**6. Conclusions**

This paper addressed the extent of land tenure disputes and the most commonly used land tenure dispute resolution mechanisms based on investigations in peri-urban areas and in nearby rural areas of Debre Markos town in Ethiopia. Though the rural–urban interface is a conflict prone area, land conflicts in such areas are exacerbated in situations where there is a lack of timely assurances of peri-urban land rights and when urban areas are spatially expanding and consuming agricultural land [49,50]. To avoid disputes, governments must take into consideration the land property rights of peri-urban subsistence farmers. In this way, the sustainable development of urban areas can be attained in the peri-urban and surrounding rural areas.

For the effective management of peri-urban land and to support the urban sprawl of a town, it is essential to set up sound spatial planning techniques considering various spatial planning support systems and to integrate affected persons and different stakeholders. Moreover, spatial planning should restrict the outward growth of urban areas by designing strategies for the development of the inholdings of vacant land in the town and by implementing proper land use planning strategies.

This study has identified different types of land tenure disputes. Boundary trespassing disputes are the most frequent type both in rural and peri-urban areas. This is because of a lack of progress in defining and demarcating the boundary points. Therefore, conducting cadastral survey and mapping boundaries are of paramount importance to reduce these disputes.

Land tenure disputes are high in communal land and private land property regime types. Communal land is experiencing severe levels of encroachment. This suggests that land property rights must be secured for communal landholders. In addition, boundaries must be clearly defined and demarcated in both peri-urban and rural areas. However, peri-urban areas should be given special attention since they are the primary focus of municipalities for expropriation, which also aggravates the encroachment problem.

In the study area, the situation of land administration is not well defined. Landholders may be liable to rules from two different land administration authorities. This creates confusion and stress in the lives of peri-urban subsistence farmers. The remedy for this problem is to organize peri-urban land administration institutions. Alternatively, it would be possible to manage these areas by rural land administration and land use rules, since the land predominantly exhibits a rural character, and the majority of the landholders are subsistence farmers. In addition, the merging of the rural and urban land administration authority would be an option. Research on this issue must be carried out.

Alternative dispute resolution mechanisms are the most preferred systems to resolve land tenure dispute, especially in symmetric dispute situations. This is because they are less expensive, faster, and more efficient than other approaches to dispute resolution. Many ADR mechanisms are available to resolve land tenure disputes, irrespective of the location, and of those, negotiation, mediation/conciliation, and arbitration are the most widely used methods of dispute resolution as an alternative to litigation. Strengthening alternative dispute resolution mechanisms is of paramount important for countries like Ethiopia, where most farmers rely on subsistence living.

This study attempted to identify the land tenure disputes and resolution mechanisms in Debre Markos peri-urban study areas and nearby rural kebeles. The studied areas may be representative for the peri-urban land dispute cases and resolution mechanisms in other areas, since peri-urban areas have more or less similar scenarios with respect to land dispute as a consequence of fast rate urban sprawl. However, further studies in other regions of the country must be conducted to be used as additional inputs for policy makers who have stakes in the amicable resolution of land tenure disputes.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, S.K.A., T.D., W.N. and R.M.; formal analysis, T.D., S.K.A., W.N. and R.M.; funding acquisition, S.K.A. and R.M.; methodology, S.K.A., T.D., W.N. and R.M.; project administration, S.K.A. and R.M.; supervision, R.M.; validation, S.K.A., T.D., W.N. and R.M.; visualization, S.K.A., T.D., W.N. and R.M.; writing—original draft, S.K.A.; writing—review and editing, S.K.A., T.D., W.N. and R.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This study is funded by EduLAND2 project fund.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** All respondents of questionnaire and all participants of focus group discussions and key experts' interviews are not mentioned by name. Results are aggregated and cannot be traced back to individual persons.

**Informed Consent Statement:** All persons involved in the study participated voluntarily and agreed the study results derived from their responses.

**Data Availability Statement:** Not applicable.

**Conflicts of Interest:** We confirm that this work is original and has not been published elsewhere nor is it currently under consideration for publication elsewhere and the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.


**Techniques for the Evaluation of Microbiological Quality in Honey Techniques for the Evaluation of Microbiological Quality in Honey**

Maria Josiane Sereia, Maria Josiane Sereia, Marcia Regina Ferreira Geraldo Perdoncini,

[161] Kukielka D, Sánchez-Vizcaíno JM. One-step real-time quantitative PCR assays for the detection and field study of Sacbrood honeybee and Acute bee paralysis viruses. J Virol

[162] Chen Y, Pettis JS, Feldlaufer MF. Detection of multiple viruses in queens of the honey bee *Apis mellifera* L. J Invertebr Pathol 2005;90:118–121. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.

