Contagious Laughter as an Innate Acoustic Stimulus That Provokes Positive Emotions and Affects – Possible Relationships of This Laughter with Happiness

*Guillermo Arévalo-Pachón and Julio Eduardo Cruz*


'Fra l'onde agitato': twelve cantos after his invocation of himself as a *peregrino errante* at sea*,* in the midst of the midnight duel between Tancredi and Clorinda, Tasso returned to those waves. But now he writes not of a poet who is 'agitated' and tossed about in their midst, but of the waves themselves, 'agitate e grosse'. In a simile so arresting that Michel de Montaigne thought to cite it in his *Essais —* although Monteverdi curiously omits it from the *Combattimento —* Tasso refects on what happens to the ocean when the wind stops hammering it. It does not immediately quiet down but remains charged with motion and sound despite the absence of an external force. Or as he puts it in 12:63, in a blatant reference to Homeric epic:

> Qual l'alto Egeo, perché Aquilone o Noto cessi, che tutto prima il volse e scosse, non s'accheta ei però, ma 'l suono e 'l moto ritien de l'onde anco agitate e grosse

just as the deep Aegean Sea battered by north or south winds is not quiet once the winds have ceased, but their movement and sound still reside in its powerful, turbulent waves

Similarly, in Tasso's account, the two warriors retain their original vigor even though — now some ten *ottave* into the fght — their loss of blood has sapped their energy. Propelled by the winds of wrath and disdain, they continue adding blow to blow, rocking in combat through a motion over which they have no control. What has become the force of rhythm — a sound left in reserve — results in the fnal, mortal blow to Clorinda: 'Spinge egli il ferro nel bel sen di punta/ che vi s'immerge e 'l sangue avido beve' [He presses the sword into her lovely breast so that it's submerged there, and it greedily drinks her blood; 12:65]. The liquidity of the sea returns as Clorinda herself becomes a dark mass from which the sword can drink, and as Clorinda falls, 'la voce afitta/ movendo' [moving her aficted voice], such motion takes us back to the rhythm of the waves. But the words that arise from that motion are 'parole ch'a lei novo un spirto ditta,/ spirto di fé, di carità, di speme' [words that a new spirit dictates to her, the spirit of faith, hope, and charity], an explicit reference to the Christian virtues. The 'aficted voice' goes on to say, 'Amico, hai vinto — io ti perdon, perdona — / tu ancora, al corpo no, che nulla pave, a l'alma sì!' [Friend, you have won — I forgive you, may you forgive — not my body, which fears nothing, but my soul, yes!] (12:66). Her request for baptism, and hence her immersion into a new body of water ('Dona/ battesmo a me, ch'ogni mia colpa lave') moves her startled listener, as 'un non so che di febile e soave' [something indescribable, at once faint and sweet] resonates in her languid words, and quickly extinguishes his wrath. This is sound that ofers, and efects, something new, especially as the fnal word, 'perdona', trespasses beyond the normal verse length to break through the artifcial barrier of the narrator's standard hendecasyllabic line.16

The haunting nocturnal duel between Tancredi and Clorinda stages an emergence into sound: or more precisely, into the sounds of war and its aftermath that Tasso deemed foreign to the Tuscan language. My use of the word 'stages' is not incidental. Tasso declares the episode worthy of a 'pieno teatro, opre sarian sì memorande' [full theatre, so memorable are its works] (12:54). This observation opens a stanza that invokes a new muse: Night, who within her deep, dark bosom has enclosed this powerful and moving story ('fatto sì grande'). And night is an appropriate object of invocation for a duel that will unfold in complete darkness, when one's vision is compromised by all but the silent burning of the Christians' siege tower sitting ominously outside of Jerusalem's walls, set afre by two of the Muslims' most formidable warriors, Argante and Clorinda. At Clorinda's instigation they set out to

16 On Agricane's similar request to Orlando in Boiardo's *Orlando innamorato —* albeit in radically diferent circumstances — see Jo Ann Cavallo, 'Talking Religion: The Conversion of Agricane in Boiardo's *Orlando innamorato*', *MLN*, 127.1S (2012), S178–S188,

destroy the means whereby the Christians planned to scale Jerusalem's high walls, and one can see — 'vedi' — the fame. But darkness descends again as soon as the fre has ceased. Clorinda is locked out of Jerusalem's gate, which accidentally shuts before she can re-enter, thus 'esclusa' — a word Tasso repeats (12:48; 12:49). She feigns to be among the horde of Christians pressing against the walls, and then takes of to seek another entrance but Tancredi singles her out, impetuously chasing her as his armor clanks and attracts her attention, forcing her to stop and turn around to ask, 'O tu che porte/ Che corri sì?' [Oh you, what are you bringing me, you who run so fast?] (12:52). This will thus be a theatre without sight lines, in which the actors depend almost wholly on sound, such as that of the armor that becomes the catalyst of Clorinda's death. For had she not turned and cried out ('si volge e grida'), she might have found her way back into the city walls.

The thrust of Tancredi's sword into Clorinda's breast, in addition to alluding to the sexual fulfllment he had always desired, parallels the poet's desire to penetrate the deep, dark breast ('profondo oscuro seno') (12:54) of the night so that he might draw forth the worthy works concealed within and promise the two warriors eternal fame and glory. That the female bodies of Clorinda and the Notte might be analogous is suggested by Tancredi's own, Tasso-like request that Clorinda divulge her name during a moment when, both wearied by their combat, they rest.  The courteous request inspires Clorinda's noted refusal: 'Indarno chiedi/ quel c'ho per uso di non far palese' [you ask in vain for something I rarely reveal] (12:61). But she does inform Tancredi that he sees before him 'one of those two who burnt down the great tower', prompting Tancredi to burn with disdain, and to respond that both Clorinda's words *and* her silence — 'il tuo dir e 'l tacer' — hasten him to take vengeance. Yet what has really provoked him is her line, 'Ma chiunque io mi sia' [whoever I might be]: Clorinda's refusal to name herself.

Such resistance goes against the courtly code of honor, as Tancredi accuses her of being an uncivil barbarian or 'barbaro scortese'. But it also originates in two earlier moments in Canto 12 of which Tancredi is unaware — as well as in the dynamic of Tancredi's and Clorinda's encounters prior to Canto 12. In the course of those earlier encounters, Tancredi revealed his love for Clorinda three times, while she spoke merely a single word, and never uttered her name. Canto 1 recounts his frst glimpse of her at a fountain, where he sought water for his parched tongue following a skirmish with the Persians, when 'a lui d'improviso una donzella/ tutta, fuor che la fronte, armata apparse:/ era pagana' [all of a sudden a young woman appeared to him, completely armed except for her face: she was a pagan] (1:45) He immediately burned with love, even as this unnamed *donzella* put on her helmet and left, in fight from other Christians who have suddenly arrived on the scene; only her image stays with him ('ma l'imagine sua bella e guerriera/ tale ei serbó nel cor'; 1:48). In Canto 3, he knocks of her helmet in combat and is shocked to see standing before him his beloved: 'le chiome dorate al vento sparse,/ giovane donna in mezzo 'l campo apparse' [her golden hair spread to the wind, a young woman appeared in the midst of battle] (3:21); he then invites her to a private duel of the battlefeld, so he can declare his love. And in Canto 6, about to engage in a duel with Argante, Tancredi chances to look up to a nearby hill, where 'in leggiadro aspetto e pellegrino/ s'oferse a gli occhi suoi l'alta guerriera' [in her lovely, foreign bearing, the stately warrior woman ofered herself to his eyes] (6:26). Once again he is immobilized, unable to engage in battle, turned to stone by a Medusa unaware of her power ('pare un sasso:/ gelido tutto fuor, ma dentro bolle' [he seems a stone: all ice without, but within he boils]). If Tancredi managed to share with Clorinda his 'disperato amor' on at least one of these occasions, Clorinda herself has uttered but a single word: 'Volgi', the turn that wins him several moments alone with her of the battlefeld in Canto 3 before others arrive.

