental role.

carboxylic function.

from RP-HPLC method and kow to be used for simple and rapid estimation of partition coefficients.

With this in mind, we established a RP-HPLC method to evaluate the lipophilia of phenolic acids, as shown in figure 3.

regresion log PHPLC values were derived by a single equation (see experimental). Tabla 1 gives the logk´and logHPLC values

examined against the fresh water green alga *Chlorella vulgaris*. The percentages of *in vitro* growth inhibition are given in Table 1: gallic, caffeic and p-bromo benzoic acids showed the

The chemical mechanism of the phytotoxicity of phenolic acids is not well understood. However, carboxylic acids and phenols are known to induce uncoupling of oxidative phos‐ phorylation and photophosphorylation in mitochondria and chloroplasts. The uncoupling activity depends upon carboxylic function ionization. Pka values of the series studied were in the small range 4.0-4.5; therefore the substantial differences between the observed activities

Hansch [48], proposed a theory to rationalize the relationship between the chemical structure and biological activity of auxins. The hypothesis assumes that auxins with an aromatic ring and side chain react with a plant substrate via two points, one on the side chain and another on the aromatic ring. A critical step should be the movement of the compounds from solution to the action sites. The lipophilia parameter is essential in the penetration rate and dynamics in the physiological system. This hypothesis must be considered to understand the mechanism

Although cinnamic and caffeic acids have identical side chains, they showed opposite phytotoxicities. At the concentration of 250 µgL-1, cinnamic acid had the highest germination inhibition activity and low antialgal activity, while caffeic acid stimulated the growth of lettuce seedlings and showed the highest antialgal activity. This suggests that the difference of activity may arise from the structure of the aromatic ring. Compounds with carboxylic function bonding at the aromatic ring and with hydroxyl group substituents such as p-hydroxy benzoic acid, vanillic, caffeic and gallic acids did not show germination inhibition effects but the p-

These results suggest that part of the phytotoxicity may be related at the step of interaction of the aromatic ring with the substrate plant and the lipophilic-hydrophilic balance may have a

As mentioned above, the kow determined from the traditional shake-flash method is generally accepted as being a useful parameter in structure-activity relationship studies of correlation with biological activity of compounds and the dynamic processes of a chemi‐ cal in the environment. It is now almost equally accepted that the correlation between the capacity factor (k´) obtained from RP-HPLC method and kow to be used for simple and

With this in mind, we established a RP-HPLC method to evaluate the lipophilia of phenolic

A linear regression between the capacity factor (k´) and logkow from literature sources was

= 0.99). From this regresion log PHPLC values were derived by a single equation

may not depend upon the ionization of the O-H bond of carboxylic function.

bromo, p-chloro and p-cyano derivatives showed significant activity.

highest antialgal activity.

42 Herbicides - Advances in Research

of action the phenolic acids.

fundamental role.

rapid estimation of partition coefficients.

(see experimental). Table 1 gives the logk´and logPHPLC values

acids, as shown in figure 3.

obtained (R2

benzoic; 4 = vanillic; 5 = p-cyanobenzoic; 6 = benzoic; 7 = cinnamic; 8 = p-chlorobenzoic; 9 = p-bromobenzoic). Even on the basis of the limited number of compounds studied, the correlation obtained shows a promise as a simple; direct and **Figure 3.** Relationships between the logkow (literature data) and determined logk´ values. (Phenolic acids: 1 = gallic; 2 = caffeic; 3 = p-hydroxy benzoic; 4 = vanillic; 5 = p-cyanobenzoic; 6 = benzoic; 7 = cinnamic; 8 = p-chlorobenzoic; 9 = p-bromobenzoic).

Positive and negative logk´ values were obtained, which may arise from the lipophilic character of the aromatic substituents. Lipophilia values can be obtained from the parameter pi (ߨ (as a measure of the lipophilic properties of the aromatic substituents Even on the basis of the limited number of compounds studied, the correlation obtained shows a promise as a simple; direct and rapid method for the estimation of lipophilicity parameters of new phenolic acids and or those for which this data does not exist.

