1.2 Sarawak basin

Diffraction imaging analyzes were carried out in the Sarawak Basin, located north-west of Borneo, forming the southern boundary of the Oligocene-Recent Basin of the South China Sea; its tectonic evolution has been almost matched by seabed rifting and spread in the marginal basin of the South China Sea [4]. The majority of the Sarawak Basin, including this part of Malaysia, is composed of carbonates, making seismic imagery difficult. The pre-carbonated Oligocene deposit in the lower Miocene and later the terrestrial deposit filled the shelter zone in Cycle I and Cycle II. The cycles are described as follows: Cycles I and II (Upper Eocene to Lower Miocene) have been interpreted as channel sands, lowered clays, and deposited coal. Cycle III (lower-middle Miocene) contains fine limestone shale and sandstone, cycle IV (middle Miocene) is composed of limestone with few mixed clastics, cycle V (middle to upper Miocene) is recognized as limestone, cycle Advance Wave Modeling and Diffractions for High-Resolution Subsurface Seismic Imaging DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81164

VI to cycle VIII (upper Miocene to Pleistocene) is composed of open marine and coastal clays and sand, respectively. The progradante sediments from cycle V1 to cycle VIII have gradually stifled the large accumulations of carbonates to the present day. In the center of Luconia, carbonate deposits began at the beginning of the Miocene (cycle III) and increased significantly in the middle and late Miocene cycles IV and V [3]. The structure is dominated by a simple extension phase NS trend faults. These faults affected the deposits during cycles I and II and served as foci for the development of carbonate reefs of cycle IV and V and their accumulation. The dominance of intensive pre-carbonation structuring has therefore resulted in poor seismic image quality.

## 1.3 Diffraction

Diffraction hyperbolic patterns occur frequently in recorded seismic data, particularly in carbonate reservoirs due to abrupt lateral changes in impedance contrast and discontinuity of subterranean layers. However, a very serious doubt to the application of classical theory has claimed that stacked seismic data is not true zero separation data because it is not clear that the results of the stacking of data recorded on a wide range of source-receiver separations is practically close to the results of real zero separation recording, since diffraction amplitudes are concerned [5]. Berryhill also explained the concept and compared the theory of zero separation with source-geophone distance without zero separation, concluding that the diffraction amplitudes at a source-receiver separation different from zero and well known with respect to the wave and geometric propagation paths, a point diffractor gives rise to a hyperbolic diagram on the stacked section. Hyperbola is explained as a symmetrical open curve formed by the intersection of a circular cone with a plane at a smaller angle with its axis than the sides of the cone. Diffraction only be considered as hyperbolic if the recovery is homogeneous, which not a very natural supposition to make is. The curvature of the diffraction hyperbola depends on the speed of the medium, the apex being an indicator of the location of the defect. Diffraction imaging is a dare in seismic processing and adopted by a workflow by means of the common reflection surface by [6–8].

In reflection seismology applied to exploration geophysics, such wave propagation phenomena are employed to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface reflector. Furthermore, the diffraction phenomenon is also concerned with reflection because of the properties of the subsurface as defined above. The acoustic (seismic) impedance, Z=, Where V is the seismic wave velocity and ρ is density. Although seismic migration is now the one of the primary imaging tools employed in the field, the earliest analogue seismic records took the form of simple single-fold illustration [4, 9–12]. These recordings were characterized by diffracted energy and random noise, but they nonetheless provided a useful interpretation of the subsoil of the Earth. Later, mechanical migration eliminated the structural deformation of early seismic data, with CMP stacks condensing the amount of random noise as the diffracted energy is preserved. Seismic reflection and diffraction waves are essentially different physical phenomena. Most seismic processors tune and image by improving the seismic reflection data, and do not deliberate the diffracted waves present in the processed data, which carry most of the information regarding minor but important subsurface events [13]. Such small-scale underground events (such as faults, fractures, channels, karsts, and salty body edges) occur as diffracted waves in the seismic data, which can be captured [14, 15].