Clorinda is thus an object of sight, the Laura of golden hair spread to the wind, the tall and beautiful warrior who as long as she remains without her helmet reduces Tancredi to forgetfulness and immobility. In none of these instances does she reveal her identity to a Tancredi oblivious to a poetics of 'sound' and hence to the nature of the beloved's voice, or of anything that might detract from the vision of beauty. This silent Clorinda, the fantasized woman of Petrarchan discourse who is the product of the eye and not the ear, is not, however, the Clorinda

the *reader* knows.17 For Clorinda does have a voice, and one that easily renders her one of the most complex female characters of any early modern poem. Claudio Scarpati's observation that she constantly opposes herself to the 'comun sentenza', or the common norm, is borne out by her frst sustained appearance in the *Liberata*. 18 The confdent fgure rides into Jerusalem in Canto 2 where two Christians are being burnt at the stake, having (falsely) claimed to have stolen an image of Mary from the mosque in order to protect the rest of the Christian community from harm. Clorinda sees through their 'magnanimous lie' and confronts the King of Jerusalem to ask for their release, beginning her appeal with the words 'Io son Clorinda' [I am Clorinda] (2:46). Even though, she courteously notes, it is 'comun sentenza' that the two are guilty, she disagrees: 'ma discordo io da voi', with particular rhetorical emphasis on the *io*: *I* disagree with all of you. Clorinda's exceptionality reveals itself in battle as well, where in addition to slaughtering dozens of Crusaders, she will be credited as having wounded the Christians' captain, Gofredo, as the narrator addresses Clorinda directly: 'Che di tua man, Clorinda, il colpo uscisse;/ la fama il canta, e tuo l'onor n'é solo;/ se questo dì servaggio e morte schiva/ la tua gente pagana, a te s'ascriva' [Fame has it, Clorinda, that that blow came from your hand, and that this is your honor alone; if this day your pagan people have avoided servitude and death, it is to your credit] (11:54). Elsewhere she rouses others to battle and talks with the refugee princess Erminia into the night in the bed they share within Jerusalem's walls.

But this self-assured Clorinda who acts and speaks will come under attack — not only from Tancredi, who has no need of her voice to fall in love with her, but from the narrative scheme of her own life, as revealed in two separate moments in Book 12. Tasso devotes a signifcant number of *ottave* to the back story of Clorinda's marvelous birth (a white woman from two Christian black African parents), tragic separation

17 There is a long literature on Laura's silence in the *Canzoniere,* much infuenced by Nancy Vickers' seminal essay, 'Diana Described: Scattered Women and Scattered Rhyme', *Critical Inquiry*, 8.2 (1981), 265–279; more recently taken up by Bonnie Gordon in relationship to the fgure of the 'ingrata' or ungrateful women in Monteverdi's music: Gordon, *Monteverdi's Unruly Women: The Power of Song in Early Modern Italy* (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004)*,* esp. pp. 62–66.

18 Claudio Scarpati, 'Geometrie Petrarchesche nella *Gerusalemme liberata*', *Aevum*, 67 (1993), 533–570 (p. 542).

from her mother (who fears her husband's jealous reaction to seeing a white child), and upbringing by the Muslim eunuch Arsete who never baptizes her or apprizes her of her Christian origins until, as it turns out, the night before her death. Moments before she departs with Argante to burn down the tower, Arsete tells her, 'saprai cosa/ di tua condizione che t'era oscura' [you'll now know something of your life that has been hidden from you] (12:20), and divulges the story in tears, ending with the suggestive line that perhaps Christianity *is* the true faith ('Forse [Christianity] é la vera fede'; 12:40).19Having just learned of her Christian identity, however, Clorinda seems quick to dispense with it, claiming that she will follow 'Quella fede… che vera or parmi' [that faith that now seems true to me] (12:41). She will not be afraid, she claims, since hers is the work, and the mission, of a constant and magnanimous heart. But the story that Arsete tells of Clorinda's birth into a Christian family gives new meaning to Clorinda's 'feigning' to be one of the enemy ('di lor gente'), as does the phrase Tasso used in his apostrophe to Clorinda in Canto 11 after she wounds Gofredo: 'la tua gente pagana'. Indeed, who are Clorinda's people? Despite her assertions, even Clorinda has a moment of self-doubt while listening to Arsete's story. His account is prompted by a dream he had of a vengeful Saint George threatening Arsete for having ignored the command that Clorinda be baptized; and after he fnishes, in tears, 'ella pensa e teme,/ ch'un altro simil sogno il cor le preme' [she thinks, and fears, for another, similar dream burdens her heart] (12:40).

Tasso thus moves from the assured 'Io son Clorinda' of Canto 2 to Clorinda's uncharacteristic fear of Canto 12 — and to the question of who she really is: 'chiunque io mi sia'. But something else has intervened with respect to Clorinda's voice. This is its appropriation by two other characters in the poem, suggesting another way of thinking about who she might or might not be. In Canto 6, the timid Erminia has overcome her doubts, exiting the city of Jerusalem in the heart of night in order to go to heal Tancredi, with whom she is secretly in love, and who has been

19 For a compelling reading of Clorinda's African origins and the argument that her family was the wrong kind of Christians, see David Quint, *Epic and Empire*  (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1989), esp. pp. 234–247. His comments on Clorinda as inhabiting a 'grey area of identity and ideology', one of 'internal division, rebellion, and potential heresy', have been vital for this essay (p. 246).

wounded in battle; and she does so wearing Clorinda's armor. At the gate of the city, she must speak: and she says, reciting the same phrase: 'io son Clorinda — disse — apri la porta' [I am Clorinda: open the door] (6:95). And the ruse works, in no small part because 'La voce feminil [era] sembiante a quella/ de la guerriera' [her female voice was similar to that of the warrior]. In Canto 7, in the thick of Christian warriors surrounding a seemingly doomed Argante, the demon Beelzebub takes on the likeness of the imposing Clorinda: 'diegli il parlare e senza mente il noto/ suon de la voce, e 'l portamento e 'l moto' [he took on her speech and the well-known sound of her voice (albeit without thought); and her comportment and her moves] (7:99), so that he can rally her colleagues to help the beleaguered Argante. 'Senza mente' — lacking intelligence or understanding — is an echo from Virgil's *Aeneid*, when Juno creates a phantom of Aeneas, 'dat inania verba, /dat sine mente sonum' [giving it unreal words, a voice without thought] (10:639–640).20 This may be sound 'without thought' but it is sound that is efcacious, capable of convincing others of its authenticity: from the guard at Jerusalem's gate to Clorinda's fellow warriors, just as Juno's phantom convinces Turnus to follow the spectral vision of Aeneas outside the fray of battle.

Stolen by others, Clorinda's voice progressively becomes foreign to her. Alternately, more provocatively, she herself becomes progressively foreign to the 'sound' of her voice. The continuous marginalization of that voice, moreover, in the course of the duel is enabled through Tasso's attentiveness to the sounds of war. Once the two throw themselves into battle, Tasso invites us to hear not words but the horrible clashing of their blades: 'Odi le spade orribilmente urtarsi/ a mezzo il ferro' [you hear the terrible collision of swords, iron against iron' (12:55). The verb Tasso chooses to depict the crashing together of helmets and shields — 'cozzare', or to strike against — is an impressive earful of sound that fully propels us into this world of violent, clashing noise. Tasso's phrasing is remarkable for its staccato-like insistence on repetitive consonants, both harsh (g's and t's) and soft (sibillant s's) — phrasing that, as Fredi Chiappelli notes, forces us to pause and consider its

20 All citations from the *Aeneid* are in Virgil, *Works,* trans. by H. R. Fairclough, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986).

syntagmatic di . fculties. 21 Throughout the episode, too, Tasso moves beyond the lexical as he refects his awareness of the ebb and fow of human voice and vigor in war, and in a struggle between male and female that is far from the 'lascivious' languor of the sensual scenes in Canto 16, where Rinaldo lingers with Armida on the island. And yet this scene could well have been like that of Canto 16, given Tancredi's adoration of the woman he fghts. Tasso thus taunts us, as well as the characters, when he calls up the image of the two embracing, albeit in battle: 'Tre volte il cavalier la donna stringe con le robuste braccia' [Three times the knight hugs the lady with his/her forceful arms] (12:57). As the night progresses, Tasso will punctuate the slim number of stanzas with rhythms appropriate to growing fatigue. This is especially apparent when the warriors wearily pause in their confrontation, driven home by lines such as 'e dopo lungo faticar respira' with the deliberate pause after 'faticar' (12:57). The *ottava* continues with the almost immobilizing lines 'L'un l'altro guarda, e del suo corpo essangue/ su 'l pomo de la spada appoggia il peso' [the one looks at the other, and balances the weight of his bleeding body on the handle of his sword] (12:58). The emphasis on 'weight' (*peso*) at the end leads directly into the even heavier weight of Tancredi's question: what is your name?