Positive and negative logk´ values were obtained, which may arise from the lipophilic character of the aromatic substituents. Lipophilia values can be obtained from the parameter pi (*π* ) as a measure of the lipophilic properties of the aromatic substituents [49]. Compounds with negative logk´ have substituents with negative *π* values (*π*CH3) = - 0.04; *π*(OH) = - 0.62; *π*(CN) = - 0.31) and compounds with positive logk´ have zero or positive *π* values (*π*H = 0; *π*Br- = 1.02; *π*Cl- = 0.7).

More clarity about the lipophilic effect of the substituents on the capacity factor is obtained from the relation between logk´ values for p-substituent compounds and the *π* values. Figure 4 illustrates that logk´ increased linearly with the lipophilic character of the substituents.

These results suggest strongly that part of the lipophilic properties of phenolic acids arise from the different lipophilic characters of the aromatic ring substituents.

substituents.

compounds with positive logk´ have zero or positive � values (�H = 0; �Br-

[49]. Compounds with negative logk´ have substituents with negative � values ��CH3) = - 0.04; �(OH) = - 0.62; �(CN) = - 0.31) and

More clarity about the lipophilic effect of the substituents on the capacity factor is obtained from the relation between logk´ values for p-substituent compounds and the � values. Figure 4 illustrates that logk´ increased linearly with the lipophilic character of the

These results suggest strongly that part of the lipophilic properties of phenolic acids arise from the different lipophilic characters of

= 1.02; �Cl-

= 0.7).

(logk´= - 0.51) displayed the highest antialgal activity and the opposite effect on the

**Figure 5.** Relationships between logPHPLC values and percentage of inhibition germination activity (I%) for phenolic acids (1 = caffeic; 2 = p-hydroxybenzoic; 3 = vanillic; 4 = p-cyanobenzoic; 5 = benzoic; 6 = cinnamic; 7 = p-chlorobenzo‐

logPHPLC

1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3

5

6 7

hydroxybenzoic; 3 = vanillic; 4 = p-cyanobenzoic; 5 = benzoic; 6 = cinnamic; 7 = p-chlorobenzoic; 8 = p-bromobenzoic)

Figure 5. Relationships between logHPLC values and percentage of inhibition germination activity (I%) for phenolic acids (1 = caffeic; 2 = p-

8

Phytotoxicity of Phenolic Acids From Cereals http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55942 45

Antialgal activity cannot be rationalized in terms of the logk´ or logPHPLC parameters because only the caffeic, gallic and pbromobenzoic acids displayed significant activity, and they showed positive and negative logk´ values. It is important to emphasize that caffeic acid (logk´= - 0.51) displayed the highest antialgal activity and the opposite effect on the germination and

These results show that the phytotoxic effect depends of receptor species, it is necessary to understand other molecular aspects of

The necessity of understanding other aspects such as the chemical stability and persistence in the soil are essential prerequisites if

[3] Einhellig F A. Interactive effects of allelochemicals and environmental stress. Chou C H- Waller G R. (eds) Phytochemical Ecology: Allelochemicals, Mycotoxins and Insect Pheromones and Allomones. Institute of Botany. Academia Sinica Science

[4] Einhellig F A. Mechanism and mode of action of allelochemicals. In "The Science of Allelopathy" (Putman A R, Tang C S. Eds.)

[6] Bhowmik P C. Inderfit. Challenges and opportunities in implementing allelopathy for natural weed management. Crop.

[8] Swranton C J. Marphy S D. The role of integrated weed management (IWM) in agro ecosystem health. Weed Science 1996; 44

[9] Batish D R, Singh H P, Kohli R K, Kaur S. Crop allelopathy and its role in ecology agriculture, Journal Crop Production 2001; 4

[7] Weston L A. Utilization of allelopathy for weed management in agro ecosystems. Agronomy Journal 1996; 88 860 – 866.

relative role of the allelopathy of the naturally occurring phenolic acids of plants with agricultural importance.

[5] Einhellig F A. Interaction involving allelopathy in cropping systems. Agronomy Journal 1996; 88 886-893.