The plane wave destruction filter (PWD) was originally introduced by Claerbout [28] for the characterization of seismic images using the superposition of local plane waves. This PWD filter was based on the plane wave differential

equation, after the original plane wave destruction filter with the same approximation proved poor when applied to spatial folding data [16]. On the other hand, the dip frequency filtering approach is applied in the f-k domain. Here we use the Fourier transform to convert time data to the frequency domain, with a filter designed to eliminate reflections based on wave cycles per kilometer. In this paper, we develop a workflow that captures these events on a small scale through separate diffractions based on the regularity and continuity of the slope of the local event that corresponds to the reflection event. We compare the two techniques of dipfrequency filtering and wave-destruction filtering, before integrating the two approaches and performing comparative analyzes on the optimal preservation of diffractions.


The Axiological Structure in Psychosis

*Francisco Martín-Murcia and Adolfo J. Cangas*

#### **Abstract**

In this chapter the value structure will be described as one of the essential existential foundations from a phenomenological perspective. Psychosis could be understood as the result of structural modifications of the self in anchoring the lifeworld. These modifications would mainly be due to failure in the construction of intersubjectivity and therefore of the common sense or basic intuitive tuning of the social world. This failure precisely involves the axiological component of psychotic being-in-the-world, so its description will be emphasized, along with its peculiarities and similarities to other ways of functioning of this axis of values, both adapted and pathological. This approach will be observed in terms of its therapeutic possibilities for the improvement and removal of the so-called negative symptoms. These are the warhorse for true recovery, understood as a personal and unique process for the clarification, development, adjustment of attitudes and values, affectivity and skills in social roles that can lead to a satisfactory and hopeful way of life. Those interventions that try to create a new existential situation or being-in-the-world will be described.

**Keywords:** Phenomenology, Psychosis, Schizophrenia, Values, Psychotherapy

#### **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1 Theoretical foundation**

Attempting to summarize the value structure in psychosis first requires defining three concepts: structure, values, and psychosis. Structure is understood as the relationship maintained between the different parts of a whole or the way in which said parts are organized in relation to the whole. For the purposes of the subject addressed in this work, the parts which we are concern with would be values. Their structure would determine the whole, which, as will be explained, is a reference to the *human person* [1, 2].

What are values? According to axiology—the philosophical discipline based on the value of things—values can be defined as those aspects that give meaning to things. Together, they will determine the behavior of an individual, depending on the importance they possess. Thus, values can be conceptualized as those attitudes whose function is to regulate our behavior. Surprisingly, however, despite being a key aspect in the construction of the individual, values have scarcely been studied in the field of psychosis [3].

The final element to define would be psychosis. The definition presented here will not address the well-known formal diagnostic systems (DSM-5 and ICD-11), albeit they are also classically discussed [4]. Instead, following a more phenomenological description, psychosis is understood more as a peculiar construction of the being-in-the-world, whose essential manifestation would be the "loss of common sense" or of natural evidence, caused by, among other factors, focusing on psychological processes that go unnoticed in other people [5, 6].

In this sense, it is also worth considering that the positive symptoms in psychosis (e.g., hallucinations, delusions, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior) could well be the manifestation of more basic characteristics related to negative symptoms. Apathy, abulia and demotivation could in turn be the result of the lack of anchoring and fitting in with to the interests or social values of other people. In fact, it could be said that these negative symptoms are not simply located in the realm of affectivity; instead, they would exist as result of the specific relationship that the individual maintains with the oneself and towards the world. Both are not given separately or added but are to be understood as the basic being-in-the-world.

From this perspective, psychosis would be understood as the result of structural modifications of the self in its anchoring in the world-of-life, given the flaw in the construction of intersubjectivity and therefore common sense, understood as the basic intuitive tuning with the social world [6, 7].

#### **1.2 Therapeutic approaches**

In fact, the therapy session itself, not focused on the symptom, is the context that would present an opportunity for the development of intersubjectivity. The patient would have the chance to learn to feel what it is like to have things in common with others and experience feelings of acceptance and everyday life. Not in vain, the self-in-company is the barometer of the being-in-the-world [5].

In this regard, it is noteworthy that in recent years a great deal of therapeutic efforts made among patients with psychosis and severe mental disorders have resulted in strategies aimed precisely at attempting to restructure life's sense and, therefore, values. This approach leads to a more fulfilled life experience. For example, in the approach known as Open Dialog [8], listening emerges as a more important variable than the intervention method; it specifically allows the reduction of uncertainty while also revaluating the social support system. This grants greater responsibility to both the family and the patient to discuss life situations and to manage their lives more confidently.