This is a duel constituted by sonic clashes, in short, that have nothing to do with the voice per se. But it has everything to do with creating impediments to vocal comprehension. Thus does Tasso's poem not merely *narrate* 'arms and war, but also provid[e] a suitable language that captures the *sound* of those very things', as Christopher Geekie has recently put it.22 Given that 'an appropriately sonorous style [is] potentially alien to the vernacular', in Geekie's phrase, it also complicates our reception — and the characters' reception — of those words that *are*  spoken. The voices that speak are strained and fatigued, rendered deformed and difcult through the trauma of combat and the range of intense emotion that it provokes: disdain, anger, pride, hostility, and fnally, anguish and forgiveness, as we move from the poetics of war to

21 See Chiappelli's notes through the episode, *Gerusalemme liberata,* pp. 504–511, regarding what he considers the many 'peculiarità sintattic[he]' of the scene (p. 509n).

22 Christopher Geekie, '"Cangiar la lira in tromba": Metaphors for Poetic Form in Torquato Tasso', *Italian Studies*, 72.3 (2018), 256–270 (p. 270).

the poetics of war's aftermath. In the sensorially limited world of a forest at night, outside the walls of Jerusalem, listening is perforce at its highest pitch, and yet the ear can be fooled. The phrase 'Dir parea' before Clorinda's last line can only accentuate such destabilization. We are beyond knowing what Clorinda, whoever she is, 'truly' says, foreign as she is to herself and to her listener.

The only clarity Tasso allows us is the moment when Tancredi removes the helmet. The end of the battle has coincided with the end of darkness, and in the light from the new dawn, Tancredi can fnally see the woman who is dying before him. 'Ahi vista! Ahi conoscenza!' (12:67), declares the narrator, suggesting that only sight conveys knowledge. Yet as though to undermine the revelation, or perhaps to reinforce it, Tasso precedes the Italian words for sight and understanding with a sound that has no semantic meaning at all, a sound with origins not in Tuscan — or Latin — but Greek: 'Ahi!' This moment is seconded by another highly visual moment, that of Clorinda's death when 'la bella donna' ofers her hand to Tancredi in a tacit pledge of friendship. The *combattimento* proper ends not with the words Clorinda 'seems to say', but with her silent gesture. It is the only verifable, because visualized, prelude to her death.

The episode ends as it began, in the same silence in which Clorinda feigned herself a Christian when locked out of her city's gates: 'Di lor gente s'infnge, e fra gli ignoti/ cheta s'avolge; e non è chi la noti' [She pretends to be of their people, and quietly mixes in among the lesser known, and no one notices her] (12:50). Once again, to which *gente does* Clorinda belong? But her fate is sealed when she chooses to stop feigning, becoming like the silent wolf who 'si desvia' — who deviates or takes a diferent path — when she *will* be noted, if only by a single fgure, Tancredi: 'Poi, come lupo tacito s'imbosca/ dopo occulto misfatto, e si desvia, / da la confusion, da l'aura fosca/ favorita e nascosa, ella se 'n gía' [Then, just as a silent wolf heads into the woods after some hidden misdeed, and thus departs from the main road, so hidden and favored by the confusion and the dark, thick air, she takes of] (12:51). Like so much else in this episode, the lines are from that foreign epic poem, the *Aeneid,* and they refer to one Arruns, an Etruscan who hurls his spear at the warrior Camilla and then fees in fright: 'Even as the wolf, when he has slain a shepherd or a great steer, ere hostile darts can pursue him, straightway plunges by pathless ways among the high mountains, conscious of a reckless deed, and slackening his tail claps it quivering beneath his belly, and seeks the woods: even so does Arruns, in confusion, steal away from sight…' (11:809–814). But if Arruns plunges anonymously into the armed throng ('se immiscuit armis'), Clorinda departs from the crowd; and if Virgil's wolf takes pathless ways among the mountains — 'in montis sese avius abdidit altos' — Tasso's takes a diferent way, of the main path. Thus does Tasso accentuate her character as one who opposes herself yet again to 'comun sentenza'. But there is something especially poignant about the simile and the Virgilian fgure to whom it points. The Trojan Arruns is in fight because he has just killed the woman warrior Camilla, on whom Tasso based his own magnifcent character.23 In suggesting that Clorinda is like the silent wolf who is Arruns, Tasso has us entertain the thought, if for just a moment, that Clorinda's death is a suicide.

Here is where the second passage referenced earlier from Canto 12 becomes, fnally, signifcant. The exploit of the tower is initiated from a single factor: Clorinda's impatience with the restraints imposed on her gender in a world of men, no matter how hard she has tried to behave like a man in that world. The canto opens with the very fgure of the night that will dominate it: 'Era la notte' (12:1). While others are at rest, Clorinda is awake, agonizing about having spent the day on the sidelines as an archer while Argante and Soliamano were in the thick of battle. (She has, as an archer, nonetheless wounded Gofredo, a fact of which she is unaware.) She chafes at her inability to do what the men have done and perform marvelous and unusual deeds ('fer meraviglie inusitate e strane',) and laments that wherever 'masculine valor is revealed', she must 'mostrarmi qui tra cavalier donzella!' [reveal herself as a young woman among knights] (12:4). Thus does 'she speak to herself', turning next to Argante who is also awake, to explain that for some time, something indescribably unusual, and bold ('un non so che d'insolito e d'audace') has been working in her unquiet mind, 'la mia mente inquieta' (12:5). This spirit has incited her to the radical plan

23 On Virgil's use of Camilla as an example of the sublime style, see Erich Auerbach's infuential chapter, 'Camilla, The Rebirth of the Sublime', in *Literary Language and Its Public in Late Latin Antiquity and in the Middle Ages* (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993)*,* pp. 183–233 (esp. pp. 183–186).

to burn down the Christians' siege tower and save Jerusalem. Again, Virgil's Latin text intrudes into Tasso's poem, infltrating itself here into Clorinda's very words, as the story of Nisus and Euryalus from Book IX returns with the line 'aut pugna aut aliquid iamdudum invadere magnum/ mens agitat mihi, nec placida contenta quiete est' [long has my heart been astir to dare battle or some great deed, and peaceful quiet contents it not] (9:186–187). In this noted episode, the Trojan Nisus boldly plans to go out among the Rutulians' camp while they are sleeping, and slaughter as many as he can, a feat in which he is joined by the young boy Euryalus, and a feat which will lead to their deaths. In Clorinda's case, however, as similar as the sentiment is, it is not her heart that is astir — literally, 'agitated', like Tasso's waves and Tasso himself — but a 'non so che' that stirs up that heart and unsettles her mind. Whether, she muses, this is 'God' who inspires her, or whether 'l'uom del suo voler suo Dio si face' [men fashion their own god from their own longing] (12:5) is unclear — translating Nisus's musing in the *Aeneid*: 'Do the gods put this fre in our hearts, or does his own wild longing become to each man a god?' (9:184–185). But whereas Nisus begins his account with this rhetorical question, Clorinda utters it only after she has already spoken of her frustrations of being a woman, and her desire to be fully a part of a world of men. The 'non so che' in this episode will return in the 'non so che' that makes her voice faint and soft some ffty stanzas later, driving Tancredi to perform baptism. Yet whether it is her own desire or that of a god to defy her gender and perform magnifcent deeds, it is a desire that Tasso will grant, even as it takes her, like Nisus, to her death; and a death in which she is arguably complicit as she refuses to reveal herself as a woman ['mostrarsi donzella'] and say her name.

This monologue, of course, has no place in Monteverdi's text. Nor does the simile of the wolf or that of the restless waves. He begins his *Combattimento* a stanza after Clorinda steals away from the Christian crowd, with the ottava that presents the clanking of Tancredi's armor — the phrase he repeats four times. And he will close his work a stanza before Clorinda's death, suicide or homicide as it may be, with Clorinda's reference to *pace.* And rightly so: in the performance that was the *Combattimento*, as in the later book of Madrigals in which the piece

\*\*\*

was published, his focus is on the *voce*: *Madrigali guerrieri, et amorosi. Con alcuni opuscoli in genere rappresentativo.* As musicologists have argued, the preface and this book as a whole can be seen as the culmination of Monteverdi's attempts to elevate Italian music from its engaging but limited emphasis on *dolcezza.* His eforts, it can be argued, are comparable to Tasso's work elevating the Italian language in the confrontation with the strange, the new, the unfamiliar. Monteverdi perhaps achieved this through mingling the efects of love and war to which the title of his madrigal book alludes.24

On the surface, the *Combattimento* is so generically innovative as to present an encounter *with* the strange, meant not only to be sung — by the two combatants and a Narrator or Testo who has the lion's share of Tasso's stanzas — but to be physically enacted. But it is the episode's sonic energy that clearly caught Monteverdi's ear as he developed what was truly innovative about the piece: its existence as a 'genere concitato' — a tense or agitated style, that takes us back to the agitated waves, and the contrast between that agitation of war and the calm of the ending in death. The title of the book in which the *Combattimento*  featured, with its promise of amorous and bellicose songs, also poses a question that hovers about the entire composition: how might this song had sounded had Tancredi known Clorinda's identity, and what might he have brought her if she had revealed her name midway into the duel? In the ebbs and fows of sound that is the *Combattimento*, Monteverdi plays with dynamics, as well as rhythm and pace, moving back and forth between the intense agitations of the duel and the suggestions that something else might have happened instead. It culminates in the moment when the voice of Clorinda *does* speak in a way that provokes an emotion other than wrath in her opponent — and as she embraces friendship, if not love.