These results show that the phytotoxic effect depends of receptor species, it is necessary to

**•** The series of phenolic acids studied shown varied phytotoxic activity against the germina‐

**•** Caffeic acids showed a particular behavior against the target species stimulated the growth

**•** Part of phytotoxic activity against seed germination is related to the lipophilic character of

**•** Although the concentrations used are probably greater than in the field, these results contribute to the knowledge of the relative role of the allelopathy of the naturally occurring

The necessity of understanding other aspects such as the chemical stability and persistence in the soil are essential prerequisites if the application of allelochemicals is to become an alter‐

the application of allelochemicals is to become an alternative in the control of weeds.

[1] Harborne J B. Introduction to Ecochemical Biochemistry. Academic Press, London 1977.

phenolic acids and it can be inferred from logk´ or logPHPLC parameters.

[2] Rice E C. Allelopathy 2nd ed. Academic Press Orlando 1984.

Monograph Series N0 9 Taipei ROC 1989; pp 101-118.

John Willey & Sons Inc New York 1986; pp 171-175.

Protection 2003; 22 661-671.

understand other molecular aspects of phytotoxic interaction to clarify these results.

germination and growth of the lettuce plants.

1 2

3

4

growth of the lettuce plants.

tion of lettuce seeds and growth of microalga *C. vulgaris.*

phytotoxic interaction to clarify these results.

of lettuce plants and inhibited the growth of *C. vulgaris*.

phenolic acids of plants with agricultural importance.

inferred from logk´ or logPHPLC parameters.

**4. Conclusions**

ic; 8 = p-bromobenzoic)

**4. Conclusions**

0

20

40

60

%I

80

100

120

of microalga *C. vulgaris.*

the growth of *C. vulgaris*.

native in the control of weeds.

**References**

437 – 445.

121 -161.

Figure 4. Relationship between logk´ values and πp values for p-substituteed phenolic acids (1 = OH; 2 = CN; 3 = H; 4 = Cl; 5 = Br). **Figure 4.** Relationship between logk´ values and πp values for p-substituteed phenolic acids (1 = OH; 2 = CN; 3 = H; 4 = Cl; 5 = Br).

The role of lipophilia on the phytotoxicity of the series studied can be analyzed from the logk´or log PHPLC values

compounds with negative values did not show significant activity. Specifically, logk´ values of caffeic and cinnamic acids suggest

In general, the compounds with positives logk´or logPHPLC values ≥ 2.0 showed more germination inhibition activity and the The role of lipophilia on the phytotoxicity of the series studied can be analyzed from the logk´or log PHPLC values

that the different activity observed may arise from the different lipophilic character of these compounds. A clearer relationship was obtained from a regression between percentage of germination inhibition activity at the 250 μgmL-1 concentration and the logPHPLC values. Figure 5 shows that germination inhibition activity increased with the lipophilic character of the molecules until the range of 2.0-2.6 values where the higher activity was observed. With the limited data at hand, it is not possible to generalize this observation to other series of compounds at this time, but there are reasons to believe that the parameters logk´ or logPHPLC may be appropriate indicators to infer the lipophilic requirement for the germination inhibition activity of phenolic acids. In general, the compounds with positives logk´or logPHPLC values ≥ 2.0 showed more germi‐ nation inhibition activity and the compounds with negative values did not show significant activity. Specifically, logk´ values of caffeic and cinnamic acids suggest that the different activity observed may arise from the different lipophilic character of these compounds. A clearer relationship was obtained from a regression between percentage of germination inhibition activity at the 250 µgmL-1 concentration and the logPHPLC values. Figure 5 shows that germination inhibition activity increased with the lipophilic character of the molecules until the range of 2.0-2.6 values where the higher activity was observed. With the limited data at hand, it is not possible to generalize this observation to other series of compounds at this time, but there are reasons to believe that the parameters logk´ or logPHPLC may be appropriate indicators to infer the lipophilic requirement for the germination inhibition activity of phenolic acids.

Antialgal activity cannot be rationalized in terms of the logk´ or logPHPLC parameters because only the caffeic, gallic and p-bromobenzoic acids displayed significant activity, and they showed positive and negative logk´ values. It is important to emphasize that caffeic acid

These results show that the phytotoxic effect depends of receptor species, it is necessary to understand other molecular aspects of

[3] Einhellig F A. Interactive effects of allelochemicals and environmental stress. Chou C H- Waller G R. (eds) Phytochemical Ecology: Allelochemicals, Mycotoxins and Insect Pheromones and Allomones. Institute of Botany. Academia Sinica Science

[4] Einhellig F A. Mechanism and mode of action of allelochemicals. In "The Science of Allelopathy" (Putman A R, Tang C S. Eds.)