Similarly, another alternative with phenomenological roots, practiced by mental health patients on their own, is the Power Threat Meaning Framework [9], a psychiatric diagnosis process proposed by the Division of Clinical Psychology of the British Psychological Society. In this case, symptoms would be understood as survival strategies against adversities and their meaning would always be related to life circumstances. Faced with threats (in relationships, identity, values, discrimination, emotions) generated by negative impacts of power (biological, coercive, legal, economic, cultural, interpersonal, or ideological forces), the patient will attempt to assign them meaning (beliefs, feelings, and physical reactions) and respond to them. These responses may include aggressive behavior, unusual sensory perceptual or cognitive experiences, catatonia, dissociation, hearing voices, weakness, affective flattening, indifference, submission, paranoia, panic, depersonalization or derealization, among others. The aim of this framework is to gather strength, enhance the socio/family support resources of each patient, in order to empower them and rebalance their life according to the values of justice, equity, personal safety, belonging, direction and agency. In this way, this approach would help patients to have an existence with sense, meaning and purpose. The above examples involve the generation of contexts that can revaluate existence, beyond traditional bio-medical framework.

#### *The Axiological Structure in Psychosis DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98469*

In addition, it can also be proposed that delusions, alterations in discourse, the experience of corporeality and the temporality, paranoidal or schizoidal ways of interacting would be —once the phase of confusion had been overcome—completely self-evident to the psychotic person. This would be their personal "anchoring in the life-world". The need to anchor oneself —to be anchored—would imply that these phenomena would be evident to those individuals who lack common sense or the sense of belonging to the world of others. In fact, the *human person* model by [1] emphasizes the idea that the psychotic experience is a prototypically universal effort to construct a valuable and authentic sense of the self.

#### **1.3 Life experiences of psychotic patients**

However, any specific characteristics would stem from the complex experiences of the psychotic self which distance it precisely from certain socially adaptive values. They would therefore become barriers against achieving an acceptable level of wellbeing. Aspects related to work, sentimental relationships, raising a family, academic development and economic autonomy, leisure and social activities, health and general wellbeing tend to be either extraordinarily deficient or simply inexistent. It seems quite logical then that severe cases of psychosis appear during adolescence, precisely at a critical moment in the construction of the self. This development of the self would thus take place in the turbulent waters of the different conflictive roles (even ambivalent and antagonistic) which the individual will face as they evolve as a *person* [2].

Late-life psychosis also tends to develop in conflictive contexts or in complex existential transits, which would require a personal transformation not exempt from difficulties and risks. The Heideggerian concept of the human being as a transient and rational being and, therefore, narrative would imply the idea that living is always difficult. Overvaluation of the inner experience would result in an ontological catastrophe [10]. This private experience is a continuous flow of events, in which the event ("what *arrives*") impedes any feeling of having completely experienced what occurred [11]. This prompts the individual to experience events as not their own (since they are not *possessed*, and instead simply *appear*). Such events tend to be the object of overvaluation or hyper-reflexibility, whereby psychotic self-reflection is the "active stinger of the soul" [12]. In addition, this hyper-reflexibility occurs in different psychopathological conditions [13].

The life experience of certain psychotic individuals would therefore not cease to be a continuous and complex component. And that idiosyncratic environmental and behavioral history is what influences the experience of remembering, thinking, or feeling in the present. This refers to the world in which people exist; this world would arrive before the ideas created about it. This implies, in the words of Heidegger, that the individual must first remain "under the empire of Others".

The predefined types/models of life or values can be achieved, lived, understood, or accepted or not. It must be noted that values, as the guiding horizon which human beings migrate towards, and are therefore ingrained in them as psychological beings, cannot be reduced to a process of reasoning. Values cannot be accessed analytically because they *are there* (whether we want them or not). Thus, it is deduced that values will naturally be conditioned by different social-relational aspects.

#### **1.4 Values of psychotic patients**

It is important to consider some of the values engrained in the world of a person with psychosis when analyzing values. As previously discussed, their world is

phenomenologically different from the common-sense world. It is normally associated with a sense of eccentricity or exceptional nature, which are believed to be "given", not chosen. In fact, it is observed that the axiological structure in psychosis features a preeminence of eschatological values that give great meaning to the life experience of patients. Thus, the feeling of idionomia or exceptionality and radical uniqueness is quite common [3]; the psychotic individual gives a meaning to events upon which they build a special –exceptional— identity. The events regulate their consciousness and life action, orienting them towards metaphysical existential planes, perhaps with a different mission or purpose from the objectives or goals common to their social environment. In Jaspers words [12] "the patient is personally important as a discoverer … his days are filled with meaningful mental work". These eschatological values will be the center of gravity upon which the psychotic individual will sustain their actions and consciousness. This will remove them from other constitutive values which will probably remain frozen due to the enormity of their psychotic experience.

