**Toward Computational Processing of Less Resourced Languages: Primarily Experiments for Moroccan Amazigh Language**

Fadoua Ataa Allah and Siham Boulaknadel

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51069

## **1. Introduction**

The world is undergoing a huge transformation from industrial economies into an informa‐ tion economy, in which the indices of value are shifting from material to non-material re‐ sources. This transformation has been rightly described as a revolution that is accompanied by considerable dangers for the future and the survival of many languages and their associ‐ ated cultures. The last years have seen a growing tendency in investigating applying lan‐ guage processing methods to other languages than English. However, most of tools and methods' development on language processing has so far concentrated on a fairly small and limited number of languages, mainly European and East-Asian languages.

Nevertheless, there is a mandatory requirement for all people over the world to be able to employ their own language when accessing information on the Internet or using computers. To this end, a variety of applications is needed, and lots funds are involved. But the fact that the most of the research sponsored around the world has focused only on the economically and politically important languages makes the language technology gap between the lan‐ guages of the developed countries and those of the less developed ones leading up to a larg‐ er and a largest gap.

According to some linguists' estimations in 1995, half of the 6000 world's languages is be‐ ing disappearing, 2000 among the 3000 remaining will be threatened in the next century [1]. This means that if there are no efforts put in place to reduce the technology gap and to pre‐ serve these languages so many of them will disappear completely by the end of this centu‐ ry. Unfortunately, there are numerous obstacles to advance in language processing for this kind of languages. In the first hand, the language features themselves might impose specif‐

ic strategies to be undertaken. In the second hand, the lack of previously existing language resources produces a vicious circle: having resources makes creating electronic ones and proc‐ essing tools easier, but not having resources makes the development and testing of new ones more difficult and time-consuming. Furthermore, there is usually a disturbing lack of inter‐ est that people needs to be able to employ their own language in computer applications.

**2.2. Resource recycling**

**2.3. Adapting CLP techniques**

ciently to obtain good results [5].

**2.4. Extensibility focused**

**2.5. Open source focused**

techniques and extensibility focused).

**2.6. Professional documentation**

tinue its development.

sources that will be exploitable for automated task.

for other languages such as Arabic [8], and Amazigh [9].

Building electronic resources is indispensable parts of any computational language process. However, this task requires time and valuable human competence. An alternative solution for developing such resources is to get firstly electronic files by using Optical Character Rec‐ ognition (OCR) [4], then to generate from these files a standardized suitable format of re‐

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The resource standardization is an important step in the process of resource building. It al‐ lows the reuse of resources in different researches, tools and applications. Furthermore, it facilitates the maintenance of a coherent document life cycle through various processing

Adapting Computational Language Processing (CLP) techniques is an interesting way to build new tools for a specific language while taking the advantages of the similarity be‐ tween languages' features. Such experiment has been particularly applied in machine trans‐ lation projects. One of these project is the 'MAJO system', where the investment of syntactical and morphological similarities between Japanese and Uighur has helped suffi‐

The philosophy of this direction suggests that the conception of any project should be made in such a way that others can easily come and extend the work to another level. This means that the project's development should not focus only on getting results, but looking for oth‐ ers to be able to continue the work [6]. In this context, there are several examples: The 'Aca‐ bit system' has been developed firstly for the extraction of French multiword. Then, it has been extended to Japanese and Arabic languages [7]. Similarly, the 'NOOJ framework' has been built for European languages. Whereas, the work is still continuing on this framework

In general, the under and less resourced languages are economically poor. Whereas, doing computational language processing involves lots funds. To get around this obstacle and to cut down on the financial issues, it is suggested to adopt the open source strategy. Further‐ more, this strategy will allow the adoption of the two previous directions (adapting CLP

Documentation will also greatly help in the continuation and the extension of projects. This documentation could be in terms of manuals or Websites, assisting people who may be in‐ terested in the use of a project, or allowing them to access to any phase of the work and con‐

stages, and enables the enrichment of existing data with new information.

In the aim to help in revitalizing endangered languages, that are generally under or less re‐ sourced languages, many efforts need to be made. One way is to encourage younger genera‐ tions to use their mother tongue by building e-learning platforms, and creating instructive games. Oral documenting can be used to preserve the culture of endangered languages; es‐ pecially that many of these languages are only spoken. They have rich oral cultures with sto‐ ries, sayings, songs, chants and histories, but no written forms. So, the extinction of such language will quickly lead to the annihilation of its culture. Machine translation system can also be employed to produce translations from other languages, in order to extend the use of these languages from familiar and home use to more formal social contexts such as media, administration, and commercial relations. Another way to contribute in preserving endan‐ gered languages is the use of Internet. This later might be handy to raise awareness about the issues of language extinction and language preservation.

In this context, this paper presents the key strategies for improving endangered languages on human language technologies. It describes the experiments currently underway on Ama‐ zigh at Computer Science Studies, Information Systems and Communications Center (CEI‐ SIC) in the Royal Institute of the Amazigh Culture (IRCAM), in order to let this language becoming more intercommunicated and widely used in the community.

## **2. Strategies for enhancing under and less resourced languages**

Recently, several private companies, technology centers, and public institutes have begun to get interested and to invest in developing technology for under and less resourced languag‐ es. To successfully deal with this task some studies have focused on studying the main strat‐ egies that could be taken in order to promote and develop this set of languages.

#### **2.1. Linguistic contribution**

Generally, the computational processing of a language involves linguistic contributions that consist on matching or modeling language competence by discovering and presenting for‐ mally the rules governing this language. These linguistic contributions can be efficiently shared by a collaborative work on the web [2], substituting a local development team with potentially bigger distributed team. This idea avoids reduplication and wastage of efforts and resources. It has been investigated in an early Montaigne project (1996), and has been implemented at GETA for the Lao language. It has also been applied by Oki to the Japanese language and by NII/NECTEC to a Japanese-Thai dictionary [3].

## **2.2. Resource recycling**

ic strategies to be undertaken. In the second hand, the lack of previously existing language resources produces a vicious circle: having resources makes creating electronic ones and proc‐ essing tools easier, but not having resources makes the development and testing of new ones more difficult and time-consuming. Furthermore, there is usually a disturbing lack of inter‐ est that people needs to be able to employ their own language in computer applications.