[6] Bhowmik P C. Inderfit. Challenges and opportunities in implementing allelopathy for natural weed management. Crop.

[8] Swranton C J. Marphy S D. The role of integrated weed management (IWM) in agro ecosystem health. Weed Science 1996; 44

[9] Batish D R, Singh H P, Kohli R K, Kaur S. Crop allelopathy and its role in ecology agriculture, Journal Crop Production 2001; 4

[7] Weston L A. Utilization of allelopathy for weed management in agro ecosystems. Agronomy Journal 1996; 88 860 – 866.

[5] Einhellig F A. Interaction involving allelopathy in cropping systems. Agronomy Journal 1996; 88 886-893.

Figure 5. Relationships between logHPLC values and percentage of inhibition germination activity (I%) for phenolic acids (1 = caffeic; 2 = phydroxybenzoic; 3 = vanillic; 4 = p-cyanobenzoic; 5 = benzoic; 6 = cinnamic; 7 = p-chlorobenzoic; 8 = p-bromobenzoic) **Figure 5.** Relationships between logPHPLC values and percentage of inhibition germination activity (I%) for phenolic acids (1 = caffeic; 2 = p-hydroxybenzoic; 3 = vanillic; 4 = p-cyanobenzoic; 5 = benzoic; 6 = cinnamic; 7 = p-chlorobenzo‐ ic; 8 = p-bromobenzoic)

(logk´= - 0.51) displayed the highest antialgal activity and the opposite effect on the germination and growth of the lettuce plants. Antialgal activity cannot be rationalized in terms of the logk´ or logPHPLC parameters because only the caffeic, gallic and pbromobenzoic acids displayed significant activity, and they showed positive and negative logk´ values. It is important to

These results show that the phytotoxic effect depends of receptor species, it is necessary to understand other molecular aspects of phytotoxic interaction to clarify these results. emphasize that caffeic acid (logk´= - 0.51) displayed the highest antialgal activity and the opposite effect on the germination and growth of the lettuce plants.

#### compounds with negative values did not show significant activity. Specifically, logk´ values of caffeic and cinnamic acids suggest that the different activity observed may arise from the different lipophilic character of these compounds. A clearer relationship was **4. Conclusions**

**4. Conclusions**

**References**

437 – 445.

121 -161.

phytotoxic interaction to clarify these results.

[49]. Compounds with negative logk´ have substituents with negative � values ��CH3) = - 0.04; �(OH) = - 0.62; �(CN) = - 0.31) and

More clarity about the lipophilic effect of the substituents on the capacity factor is obtained from the relation between logk´ values for p-substituent compounds and the � values. Figure 4 illustrates that logk´ increased linearly with the lipophilic character of the

These results suggest strongly that part of the lipophilic properties of phenolic acids arise from the different lipophilic characters of

4

Figure 4. Relationship between logk´ values and πp values for p-substituteed phenolic acids (1 = OH; 2 = CN; 3 = H; 4 = Cl; 5 = Br).

In general, the compounds with positives logk´or logPHPLC values ≥ 2.0 showed more germination inhibition activity and the

obtained from a regression between percentage of germination inhibition activity at the 250 μgmL-1 concentration and the logPHPLC

The role of lipophilia on the phytotoxicity of the series studied can be analyzed from the logk´or log PHPLC values

‐0.8 ‐0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2

π p

**Figure 4.** Relationship between logk´ values and πp values for p-substituteed phenolic acids (1 = OH; 2 = CN; 3 = H; 4

The role of lipophilia on the phytotoxicity of the series studied can be analyzed from the