This disconnection from the pragmatic life and the distancing from the socialfamily context prevent the psychotic individual from learning essential lessons for interacting with the world. This peculiar case of self-absorption is common in modern societies [14]. According to Taylor [15], the dissolution of moral horizons, as a paradigm of modern society, would leave life with no ground to anchor itself onto given the loss of the sense provided by said horizons. In this way life could become what Nietzsche would called "a pitiful comfort" [15].

For example, a value that is usually common in a person with schizophrenia is spirituality. Their urgency to show it to others is common, so it is shared with everyone. As the objective of proselytism is to be praiseworthy a priori, it can also be characterized by a lack of empathic intuition; possibly generating a history of social rejection. These idiosyncratic values should not be easily confused with abnormal beliefs. Instead, they must be recognized as the world of the person in order to be modulated or adjusted in therapy [16]. This adjustment process would help the patient to untangle themselves from this egoic existential position. In turn, self-reflexivity would partially cease, allowing them to go beyond the oneself. This would result in an axiological reconstruction of the self by the *Self-for-Others*. The goal is not to invalidate the spiritual proselytism position, which is legitimate (we must remember that eschatological missions are not chosen *sensu stricto*, but are experienced as given), but rather to learn to experience sharing life, with no other function than to being-in-the world.

#### **1.5 What patients suffer from**

A common observation in the literature on the social integration of individuals with acute psychosis is the existence of severe problems with socio-labor insertion, intimacy, interpersonal communication, and sexuality. This results in a high level of suffering, which is substantially reduced when changes take place in these aspects [17]. The issue is that the lack of social experiences (from avoiding rejection, stigma, being misunderstood, etc.) impedes learning; it also complicates personal orientation towards other personal values. These are precisely the values which could be addressed at certain moments of the therapeutic process.

Survival against stigma, exclusion, and failure, due to the limitations that patients with psychosis suffer from, is a very complex situation. Competing within social function frameworks characterized by the paradigms of individualism and competitiveness is a serious problem, whereby achieving a valuable identity is a very difficult accomplishment. Therefore, it is quite likely to experience feelings of failure, inadequacy, shame, and exclusion, which are indeed forms of personal suffering [9].

#### *The Axiological Structure in Psychosis DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98469*

Axiological structure will always involve a relationship of the world of the person with others. It involves social values that do not depend merely on individual decisions or processes; they are as much a part of the individual's difficulties and interests as the actual characteristics of their world. It must be noted that the world is lived on occasions as a whole, making it important to reconstruct the "real" or objective world, which would include friends (probably limited in number), family (generally highly conflictive) and the general population (with high levels of stigma, social distancing and rejection). We must bear in mind that the clarification of the value system is not an analytical dissection.

The "existential ground" where the ethical-moral structure is generated is not a series of items or reasons [15]. It is evident that this structure can and must be chosen, fully committing to the direction that each human being must take in their life. However, it should be noted that axiological structure is already given to us in the world we exist in. Thus, this existential structure of the *world-out-there* should also be clarified and wholeheartedly accepted.

It is also important to bear in mind that certain values could be conflictive in personal development. Some components of modern culture, whose maxim is self-realization and therefore emphasizes being "true to oneself", could specifically reinforce individualism and solipsist thinking. But this occurs not only in psychosis; eating disorders are an example of characterological formation based on perfectionism, control, and excessive individuation. Loyalty to that structure of egoic values, which can be useful on occasions, certainly limits and stifles existence itself [18]. Life could become clogged by a blindness to be "someone exceptional" (It will be pointed out, therefore, that any therapeutic effort should be directed to achieve a certain psychological flexibility that allows relativizing loyalty to this private world, above all if that position, both stubborn and defensive, distances the patient from the ordinary world of life).

#### **2. Working with the axiological structure**

#### **2.1 Therapeutic dialog**

In phenomenological approaches, it is understood that therapeutic sessions need not merely involve a logging of symptoms. Even initial phases, more focused on evaluation and establishing connection, are potentially valuable and enlightening moments. They can be used as opportunities to search for meaning and recognition – key moments for understanding and clarifying the value structure – from which a great deal a person's experience and actions originate [16].