In the aim to help in revitalizing endangered languages, that are generally under or less re‐ sourced languages, many efforts need to be made. One way is to encourage younger genera‐ tions to use their mother tongue by building e-learning platforms, and creating instructive games. Oral documenting can be used to preserve the culture of endangered languages; es‐ pecially that many of these languages are only spoken. They have rich oral cultures with sto‐ ries, sayings, songs, chants and histories, but no written forms. So, the extinction of such language will quickly lead to the annihilation of its culture. Machine translation system can also be employed to produce translations from other languages, in order to extend the use of these languages from familiar and home use to more formal social contexts such as media, administration, and commercial relations. Another way to contribute in preserving endan‐ gered languages is the use of Internet. This later might be handy to raise awareness about

In this context, this paper presents the key strategies for improving endangered languages on human language technologies. It describes the experiments currently underway on Ama‐ zigh at Computer Science Studies, Information Systems and Communications Center (CEI‐ SIC) in the Royal Institute of the Amazigh Culture (IRCAM), in order to let this language

Recently, several private companies, technology centers, and public institutes have begun to get interested and to invest in developing technology for under and less resourced languag‐ es. To successfully deal with this task some studies have focused on studying the main strat‐

Generally, the computational processing of a language involves linguistic contributions that consist on matching or modeling language competence by discovering and presenting for‐ mally the rules governing this language. These linguistic contributions can be efficiently shared by a collaborative work on the web [2], substituting a local development team with potentially bigger distributed team. This idea avoids reduplication and wastage of efforts and resources. It has been investigated in an early Montaigne project (1996), and has been implemented at GETA for the Lao language. It has also been applied by Oki to the Japanese

the issues of language extinction and language preservation.

198 Theory and Applications for Advanced Text Mining Text Mining

**2.1. Linguistic contribution**

becoming more intercommunicated and widely used in the community.

**2. Strategies for enhancing under and less resourced languages**

egies that could be taken in order to promote and develop this set of languages.

language and by NII/NECTEC to a Japanese-Thai dictionary [3].

Building electronic resources is indispensable parts of any computational language process. However, this task requires time and valuable human competence. An alternative solution for developing such resources is to get firstly electronic files by using Optical Character Rec‐ ognition (OCR) [4], then to generate from these files a standardized suitable format of re‐ sources that will be exploitable for automated task.

The resource standardization is an important step in the process of resource building. It al‐ lows the reuse of resources in different researches, tools and applications. Furthermore, it facilitates the maintenance of a coherent document life cycle through various processing stages, and enables the enrichment of existing data with new information.

#### **2.3. Adapting CLP techniques**

Adapting Computational Language Processing (CLP) techniques is an interesting way to build new tools for a specific language while taking the advantages of the similarity be‐ tween languages' features. Such experiment has been particularly applied in machine trans‐ lation projects. One of these project is the 'MAJO system', where the investment of syntactical and morphological similarities between Japanese and Uighur has helped suffi‐ ciently to obtain good results [5].

#### **2.4. Extensibility focused**

The philosophy of this direction suggests that the conception of any project should be made in such a way that others can easily come and extend the work to another level. This means that the project's development should not focus only on getting results, but looking for oth‐ ers to be able to continue the work [6]. In this context, there are several examples: The 'Aca‐ bit system' has been developed firstly for the extraction of French multiword. Then, it has been extended to Japanese and Arabic languages [7]. Similarly, the 'NOOJ framework' has been built for European languages. Whereas, the work is still continuing on this framework for other languages such as Arabic [8], and Amazigh [9].

#### **2.5. Open source focused**

In general, the under and less resourced languages are economically poor. Whereas, doing computational language processing involves lots funds. To get around this obstacle and to cut down on the financial issues, it is suggested to adopt the open source strategy. Further‐ more, this strategy will allow the adoption of the two previous directions (adapting CLP techniques and extensibility focused).

#### **2.6. Professional documentation**

Documentation will also greatly help in the continuation and the extension of projects. This documentation could be in terms of manuals or Websites, assisting people who may be in‐ terested in the use of a project, or allowing them to access to any phase of the work and con‐ tinue its development.

#### **2.7. Evaluation system**

The evaluation system can be defined as a process allowing measuring the gap between fixed objectives and attained results. The choice of the time of the evaluation depends on the aim of the evaluation. Generally, the evaluation of a project could be done before its realiza‐ tion, to make a diagnostic that determines the objectives of this project and its prerequisites; during the development, to make a progressive evaluation that pilots and directs the prog‐ ress of the development; and after the implementation, to make a final evaluation which yields the results of the level of satisfaction, relevance, durability of the project, and finally of the continuity and the extensibility of the project.

**•** E-learning increases access to learning opportunities, by offering knowledge and skills' online transfer that can be ensured anytime and anywhere through a variety of electronic learning and teaching solutions such as Web-based courseware, online discussion groups, live virtual classes, video and audio streaming. Nowadays, modern technology, especially computational language processing, is strongly used in e-learning to assist reading, writ‐ ing, and speaking a language. While a person writes a sentence or reads a text aloud, the system can correct and monitor which words are not right or even analyze and tutor par‐

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201

From this study we have noticed that these projects are mutually related to each other, and one can act as a part of the other. Furthermore, they are based on various processing which requires a large amount of specialized knowledge. Therefore, we have identified a list of the necessary processes needed to ensure the functionality of these projects, and we have sug‐ gested arranging them in a road map chronologically for short, medium, and long term *ac‐ cording to the availability of resources and the level of functionality expected within each term* [10].

As discussed, the achievement of our goal requires a large amount of specialized knowledge that is mainly encoded in complex systems of linguistic rules and descriptions, such as grammars and lexicons, which will in turn involve a considerable amount of specialized manpower. Thus depending on the availability of linguistic expertise and resources, we have estimated that short term phase will necessitate at least 5-year to 10-year plan to estab‐ lish the low level processing and resources, and pave the way for medium and long terms applications. While, based on the undertaken studies for well resourced language, we have gauged that the two other phases will demand only 5-year plan. Figure 1 represents the

This phase is considered as an initial step. It consists mainly on the identification of the lan‐ guage encoding, and the foundation of the primarily resources namely keyboard, fonts, ba‐ sic lexical database (list of lemmas and affixes), and the elementary corpora that serve in the elaboration of most computational language processing applications (text raw corpus, corpus for evaluating search engine and information retrieval systems, manually part of speech tagged corpus, and speech corpus). Furthermore, basic tools and applications such encoding converter, sentence and token splitter, basic concordancer and web search en‐ gine, morphological generator, and optical character recognition system also need to be de‐

After paving the way by the elaboration of the fundamental and the basic resources in the first phase, this one needs to be focused on advanced tools and applications. Based on the size and the representativity of the elaborated resources, the processing tools of this phase could be even rule-based or statistical. The most important processing to undertake, in this step, are stemming or lemmatization (depending on the morphological features of the stud‐

ticular problems.