24 See, among other texts, Tim Carter's careful analysis of the work and its place within the madrigal setting; Carter, *Monteverdi's Musical Theatre* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), chapter 7, pp. 167–196. For the possible infuence of the well-known genre of the *moresca*, I am indebted to Suzanne Cusick's comments and to Nina Treadwell's chapter in this volume, in which she discusses the 'inherently labile' qualities of the *moresca* dance, where Christian and Muslim soldiers engaged in a battle set to music with especially percussive efects — the very percussive sounds that can be identifed in Monteverdi's music as well as in Tasso's lexical choices.

And so, to return to the *Combattimento'*s fnal line: 'dir parea: "S'apre il cielo; io vado in pace"'. Like the line Clorinda sang after she was wounded — 'Amico, hai vinto' — it is metrically transgressive, making the reader or singer slow down and articulate the extra three syllables that close the stanza. Monteverdi deliberately draws out the entire fnal two measures, accompanied by the dying of the string sound on A and D, which appropriately ceases when Clorinda's voice ceases. As noted above, Monteverdi omits Clorinda's death itself, along with the fnal gesture that unites the lovers, as though the absence of speech signals the absence of life. Monteverdi thus closes with Clorinda rather than the Testo, who would have recited this: 'In questa forma/ passa la bella donna, e par che dorma' [So dies the beautiful woman, and she seems to sleep] (12:69) — another use of *parere*, once again fltering the dramatic moment through Tancredi's perspective. The male gaze — and ear — through which Clorinda *appeared* to say something, is thus replaced, as Cusick and Cascelli argue, by Clorinda's actual song, and hence her resistance to both the Testo's and Tancredi's uncertain appraisal of her words.25 Monteverdi resists Tancredi's Petrarchan dynamics, in which the woman is a silent if rapturous presence. At the same time, he confrms the event Tancredi has just enabled: Clorinda's peaceful baptism into a religion that it is now too late for her to enjoy on earth. Though 'esclusa' from the gates of Jerusalem, she is not excluded from the Catholic framework of Tasso's poem.26

Monteverdi's powerful assertion of an authentic female voice dramatically realizes Clorinda's capacity to shatter boundaries, as she has done throughout the *Liberata* — of heaven, as well as of metrical line. And he does so by unambiguously enabling Clorinda to 'mostrarsi

25 See Cusick, '"Indarno chiedi"', and Cascelli, 'Place, Performance and Identity'.

26 Monteverdi's unambiguous release of Clorinda into heaven may derive from his careful reading of Tasso's *Gerusalemme conquistata,* in which the poet devotes a signifcant amount of space to the foreboding dream Clorinda has the night before her death: one in which a great fgure (Christ, as Tasso explains in his *Giudicio sovra la sua Gerusalemme da lui medesimo riformato*) comes to her on a chariot. Such elaboration suggests concern on Tasso's part that the *Liberata* was indeed ambiguous about Clorinda's fate; see Arnaldo di Benedetto, 'Un esempio di poesia Tassiana', *Giornale storico della letteratura italiana*, 169 (1992), 510–529 (526). For a diferent interpretation of Monteverdi's ending and the hypothesis that Clorinda's unexpected tonalities 'hint to a foreign world that cannot be contained by the rules of Christian music', see Risi, 'Claudio Monteverdi's *Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda*', p. 166.

donzella'. But arguably this is possible because Clorinda's has been a dangerous voice all along, and one that must not be allowed to have a future, as Adriana Cavarero has suggested with respect to the necessary deaths of the transgressive, melodramatic heroines of nineteenthcentury Italian opera, whose lives Clorinda's interestingly anticipates.27 Rendered a Christian, Clorinda can pass from the poem and allow Tancredi to fght as, and whom, he should. Monteverdi's refocusing and retelling of Clorinda's story solves the crucial problems of her multiple, indeterminate identities, as her voice is located securely in the body of the woman who takes her role onstage. Both included within and excluded from Tasso's poem, the foreigner is no longer a foreigner, even as she will be foreign to the future of the story. This may account for Monteverdi's description of his audience's reaction to his work when originally performed in the palace of Girolamo Mozzenigo in 1624. As he claims, 'tutta la Nobiltà restò mossa dal afetto di compassione in maniera, che quasi fu per gettar lacrime: & ne diede applauso per essere stato canto di genere non più visto né udito' [All the members of the nobility were so moved by the emotion of compassion that they were almost about to cry, and they applauded because it had been sung in a manner no longer seen or heard].28 Had Monteverdi recited the actual death of Clorinda, followed by Tancredi's despair, we might be tempted to think that such compassion was for the warrior. But because the *Combattimento* ends where it does, Clorinda must have been its object, the stranger who remains strange even to herself, who realizes too late whom she should have been.29

27 Adriana Cavarero, *For More than One Voice: Toward a Philosophy of Vocal Expression,*  trans. by Paul A. Kottman (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005), especially chapter 2.3, 'Melodramatic Voices', which ends with the assertion that 'the supremacy of the feminine voice [is the] quintessence of the femininity of the vocal' (p. 130).

28 Monteverdi, *Combattimento,* p. 1.

29 On the role of the 'Pellegrino' or the foreign in inspiring marvel, see an important moment from Tasso's *Discorso sopra l'arte poetica* from 1587, borrowed in part from Aristotle's Rhetoric: 'le parole disusate la fanno piú venerabile, perché sono come forestieri tra cittadini; laonde paiono peregrine e producono meraviglia; ma la meraviglia sempre porta seco diletto, perché il dilettevole è meraviglioso' [In particular, infrequently-used words will make elocution more venerable, because they are like foreigners mingling with citizens: they seem all the more rare and thus they incite marvel, but a marvel that brings with its delight, because what is delightful is also marvelous]. From *Apologia della Gerusalemme liberata,* in Tasso, *Scritti sull'arte poetica*, ed. Mazzali, I, p. 119.

Tasso's world is not quite as straightforward. If Clorinda only seems to say to an exhausted and emotional Tancredi that the heavens are opening, it may well be that they are not. Tancredi may have failed in his generous act. His 'sacri detti' [holy words], which Tasso does not record, may not have been enough; and Clorinda may have been denied entrance to the heavenly gates. This would be a terrifyingly harsh but viable resolution to the story, leaving Clorinda forever outside the narrative. While much in the poem might militate against this reading, her fnal appearance in the *Liberata* — or at least the last time we hear her voice — suggests that the possibility remains open.

This is in the spooky forest of Canto 13, a dark, perverse, epic theatre of distorting and discombobulating sights and sounds, although perhaps no less distorted than the space of Clorinda's duel. Still wounded by what he has done, Tancredi goes to attack the demons who have frightened of other Crusaders from cutting down the trees so they can build a new war tower to replace the one Clorinda and Argante destroyed. In the midst of the forest, he sees a tall cypress, with words written in Egyptian that warn him not to commit violence in this sacred site. He nonetheless takes out his sword to cut down the tree, source of the forest's magic. No sooner does he strike it, than it pours forth blood, and then, 'as though from a tomb', 'uscir ne sente/ un indistinto gemito dolento,// che poi distinto in voci: — Ahi! Troppo — disse/ — m'hai tu, Tancredi, ofeso; or tanto basti' [he hears an indistinct, mournful noise come forth, that then distinguished itself in words: "Ahh! Too much", it said, "you have ofended me, Tancredi: now please, enough!"] (13:41–42). And the voice explains: having been separated from her body at death, her soul has had to take refuge in the tree, along with many others, 'franco o pagano' (both Christian and Muslim), who 'left their bodies at the base of those high walls' (13:43). Each branch and trunk of the forest's trees is animated by their spirits, and thus Tancredi will be a murderer if he attacks the wood. Even though he does not fully believe the false illusions, he resigns himself to defeat, and fees.

