**Jozef Papan 1,\*, Pavel Segec 1, Oleksandra Yeremenko 2, Ivana Bridova 1 and Michal Hodon 3**

Received: 22 May 2020; Accepted: 15 June 2020; Published: 17 June 2020

**Abstract:** The sprawling nature of Internet of Things (IoT) sensors require the comprehensive management and reliability of the entire network. Modern Internet Protocol (IP) networks demand specific qualitative and quantitative parameters that need to be met. One of these requirements is the minimal packet loss in the network. After a node or link failure within the network, the process of network convergence will begin. This process may take an unpredictable time, mostly depending on the size and the structure of the affected network segment and the routing protocol used within the network. The categories of proposed solutions for these problems are known as Fast ReRoute (FRR) mechanisms. The majority of current Fast ReRoute mechanisms use precomputation of alternative backup paths in advance. This paper presents an Enhanced Multicast Repair (EM-REP) FRR mechanism that uses multicast technology to create an alternate backup path and does not require pre-calculation. This principle creates a unique reactive behavior in the Fast ReRoute area. The enhanced M-REP FRR mechanism can find an alternative path in the event of multiple links or nodes failing at different times and places in the network. This unique behavior can be applied in the IoT sensors area, especially in network architecture that guarantees reliability of data transfer.

**Keywords:** Internet of Things (IoT); ReRoute; Multicast Repair (M-REP)

## **1. Introduction**

The Internet of Things (IoT) model allows the connection and exchange of data between various types of smart devices. These smart devices, usually sensors, can be connected in the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) [1–4] creating a unique sensor architecture [5,6]. With increasing numbers of sensors in the environment and the importance of measured data, the network platform must guarantee the reliability of connection.

Historically, Internet Protocol (IP) networks have been focused mainly on time-tolerant communication services, such as e-mail, file transfer and access to web content. However gradually, IP networks have evolved into converged platforms supporting several different types of services, including time-consuming and real-time applications such as voice transmission over IP, Internet of Things platform, sensors, streaming and multimedia services [7,8]. These services have higher network performance requirements, such as delay, availability, or packet loss, and are also negatively affected by unexpected link or node failures in the network. In case of network failures, network routing protocols (IGP), such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), respond to network failures by flooding topology updates and calculating new routes [7–11]. This process is also known as the network convergence

process. Thus, in a period of network convergence, network routers have outdated information that can cause data loses and outages.

For this reason, IP networks must meet specific qualitative and quantitative parameters in order to ensure an acceptable quality of service, e.g., availability and short repair time after a specific network failure. To do this, network providers must deploy appropriate technologies to ensure uninterrupted customer service. One such significant technology is a group of mechanisms for rapid network recovery, also known as Fast ReRoute (FRR) [12–15]. A key principle of FRR mechanisms is that the backup path for possible failure scenarios is calculated in advance before the failure occurs. This principle presumes that the switching to a precomputed backup path is faster than waiting for the network convergence process to complete. FRR mechanisms that are designed to work on IP networks are known as Internet Protocol Fast ReRoute (IP FRR) mechanisms.

The paper presents an enhanced version of Multicast Repair (M-REP) FRR mechanism (hereinafter EM-REP) that does not require pre-calculation of alternative routes in advance. At the same time, EM-REP is capable of finding an alternative path even in the case of multiple network failures. These features make EM-REP a unique IPFRR mechanism which can be also used in IoT architecture providing reliable connection for various types of sensor networks.

The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides an insight into the issues of Fast ReRoute, the purpose, and terminology used. Section 3 provides state-of-the-art analysis, where existing FRR solutions and identified problems are discussed. Section 4 presents the specification of the original M-REP FRR mechanism and Section 5 proposes its enhanced version, the EM-REP FRR mechanism. Section 6 focuses on the evaluation of the EM-REP mechanism and compares its features with the predecessor, the M-REP algorithm, as well as with the other FRR solutions. Finally, Section 7 presents the conclusions and directions for future research work.