*2.8.1. Short term phase*

veloped in this phase.

*2.8.2. Medium term phase*

road map structured on these three phases.

#### **2.8. Road map**

Conscious that search engine, machine translation, human-machine dialogue, and e-learning play a key role in the survival of under and less resourced languages, in manner that they will strongly help these languages to find their way into our daily lives by extending their use from familiar use to social one, we have organized and prepared a clear vision to realize these specific projects in a progressive approach.

While studying these projects, we have noted that:

**•** E-learning increases access to learning opportunities, by offering knowledge and skills' online transfer that can be ensured anytime and anywhere through a variety of electronic learning and teaching solutions such as Web-based courseware, online discussion groups, live virtual classes, video and audio streaming. Nowadays, modern technology, especially computational language processing, is strongly used in e-learning to assist reading, writ‐ ing, and speaking a language. While a person writes a sentence or reads a text aloud, the system can correct and monitor which words are not right or even analyze and tutor par‐ ticular problems.

From this study we have noticed that these projects are mutually related to each other, and one can act as a part of the other. Furthermore, they are based on various processing which requires a large amount of specialized knowledge. Therefore, we have identified a list of the necessary processes needed to ensure the functionality of these projects, and we have sug‐ gested arranging them in a road map chronologically for short, medium, and long term *ac‐ cording to the availability of resources and the level of functionality expected within each term* [10].

As discussed, the achievement of our goal requires a large amount of specialized knowledge that is mainly encoded in complex systems of linguistic rules and descriptions, such as grammars and lexicons, which will in turn involve a considerable amount of specialized manpower. Thus depending on the availability of linguistic expertise and resources, we have estimated that short term phase will necessitate at least 5-year to 10-year plan to estab‐ lish the low level processing and resources, and pave the way for medium and long terms applications. While, based on the undertaken studies for well resourced language, we have gauged that the two other phases will demand only 5-year plan. Figure 1 represents the road map structured on these three phases.

#### *2.8.1. Short term phase*

**2.7. Evaluation system**

200 Theory and Applications for Advanced Text Mining Text Mining

**2.8. Road map**

of the continuity and the extensibility of the project.

these specific projects in a progressive approach. While studying these projects, we have noted that:

The evaluation system can be defined as a process allowing measuring the gap between fixed objectives and attained results. The choice of the time of the evaluation depends on the aim of the evaluation. Generally, the evaluation of a project could be done before its realiza‐ tion, to make a diagnostic that determines the objectives of this project and its prerequisites; during the development, to make a progressive evaluation that pilots and directs the prog‐ ress of the development; and after the implementation, to make a final evaluation which yields the results of the level of satisfaction, relevance, durability of the project, and finally

Conscious that search engine, machine translation, human-machine dialogue, and e-learning play a key role in the survival of under and less resourced languages, in manner that they will strongly help these languages to find their way into our daily lives by extending their use from familiar use to social one, we have organized and prepared a clear vision to realize

**•** Search engine is designed to look for the information needed of the user by understand‐ ing his/her query, retrieving the relevant information related to the given query inde‐ pendently of the used language, and presenting a list of ranked search results. To this end, most of the search engines are based on automatic web crawlers, ranking algorithm, and relevance techniques of automatic indexing. These later either rely on keyword-based indexing, linguistic analysis indexing, concept-based indexing, or multilingual indexing. **•** Machine translation objective is to allow translating text with roughly the skill of a hu‐ man, by ensuring a high quality of hierarchical phrase-based translation. In this aim, most of the machine translation systems combine the strengths of rule-based and statistical ap‐ proaches to reduce the amount of the required linguistic information and training data, and also reduce the size of the statistical models while maintaining high performance. The rule-based machine translation (RBMT) approach is described as interlingual or transfer-based machine translation. It is based on lexicons with morphological, syntactic, and semantic information, and sets of rules. While the statistical machine translation (SMT) approach is based on parallel corpora to properly train the translation system. The two approaches can be merged in different ways: either translation is performed using a rules based engine, then statistics are used in an attempt to adjust/correct the output from the rules engine; rules are used to pre-process data in an attempt to better guide the statis‐

tical engine; or rules are used to post-process the statistical output.

sponse generation process to give feedback to the user.

**•** Human-machine dialogue aims to support interactions between users and machines by designing receptive products to the user's needs. The Human-machine dialogue systems can be represented as a four process: Speech recognition process to transcribe sentences spoken into written text, natural language understanding process to extract the meaning from the text, execution process to perform actions on the conversation meaning, and re‐ This phase is considered as an initial step. It consists mainly on the identification of the lan‐ guage encoding, and the foundation of the primarily resources namely keyboard, fonts, ba‐ sic lexical database (list of lemmas and affixes), and the elementary corpora that serve in the elaboration of most computational language processing applications (text raw corpus, corpus for evaluating search engine and information retrieval systems, manually part of speech tagged corpus, and speech corpus). Furthermore, basic tools and applications such encoding converter, sentence and token splitter, basic concordancer and web search en‐ gine, morphological generator, and optical character recognition system also need to be de‐ veloped in this phase.

#### *2.8.2. Medium term phase*

After paving the way by the elaboration of the fundamental and the basic resources in the first phase, this one needs to be focused on advanced tools and applications. Based on the size and the representativity of the elaborated resources, the processing tools of this phase could be even rule-based or statistical. The most important processing to undertake, in this step, are stemming or lemmatization (depending on the morphological features of the stud‐ ied language), part of speech tagging, morphological analyzer, chunker, syntactical ana‐ lyzer, and speech recognition. These processing tools will enable to build a spell checker, a terminology extractor, a text generator, and human-machine dialogue. Furthermore, they will allow the enhancement of the first phase tools and applications.

*2.8.3. Long term phase*

Mediterranean Sea.

and the High Atlas.

phonological [14].

ies' works.

**3.1. Sociolinguistic context**

mainly machine translation system.