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Methods 2009;161:240–246. doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2009.06.014.

jip.2005.08.005.

258 Honey Analysis

219. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2011.03.004.

Marcia Regina Ferreira Geraldo Perdoncini, Paulo Henrique Março, Rejane Stubs Parpinelli, Erica Gomes de Lima and Fernando Antônio Anjo Paulo Henrique Março, Rejane Stubs Parpinelli, Erica Gomes de Lima and Fernando Antônio Anjo

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/67086

#### **Abstract**

The aim of this chapter is to describe the most commonly used techniques to evaluate the microbiological characteristics of honey for the purpose of identifying its contaminant flora, its significance and its control in this type of food. Honey is a product that is rich in simple sugars, minerals, vitamins and bioactive compounds and possesses an antimicrobial activity of great significance for human health. However, as it has physical and chemical properties that are unfavourable for the proliferation of micro-flora, honey can contain a large population of microorganisms from two sources of contamination—the first primarily represented by pollen, the digestive system of the bee, dust, air and the flower itself; and the second as the result of negligence and the absence of good health practices during handling and use; for example, placing honey in wooden beehives directly on the floor or the use of improperly washed honey extraction equipment, rather than equipment based on the oxidizable material, or using very dark honeycombs and storing the honey for long periods in wooden beehives. As honey is a natural product, the risks inherent to the lack of industrial processing, such as pasteurization and strict microbiological quality control, are often overlooked.

**Keywords:** microbiological analysis, microbiological standards, good habits, antimicrobial action, antimicrobial agents

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons © 2017 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**7. Effectiveness of school education against HIV/AIDS**

Health literacy is explained by competence in critical thinking and problem solving, responsible and productive, self-directed learning, and effective communication. School health education is to teach students the information and skills they need to be literate and maintain and improve their health, prevent disease and reduce their health-related risk behaviors, including those related to HIV/AIDS. School planned comprehensive curricula, covering health education and promotion, including HIV infection prevention, now represent a prerequisite. Students should comprehend concepts related to HIV/AIDS prevention and health protection and promotion. Schools and universities are settings that most children and many young people, respectively, attend. This provides an opportunity for knowledge and skills provision and accordingly for changing behaviors and modeling healthy practices. Therefore, schools and universities are a crucial setting for health promotion and HIV/AIDS control.

Schools and universities represent an effective and efficient means to reach a large proportion of young people and, in turn, their families and communities (Kore et al., 2004; Naidu & Aparna, 2008). Several researchers proved that students' HIV/AIDS education interventions improve knowledge (Svenson et al., 1997; UNAIDS, 2008; Ahmed et al., 2009). This in turn increases personal concern about the risk and possible disease contraction, and thus leads to disease prevention behavior. Educated students succeeded in developing skills for negotiating prevention and risk reduction, and resisting peer pressure to engage in riskrelated behaviors (Becker & Maiman, 1975; Hingson et al., 1990; Svenson & Varnhagen, 1990; Svenson et al., 1997). Nevertheless, other researchers reported that school or university education courses do not necessarily affect students' behaviors (Baldwin et al., 1990; DiClemente, 1992).

The International Union for Health Promotion and Education (IUHPE, 1999) demonstrated that schools are cost-effective sites for health promotion interventions. The effectiveness and sustainability of school health is governed by how closely health promotion interventions are linked to the primary business of schools in developing the educational skills and knowledge base of young people. Schools can create an educated population who are the better able to make use of any health education they receive in later life from sources such as newspapers, magazines, books and booklets or leaflets. Provision of education concerning sexual health and of HIV/AIDS education is best started at school. The United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS, 1999) showed that responsible and safe behavior can be learned. Reaching the adolescents as early as possible is arguably the highest HIV/AIDS prevention priority. This includes protection from other sexually transmitted diseases.