In general, the compounds with positives logk´or logPHPLC values ≥ 2.0 showed more germi‐ nation inhibition activity and the compounds with negative values did not show significant activity. Specifically, logk´ values of caffeic and cinnamic acids suggest that the different activity observed may arise from the different lipophilic character of these compounds. A clearer relationship was obtained from a regression between percentage of germination inhibition activity at the 250 µgmL-1 concentration and the logPHPLC values. Figure 5 shows that germination inhibition activity increased with the lipophilic character of the molecules until the range of 2.0-2.6 values where the higher activity was observed. With the limited data at hand, it is not possible to generalize this observation to other series of compounds at this time, but there are reasons to believe that the parameters logk´ or logPHPLC may be appropriate indicators to infer the lipophilic requirement for the germination inhibition activity of phenolic

Antialgal activity cannot be rationalized in terms of the logk´ or logPHPLC parameters because only the caffeic, gallic and p-bromobenzoic acids displayed significant activity, and they showed positive and negative logk´ values. It is important to emphasize that caffeic acid

3

2

1

appropriate indicators to infer the lipophilic requirement for the germination inhibition activity of phenolic acids.

= 1.02; �Cl-

5

= 0.7).

compounds with positive logk´ have zero or positive � values (�H = 0; �Br-

substituents.

44 Herbicides - Advances in Research

‐0.5

logk´or log PHPLC values

= Cl; 5 = Br).

acids.

‐0.3

‐0.1

0.1

0.3

logk´

0.5

0.7

0.9

1.1

the aromatic ring substituents.

	- **•** Part of phytotoxic activity against seed germination is related to the lipophilic character of phenolic acids and it can be inferred from logk´ or logPHPLC parameters. the growth of *C. vulgaris*.
	- **•** Although the concentrations used are probably greater than in the field, these results contribute to the knowledge of the relative role of the allelopathy of the naturally occurring phenolic acids of plants with agricultural importance. - Part of phytotoxic activity against seed germination is related to the lipophilic character of phenolic acids and it can be inferred from logk´ or logPHPLC parameters. - Although the concentrations used are probably greater than in the field, these results contribute to the knowledge of the

The necessity of understanding other aspects such as the chemical stability and persistence in the soil are essential prerequisites if the application of allelochemicals is to become an alter‐ native in the control of weeds. relative role of the allelopathy of the naturally occurring phenolic acids of plants with agricultural importance. The necessity of understanding other aspects such as the chemical stability and persistence in the soil are essential prerequisites if

the application of allelochemicals is to become an alternative in the control of weeds.

[2] Rice E C. Allelopathy 2nd ed. Academic Press Orlando 1984.

Monograph Series N0 9 Taipei ROC 1989; pp 101-118.

John Willey & Sons Inc New York 1986; pp 171-175.

Protection 2003; 22 661-671.

[1] Harborne J B. Introduction to Ecochemical Biochemistry. Academic Press, London 1977.

### **Author details**

Héctor R. Bravo1\*, Sylvia V. Copaja1 and Madeleine Lamborot2

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
1 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

2 Department of Ecology Science, Faculty of Science, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

[11] [11] Dias L S. Allelopathic activity of decomposing straw of wheat and oat and asso‐ ciated soil on some crop species. Soil & Tillage Research 1991; 21 113-120.

Phytotoxicity of Phenolic Acids From Cereals http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55942 47

[12] [12] Putnam A R., De Frank J. Use of phytotoxic plant residues for selective weed

[13] [13] Sicker D, Frey M, Schulz M, Gierl A. Role of Natural Benzoxazolinones in sur‐ vival strategy of plants. In: Jeong K W. (ed). International Review of Cytology. A Sur‐

[14] [14] Burgos N R, Talbert R E. Differential activity of allelochemical from *Secale cereale*

[15] [15] Ahn J K., Chung I M. Allelophatic potential of rice hulls on germination and seedling growth of Barnyard grass. Agronomy Journal 2000; 92 1162 – 1167.

[16] [16] Chung I M., Kim K H., Ahn J K., Ju H J. Allelophathic potential evaluation of rice cultivars on *Echinochloa crus-galli* Korean. Journal Weed Science 1997; 17 52 – 58. [17] [17] Copaja S V, Villarroel E, Bravo H R, Pizarro L, Argandoña V H. Hydroxamic acids in *Secale cereale* L. and the relationship with their antifeedant and allelopathic

[18] [18] Wu H., Haig T, Pratley J, Lemerle D, An M. Allelochemicals in wheat (*Triticum aestivum* L.) production and exudation of 2,4-Dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxa‐

[19] [19] Macias F A, Marin D, Oliveros-Bastidas A, Castellano D, Simonet A M, Molinillo J M G. Structure-activity relationships (SAR) studies of Benzoxazolinones, their deg‐ radation products and analogues. Phytotoxicity on standard target species (STS).