**3. Amazigh language features**

The third step of the road map could be considered as the synthesis phase of the realized work. Beside the elaboration of a pronunciation lexicon, Word Net, word-sense disambigua‐ tion and speech synthesis, this phase is also focused on the multilingualism applications,

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203

The Amazigh language, known as Berber or Tamazight, is a branch of the Afro-Asiatic (Ha‐ mito-Semitic) languages [11, 12]. Nowadays, it covers the Northern part of Africa which ex‐ tends from the Red Sea to the Canary Isles and from the Niger in the Sahara to the

In Morocco, this language is divided, due to historical, geographical and sociolinguistic fac‐ tors, into three main regional varieties, depending on the area and the communities: Tarifite in North, Tamazight in Central Morocco and South-East, and Tachelhite in the South-West

The Amazigh is spoken approximately by the half of Moroccan population, either as a first language or bilingually with the spoken Arabic dialect. However, it was until 1994 reserved only to family domain [13]. But in 2001, thanks to the King Mohammed VI Speech, which has established by a Dahir the creation of the Royal Institute of the Amazigh Culture, the Amazigh language has become an institutional language nationally recognized; and in July

Since the ancient time, the Amazigh language has its own script called Tifinaghe. It is found engraved in stones and tombs in some historical sites attested from 25 centuries. Its writing form has continued to change from the traditional Tuareg writing to the Neo-Tifinaghe in

The Tifinaghe-IRCAM graphical system has been adapted, and computerized, in order to provide the Amazigh language an adequate and usable standard writing system. While, it has been chosen to represent to the best all the Moroccan Amazigh varieties, it tends to be

However, before adopting Tifinaghe-IRCAM as an official graphic system in Morocco, the Arabic script was widely used for religion and rural poetry writing, and the Latin script supported by the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was used particularly in missionar‐

2011, it has become an official language beside the classical Arabic.

the end of the sixties, and to the Tifinaghe-IRCAM in 2003.

**3.2. Tifinaghe-IRCAM graphical system**

The medium term phase represents also the time to prepare the necessary resources for the next step, including multilingual dictionaries, multilingual aligned corpora, and semantic annotated corpora.

**Figure 1.** Road map for under and less resourced languages.

#### *2.8.3. Long term phase*

ied language), part of speech tagging, morphological analyzer, chunker, syntactical ana‐ lyzer, and speech recognition. These processing tools will enable to build a spell checker, a terminology extractor, a text generator, and human-machine dialogue. Furthermore, they

The medium term phase represents also the time to prepare the necessary resources for the next step, including multilingual dictionaries, multilingual aligned corpora, and semantic

will allow the enhancement of the first phase tools and applications.

**Figure 1.** Road map for under and less resourced languages.

annotated corpora.

202 Theory and Applications for Advanced Text Mining Text Mining

The third step of the road map could be considered as the synthesis phase of the realized work. Beside the elaboration of a pronunciation lexicon, Word Net, word-sense disambigua‐ tion and speech synthesis, this phase is also focused on the multilingualism applications, mainly machine translation system.

## **3. Amazigh language features**

The Amazigh language, known as Berber or Tamazight, is a branch of the Afro-Asiatic (Ha‐ mito-Semitic) languages [11, 12]. Nowadays, it covers the Northern part of Africa which ex‐ tends from the Red Sea to the Canary Isles and from the Niger in the Sahara to the Mediterranean Sea.

#### **3.1. Sociolinguistic context**

In Morocco, this language is divided, due to historical, geographical and sociolinguistic fac‐ tors, into three main regional varieties, depending on the area and the communities: Tarifite in North, Tamazight in Central Morocco and South-East, and Tachelhite in the South-West and the High Atlas.

The Amazigh is spoken approximately by the half of Moroccan population, either as a first language or bilingually with the spoken Arabic dialect. However, it was until 1994 reserved only to family domain [13]. But in 2001, thanks to the King Mohammed VI Speech, which has established by a Dahir the creation of the Royal Institute of the Amazigh Culture, the Amazigh language has become an institutional language nationally recognized; and in July 2011, it has become an official language beside the classical Arabic.

#### **3.2. Tifinaghe-IRCAM graphical system**

Since the ancient time, the Amazigh language has its own script called Tifinaghe. It is found engraved in stones and tombs in some historical sites attested from 25 centuries. Its writing form has continued to change from the traditional Tuareg writing to the Neo-Tifinaghe in the end of the sixties, and to the Tifinaghe-IRCAM in 2003.

The Tifinaghe-IRCAM graphical system has been adapted, and computerized, in order to provide the Amazigh language an adequate and usable standard writing system. While, it has been chosen to represent to the best all the Moroccan Amazigh varieties, it tends to be phonological [14].

However, before adopting Tifinaghe-IRCAM as an official graphic system in Morocco, the Arabic script was widely used for religion and rural poetry writing, and the Latin script supported by the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was used particularly in missionar‐ ies' works.

The Tifinaghe-IRCAM graphical system contains:

**•** 27 consonants including: the labials (ⴼ, ⴱ, ⵎ), the dentals (ⵜ, ⴷ, ⵟ, ⴹ, ⵏ, ⵔ, ⵕ, ⵍ), the alveo‐ lars (ⵙ, ⵣ, ⵚ, ⵥ), the palatals (ⵛ, ⵊ), the velar (ⴽ, ⴳ), the labiovelars (ⴽ, ⴳ), the uvulars (ⵇ, ⵅ, ⵖ), the pharyngeals (ⵃ, ⵄ) and the laryngeal (ⵀ);

*3.5.3. Particles*

**4.1. Amazigh script**

ment.

**4.2. Phonetic and phonology**

In the Amazigh language, particle is a function word that is not assignable to noun neither to verb. It contains pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, aspectual, orientation and negative particles, adverbs, and subordinates. Generally, particles are uninflected words. However in Amazigh, some of these particles are flectional, such as the possessive and demonstrative

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205

Amazigh is an official language in Morocco. However, it has been less studied from the computational point of view for many years. Moreover, it is among the languages having rich morphology and different writing forms. Below we describe the difficulties that the

Amazigh is one of the languages with complex and challenging pre-processing tasks. Its

**•** Writing forms' variation that requires a transliterator to convert all writing prescriptions into the standard form 'Tifinaghe – Unicode'. This process is confronted with spelling variation related to regional varieties ([tfucht] [tafukt] (sun)), and transcription systems

**•** The standard form adopted 'Tifinaghe – Unicode' requires special consideration even in simple applications. Most of the existed CLP applications were developed for Latin script. Therefore, those that will be used for Tifinaghe – Unicode require localization and adjust‐

**•** Different prescriptions differ in the style of writing words using or elimination of spaces

The Amazigh phonetic and phonological problems depend particularly on the regional vari‐ eties. These problems consist on allophones and two kinds of correlations: the contrast be‐

**•** The allophone problems concern single phonemes that realized in different ways, such

**•** The contrast between constrictive and occlusive consonants concern particularly the Riffi‐ an and the Central varieties. Those have a strong tendency to plosive spirantization,

tween constrictive and occlusive consonants, and that between lax and tense ones.

as /ll/ and /k/ that are pronounced respectively as [dž] and [š] in the North.