#### **2. The Fast ReRoute**

One of the main reasons why Fast ReRoute mechanisms have started to be used is that the process of network convergence after a network failure usually takes a longer time than that expected by the network provider.

In the context of routing, the convergence state of a network is the state in which each network router has up-to-date, complete and consistent routing information [16,17]. This means that each router is informed of the current network status (up-to-date), of each available network (complete), and each router has chosen the optimal successor/next-hop for each network according to a common criterion (consistent). The convergence process is the operation of each individual routing protocol process to achieve a state of convergence. The time required to complete the process of network convergence depends on various factors, such as the number of devices, especially network routers; topology complexity; the type of routing protocol used (link-state or distance vector); and its individual operational parameter values (like update or hello timers). The time required to finalize the network convergence process usually ranges from hundreds of milliseconds up to a few seconds. The network convergence process may consist of several subprocesses, such as failure detection, response, the distribution of updated routing information, recalculation and, finally, the installation of new routes [7,18–20]. The resulting time of network convergence is the sum of durations of each individual subprocesses.

First, from the router point of view, there is a need for mechanisms that perform failure detection. Failure detection is the time that the router's operating system (OS) needs to detect a failure, i.e., a failed link (network interface) or unavailable neighbor router. Interface failure detection may take up to several milliseconds on the physical layer of a router. The detection of neighbor router unavailability depends on the type of routing protocol used. This failure detection may take from tens of milliseconds when a link state protocols are used (OSPF/IS-IS hello mechanisms), or it may take up to tens of seconds in the case of distance vector routing protocols (RIPv2). During this period, the packets affected by the failure are permanently lost due to outdated routing information and resulting incorrect routing

decisions. Next, the local router response to a link failure; it generates and distributes topology/routing updates that reflect actual state. The duration depends on actual load conditions of each individual router. The distribution of information to other routers is required to inform other routers about the situation and starts within 10 ms to 100 ms for each affected next-hop router [18–20]. All routers that have received actual routing information must recalculate their routing tables. The recalculation of routing tables depends mainly on the size of the network and the amount of topological information. This may take a few milliseconds for link-state routing protocols that use the Dijkstra algorithm. After the recalculation is complete, routers install new routes and update their routing tables. Again, this mainly depends on the type of router and the number of prefixes that were affected by the network failure.


**1. Introduction**

In recent years, nuclear power has been developed rapidly in the world due to its advantages of high efficiency, economy and low carbon emissions. However, the harm caused by the byproduction of nuclear energy, mainly nuclear wastes, can hardly be ignored, especially high-level radioactive waste (HLW) [1]. The radioactive nuclides in HLW, such as 137Cs, 90Sr, 239Pu, 235U, etc., possess the characteristics of long half-life, high toxicity, and high heat generation [2,3]. When these radionuclides enter the soil, the situation becomes more complicated because the presence of soil will increase the cost of disposal [4,5]. Furthermore, soil contaminated by highly radioactive nuclides may pose a long-term threat to organisms due to ecological cycling [6,7].

For radioactive contaminated soil, sand is an inseparable main substance and must be cured together with radionuclides. At present, there are mainly physical landfill and bioremediation methods for the treatment of radioactive contaminated soil. The physical landfill is a time-consuming project, which will destroy the ecosystem of disposal area. At the same time, it may cause further pollution due to leakage during transportation [8]. The bioremediation method requires a long period of restoration, and the growth of plants is limited by climate and geology [9]. In addition to the above methods, vitrification is an effective technology for the immobilization of long half-life wastes, especially for soil wastes contaminated by high radioactive nuclides [10,11]. Particularly, borosilicate glass is the most

widely studied and utilized vitrified waste form in the world because of its good radiation resistance, corrosion resistance, and chemical stability [12]. Regrettably, the glass matrice may decompose in geological repositories due to high temperature and high pressure [13,14]. Furthermore, the relatively low thermal stability of vitrified waste forms is also a potential limitation [15]. Compared with glass matrice, ceramic solidified bodies have the advantages of low expansion rate, excellent mechanical properties, and good chemical stability. Subsequently, Synroc has been proposed as a potential alternative host matrix for HLW immobilization based on the isomorphism substitution theory [16–20].

Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) is a technology that uses the energy released by exothermic redox reactions to synthesize the final products [21–23]. SHS technology possesses certain technical and cost advantages in the treatment of contaminated soil. According to the characteristics of radionuclides, the composition and proportion of a SHS reaction system can be well designed. In addition, quick pressing (QP) is also introduced to obtain compact samples [24]. Zirconolite-rich matrice and titanate-pyrochlore with excellent chemical durability can also be prepared by SHS/QP [25–30]. SHS/QP technology can synthesize high density ceramic matrix in several minutes, which was considered as a potential method to deal with environmental issues. In this study, Gd2Ti2O7 pyrochlore waste matrix was synthesized by SHS for the disposal of simulated radioactive soil waste. Ten wt.% CeO2 was regarded as a simulate of tetravalent actinide [31]. Silica sand was utilized as the heat insulation material and pressure transfer medium during the SHS/QP process. A series of characterizations were carried out to understand the solidifying mechanism of obtained waste forms. In addition, the aqueous durability was evaluated using the standard Product Consistency Test (PCT) method [32].


**Author details**

Barbara Mueller Bamugeobiochem, Ettenhausen, Switzerland

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© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.


**2. Role of bamboo in sustainable economic viability**

World bamboo sector in different countries are unique in terms of their scale and level of organization. Bamboo in many countries follows the global constraints on forests and timber, and the ongoing need to develop rural industries and improve poverty. Policies in the forest sector are critical in ensuring the healthy development of the bamboo. Depending on the particular condition, bamboo is treated as tree or agriculture crop. To avoid hindrance to sustainable development, this tree or crop is fitted in such policies to pose least threat to sustainable sector. Therefore, clear classification had been designed by different countries, which are well recognized and made in accordance with ecological conditions of bamboo. Bamboo has been recognized as multifunction species and single purpose for bamboo has been avoided by developing countries. In economically sound countries with significant bamboo sectors, different agencies and societies are working specifically on bamboo are playing an important role in formulating policies to ensure healthiness of agro-forestry and natural resources. For example, model systems opted by China should be utilized where there is strict need of it. Presently, the farmers are investing in the bamboo industry with making secure their right of uses manage and transfer resources.

The restricted use of bamboo in some contents of the world has provided limited knowledge about the economic feasibility of bamboo. To acquire more knowledge into building and maintenance costs of the initially described bamboo applications have been compared to more common building materials such as steel, timber and concrete taking environmental assessment and the same structural elements into account [17]. Some buildings have been executed in European countries with bamboo as the main structural material. Although, there are problems some of which had direct consequences of the use of bamboo. This influence of working with bamboo has been analyzed. Therefore, studies on critical factors of failure and success of the application of bamboo in Western European building projects have been carried out to provide solutions as to preventing measures or reduce the negative impacts of their causes [17].

**Table 2.** Commonly available bamboo species in Malaysia [20].

bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) are functioning at the international level. A well mechanized mode has been adopted at global level, for primary processing and product manufacturing. A collective effort by Choudhury and Sharma [15] to summarize the uses and importance of bamboo shoots on global level has provided enough knowledge to researchers associated with development and utilization of bamboo. The authors provided a global scenario of marketing the bamboo and earnings from it although considering it as underestimated natural resources at international level, even being found naturally or cultivated. The market value of bamboo in China and America is worth of millions dollars in terms of import and export marketing. USA imports tones of bamboo from many Asian countries for food items. India, an economically superpower country is alone doing bamboo marketing in millions of rupees.