[20] [20] Bravo H R, Iglesias M J, Copaja S V, Argandoña V H. Phytotoxicity of indole al‐ kaloids from cereals. Revista Latinoamericana de Química 2010; 38 123-129.

[21] [21] Overland L. The role of allelopathic substances in the "Smother crop" Barley.

[22] [22] Guenzi W D, Mac Calla T M. Phenolic acids in oat, wheat, sorghum and corn res‐

[23] [23] Solomonsson A., Theander O. Anian P. Quantitative determination by GLC of phenolic acids as ethyl derivatives in cereal straws. Journal Agricultural and Food

[24] [24] Baghestani A, Limieux C, Baziramakenga R, Simarda R R determination of alle‐ lochemicals in spring cultivars cereal of different competitiveness. Weed Science

idues and their phytotoxicity. Agronomy Journal 1996; 58 303 – 304.

vey of Cell Biology. Academic press, San Diego 2000; pp 319-346.

properties. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung 2006; 61c 670-676.

zin-3-one. Journal of Chemical Ecology 2001; 27 1691-1700.

Journal Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2005; 53 538-548.

American Journal of Botany. 1966; 53 423-432.

Chemistry 1978; 26, 830 – 835.

1999; 47 498-504.

control. Journal Crop Protection 1983; 2 173-181.

in seedling bioassay. Weed Science 2000; 48 302-310.

### **References**

[11] [11] Dias L S. Allelopathic activity of decomposing straw of wheat and oat and asso‐ ciated soil on some crop species. Soil & Tillage Research 1991; 21 113-120.

**Author details**

46 Herbicides - Advances in Research

**References**

1977.

Héctor R. Bravo1\*, Sylvia V. Copaja1

Monograph Series N0

1986; pp 171-175.

987 – 990.

Journal 1996; 88 886-893.

Agronomy Journal 1996; 88 860 – 866.

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
and Madeleine Lamborot2

1 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

[2] [2] Rice E C. Allelopathy 2nd ed. Academic Press Orlando 1984.

2 Department of Ecology Science, Faculty of Science, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

[1] [1] Harborne J B. Introduction to Ecochemical Biochemistry. Academic Press, London

[3] [3] Einhellig F A. Interactive effects of allelochemicals and environmental stress. Chou C H- Waller G R. (eds) Phytochemical Ecology: Allelochemicals, Mycotoxins and Insect Pheromones and Allomones. Institute of Botany. Academia Sinica Science

[4] [4] Einhellig F A. Mechanism and mode of action of allelochemicals. In "The Science of Allelopathy" (Putman A R, Tang C S. Eds.) John Willey & Sons Inc New York

[5] [5] Einhellig F A. Interaction involving allelopathy in cropping systems. Agronomy

[6] [6] Bhowmik P C. Inderfit. Challenges and opportunities in implementing allelop‐

[7] [7] Weston L A. Utilization of allelopathy for weed management in agro ecosystems.

[8] [8] Swranton C J. Marphy S D. The role of integrated weed management (IWM) in

[9] [9] Batish D R, Singh H P, Kohli R K, Kaur S. Crop allelopathy and its role in ecology

[10] [10] Fomsgaard I S. Chemical ecology in wheat plant - pest interaction. How the use of modern techniques and multidisciplinary approach can throw new light on a wellknown phenomenon: Allelopathy. Journal Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2006; 54

athy for natural weed management. Crop. Protection 2003; 22 661-671.

agro ecosystem health. Weed Science 1996; 44 437 – 445.

agriculture, Journal Crop Production 2001; 4 121 -161.

9 Taipei ROC 1989; pp 101-118.

[25] [25] Yu J Q, Matsui Y. Phytotoxic substances in root exudates of cucumber (*Cucumis satives* L.) Journal Chemical Ecology 1994; 20 21 – 31.