Amazigh language confronts in developing computational language applications.

([tafuct] [tafukt]), especially when Latin or Arabic alphabet is used.

within or between words ([tadartino] [tadart ino] (my house)).

where b, t, d, ḍ, k, g become respectively b, t, ḍ, k, g.

pronouns (ⵜⴰ 'ta' *this* (fem.) ⵜⵉⵏⴰ 'tina' *these* (fem.)).

**4. The complexity of Amazigh in CLP**

writing system poses three main difficulties:

## **3.3. Punctuation and numeral**

No particular punctuation is known for Tifinaghe. IRCAM has recommended the use of the international symbols (" " (space), ".", ",", ";", ":", "?", "!", "…") for punctuation markers; and the standard numeral used in Morocco (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) for the Tifinaghe system writing.

## **3.4. Directionality**

Historically, in ancient inscriptions, the Amazigh language was written horizontally from left to right, and from right to left; vertically upwards and downwards; or in boustrophe‐ don. However, the orientation most often adopted in Amazigh language script is horizontal and from left to right, which is also adopted in Tifinaghe-IRCAM writing system.

#### **3.5. Amazigh morphological properties**

The main syntactic categories of the Amazigh language are the noun, the verb, and the parti‐ cles [14, 15, 16].

#### *3.5.1. Noun*

In the Amazigh language, noun is a lexical unit, formed from a root and a pattern. It could occur in a simple form (ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵣ 'argaz' *the man*), compound form (ⴱⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓⴼ 'buhyyuf' *the fam‐ ine*), or derived one (ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ 'amyawaḍ' *the communication*). This unit varies in gender (mas‐ culine, feminine), number (singular, plural) and case (free case, construct case).

#### *3.5.2. Verb*

The verb, in Amazigh, has two forms: basic and derived forms. The basic form is composed of a root and a radical, while the derived one is based on the combination of a basic form and one of the following prefixes morphemes: ⵙ 's' / ⵙⵙ 'ss' indicating the factitive form, ⵜⵜ 'tt' marking the passive form, and ⵎ 'm' / ⵎⵎ 'mm' designating the reciprocal form. Whether basic or derived, the verb is conjugated in four aspects: aorist, imperfective, perfect, and negative perfect.

## *3.5.3. Particles*

The Tifinaghe-IRCAM graphical system contains:

ⵖ), the pharyngeals (ⵃ, ⵄ) and the laryngeal (ⵀ);

**•** 2 semi-consonants: ⵢ and ⵡ;

204 Theory and Applications for Advanced Text Mining Text Mining

**3.3. Punctuation and numeral**

writing.

**3.4. Directionality**

cles [14, 15, 16].

*3.5.1. Noun*

*3.5.2. Verb*

negative perfect.

cial status in Amazigh phonology.

**3.5. Amazigh morphological properties**

**•** 27 consonants including: the labials (ⴼ, ⴱ, ⵎ), the dentals (ⵜ, ⴷ, ⵟ, ⴹ, ⵏ, ⵔ, ⵕ, ⵍ), the alveo‐ lars (ⵙ, ⵣ, ⵚ, ⵥ), the palatals (ⵛ, ⵊ), the velar (ⴽ, ⴳ), the labiovelars (ⴽ, ⴳ), the uvulars (ⵇ, ⵅ,

**•** 4 vowels: three full vowels ⴰ, ⵉ, ⵓ and neutral vowel (or schwa) ⴻ which has a rather spe‐

No particular punctuation is known for Tifinaghe. IRCAM has recommended the use of the international symbols (" " (space), ".", ",", ";", ":", "?", "!", "…") for punctuation markers; and the standard numeral used in Morocco (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) for the Tifinaghe system

Historically, in ancient inscriptions, the Amazigh language was written horizontally from left to right, and from right to left; vertically upwards and downwards; or in boustrophe‐ don. However, the orientation most often adopted in Amazigh language script is horizontal

The main syntactic categories of the Amazigh language are the noun, the verb, and the parti‐

In the Amazigh language, noun is a lexical unit, formed from a root and a pattern. It could occur in a simple form (ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵣ 'argaz' *the man*), compound form (ⴱⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓⴼ 'buhyyuf' *the fam‐ ine*), or derived one (ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ 'amyawaḍ' *the communication*). This unit varies in gender (mas‐

The verb, in Amazigh, has two forms: basic and derived forms. The basic form is composed of a root and a radical, while the derived one is based on the combination of a basic form and one of the following prefixes morphemes: ⵙ 's' / ⵙⵙ 'ss' indicating the factitive form, ⵜⵜ 'tt' marking the passive form, and ⵎ 'm' / ⵎⵎ 'mm' designating the reciprocal form. Whether basic or derived, the verb is conjugated in four aspects: aorist, imperfective, perfect, and

and from left to right, which is also adopted in Tifinaghe-IRCAM writing system.

culine, feminine), number (singular, plural) and case (free case, construct case).

In the Amazigh language, particle is a function word that is not assignable to noun neither to verb. It contains pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, aspectual, orientation and negative particles, adverbs, and subordinates. Generally, particles are uninflected words. However in Amazigh, some of these particles are flectional, such as the possessive and demonstrative pronouns (ⵜⴰ 'ta' *this* (fem.) ⵜⵉⵏⴰ 'tina' *these* (fem.)).

## **4. The complexity of Amazigh in CLP**

Amazigh is an official language in Morocco. However, it has been less studied from the computational point of view for many years. Moreover, it is among the languages having rich morphology and different writing forms. Below we describe the difficulties that the Amazigh language confronts in developing computational language applications.

#### **4.1. Amazigh script**

Amazigh is one of the languages with complex and challenging pre-processing tasks. Its writing system poses three main difficulties:

## **4.2. Phonetic and phonology**

The Amazigh phonetic and phonological problems depend particularly on the regional vari‐ eties. These problems consist on allophones and two kinds of correlations: the contrast be‐ tween constrictive and occlusive consonants, and that between lax and tense ones.