World bamboo sector in different countries are unique in terms of their scale and level of organization. Bamboo in many countries follows the global constraints on forests and timber, and the ongoing need to develop rural industries and improve poverty. Policies in the forest sector are critical in ensuring the healthy development of the bamboo. Depending on the particular condition, bamboo is treated as tree or agriculture crop. To avoid hindrance to sustainable development, this tree or crop is fitted in such policies to pose least threat to sustainable sector. Therefore, clear classification had been designed by different countries, which are well recognized and made in accordance with ecological conditions of bamboo. Bamboo has been recognized as multifunction species and single purpose for bamboo has been avoided by developing countries. In economically sound countries with significant bamboo sectors, different agencies and societies are working specifically on bamboo are playing an important role in formulating policies to ensure healthiness of agro-forestry and natural resources. For example, model systems opted by China should be utilized where there is strict need of it. Presently, the farmers are investing in the bamboo industry with making secure their right of

The restricted use of bamboo in some contents of the world has provided limited knowledge about the economic feasibility of bamboo. To acquire more knowledge into building and maintenance costs of the initially described bamboo applications have been compared to more common building materials such as steel, timber and concrete taking environmental assessment and the same structural elements into account [17]. Some buildings have been executed in European countries with bamboo as the main structural material. Although, there are problems some of which had direct consequences of the use of bamboo. This influence of working with bamboo has been analyzed. Therefore, studies on critical factors of failure and success of the application of bamboo in Western European building projects have been carried out to provide solutions as to preventing measures or reduce the negative impacts of

As summary, various uses of bamboo are presented in **Table 1**.

**2. Role of bamboo in sustainable economic viability**

uses manage and transfer resources.

148 Bamboo - Current and Future Prospects

their causes [17].

In Malaysia, government has classified bamboo as a non-timber forest and is next in importance to rattan. It has been used as food as well as traditional and commercial products since ages. There are more than 50 species of bamboo reported in Malaysia, an integral part of forestry, but it is also commonly spread outside forests including farmlands, riverbanks, roadsides and urban areas. Based on Fourth National Forest Inventory, bamboo occupies about 7% of the total forest area in Peninsular Malaysia (the total area of Peninsular Malaysia is 131,600 km2 ). The list of bamboo species available in Malaysia with proper uses is given **Table 2**. The genera found in the country are *Bambusa*, *Dendrocalamus*, *Dinochloa*, *Gigantochloa*, *Racemobambos*, *Schizostachyum*, *Thyrsostachys*, *Chusqua*, *Phyllostachys* and *Yushania* [18]. Among all the species available, 14 Malaysian bamboo have been identified as commercial species [19] To maximize the exploration of bamboo industry in Malaysia, bamboo resources are needed to be maintained for industries particularly for joss sticks, chopsticks, basket-making, toothpicks and joss-papers. A systematic policies for the production bamboo is the need of present economic scenario of Malaysia, otherwise there will be depletion in demand of bamboo. The sustainable future of bamboo in Malaysia needs sustainable plantation of bamboo resources. In context to this, Malaysian government has disseminated trial of Malaysian commercial bamboos at few sites but not on the whole Peninsular Malaysia.

**3.1. Physical properties**

gravity, shrinkage and fracture roughness.

**Figure 1.** Terminology of a bamboo culm [33].

Utilization of bamboo has now advanced from traditional to structural applications such as composites and advanced materials [29, 30]. The advancement in usage of bamboo needs further understanding of the material characteristics such as the physical properties. Terminology of a bamboo culm is illustrated in **Figure 1**. Physical properties of the node and internode positions of bamboo have been investigated by Tamizi [31] with small size specimens (strips of bamboo). The statistical data obtained showed a great variation according to the sources and position of the samples obtained from the bamboo. It was observed that moisture content was higher at the inner layer and reduced in the outer layer of the bamboo culm. Liese [32] claimed that different bamboo species showed different moisture values which can be attributed to difference in some inherent factors such as age, anatomical features and chemical composition. But in this case, the age factor is not involved since all samples were taken from 3 years bamboo culms. In this chapter, discussion is focusing on moisture content, specific

Recent Advancement in Physico-Mechanical and Thermal Studies of Bamboo and Its Fibers

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The higher moisture content could be influenced by the anatomical structure of bamboo. The inner layer contains lower vascular bundles concentration which leads to higher moisture content as compared to outer layer as shown by Li [28]. This phenomenon is similar to nonwood plant, i.e., oil palm trunk which shown higher content of parenchyma in core part. Engler et al. [34] has reported the relation between moisture content and thermal use of one of the bamboo species. Authors stated that moisture content is one of the most relevant characteristics, which significantly influences the thermal use and efficiency. A comparison study with other species of wood has been done and authors revealed that the moisture content of bamboo was higher at an average of 136.9% and spreading widely. Related to the ages, the

*3.1.1. Moisture content*


Contents

Preface

Severe hearing loss (HL) can have a significant negative impact on communication, social interactions, and emotional well-being. The WHO estimates that there are about 360 million people in the world with disabling hearing loss (5.3% of the world's population). Ninety-one percent of these are adults and 9% are children.