As previously discussed, the therapeutic relationship itself is a magnificent opportunity to create a meaningful relationship. Even when listening and dialog first begins, contributions can be made towards developing a more robust, pre-reflexive self-awareness [19]. More than being in the presence of the contents of consciousness, it is a form of being that *comes before* them. To achieve greater existential adjustment, a dialogical transformation must occur as living is tantamount to being-in-the-world. Intersubjectivity is enhanced during the process of mutual recognition, which is such a convulsive aspect of the psychotic experience. In this way, the value structure that moves the person can be understood, making it possible to equip patients with greater psychological flexibility. This will be necessary to both identify values and reveal the common conflicts between them.

The key is, if axiological structure regulates behavior, then its adjustment will allow greater empowerment for a better existential commitment. The literature

establishes that psychological recovery among this population refers to establishing commitments, which must focus on constructing a life with meaning, as well as a positive sense of identity. According to [20], the experience of oneself must be based on hope and self-determination. The therapeutic process encourages hope, redefines the identity based on an existential sense and helps the patient to take responsibility for their recovery. This must be approached as an ethical-moral orientation, that is, as a philosophy or life orientation [21]. Therapeutic progress is more than the reduction of positive symptoms; it is a way of being in front them, in front oneself and in front of the world-of-life.

#### **2.2 Clarification of values**

However, this world is difficult though because, as Jaspers states, living is a "controversy with the world". There is always difficulty when reorganizing the value structure, whether addressing the level of confusion, disinformation, or disorganization that the psychotic individual has over themselves. Yet, it is important to highlight one of the key life experiences in the existence of a person with psychosis: fear and suffering, in either the present (oppression, anguish, confusion, stigma) or co-present (avoidance of intimacy, apathy, laughter out of context, metaphysical stubbornness, distancing from the world).

An additional difficulty in the value identification process tends to be the defensive disguising of intense malaise. That co-present fear, hidden or even buried in cognitive-emotional paralysis or in one's own self-absorption, needs to be lived and made conscious so it may be elaborated, understood, and accepted. This is a basic therapeutic condition that makes it possible to advance beyond the unrevealing of personal values.

Even apathy could be understood as a way of being. The function of this way of being-in-the-world would provide a sort of anesthesia for feeling. When a feeling is incomprehensible, unmanageable, or experienced with strangeness, it is to be expected that they will flee from it. The proposal would be to face these phenomena of living; everything has a purpose, meaning and function. The conflicts derived from the experience of fear allow more effective access to the world of values and their personal worth [9].

If the experience of constructing a sense of the self is eminently intersubjective, it is necessary to create non-invalidating meeting spaces, both in the therapeutic setting and in the formation of natural groups. Experiencing identity includes an axiological structure that must be identified to produce a practical self-knowledge that allows the patient to know how to direct their own life. In this sense, it is worth noting that discussion about the meaning of values benefits from a natural framework, featuring, for example, the participation of more therapists, mutual support groups and family, as in the *Open Dialogue* approach [8].

Giving the patient with responsibility implies respect for their opinions and their participation throughout the entire process. There is evidence of a therapeutic benefit showing that clinics help to generate different perspectives in which these values in conflict can coexist [22].

#### **2.3 Values and therapy**

Thus, therapeutic approaches that could offer an opportunity to identify axiological structure in this population, observe conflicts between the values at play and empower the psychotic patient to deal with obstacles in order to have a life committed to said values, would be those which:

The therapist will be an example of Other in the relationship history of the patient; this will be crucial to the change process given the importance of Others in the construction of the person, as previously explained. For this reason, it will be necessary to address the basic components of the therapeutic session: material production (essentially verbal behavior, but other types of interpersonal behaviors as well, of course), analysis (essentially comprehensive) and the therapeutic relationship (alliance and closeness).

All resistance will be understood as kinds of behavior which make attempts at experiential avoidance. It will be necessary to understand and respect them so they can be addressed when the psychotic individual is ready. In this way will be reminded that these behaviors function as protective strategies that have been assigned meaning.

The change in therapy should not be directed to stop being who one is, but to live with another perspective in the face of the challenges of one's own existence. Some of these challenges are the construction of a valuable identity and the search for meaning of what happens. And this will always be done on the fundamental basis of the person: the axiological structure of him.