[39] [39] Baker J K, Rauls D O, Borne R F. Correlation of biological activity and high-pre‐ assure liquid chromatography retention Index for a series of Propranolol Barbiturate and Anthralinic acid analogues. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 1979; 22 1301 – 1306.

Phytotoxicity of Phenolic Acids From Cereals http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55942 49

[40] [40] Nahum A, Horvath C. Evaluation of octanol-water partition coefficients by using high performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography 1980; 192 315

[41] [41] Unger S H, Chiang G H. Octanol physiological buffer distribution coefficients of lipophilic amines by reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography and their correlation with biological activity. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 1981; 24 262

[42] [42] Han S-Y., Qiao J-Q, Zhang Y-Y, Yang L-L, Lian H-Z, Ge X, Chen H-Y. Determi‐ nation of n-octanol/water partition coefficient for DDT-related compounds by RP-HPLC with novel dual-point retention time correction. Chemosphere 2011; 83 131 –

[43] [43] Valko K, Bavan C, Reynolds D. Chromatographic hydrophobicity index by fast gradient RP-HPLC: High-throughput alternative to log P/log D. Analytical Chemis‐

[44] [44] Guo R, Iang X, Chen J, Zhang Q, Kettrup A. Prediction of soil adsorption coeffi‐ cients from retention parameters on three reversed-phase liquid chromatographic

[45] [45] Hollosy F, Lorand T, Orfi L, Eros D, Keri G, Idei M. Relations hip between lipo‐ philicity and antitumor activity of molecule library of Mannich ketones determined by high-performance liquid chromatography, C log calculation and cytotoxicity test.

[46] [46] Rioboo C, González D, Herrero C, Cid A. Physilogical response of fresh water microalga (*Chlorella vulgaris*) to triazinne and phenyl-urea herbicides. Aquatic toxi‐

[47] [47] Mimick D J, Frenz J H, Patrick M A, Brend D A. A compressive method for de‐ termining hydrophobicity constants by reversed-phase high-performance liquid

[48] [48] Hansch C, Muir R M, Fujita T, Maloney P. P, Geiger F, Streich M. The Correla‐ tion of biological activity of plant growth regulators and *Chloromycetin* derivatives with Hammett constants and partition coefficients. Journal Chemical Society 1963; 85

[49] [49] Hansch C, Leo A. Substituent constants for correlation analysis in Chemistry and

chromatography. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 1988; 31 1923 – 1933.

– 322.

– 270.

136.

try 1997; 69 2022 – 2029.

cology 2002; 59 225 – 235.

Biology. J. Wiley: New York. 1979.

2817 – 2824.

columns. Analytical Chemistry 2002; 74 655 – 660.

Journal of Chromatography 2002; 768 361 – 368.

[39] [39] Baker J K, Rauls D O, Borne R F. Correlation of biological activity and high-pre‐ assure liquid chromatography retention Index for a series of Propranolol Barbiturate and Anthralinic acid analogues. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 1979; 22 1301 – 1306.

[25] [25] Yu J Q, Matsui Y. Phytotoxic substances in root exudates of cucumber (*Cucumis*

[26] [26] Barnes I P, Putman A R. Rye residues contribute weed suppression in no-tillage

[27] [27] Barnes I P, Putman A R. Evidence for allelopathy by residues and aqueous ex‐

[28] [28] Barnes I P, Putman A R. Role of Benzoxazinones in allelopathy by rye (*Secale ce‐*

[29] [29] Pérez F J, Ormeño-Nuñez J. Weed growth interference from temperate cereals: effect of a hydroxamic acids-exuding rye (*Secale cereale* L.) cultivar. Weed Research

[30] [30] Gianoli E. Niemeyer H M. Environmental effects on the accumulation of hy‐ droxamic acids in wheat seedling: The importance of plant growth rate. Journal

[31] [31] An M. Johnson I R. Lovett J V. Mathematical modeling of residues allelopathy: The effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Plant and Soil 2002; 246 11-22.