## **8. Appropriate students HIV/AIDS education**

Students empowerment, including teaching of appropriate skills, combined with proper provision of HIV preventive knowledge and acquiring healthy attitudes, can motivate practicing healthy behaviors even when students are outside of the school or university setting (Svenson et al., 1997). Several health issues, such as HIV/AIDS control, can be integrated within and into the different subjects, including biology, sociology, environment,

also to assess attitudes towards prevention and treatment. It was to identify differences in knowledge and attitudes by gender and by different medical sciences faculties; medicine, pharmacy, dentistry and medical technology. The study was also designed to identify areas of misconceptions, gaps in knowledge and discussion, as well as, conclusions and

Study ethical approval was obtained from the local Scientific Committee, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Zawia, Zawia, Libya, on March 2010. A WHO approved, pre-tested and previously utilized standard closed-end questionnaire was used. The questionnaire included 39 statements, divided to three parts. These are general knowledge about HIV/AIDS, knowledge on the routes of transmission and attitudes towards prevention and treatment. The questionnaire was piloted for feedback and validation. Simple random sampling method was applied to recruit 400 final year (BSc) university students, 100 from each faculty. These are faculties of medicine, pharmacy, dentistry and medical technology. The targeted participants were requested to tick their gender and to tick one of the given choices in front of each statement; 'Yes', 'No' or 'I don't know'. Then, only the response of the correct answer was considered. The answer 'I don't know' was considered as a wrong answer. The questionnaire was self administered by the participants colleagues, within their regular university classes, during May 2010. Study objectives and method were explained to each. Verbal consent was obtained accordingly. Validity and reliability of attitude measuring questions were found satisfactory. Questionnaires were answered anonymously and confidentiality was assured.

Fifteen minutes were given to each participant to complete the questionnaires.

All data were statistically described and analyzed with the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) for windows, version 13.0. Data obtained were evaluated by frequency and percentage of responses of correct answers, and *t*-test was used to find the difference at *p*

The 100 handed over questionnaires in each faculty were completed and returned. Total returned questionnaires were 400. Males represented 16.75% of all study participants; 23% at the faculty of medicine, 12% at the faculty of pharmacy, 16% at the faculty of dentistry and 16% at the faculty of medical technology. Percentage of responses of correct answers in all faculties participants was 74.21%. Percentages of responses of correct answers were 72.1%, 69.2%, 75.8% and 74.6% in the faculties of medicine, pharmacy, dentistry and medical technology respectively. Comparison of responses to groups of statements according to faculties is given in Table 1. Percentages of responses of correct answers of students of the four faculties to all given statements are shown in Table 2. Responses comparison (in terms of Mean

+SD & range in parenthesis), among the four studied faculties, is presented in Table 3.

Several studies and surveys, in different parts around the globe, have attempted to assess knowledge and attitudes related to HIV/AIDS among university students. To the authors'

recommendations on the basis of outcomes.

**9.3 Methods**

**9.4 Statistical analysis**

value < 0.05.

**9.5 Results**

**10. Discussion**

physical education, economics, mathematics and languages or linguistics. In addition to classroom lessons and activities, practical in-school and in-community activities and programs have to be organized. Examples include the school club, the school theatre, the school fraternity, the scouts activities and the local community cultural and entertainment programs. In addition to these, schools and universities influence students, through the values they teach, including respect, gender equality and human rights. Education settings can also create an environment that is safe from abuse and fosters understanding, caring and no-discrimination. These are well applied within the concept of 'health-promoting schools'. Furthermore, the student-to-student, child-to-child and peer-led projects or programs encourage the adolescents to undertake community projects. Older and trained peers can be selected as health guides and are then involved in teaching other pupils. The involvement of adolescents themselves in developing messages and approaches is a critical element. The UNAIDS (1999) has demonstrated that these projects and programs have greater credibility and acceptance.

Internations and intercommunities differences, including cultural and religious perspectives, need to be taken in consideration when deciding on the timing for the introduction of components of reproductive health and HIV/AIDS education in schools and universities. A number of other factors will also need to be considered when defining the minimum set of interventions that can be implemented, including the reality and diversity of educational settings, capacity of education system, levels of enrollment and retention and the continuum of the system. The strategies to increase the knowledge of children and youth to prevent and control HIV/AIDS will be highlighted at the "Discussion" section of this chapter.

An important base for designing proper prevention programs is to assess people's knowledge and attitudes towards HIV/AIDS. University students, especially in medical faculties, represent a primary resource. A number of studies have been conducted in several countries to assess medical students' knowledge and attitudes about HIV/AIDS. However, to the authors' knowledge, this is the first study to include Libyan university students at the final year of the faculties of medical sciences.