#### **3. Conclusion**

The phenomenological perspective on how to understand psychotic problems makes it possible to stay ahead of phenomena precisely as they occur. Doing so avoids prejudiced constructs that obscure the *there-given* [23]. It eliminates representational aporias and mechanistic paradigm removing them from the experiences of patients with psychosis. In this way, models focused on the *human person* [1, 2] understand psychotic experiences as phenomena linked to normal psychological development.

People with psychosis will make a great effort to construct a valuable sense of themselves. They understand themselves according to their life experience, in which they construct their social identity and their self in a context; this is the being-in-the-world.

While making this effort, their behavior would deviate from practical actions in life, receiving responses of rejection, stigma, and failure, keeping them even further distanced and absorbed in their private events. Their axiological structure would remain in a state of adolescence or frozen.

The therapy process could help to clarify and endow the patient with more adaptive personal values. It is necessary to provide and find therapeutic settings that allow the meaningful experience of identity to be valuable, reconnecting the patient with the *world-there-given* as a horizon. It is important to make the transition from the prototypical monological life experience of schizophrenia to a dialogical one. The phenomenological approach is undoubtedly one of the most encouraging comprehension and intervention perspectives for this type of mental health problems. It is responsible for verifying that the recovery of negative and emotional symptoms, as well as the emotional component of psychotic experiences, are related to sociocommunity functioning and obtaining a valuable life experience [24].

The phenomenological perspective would also be at the base of the new movements in mental health. *The Open Dialogue* or Hearing Voices approaches emphasize the experience of the person and the problematic experiences. They allow to understand them in the social and family context. The processes of psychological change are related to present values.

Likewise, in phenomenological approaches the value of the symptoms is inserted in the life of the person. For this reason, the work on negative symptoms, basic in the axiological anchoring of the person, becomes highly relevant.

#### **Author details**

Francisco Martín-Murcia\* and Adolfo J. Cangas University of Almería, Almería, Spain

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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**Author details**

Sedef Uncu Akı1 , Cevza Candan2 \*, Banu Nergis2 and Neslihan Sebla Önder1

1 Orta Anadolu TAŞ, İstanbul, Turkey

2 Istanbul Technical University, İstanbul, Turkey

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


*Article* **Easily Implemented Methods of Radiometric Corrections for Hyperspectral–UAV—Application to Guianese Equatorial Mudbanks Colonized by Pioneer Mangroves**

**Marion Jaud 1,2,\*, Guillaume Sicot 3, Guillaume Brunier 4, Emma Michaud 4, Nicolas Le Dantec 1,2, Jérôme Ammann 2, Philippe Grandjean 5, Patrick Launeau 6, Gérard Thouzeau 4, Jules Fleury 7 and Christophe Delacourt 2**

	- F-29280 Plouzané, France<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(J.A<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(C.D.) 3 ENSTA Bretagne, M3 Team-Lab-STICC—UMR CNRS 6285, 2 rue François Verny, F-29200 Brest, France;
	-<EMAIL_ADDRESS>4 CNRS, University Brest, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280 Plouzané, France<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(G.B<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(E.M<EMAIL_ADDRESS>(G.T.)
	- 5 Laboratoire de Géologie de Lyon: Terre, Planètes, Environnement-UMR 5276, University Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ENS Lyon, CNRS, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France<EMAIL_ADDRESS>	- 6 Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique—UMR 6112, University Nantes, 2 Chemin de la Houssinière, F-44300 Nantes, France<EMAIL_ADDRESS>	- 7 CEREGE—UMR 7330, University Aix Marseille, CNRS, IRD, INRA, Collège de France, F-13545 Aix-en-Provence, France<EMAIL_ADDRESS>	- **\*** Correspondence<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Tel.: +33-298498891