'"Ahi! Troppo"' — again the foreign word that is not a proper word but a sound, and the same sound that accompanied 'Ahi vista! Ahi conoscenza!' For the frst time, that voice has spoken Tancredi's name; and for the frst time, before Tancredi, its own name — 'Clorinda fui' (12:43) — even as the use of the *passato remoto* suggests that the voice is no longer Clorinda's.30This is moreover a voice that forces its narrator to break through stanzaic lines in a relatively rare example of enjambment in Tasso's poetics. Thus does Tasso insist on the return of this foreign voice without a true home, a voice which only appeared to speak about heaven, and a voice which continues to transgress the boundaries of the orderly *ottave* of Tuscan verse and use words that are not part of that language. We saw similar instances of metric alterity in the verses that preceded and followed the rite of Clorinda's baptism — lines deviant like the sounds of a foreign language that reminds us of Italian's origins, a fow of sound that refuses to be constrained within the 'normal' metrics of a stanza. Such has been Clorinda in her resistance, provoking Tancredi's marvel and compassion and perhaps our own. In this instance it is compassion not for Clorinda's belated recognition of herself as a Christian, but for her commitment to taking the less common path, relying on the precariousness of silence and sound that returns us to the true opening of the duel: her fatal but characteristic choice to 'desviare' — deviate — and separate herself from the Christians outside the walls — possibly for a short time, possibly forever.

*Desviare* deviates from the characteristic Tuscan spelling ('disviare'). Perhaps more than any other term, it describes a Clorinda who has constantly chosen to do things diferently, giving her that heroic illustriousness which the youthful Tasso praised in his *Discorsi* as essential to an epic poem. She pays for that diference with her death, in a world that is unable to accept the extent of her otherness or the alterities she forces it to recognize in itself. The traumatic world of war which Clorinda chose to make her own would ideally be alien to anyone's vernacular. But it is a world Tasso's Italy knew well, and one whose sonic and experiential discomforts Tasso expertly probed using Italian's foreign tongues to produce his disturbing masterpiece. And while Tasso arguably makes Clorinda a sacrifce to the success of that poem, he is also closer to Clorinda than one might think — a Tasso whose style, and life,

30 Had Tancredi read Dante, he would know that Dante's purgatorial souls regularly distance themselves from their earthly bodies using the same remote tense, yet they are still recognized as the beings they were on earth. Is this a voice 'senza mente', taken over by another, diabolical creature? Or does it have continuity with Clorinda's self, like the *anime* in that temporary holding place called Purgatory? Once again Tasso leaves open the possibility of Clorinda's conversion if only through an echo to his most important predecessor in the vernacular.

could be equally defned by the word 'desviare'*.* 31As the opening of the *Liberata* reminds us, he is a *peregrino errante* who feels himself excluded from port, while nonetheless seeking, and perhaps only appearing to fnd, salvation from above.

31 See Sansone regarding Tasso's stylistic individuality: he wrote 'fuori da ogni dimensione comune' [outside common usage], in order to provoke the marvelous; *Da Bembo a Galiani: Il Dibattito sulla lingua in Italia,* p. 24.

*Conference on Medieval and Renaissance Literature*, ed. by David Allen and Robert White (Newark: University of Delaware Press; London: Associated University Press, 1992), pp. 177–195.

Literature', in *Early African American Print Culture,* ed. by Lara Cohen and Jorden Stein (Philadelphia: Penn Press, 2012), pp. 318–404.

by Barbara Grammeniati (Dartford, Kent: Xlibris Corporation, 2011), pp. 61–78.

Twitchett and Frederick W. Mote (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 708–788.

*fiorentina del Seicento*, ed. by Elena Fumagalli, Massimiliano Rossi, and Riccardo Spinelli (Florence: Sillabe, 2001), pp. 32–42.

*Sasportes*, ed. by Alessandro Pontremoli and Patrizia Veroli (Rome: Aracne, 2012), pp. 17–31.

Wang, Li, *Qingdai guyin xue* 清代古音學 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1990/2012).

—, *Zhongguo yuyanxue shi* 中國語言學史 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2013).

Williams, Eric, *Capitalism and Slavery* (Raleigh: UNC Press, 1994).

#### Chapter 1

Fig. 1.1 Pierre-Michel Laure, *Carte du domaine du Roy en Canada / dressée par le P. Laure, missionnaire jésuite, 1731, augmentée… et corrigée… en attendant un exemplaire complet l'automne 1732* (1732). Courtesy of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Public Domain, http:// gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b84467273/f1.item 18

#### Chapter 2

#### Chapter 3

Fig. 3.1 Hand-colored woodcut depicting the water pageant at Elvetham, *The Honourable Entertainment Given to the Queenes Majestie in Progresse at Eluetham in Hampshire*, 1591. The Royal Collection / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2020. 71 Fig. 3.2 'The Arrival of the Englishmen in Virginia', Thomas Hariot, *A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia* (Frankfurt: Typis Ioannis Wecheli, 1590), Plate II. Call #: STC 12786. Reproduced with permission of the Folger Shakespeare Library, CC BY-SA 4.0. 78

#### Chapter 4

Fig. 4.1 Plate 14 from Joseph-François Laftau, *Moeurs des Sauvages Am*é*ricains, Compares aux Moeurs des Premiers Temps, Vol. 2* (Paris: Saugrain l'aîné, 1724): 'Tortures of captives in North America'. Image courtesy of the Bibliothèque nationale de France, Public Domain, https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86029431/ f339.item 98

#### Chapter 5

#### Chapter 6

Fig. 6.3 Anton Domenico Gabbiani (1652–1726). *Ritratto di quattro servitori della corte medicea*; c. 1684. Oil on canvas: 205 x 140 cm. Florence, Galleria d'Arte Moderna di Palazzo Pitti, inventario 1890 n. 3827. Used with permission of the Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali e per il Turismo; further reproduction or duplication of this image is not permitted. 147

#### Chapter 7

### Index

Abbas I 208, 219 abolition 113, 127, 130 absolutism 224 Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 167, 170 Accademia della Crusca 267, 272 Acosta, José de 48, 51 acoustemologies 6–7 Innu acoustemologies 21, 27 Jesuit acoustemologies 28 of slave ships 114 of the Black Atlantic 121 sovereign acoustemologies 17 affect 205, 217, 221, 225 Alfonso II d'Este 269 Algonquians encounter with English 80 alphabets 171, 176, 180 alterity 216, 245, 247, 256, 287 Angèli da Barga, Pietro 210 antiphony.  *See* Motolinía Berns, Jörg Jochen 5

Bibbiena, Bernardo Dovizi da *La Calandria* 259 Blackness 117, 139, 165 body and affect 221–222, 245 as colonial contact zone 16, 35 Bramón, Francisco 60 *Los Silgueros de la Virgen* 62 Brookfield attack 99 buffoons 138, 162, 164 Buonaccorsi, Giovannino authorship 138, 149, 165 musical training 142 painted depictions of 148 Sogno di Giovannino Moro 149, 163 Buonarroti, Michelangelo 202–203, 206, 211, 223 Burton, Antoinette 14, 33 Caccini, Francesca 202, 222 *Il passatempo* 223 *La liberazione di Ruggiero dall'isola d'Alcina* 204, 223 *La Stiava* 205, 213, 220 musical career 204 call and response 124 Canà 145, 163 *Canon of Songs* 185 feng 187 rhyme pronunciation 193 ya 185–186 capitalism 128, 131 captivity 100 among the Jesuits 102

and pedagogy 95 and sonic terror 86 captivity narratives 91, 102, 120, 130 incorporation of captives 89, 94, 102–103 Caralì (galley slave character) 146 Caralì (Medici slave) 145 Caribbean 132 Carnival 213, 221, 224 Florence 1607 201–202, 206 Mantua 1607 201, 224 Urbino 1513 240, 243, 257, 260 Castiglione, Baldassare 241, 244, 250, 255, 259 *Il Cortegiano* 255 castrati 155, 218 Catholicism adoption of Nahua musical practice 38, 49 Catholic aurality 32 Catholic Mass 102 Catholic music among the Innu 25, 31 Cesare Borgia 243–244, 248 Champollion, Jean-François 169, 197 China 169, 197 Manchu conquest 183, 185 Qing Empire 168, 183, 192, 199 Chinese characters 174, 184, 196 classified rhymes 191, 194 pronunciation of 191 zhuan scripts 183 Christians 204, 209, 213, 222 Christine de Lorraine 202, 204, 206, 212, 222 Christmas 39, 51 *Ciro* 161 Cliff, Michelle 133 climate 171, 185 Clorinda 282 baptism 265, 271, 284 death 266, 280, 282, 284 voice 272, 278, 285, 287 wounding in the forest 286 colonialism 104