The last decades have witnessed impressive technological advances in the rehabilita-

The majority of HL cases are of the sensorineural type and can be managed by

In profound HL, the speech perception performance achieved with cochlear implants has been so reliable and rewarding that it has enabled a great expansion of their audiological indication. Bone conduction hearing implants, instead, allow a

Stem cell manipulation and genetic therapy appear promising but are not yet avail-

Hopefully, the insights will assist clinicians, audiologists, hearing aid acousticians, and speech therapists in their planning of the most suitable treatment options for

The editor wishes to acknowledge and congratulate his co-editor and all authors for their excellent scientific contributions; Sara Cavicchiolo (Sp. Ther.), Anna Gasbarre (Aud. Tech.), Eliana Filipponi (Aud. Tech.), Cinzia Lazzarini (Sp. Ther.), and Loredana Todini (Sp. Ther.), from the team of the Audiology Dept. of the University of Milano for their trusted cooperation; and Associazione Progetto Udire

**Diego Zanetti and Federica Di Berardino**

Fondazione IRCCS Cà Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Università degli Studi di Milano,

Milan, Italy

This book strives to provide an in-depth overview of the latest developments in the rehabilitation of HL, through contributions by international leading experts, focused on specific topics within the boundaries of this continuously evolving area.

tion of HL, leading to significant shifts in the approach and protocols.

amplification with hearing aids or active middle ear hearing implants.

consistent correction of conductive or mixed hearing losses.

their patients with severe-to-profound hearing loss.

Onlus for their continuous support.

able for clinical application.


**7. Discussion**

It is stated in the guidelines that communication, privacy and confidentiality during examination and counselling should be ensured at each ANC visit [28]. The importance of service hours, the availability of equipment and drugs, record keeping, and infection prevention and control are highlighted as part of the workplace and administrative procedures [28]. The guidelines describe how the ANC visits should be organised, highlighting that ANC should always begin with rapid assessment and management. All pregnant women, except those

A pregnancy status and birth plan chart, which should be used to assess the pregnant women at each of the four ANC visits, are provided [28]. The chart is used during the first ANC visit to prepare the birth and emergency plan and reviewed and modified according to the need at each subsequent ANC visit. 'Ask, check, look listen and feel' criteria should always be followed during assessments of pregnant women. All pregnant women should be screened for preeclampsia, anaemia, foetal growth and post-maturity at all ANC visits [28]. All women should also be screened for syphilis, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Rhesus factor (RH) [28]. All routine investigations, including the rapid plasma reagent (RPR) test, haemoglobin (Hb) level test, HIV and RH tests should be done using rapid test kits. The guidelines highlight the importance of responding to observed signs and/or problems reported by the pregnant women and contain a guide on how to respond to these signs [28].

Standard preventative therapy, including tetanus toxoid injections, iron preparations and calcium supplements, should be issued to all pregnant women at each ANC [28]. A guide is included on how to advise women about nutrition and self-care [28]. The guidelines highlight the importance of preparing individualised ANC and delivery plans for each woman at the first ANC visit and that the plans should be reviewed during each subsequent visit and adjusted based on the identified needs. The plan should be prepared in consultation with the woman concerned. This ensures that the woman is involved in her own care. The plans should also include transport arrangements, infant feeding options and future contraception. A description of how the first and the follow-up visits should be conducted is provided [28].