**•** In the phonological Amazigh system, all phonemes can alternate from lax to tense, which is characterized by greater articulator energy and often a longer duration. Some phonetic and phonological evidence consider the opposition lax versus tense as a tense correlation and not a gemination [17], while others consider this opposition as gemination [14]. More‐ over, the realization of this opposition varies from region to region and from consonant to consonant.

Considering Tifinaghe variants used in all parts of the Amazigh world, the Unicode encod‐ ing is composed of four character subsets: the basic set of IRCAM, the extended IRCAM set, other Neo-Tifinaghe letters in use, and modern Touareg letters. The two first subsets consti‐ tute the sets of characters chosen by IRCAM. While, the first is used to arrange the orthogra‐ phy of different Moroccan Amazigh varieties, the second subset is used for historical and scientific use. The letters are classified in accordance with the order specified by IRCAM. Other Neo-Tifinaghe and Touareg letters are interspersed according to their pronunciation. Thus, the Unicode Consortium accepts the 55 Tifinaghe characters for encoding in the range

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Amazigh integration in international standard prescription keyboards ISO/IEC 9995 has fixed two keyboards: a basic one containing the Tifinaghe characters recommended by IR‐ CAM, and an enhanced keyboard including all characters adopted by ISO. To facilitate key‐ boarding, Tifinaghe characters' position was chosen in a manner that matches their Latin

In order to integrate the Amazigh language in the Moroccan education system in 2003, eight Tifinaghe fonts, associated with the ANSI encoding, were developed. Then a new Unicode

In the aim to achieve perfection on Amazigh optical character recognition systems many studies have been undertaken using different approaches. Most of these approaches have achieved a recognition rate around 92%. In the following, we present briefly some Amazigh optical character recognition systems. Es Saady et al. focused on isolated printed characters recognition based on a syntactic approach using finite automata [24]. Amrouch et al. pro‐ posed a global approach based on Hidden Markov Models for recognizing handwritten characters [20]. El Ayachi et al. presented a method using invariant moments for recogniz‐ ing printed script [25]. Ait Ouguengay et al. proposed an artificial neural network approach

The Amazigh language has known through its existence different forms of writing: Latin supported by the International Phonetic Alphabet, Arabic script, and Tifinaghe character based on ANSI and Unicode encoding. In the aim to allow an automatically passage from one form to another, a transliterator tool has been developed [27]. This later allows users to read or write in a suitable form, and converts all writing prescriptions into a standard

U+2D30..U+2D65, U+2D6F, with Tifinaghe block at U+2D30..U+2D7F [19].

correspondent position of Azerty keyboard (see Table 2).

*5.1.2. Keyboard and fonts*

font generation was succeeded [23].

**5.2. Optical character recognition**

to recognize printed characters [26].

**5.3. Fundamental processing tools**

unique form for text pre-processing tasks.

*5.3.1. Transliterator*

#### **4.3. Amazigh morphology**

An additional reason for the difficulties of computational processing of the Amazigh lan‐ guage is its rich and complex morphology. Inflectional processes in Amazigh are based pri‐ marily on both prefix and suffix concatenations. Furthermore, the base form itself can be modified in different paradigms such as the derivational one. Where in case of the presence of geminated letter in the base form, this later will be altered in the derivational form (ⵇⵇⵉⵎ 'qqim' ⵙⵖⵉⵎ 'svim' (make sit)).

## **5. Primarily experiments for the Amazigh language**

For many decades the Amazigh language was solely oral, exclusively reserved for familial and informal domains, although 50% of the Moroccan population are Amazigh speakers [14]. Since the colonial period, many studies have been undertaken, but most of them have contributed to the collection of the Amazigh oral tradition or have focused on linguistic fea‐ tures. Whereas, the computational studies have been neglect until the creation of the IRCAM in 2001. This creation has enabled the Amazigh language to get an official spelling [18], proper encoding in the Unicode Standard [19], appropriate standards for keyboard realiza‐ tion, and linguistic structures [15, 18].

Nevertheless, this is not sufficient for a less-resourced language as Amazigh to join the wellresourced languages in information technology. In this context, many researches, based on the approaches used for well-resourced languages, are undertaken at national level to im‐ prove the current situation [20, 21, 22]. In the remainder of this paper we present existing systems and resources built for Amazigh languages.

## **5.1. Amazigh encoding**

## *5.1.1. Tifinaghe encoding*

Over several years, the Amazigh language has been writing in Latin alphabet supported by the IPA, or in Arabic script. While after adopting Tifinaghe as an official script in Morocco, the Unicode encoding of this script has become a necessity. To this end considerable efforts have been invested. However, this process took ample time to be done, which required the use of ANSI encoding as a first step to integrate the Amazigh language into the educational system at time.

Considering Tifinaghe variants used in all parts of the Amazigh world, the Unicode encod‐ ing is composed of four character subsets: the basic set of IRCAM, the extended IRCAM set, other Neo-Tifinaghe letters in use, and modern Touareg letters. The two first subsets consti‐ tute the sets of characters chosen by IRCAM. While, the first is used to arrange the orthogra‐ phy of different Moroccan Amazigh varieties, the second subset is used for historical and scientific use. The letters are classified in accordance with the order specified by IRCAM. Other Neo-Tifinaghe and Touareg letters are interspersed according to their pronunciation. Thus, the Unicode Consortium accepts the 55 Tifinaghe characters for encoding in the range U+2D30..U+2D65, U+2D6F, with Tifinaghe block at U+2D30..U+2D7F [19].