alphabetism 199 and the body 7, 35 commedia dell'arte 155, 223 Confucianism 185, 188, 193 learning of the mind 185 learning of the principle 188 Confucius 185, 187 Conquest of Mexico 38, 49 consort music 72 contact zone 7, 9, 14 conversion 27, 30, 141, 209. *See* also missionization in New Spain 43, 62–63 of Nahuas 39, 44 Coptic 169, 197 Corai, Michelangelo 208, 210, 219 Cortés, Hernán 49 Cosimo I 207 Cosimo II 204, 206 Costa, Margherita 138, 164 *Li buffoni* 142 Costello, Ray 122 creolization 114, 123, 132 crusades 209, 221–222, 268 crusade narratives 214, 223, 225 Cugoano, Ottobah 120 Dana Jr., Richard Henry 119 Dante Alighieri 241, 269 death songs 92, 97 Deerfield raid 84–85 de Guignes, Joseph 168, 175 Descartes, René 4 De' Sommi, Leone 247, 253, 255 dialects 137 in villancicos 39, 51 mestizo 51 of the Italian peninsula 268 slave *gergo* 155–156, 159 Diamond, Beverley 23 diaspora 132 Dillon, Elizabeth Maddock 113 Duan Yucai 196 *Annotations of Explicating Glyphs and Analyzing Characters* 184

dwarves 138, 144, 162, 164 early modernity 3, 5, 169 and phonography 200 as contact zones 7 effeminacy 216–217, 219 Egypt 197 Egypt-China hypothesis 170, 175, 184 Egyptian hieroglyphs 169, 197 Egyptology 168, 170, 174–175, 188 empiricism 109 England 68 Enlightenment 111, 122, 131, 133, 173 entertainment 69 country house entertainments 68, 73, 80 in the colonial context 75, 82 epic poetry 113, 128, 269, 272 epistemologies of Western music 86 epistemology. *See* also acoustemologies of Indigenous music 103 of racial capitalism 128 of Western music 103 Equiano, Olaudah 109, 117, 120 *Eutichia* 240, 244 evidential learning movement 184, 188, 192 exorcism 28 Falconbridge, Alexander 114, 127 Feld, Steven 6 fencing 256 Feng Menglong 192 *Mountain Songs* 186 Ferdinando I 203, 206–207, 210 Fernández, Gaspar 39, 50, 64 *Jesós de mi gorazón* 56 *Tios mio, mi gorazón* 56 *Xicochi conetzintle* 57 *Ximoyolali, siñola* 59 Ferrara 244, 253, 268 Florence 136, 141, 145, 224, 270 folksongs 168, 188, 192 forced singing 87, 91, 103

Forkel, Johann Nikolaus 198 France 197, 242 Francesca Maria della Rovere 250 Franceschini, Baldassarre. *See* Volterrano Francesco I della Rovere 239, 243, 254, 260 Gabbiani, Anton Domenico 148, 163 Gamble, Samuel 115, 130 gender 15, 137. *See* also effeminacy; *See* also masculinity in La Stiava 220 patriarchal structures 242, 247 sexual initiation 215 Gilroy, Paul 112, 122 Glissant, Édouard 121 Godfrey of Bouillon 210, 225 Gómara, Francisco López de 40 *Historia General de las Indias* 40 grammatology 181, 183 Grassi, Alessandro 136 Greece, ancient 174 Greek tragedy 249 Grenville, Sir Richard 75 Guidobaldo da Montefeltro 243 Gu Yanwu 190, 193 Gypsies 138 in ethnic villancicos 56 in opera 160 stereotypes 160 Habermas, Jürgen 112, 122 Hakluyt, Richard *Principall Navigations* 69, 81 harmony 175 Harriot, Thomas 77 *A Brief and True Report* 80 Hartman, Saidiya 122, 130 Haudenosaunee 91, 97, 102 relations with the Innu 14 war cries 85 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 199 Herder, Johann Gottfried 198 Hispaniola 75 Homer 272

*Honorable Entertainment at Elvetham, The* 70 *huéhuetl* 40, 60 humanism 224, 241 hybridity 123 of Nahua and Spanish musics 49, 63 ideographs 188, 196 *Il pazzo per forza* 160 imperialism 101 Indian labor 39, 60, 63–64 Innu adoption of Catholic practices 25, 31 dream listening 26 musical practices 14, 25, 31 relations with the French 17 shaking tent ceremony 13 intermedi 157, 203, 213, 244, 257, 259 interpellation 4–5, 140 Iroquois. *See* Haudenosaunee Isabella d'Este 253 Italian 155, 163 Italian Wars 243, 257, 260 Italy as personified character 257, 259 Italian peninsula 241, 258 personified character 240, 249 Jason (mythic hero) 258 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 167 Jerusalem 207, 221, 225, 271, 273 Jesuits adoption of Innu practices 25 in China 170, 176, 180 in New France 14, 19, 24, 31, 102 in New Spain 41, 48, 60 Jesuit *Relations* 17, 24, 27, 31, 33, 96 Jiang Yong 194 *Standards of Ancient Rhymes* 192 Julius II 243, 259 kakushapatak. *See* shaman kaozheng. *See* evidential learning movement Kaplan, Paul 136

Kircher, Athanasius 168–169, 175 *China illustrata* 169, 181 *Oedipus aegyptiacus* 169 köçeks 219 laceration 246, 248, 256 Lafitau, Joseph-François 92, 97 laments 127, 216, 242, 245, 248–249, 254 *La pellegrina* 203 Latin 43, 268, 270 Le Jeune, Paul 13, 19, 22 Levine, Victoria Lindsay 22 Li Mengyang 188 listening as acoustemological practice 6 as scholarly practice 3 inquisitorial listening 9, 17, 30 listening to listening 16, 23 mediated listening 22 Livorno 145, 207 logographs 175, 180, 188, 194, 196 Manchu letters 183 Mantua 243–244 Martines, Lauro 242 Martinez, Gabriello 144 masculinity 205 in *La Stiava* 220, 225 maurophobia 205, 217, 220, 222 Medici court 143, 164, 202, 222–224 Medici, Giovan Carlo de' 139, 164 Melani, Jacopo 159 Melville, Herman 107, 123 *Benito Cereno* 108, 122 *Redburn* 123 Mendieta, Gerónimo de 43 messenger scene 216 Mexico City 48, 60 Middle Passage 114 and Anglophone literature 130 captivity narratives of 120 commercial writing of 110, 126, 131 soundscape of 110, 124, 132 Mintz, Sidney 114 missionization 29

Moctezuma 40 modernity 8, 111, 126, 128, 225 Mohawks 98, 102 captivity practices 96 Monteverdi, Claudio 201 *Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda, il* 225 *Il Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda* 265–266, 280, 282–283, 285 madrigals 283 *Orfeo* 225 Moors 213, 222. *See* also Muslims Morales, Pedro 48, 51 moresche 218, 240, 252, 258 dance 254 history of the genre 213 in *La Stiava* 213 in *Orfeo* 225 sounds of 253 use of weapons in 253 within the intermedi of Eutichia 257 Moten, Fred 111 Motolinía 44 mourning wars 88 musical notation 3, 198 and song sticks 23 musicology 34, 137, 198 music theory 174, 187 Muslims 144, 209, 211, 216, 218, 221 in ethnic villancicos 56 Mustakeem, Sowande M. 113–114 Nahuas portrayal in Jesuit literature 63 song and dance traditions 38, 42, 45 Nahuatl as dominant language in New Spain 43 in devotional music 39, 48, 52, 56 use in Catholic services 44 nationalism 70 New France 84, 91 New Spain public festivals 38, 47, 51, 60

noise 121 and slave ships 108, 110 Nuna, Mary Madeline 20 Nurgaci 182 opera Chinese opera 168, 194 French opera 173 historiography of Italian opera 225 Italian opera 161, 167, 201, 203, 285 orthography 188 Osage 23 Ottoman Empire 202, 207, 213, 217, 224, 241 Panbollito 147 papacy 207, 259 Papacy 243 Paris 167 Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista 167 Peri, Jacopo *L'Euridice* 203 Pers, Ciro di 139, 163 Persia 204, 208, 220 Petrarch, Francesco 241, 268 Italia mia 248 Petrarchism 270, 284 Laura 275 philology 168, 192, 196 philosophy 168, 180, 197 phonographs 168, 183, 194, 196 phonology 169, 190 Picchena, Curtio 206, 211 pictographs 168, 175, 180, 183, 188, 194, 196 pipe and tabor. *See* tamburino political enfranchisement 122, 131 Powhatans 76 Pratt, Mary Louise 7 Price, Richard 114 propaganda 210, 221 psalmody 84, 100 Puebla 50 Puebla de los Ángeles 39