The guidelines state that the first ANC visit should take place as early in pregnancy as possible, before 12 weeks' gestation, preferably at the confirmation of pregnancy [28]. During the first ANC visit, all women should be classified for BANC using the classifying form/first visit checklist provided. Only women with low-risk factors should follow the BANC approach. All women with risk factors should either be referred to an appropriate level of care or follow a specially prepared schedule based on the risk factors identified. Four follow-up visits should be scheduled at 20, 26, 32 and 38 weeks' gestation. Specific times are scheduled for performing repeat routine tests such as Hb, HIV and RPR, and these times coincide with specific routine follow-up visits. It is therefore important to schedule the follow-up visits as specified by the

Pattinson [2] suggests that each PHC clinic should have one or more people in the role of ANC supervisor to ensure clinical and administrative supervision. The clinical supervisor should be the person with most ANC skills and should check each pregnant woman's ANC card at the first visit and again at the 32 weeks' visit to ensure that the clinic provides adequate care [2].

BANC guidelines in order to ensure the correct timing of repeat tests.

with high-risk factors, should have four to five routine ANC visits.

8 Selected Topics in Midwifery Care

Several factors have been identified to be positively influencing the implementation of the BANC approach. These include the availability and accessibility of BANC services, policies, guidelines and protocol; various means of communication; a comprehensive package of and the integration of primary healthcare services; training and in-service education; human and material resources; the support and supervision offered to the midwives by the primary health-care supervisors; supervisors' understanding of the approach and the levels of experience of midwives involved in the implementation of the BANC approach [34] Nevertheless, evidence still shows that not all PHC clinics have been able to successfully implement and sustain the BANC approach [35]. Ngxongo [35] discovered that out of 59 Municipal PHC clinics in eThekwini District in KwaZulu-Natal, 46% (n = 27) were successfully implementing the BANC approach. Midwives face various challenges during the implementation of the BANC approach which has resulted in some PHC clinics abandoning the BANC approach and reverting to the traditional approach to ANC [35]. These challenges include shortage of staff, lack of cooperation from referral hospitals, lack of in-service training, problems with transportation of specimens to laboratories, lack of material resources, unavailability of Basic Antenatal Care programme guidelines and lack of management support [35].

Although the BANC approach emphasises quality over quantity of visits [36], reducing the number of ANC visits has posed numerous challenges in the pregnancy outcomes. According to Hofmeyr and Mentrop [37], too few visits and the long interval between routine ANC visits in late pregnancy in the BANC approach have been responsible for a number of maternal and perinatal deaths. Hofmeyr and Mentrop [37] argue that the more frequent and closely spaced ANC visits as pregnancy advances in the traditional approach assisted in early diagnosis and management of selected ANC problems such as preeclampsia, foetal growth impairment and others and that too few visits result in missed opportunities to detect and treat asymptomatic pregnancy complications. These authors recommend modification of the BANC approach into what they call 'BANC plus'. Their proposal is that a reasonable compromise for a middleincome country such as South Africa would be to continue to implement the WHO BANC approach with reduced, goal-orientated visits up to 32 weeks' gestation and thereafter to revert to routine visits every 2–36 or 38 weeks, followed by weekly checks.

The international evidence supports a more regular contact between healthcare workers and pregnant women. Therefore, South Africa is gradually switching to an eight-contact model (three more visits than the current five contact Basic Antenatal Care (BANC) policy) [38]. It is envisaged that this intervention will improve the pregnancy experience as well as the outcomes of pregnant women and their babies in South Africa. The BANC + continues to emphasise the importance of conducting the first visit as early as possible, with the next visit scheduled at 20 weeks and then repeat visits at 26 weeks. The adjustments include the 30 weeks and 34 weeks and then a 2-week visit until delivery. An audit of the current BANC system has shown that two important principles of good care were often missing: a plan for further antenatal care and the delivery plan (including delivery at the appropriate level of care or hospital). Therefore, appropriate planning for the pregnancy as well as for the delivery, based on information obtained and correctly interpreted at every visit, will ensure that women and their families are ready and prepared when the big day arrives. The purpose of BANC+ is not just to increase the number of visits but also an opportunity to look again at how that care is given [38].

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