[32] [32] Matsuo H.Taniguchi K. Hiramoto K. Yamada, Ichinose Y. Toyada k. Tareda K. Shiraishi T. Gramine Increase associated with rapid and transient systemic resistance in barley seedling induced by mechanical and biology stresses. Plant Cell Physiology

[33] [33] Kato-Noguchi H. Effect of light-irradiation on allelopathic potential of germinat‐

[34] [34] Karickhoff S W. Semi-empirical estimation of sorption of hydrophobic pollutants

[35] [35] Kenaga E E. Correlation of bioconcentration factors of chemicals in aquatic and terrestrials organism with their physical and chemical properties. Environmental Sci‐

[36] [36] Leo A C, Elkins D. Partition coefficients and their uses. Chemical Review 1971;

[37] [37] Finizzio A, Vighi M, Sandroni D. Determination of octanol/water partition coeffi‐ cient (Kow) of pesticides: critical review and comparison of methods. Chemosphere

[38] [38] Laak A M. Tsai R S. Donné-Opderkelder G M. Carrup P A. Testa B. Timmerman H. Lipophilicity and hydrogen-bonding capacity of H1-antihistamine agents in rela‐ tion to their central sedative side-effects. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Scien‐

*satives* L.) Journal Chemical Ecology 1994; 20 21 – 31.

*reale* L.). Journal Chemical Ecology 1987; 13 889-906.

1993; 33 115-119.

48 Herbicides - Advances in Research

2001; 42 1103-1111.

71 525 616.

1977; 34 131 – 161.

ces 1994; 2 373-384.

Chemical Ecology 1997; 23 543-551.

ing maize. Phytochemistry 1999; 52 1023-1027.

ence Technology 1980; 14 553-536.

in natural sediments. Chemosphere 1981; 10 833-846.

cropping system. Journal Chemical Ecology 1983; 9 1045-1057.

tracts of rye (*Secale cereale* L.). Weed Science 1986; 34 384-390.

**Chapter 4**

in 0–10 cm, 295

for *Veronica*

**Weed Seed Rain Dynamics and Ecological Control Ability**

Evolvingtogetherwithagriculturalplants,weedshaveadaptedtheirgrowthandbiologicalcycle of development. The dispersal of weed seeds in agriculture fields is increased by current grain harvesting technology after seed set [1, 2]. Herbicides are used to prevent new weed seed bank additions. Although herbicides cannot control all weeds, they may partially control them, thus weeds ripen fewer seed numbers. Therefore, infest soil, straws and awns by seeds [3]. Inten‐ sive use of herbicides following the traditional crop growing technologies, however, does not entirelysolvetheproblemofweediness[4].Survivingweedsafterherbicideapplicationsareable to produce new seeds [6], depending on species, significantly decreasing total seed production [5]. Even a few weed plants left undamaged by herbicides can produce considerable weed seed amounts [7]. Previous research of Leguizamon and Roberts (1982) revealed that after cultiva‐

emerged, of which about half survived to maturity in July. Seeds were dispersed

© 2013 Pilipavičius; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

© 2013 Pilipavičius; licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

increase in the seed bank. Application of soil-active herbicides reduced the numbers of weeds andthe total seedoutput,butthatoftolerant specieswas increased.Maximumnumbersof seeds

*persica* [8]. Today more attention is given to ecological problems which arise through use of herbicides [9]. Pesticides are leaching through the soil and into groundwater far more common‐ ly than the projected ones a decade ago. Point sources may be widespread but are not the sole cause; it is also clear that many pesticides are leaching to groundwater from routine, nonpoint source labeled use. Controlled plot studies show the intermittent, often rapid delivery of many pesticides to shallow groundwater. Generally, the concentrations of pesticides in groundwater are low, in the 0.1–5.0 µg L−1 range. Even at these concentrations there are concerns for longterm, chronic exposure to a large segment of the public through drinking-water supplies [10].

were returned to the soil, representing a 14-fold

for *Stellaria media* and 37,580 m2

tion in early April of a sandy loam soil with 9500 apparently viable seeds m2

for *Chenopodium album*, 39,430 m2

**in Agrophytocenosis**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Vytautas Pilipavičius

**1. Introduction**

seedlings m2

were 59,980 m2

from mid-June to November and 136,460 m2

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55972