## *5.1.2. Keyboard and fonts*

**•** In the phonological Amazigh system, all phonemes can alternate from lax to tense, which is characterized by greater articulator energy and often a longer duration. Some phonetic and phonological evidence consider the opposition lax versus tense as a tense correlation and not a gemination [17], while others consider this opposition as gemination [14]. More‐ over, the realization of this opposition varies from region to region and from consonant to

An additional reason for the difficulties of computational processing of the Amazigh lan‐ guage is its rich and complex morphology. Inflectional processes in Amazigh are based pri‐ marily on both prefix and suffix concatenations. Furthermore, the base form itself can be modified in different paradigms such as the derivational one. Where in case of the presence of geminated letter in the base form, this later will be altered in the derivational form (ⵇⵇⵉⵎ

For many decades the Amazigh language was solely oral, exclusively reserved for familial and informal domains, although 50% of the Moroccan population are Amazigh speakers [14]. Since the colonial period, many studies have been undertaken, but most of them have contributed to the collection of the Amazigh oral tradition or have focused on linguistic fea‐ tures. Whereas, the computational studies have been neglect until the creation of the IRCAM in 2001. This creation has enabled the Amazigh language to get an official spelling [18], proper encoding in the Unicode Standard [19], appropriate standards for keyboard realiza‐

Nevertheless, this is not sufficient for a less-resourced language as Amazigh to join the wellresourced languages in information technology. In this context, many researches, based on the approaches used for well-resourced languages, are undertaken at national level to im‐ prove the current situation [20, 21, 22]. In the remainder of this paper we present existing

Over several years, the Amazigh language has been writing in Latin alphabet supported by the IPA, or in Arabic script. While after adopting Tifinaghe as an official script in Morocco, the Unicode encoding of this script has become a necessity. To this end considerable efforts have been invested. However, this process took ample time to be done, which required the use of ANSI encoding as a first step to integrate the Amazigh language into the educational

consonant.

**4.3. Amazigh morphology**

206 Theory and Applications for Advanced Text Mining Text Mining

'qqim' ⵙⵖⵉⵎ 'svim' (make sit)).

tion, and linguistic structures [15, 18].

**5.1. Amazigh encoding**

*5.1.1. Tifinaghe encoding*

system at time.

systems and resources built for Amazigh languages.

**5. Primarily experiments for the Amazigh language**

Amazigh integration in international standard prescription keyboards ISO/IEC 9995 has fixed two keyboards: a basic one containing the Tifinaghe characters recommended by IR‐ CAM, and an enhanced keyboard including all characters adopted by ISO. To facilitate key‐ boarding, Tifinaghe characters' position was chosen in a manner that matches their Latin correspondent position of Azerty keyboard (see Table 2).

In order to integrate the Amazigh language in the Moroccan education system in 2003, eight Tifinaghe fonts, associated with the ANSI encoding, were developed. Then a new Unicode font generation was succeeded [23].

## **5.2. Optical character recognition**

In the aim to achieve perfection on Amazigh optical character recognition systems many studies have been undertaken using different approaches. Most of these approaches have achieved a recognition rate around 92%. In the following, we present briefly some Amazigh optical character recognition systems. Es Saady et al. focused on isolated printed characters recognition based on a syntactic approach using finite automata [24]. Amrouch et al. pro‐ posed a global approach based on Hidden Markov Models for recognizing handwritten characters [20]. El Ayachi et al. presented a method using invariant moments for recogniz‐ ing printed script [25]. Ait Ouguengay et al. proposed an artificial neural network approach to recognize printed characters [26].

#### **5.3. Fundamental processing tools**

#### *5.3.1. Transliterator*

The Amazigh language has known through its existence different forms of writing: Latin supported by the International Phonetic Alphabet, Arabic script, and Tifinaghe character based on ANSI and Unicode encoding. In the aim to allow an automatically passage from one form to another, a transliterator tool has been developed [27]. This later allows users to read or write in a suitable form, and converts all writing prescriptions into a standard unique form for text pre-processing tasks.

*5.3.2. Stemmer*

**Figure 3.** Amazigh light stemming process.

from one character to five characters.

**•** One-character: ⴰ 'a', ⵉ 'i', ⵏ 'n', ⵓ 'u', ⵜ 't'.

**•** Five-character: ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰ 'tetta', ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉ 'tetti'.

**•** Three-character: ⵉⵜⵜ 'itt', ⵏⵜⵜ 'ntt', ⵜⵜⴰ 'tta', ⵜⵜⵉ 'tti'.

**•** Four-character: ⵉⵜⵜⴰ 'itta', ⵉⵜⵜⵉ 'itti', ⵏⵜⵜⴰ 'ntta', ⵏⵜⵜⵉ 'ntti', ⵜⴻⵜⵜ 'tett'.

*Prefix Set*

'yi', ⵢⵓ 'yu'.

To enhance the performance of information retrieval systems for the Amazigh language a computational stemming process was realized. This process consists in splitting Amazigh words into constituent parts (stem, prefix, suffix) without doing complete morphological

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The algorithm is merely based on an explicit list of prefixes and suffixes that need to be stripped in a certain order. This list is derived from the common inflectional morphemes of gender, number and case for nouns; personal markers, aspect and mood for verbs; and affix pronouns for kinship nouns and prepositions. While, the derivational morphemes are not included in order to keep the semantic meaning of words. See Figure 3 for more details.

The set of prefixes and suffixes, that has been identified, are classified to five groups ranged

**•** Two-character: ⵏⴰ 'na', ⵏⵉ 'ni', ⵏⵓ 'nu', ⵜⴰ 'ta', ⵜⵉ 'ti', ⵜⵓ 'tu', ⵜⵜ 'tt', ⵡⴰ 'wa', ⵡⵓ 'wu', ⵢⴰ 'ya', ⵢⵉ

analysis, in order to conflate word variants into a common stem [28].

**Figure 2.** Transliterator tool conception.

The Amazigh transliterator consists of two processes: Convertisor and transliterator.

These rules are as follow:

**Table 1.** Tifinaghe – Arabic adapted correspondences.

## *5.3.2. Stemmer*

**Figure 2.** Transliterator tool conception.

208 Theory and Applications for Advanced Text Mining Text Mining

These rules are as follow:

represented by the vowel 'ⵓ'.

Unicode representation and vice versa.

on the transliteration from Arabic script into Tifinaghe one.

Otherwise, it will be represented by the vowel 'ⵉ'.

yag ⴳ g ڭ yagw ⴳ gw ُڭ yakw ⴽ kw کُ

yarr ⵕ ṛ ر yaw ⵡ w و yay ⵢ y ي

**Table 1.** Tifinaghe – Arabic adapted correspondences.

The Amazigh transliterator consists of two processes: Convertisor and transliterator.