Qianlong Emperor 193 *Rhapsody of Mukden* 183 Queen Elizabeth I 73 Querelle des Bouffons 167–168 race 115, 117, 137, 161–162, 225 in *La Stiava* 222 Radano, Ronald 114 Radisson, Pierre-Esprit 97, 101, 103 Rameau, Jean-Phillipe 175 rape 248, 257 Rath, Richard Cullen 110, 131 rebus 195, 197 Rediker, Marcus 117–118 Renaissance 268 residential schools 32 Rinuccini, Ottavio 139 Roman Empire 247, 249 Romano, Giulio 253 Romanticism 198 Rosetta Stone 168, 196 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 7, 184, 196, 198 critique of Rameau 175 *Essai sur l'origine des langues* 170 Sahagún, Bernardino de 38 *Cantares mexicanos* 47 *Psalmodia Christiana* 48 *Romances de los señores de la Nueva España* 47 Salviati, Lionardo 267 Saunders, George 118 Scatapocchio 143 *Scipione in Cartagine* 146 sea shanties 124 Seymour, Edward 71 Shakespeare, William 65 *The Tempest* 67 shaking tent ceremony 14, 21, 27 shaman 14, 20 sight 111 slave revolts 108, 117, 122, 131 slavery 225 Atlantic slave trade 109, 114 court slavery 163

in the Atlantic 222 in the Mediterranean 202, 204, 209, 211, 221 slave ships 130 architecture of 118 as conduits of sound 132 as percussive instrument 110, 115, 117, 132 baricado 117 Florentine galleys 146 slave songs 123 Snelgrave, William 117 sodomy 144 song record sticks 25 sound 2 acousmatic sound 4 acoustics 118, 173 and captivity 86 and subectivity 5 and the Middle Passage 111, 122, 132 as vibrational force 2, 6, 8 histories of sound 3 in Tasso's poetry 271 sound design 220 sounds of war 278 sound studies 3, 112 sovereignty 247 acoustic sovereignty 5 Indigenous sovereignty 35 sovereign acoustemologies 17 Spain 242 spectacles 201, 206, 260 sprezzatura 255 staged combat 206, 211, 214, 223, 256 Stanfield, James Field 130 *The Guinea Voyage* 110 St. Hippolytus 49 stile concitato 219, 283 stile recitativo 140, 211, 213 Suleiman the Magnificent 207, 213 Szendy, Peter 3 tamburino 213, 252 Tancredi 266, 282, 287

Tasso, Torquato *Gerusalemme liberata* 214, 223–224, 265, 267, 282, 288 *La Cavaletta Dialogo della Poesia toscana* 271 use of Tuscan 271, 288 *teponaztli* 41, 48, 54, 60 Titian 245 *Tocniuane touian* 48 tocotines 63 portayal of Indian characters 63 Tomlinson, Gary 104, 271 torture 94, 99, 120 and mocking 99 Tovar, Juan de 41 Trois-Rivières 13, 18, 91 Turco, Maometto 144 Tuscan 268, 270 Tuscany 204, 223 alliance against the Ottoman Empire 208, 220 Urbani, Urbano 240, 246, 254 Urbino 240 during the Italian Wars 244, 248 Venice 160, 224 versi sciolti 141 *Vida de San Ignacio* 60, 63 villancicos ethnic villancicos 39, 56 ethnic villancicos" \r 51 generic conventions 53 in Catholic liturgy 51 portrayal of Indian characters 39, 50, 53, 60, 64 relation to Nahua song and dance 51, 54, 64 villancicos en indio 60, 64 Virgil 269 *Aeneid* 278, 282 Virginia 69, 74, 80 Roanoke 77 voice and trauma 247, 257

in Monteverdi's music 283 in Rousseau 171, 175 voice types 219, 246 Volterrano 136, 148, 164 Wang Niansun 184, 194 Warburton, William *Divine Legation of Moses* 180 Williams, John (Puritan minister) 84, 103 Williams, Roger (English colonist) 97 women as sacked cities personified 242, 249, 257 writing and Atlantic slavery 111, 122, 127 as phonography 169, 171, 175 graphocentric paradigm 170, 184, 188 history of writing 168, 171, 176, 184 phonocentric paradigm 174, 191, 194, 200 Phonographic Revolution 168, 188, 196–197, 199 xinxue. *See* Confucianism Xu Dachun *Transmitting the Voice of Ancient Music* 193 Xu Shen 184, 196 Xu Zhen 176

Yong, Jiang 193

## About the Team

Alessandra Tosi was the managing editor for this book.

Adele Kreager performed the copy-editing and proofreading.

Anna Gatti designed the cover using InDesign. The cover was produced in InDesign using Fontin (titles) and Calibri (text body) fonts.

Francesca Giovannetti typeset the book in InDesign. The text font is Tex Gyre Pagella; the heading font is Californian FB.

Luca Bafa created all of the editions — paperback, hardback, EPUB, MOBI, PDF, HTML, and XML — the conversion is performed with open source software freely available on our GitHub page (https:// github.com/OpenBookPublishers).

## This book need not end here…

#### Share

All our books — including the one you have just read — are free to access online so that students, researchers and members of the public who can't aford a printed edition will have access to the same ideas. This title will be accessed online by hundreds of readers each month across the globe: why not share the link so that someone you know is one of them?

This book and additional content is available at: https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0226

#### Customise

Personalise your copy of this book or design new books using OBP and third-party material. Take chapters or whole books from our published list and make a special edition, a new anthology or an illuminating coursepack. Each customised edition will be produced as a paperback and a downloadable PDF.

Find out more at:

https://www.openbookpublishers.com/section/59/1

Like Open Book Publishers Follow @OpenBookPublish Read more at the Open Book Publishers

## You may also be interested in:

**Annunciations Sacred Music for the Twenty-First Century** *George Corbett (ed.)*

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0172

#### **Waltzing Through Europe Attitudes towards Couple Dances in the Long Nineteenth Century** *Egil Bakka, Theresa Jill Buckland, Helena Saarikoski and Anne von Bibra Wharton (eds)*

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0174

#### **Verdi in Victorian London**

*Massimo Zicari*

https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0090

## Acoustemologies in Contact

EDITED BY EMILY WILBOURNE AND SUZANNE G. CUSICK Sounding Subjects and Modes of Listening in Early Modernity

In this fascina� ng collec� on of essays, an interna� onal group of scholars explores the sonic consequences of transcultural contact in the early modern period. They examine how cultural confi gura� ons of sound impacted communica� on, comprehension, and the categorisa� on of people. Addressing ques� ons of iden� ty, diff erence, sound, and subjec� vity in global early modernity, these authors share the convic� on that the body itself is the most in� mate of contact zones, and that the culturally con� ngent systems by which sounds made sense could be foreign to early modern listeners and to present day scholars.

Acoustemologies

WILBOURNE

AND CUSICK (EDS) ACOUSTEMOLOGIES

IN CONTACT

**OBP**

in Contact

Sounding Subjects and Modes of

Listening in Early Modernity

EDITED BY EMILY WILBOURNE AND SUZANNE G. CUSICK

Drawing on a global range of archival evidence—from New France and New Spain, to the slave ships of the Middle Passage, to China, Europe, and the Mediterranean court environment—this collec� on challenges the privileged posi� on of European acous� cal prac� ces within the discipline of global-historical musicology. The discussion of Black and non-European experiences demonstrates how the produc� on of 'the canon' in the cosmopolitan centres of colonial empires was underpinned by processes of human exploita� on and extrac� on of resources. As such, this text is a � mely response to calls within the discipline to decolonise music history and to contextualise the canonical works of the European past.

This volume is accessible to a wide and interdisciplinary audience, not only within musicology, but also to those interested in early modern global history, sound studies, race, and slavery.

As with all Open Book publica� ons, this en� re book is available to read for free on the publisher's website. Printed and digital edi� ons, together with supplementary digital material, can also be found at www.openbookpublishers.com

Cover Image: 'The manner in which the Mexicans dance', in Juan de Tovar, *Historia de la venida de los indios* (Ms., ca. 1585), f. 58r. Courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library, CC BY-SA 4.0. Cover design by Anna Ga� .


**Appendix A**

**Figure A1.** Percentage of HA and SiHA thin films annealed at 600 ◦C remaining as a percentage of original coating Ca content. Data plotted is mean ± standard error of the mean; n = 4. Non-linear one-phase decay regression plots were calculated using GraphPad Prism software based on the data shown. Due to the high variance of the SiHA1 sample, a suitable regression line was unable to be plotted, hence a probable area has manually been fitted for visual enhancement.