**Abstract:** Hyper-DRELIO (Hyperspectral DRone for Environmental and LIttoral Observations) is a custom, mini-UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) platform (<20 kg), equipped with a light push broom hyperspectral sensor combined with a navigation module measuring position and orientation. Because of the particularities of UAV surveys (low flight altitude, small spatial scale, and high resolution), dedicated pre-processing methods have to be developed when reconstructing hyperspectral imagery. This article presents light, easy-implementation, in situ methods, using only two Spectralon® and a field spectrometer, allowing performance of an initial calibration of the sensor in order to correct "vignetting effects" and a field standardization to convert digital numbers (DN) collected by the hyperspectral camera to reflectance, taking into account the time-varying illumination conditions. Radiometric corrections are applied to a subset of a dataset collected above mudflats colonized by pioneer mangroves in French Guiana. The efficiency of the radiometric corrections is assessed by comparing spectra from Hyper-DRELIO imagery to in situ spectrometer measurements above the intertidal benthic biofilm and mangroves. The shapes of the spectra were consistent, and the spectral angle mapper (SAM) distance was 0.039 above the benthic biofilm and 0.159 above the mangroves. These preliminary results provide new perspectives for quantifying and mapping the benthic biofilm and mangroves at the scale of the Guianese intertidal mudbanks system, given their importance in the coastal food webs, biogeochemical cycles, and the sediment stabilization.

**Keywords:** drone; hyperspectral imaging; radiometric calibration; reflectance; pioneer mangroves; intertidal sediments


2.5.10. Biodegradability

Soil burial degradation test was carried out to evaluate the biodegradability of the films. Small pieces of films (dimensions 2 × 7 cm) were buried in natural soil at a depth of 10 cm (23 ± 2 ◦C and 50 ± 5% RH). After 10 days, the samples were collected, washed several times with distilled water and then allowed to dry in an oven at 50 ◦C for 24 h [25]. The weight loss was monitored and the FTIR spectra of the degraded films were also recorded as described above.


**10. Effects of** *Prosopis juliflora* **on grazing lands**

In animal-rearing areas of lowlands, pressures on environment caused living incomes make dynamics, which improved demands and concentrated supplies of natural resources owing to the upswing of population. Widespread rearing of livestock and crusade in search for feed and water, resource use for charcoal production and construction materials, and shortage of institutional capacity levied influences on present natural resources particularly on woodland vegetation. These caused devastation and deprivation of the vegetation resources in the invaded areas [95]. As a result, the socioeconomic and ecological impacts of *P. juliflora* on grazing lands became severe [13]. *P. juliflora* is the source of income for the poor, but has damaging effects for pastoralists and rich people by slaying their animals and attacking their rangelands [82].

## **11.** *Prosopis juliflora* **versus social conflict and political instability**

Reports show that invasion of *P. juliflora* might lead to serious food insecurity and might even trigger tribal conflicts for the remaining few pastures and farmlands [13, 19]. This resulted in the taken over of grazing lands by the *P. juliflora* aggravated by climate change and has been caused border conflicts and political instability, for example, between Afar clan and *Issa* of Somali on the border of the two regions. The combination of diminishing grazing areas and population growth both human and animal has contributed to land degradation, competition for pasture and water, and interethnic and intra-ethnic conflict. These factors have favored the invasion of *P. juliflora* in the invasion region [96]. Furthermore, Rogers et al. [97] reported that impacts of *P. juliflora* interact with other drivers of vulnerability. Pastoralists report had broadened conflict, complicated relationships with the state, and increased decentralization within invaded areas of southern Afar of Ethiopia. In Kenya, some individuals, from Chemonke village, claimed to have been displaced from their original settlements by *P. juliflora*. They had to seek alternative settlements elsewhere sometimes imposed them to lease land for cultivation in their new areas. Conflicts might rise as the displaced areas, which seek alternative settlements [24]. A report by FAO [57] further pointed out that invasion of *P. juliflora*, climate, conflict, and economic shocks were among the causes of political instability and the main drivers of food insecurity in Somalia in East Africa.

### **12. Deterioration of urban amenity by** *Prosopis juliflora*

*P. juliflora* in its native range in Mexico is described as an urban afforestation program that would mitigate air pollution by planting with other native species [98]. But it deteriorates ecosystems in its exotic land ranges in tropics such as Asia and Africa. *P. juliflora* is an aggressive invader of urban fallows and abandoned fields that deteriorate its beauty [99]. Pasiecznik et al. [43] pointed out that *P. juliflora* does not fulfill all the qualities required for urban trees. It disrupts urban amenities in towns (**Figure 1**).

*Effects of the Invasive Alien* Prosopis juliflora *(Sw.) DC and Its Management Options… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108947*

**Figure 1.** P. juliflora *disrupts urban beauty in Melka Sedi (left) and Awash Sebat (right), Southern Afar region in Northeast Ethiopia.*