**Figure A2.** XRD plot for a Plasma Biotal plasma sprayed copper backed target. All major di ffraction planes are indexed. Arrows indicate potential β-TCP secondary phase, however, with the low intensity accurate quantification is di fficult.


**3.2 L-MDF supports attachment and sustained metabolic activity of bone marrow-mesenchymal stem cells**

Overall, the cellular activity of the BM-MSCs was shown to significantly increase over the course of the 7 day investigation. The results indicated that cells seeded on L-MDF showed a significant increase in proliferation between days 4 (51.3 ± 1.2 RFU) and 7 (59.5 ± 1.5 RFU) compared to day 1 (21.3 ± 0.8 RFU) (**Figure 2**).

SEM images confirmed BM-MSC attachment to L-MDF within 30 min of seeding. Cells appeared rounded with numerous folds and ridges and minimal surface contact (**Figure 3A**). After 1 h in culture, BM-MSCs became elongated and began spreading and increasing surface contact with the fibers (**Figure 3B**). After 1 day, imaging showed flattened cells with multiple adhesion points and cellular extensions as well as extracellular matrix (ECM) secretion (**Figure 3C**). By day 7 in culture, BM-MSCs infiltrated between fibers and demonstrated cell-to-cell interactions (**Figure 3D**).

**Figure 2.**

*Proliferation of BM-MSCs attached to L-MDF over 7 days. The average relative fluorescence unit (RFU) values for each set of triplicate test samples were normalized to the average RFU of the corresponding control group (fibers of the respective donor cultured without cells) for all six donors. Asterisks represent statistically significant differences from day 1 proliferation activity.*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Representative SEM images illustrating the morphology of cells attached to L-MDF. Following culture for 30 min (A), 1 h (B), 1 day (C) or 7 days (D), respectively, the samples were fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde and processed for scanning electron microscopy. Images are representative of all samples evaluated and were taken at 3000× magnification. Scale bar represents 10 μm. Images were pseudo-colored in Adobe Photoshop to distinguish the cells (in yellow) from the fibers.*

**39**

**Figure 5.**

**Figure 4.**

*triplicate (mean* ∓ *SE).*

*Cell Attachment and Osteoinductive Properties of Tissue Engineered, Demineralized Bone Fibers…*

**3.3 L-MDF contains important growth factors and demonstrates new bone**

The ELISA results indicated the presence of growth factors in L-MDF. The average BMP-2 and 7 concentrations in the samples fibers were 11.24 ± 1.49 and

Additionally, in the athymic mouse muscle pouch model, histological analysis revealed new bone elements around and within the implanted scaffold at time of sacrifice (5 weeks; **Figure 5**). Panel A shows a set of merged images that illustrate

*BMP-2 and BMP-7 content in L-MDF. L-MDF produced from six different donors were digested in collagenase for 16–18 h. Using ELISAs, the resulting digestion solutions were tested for BMP-2 and BMP-7 content in*

*H&E staining of explants from an athymic nude mouse implanted with L-MDF (\*). Merged set of H&E images showing new bone elements present in the entire explant at 35 days post-implantation (4× objective). Expanded areas show the presence of new bone elements such as cartilage (^), chondroblasts/cytes (#), bone*

*marrow (\$), new blood vessels (&), and new bone (+) around L-MDF implant (\*) at 35 days.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88290*

85.78 ± 6.84 ng/g, respectively (**Figure 4**).

**formation** *in vivo*

*Cell Attachment and Osteoinductive Properties of Tissue Engineered, Demineralized Bone Fibers… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88290*


Author details

4. Conclusion

Drought - Detection and Solutions

countries.

researches.

Acknowledgements

Conflict of interest

40

fairness, efficiency, and adaptability.

economic sectors and on the environment.

We have shown here how it is possible with a pricing system based on two variables, reservation and consumption, for the WUA manager to get enough information in order to anticipate any disequilibrium between water demand and supply, when it is always possible to change the choice of the cultures. Moreover changing the parameters allows the WUA manager to modify the volume consumed by the farmers, which is especially useful when searching a decrease of the water consumption. Translated in a two-entry table, this method is simple enough to be understood by each farmer and quite acceptable since associating the pursuit of

At last, with a judicious choice of the value for the parameters, it is possible to incite the farmers to be more or less acute in the choice of their reservation and consumption values. This pricing system should therefore allow a more efficient use of the water resource by the farmers, by the way decreasing the constraints on other

The need for a better management of irrigation water is now recognized, and the potentialities of original pricing systems (see, for example, [22]) are confirmed

Further researches are nevertheless needed to study how such a system keeps

We thank especially the financial help the European Union H2020 COASTAL project (Grant Agreement No. 773782) and of French Agence Nationale pour la Recherche program" Agriculture et développement durable" allocated to the" Appeau" contract. We thank too Jean-Marc Berland and Jean-Antoine Faby from the International Office for Water for interesting discussions on a preliminary version of this paper. We also thank Laboratoire Montpelliérain d'Economie Théorique et Appliquée (Lameta), now Center for Environmental Economics - Montpellier (CEEM), for allowing us to have previously made available the working

paper on which this chapter is partially based (see [28]).

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

by many work in economics, carried out in different contexts such as those presented by [23] in semi-arid climates, or [24], and [25] in different European

or increases its advantages when we take into account the fact that in many countries the water supply may be stochastic (see, for example, [26]). It would also be important to study the strategic interactions between farmers, as well as the different inter-annual dynamics that can be put in place, in order to facilitate the development of agricultural activities, while still under budgetary constraint (see [27]). In addition, the acquisition of information between the reservation (during the wet vegetation season) and the peak consumption (during the dry vegetation season) can be sequential. Taking this into account can lead to an even better valorization of the water resources, through the implementation of an adapted pricing policy. This leads to other refinements which are the aim of other present

> Jean-Philippe Terreaux1 \* and Mabel Tidball2

1 UR ETBX, Irstea, Cestas, France

2 CEE-M, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Inra, SupAgro, Montpellier, France

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


*2.6. Size Analysis by Flow Cytometry in Vitreous and Plasma Samples*

Flow cytometry (Apogee Flow Systems, Hertfordshire, UK) was used to differentiate between the liposomes and other possible porcine vitreous and human plasma components of the same size by large-angle light scattering (LALS) and by detecting the calcein fluorescence to separate the liposome population. The LALS measurements returned the relative size and coefficient of variation (CV) of the liposome population. A calibration line for the liposome size was produced by measuring liposomes of different size in buffer with DLS, as described earlier, and then measuring the same samples with Apogee flow cytometry (Figure S4A). The generated calibration line had the following equation (*R 2* = 0.96):

$$\text{LHS} = \text{21.666} \times \text{DLS}(\text{nm}) - 888.11. \tag{1}$$

The flow cytometry signal from bulk vitreous and plasma without liposomes was analyzed separately, and only the liposome population was gated into the final data (Figure S4B–E, Supplementary Materials).


**Abstract**

In this work we seek to understand and to quantify the reactivity of benzofurazan derivatives toward secondary cyclic amines, like pyrrolidine, piperidine and morpholine, acting as nucleophile groups in SNAr reactions. For this aim, physico-chemical and structural descriptors were determined experimentally and theoretically using the DFT/B3LYP/6-31+ g (d,p) methodology. Thus, different 4-X-7-nitrobenzofurazans (X = OCH3, OC6H5 and Cl) and products corresponding to the electrophilic aromatic substitution by pyrrolidine, piperidine and morpholine, were investigated. Particularly, the HOMO and LUMO energy levels of the studied compounds, determined by Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) and DFT calculations, were used to evaluate the electrophilicity index (ω). The latter was exploited, according to Parr's approach, to develop a relationship which rationalizes the kinetic data previously reported for the reactions of the 4-X-7-nitrobenzofurazans with nucleophiles cited above. Moreover, the Parr's electrophilicity index (ω) of these benzofurazans determined in this work were combined with their electrophilicity parameters (E), reported in preceding papers, was found to predict the unknown electrophilicity parameters E of 4-piperidino, 4-morpholino and 4-pyrrolidino-7-nitrobenzofurazan. In addition, the relationship between the Parr's electrophilicity index (ω) and Hammett constants σ, has been used as a good model to predict the electronic effect of the nucleophile groups. Finally, we will subsequently compare the electrophilicity index (ω) and the electrophilicity parameters (E) of these series of 7-X-4-nitrobenzofurazans with the calculated dipole moment (μ) in order to elucidate general relationships between E, ω and μ.

**Keywords:** Benzofurazan, Structure–property correlations, Optical properties, Mayr's approach, Electrophilicity, Parr's approach, Voltammetry Cyclic, DFT, ICT, NLO properties