**•** Convertisor: This process allows the passage from ANSI representation of Tifinaghe into

**•** Transliterator: The transliterator process aims to transcribe words from one script to an‐ other, while conserving the phonetic pronunciation of the words. This process is based on direct mapping between the pairs of scripts (Latin, Tifinaghe Unicode) and (Arabic, Tifi‐ naghe Unicode). In the Latin - Tifinaghe Unicode mapping the correspondences illustrat‐ ed in Table 2 are used. While in the Arabic - Tifinaghe Unicode mapping, there are more constrained rules to use the correspondences represented in Table 2. These constraints de‐ pend mainly on the writing cursivity of the Arabic language, the phonetic pronunciation, and the use of Amazigh and Arabic vowels. Thus, some Arabic - Tifinaghe correspond‐ ences have been adapted (c.f. Table 1), and orthographic rules have been specified mainly

**•** If the word contains any emphatic letter (ⴹ, ⵕ, ⵚ, ⵟ, ⵥ), the letter 'ر 'will be represented by 'ⵕ'. **•** If the letter 'ي 'is preceded by a vowel, it will be represented by the semi-consonants 'ⵢ'.

**•** If the letter 'و 'is preceded by the vowel 'ا', it will be represented by the semi-consonants 'ⵡ'. If it is preceded by the vowel 'ي 'or preceded and succeeded by a consonant, it will be

**English appellation Tifinaghe Latin correspondence New Arabic correspondence**

yi ⵉ i ئـ) in the beginning of a word) you ⵓ u ؤ) in the beginning of a word) To enhance the performance of information retrieval systems for the Amazigh language a computational stemming process was realized. This process consists in splitting Amazigh words into constituent parts (stem, prefix, suffix) without doing complete morphological analysis, in order to conflate word variants into a common stem [28].

The algorithm is merely based on an explicit list of prefixes and suffixes that need to be stripped in a certain order. This list is derived from the common inflectional morphemes of gender, number and case for nouns; personal markers, aspect and mood for verbs; and affix pronouns for kinship nouns and prepositions. While, the derivational morphemes are not included in order to keep the semantic meaning of words. See Figure 3 for more details.

**Figure 3.** Amazigh light stemming process.

The set of prefixes and suffixes, that has been identified, are classified to five groups ranged from one character to five characters.

*Prefix Set*

#### *Suffix Set*

#### *5.3.3. Search engine*

As the number of Amazigh documents grew, searching algorithms have become one of the most essential tools for managing information. Thus, Ataa Allah and Boulaknadel have been proposed a first tentative in order to develop a search engine that could support the Ama‐ zigh language characteristics [21]. They have tried to develop an Amazigh search engine that is mainly structured on three parts: data crawling, indexing, and searching.

**•** Data crawling: Data crawling is a process behind the search engine, based on spiders or web robots, to fetch web pages. In this context, they have developed a spider that collects auto‐ matically and daily all the pages containing Tifinaghe script from the IRCAM Website. All the fetched pages are stored in a web pages' repository, and associated to an ID number. To this ID, called also docID, a web page is assigned whenever a new URL is parsed.

**Figure 4.** Amazigh search engine architecture.

**Figure 5.** Amazigh concordancer conception.

Moroccan Amazigh language scripts was developed [32].

Amazigh linguistics corpora are currently enjoying a surge activity. As the growth in the number of available Amazigh corpora continues, there is an increased need for robust tools that can process this data, whether it is for research or teaching. One such tool that is useful for both groups is the concordancer, which is displaying a specified target word in its con‐ text. However, obtaining one that can reliably cope with the Amazigh language characteris‐ tics has proved an extreme difficulty. Therefore, an online concordancer that supports all

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*5.3.4. Concordancer*

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**Figure 4.** Amazigh search engine architecture.

#### *5.3.4. Concordancer*

*Suffix Set*

*5.3.3. Search engine*

**•** One-character: ⴰ 'a', ⴷ 'd', ⵉ 'i', ⴽ 'k', ⵎ 'm', ⵏ 'n', ⵖ 'γ', ⵙ 's', ⵜ 't'.

ⵜⵉⵏ 'tin', ⵜⵏⵖ 'tnγ', ⵜⵓⵏ 'tun', ⵜⵙⵏ 'tsn', ⵙⵏⵜ 'snt', ⵡⵎⵜ 'wmt'.

'sn', ⵜⵏ 'tn', ⵡⵎ 'wm', ⵡⵏ 'wn', ⵢⵏ 'yn'.

210 Theory and Applications for Advanced Text Mining Text Mining

**•** Four-character: ⵜⵓⵏⵜ 'tunt', ⵜⵙⵏⵜ 'tsnt'.

ments to support searching.

**•** Two-character: ⴰⵏ 'an', ⴰⵜ 'at', ⵉⴷ 'id', ⵉⵎ 'im', ⵉⵏ 'in', ⵉⵖ 'iγ', ⵎⵜ 'mt', ⵏⵖ 'nγ', ⵏⵜ 'nt', ⵓⵏ 'un', ⵙⵏ

**•** Three-character: ⴰⵎⵜ 'amt', ⴰⵏⵜ 'ant', ⴰⵡⵏ 'awn', ⵉⵎⵜ 'imt', ⵉⵏⵜ 'int', ⵉⵡⵏ 'iwn', ⵏⵉⵏ 'nin', ⵓⵏⵜ 'unt',

As the number of Amazigh documents grew, searching algorithms have become one of the most essential tools for managing information. Thus, Ataa Allah and Boulaknadel have been proposed a first tentative in order to develop a search engine that could support the Ama‐ zigh language characteristics [21]. They have tried to develop an Amazigh search engine

**•** Data crawling: Data crawling is a process behind the search engine, based on spiders or web robots, to fetch web pages. In this context, they have developed a spider that collects auto‐ matically and daily all the pages containing Tifinaghe script from the IRCAM Website. All the fetched pages are stored in a web pages' repository, and associated to an ID number. To

**•** Data indexing: Based on vector space model [29], the data indexing system creates an in‐ dex for a set of documents and assigns the Okapi BM-25 weight to each term-document association. The Okapi formulas, especially the BM-25 scheme, attack the problem of higher term frequencies in long documents, and the chances of retrieving long documents over shorter ones [30]. Considering the common use of infixes for both Arabic and Ama‐ zigh languages, and based on the study undertaken in Arabic information retrieval [31], the data indexing system of this search engine performs four steps on each document: word identification, stop-word removal, light stemming, and indexing. First, it identifies individual words in the document. Second, all the "stop words" in a document are re‐ moved based on a pre-defined list. Then, it reduces the words to their light stem. Finally, it records the information about the relationships between these words and the docu‐

**•** Data searching: The data searching system includes query engine and a web user inter‐ face. The query engine accepts search queries from users, applies the light stemming, rep‐ resents the query as a vector in term-document space, and assigns a weight to each termquery. Then, it calculates scores between the user query and the set of documents. After retrieving search results, the query engine ranks the search results according to content analysis scores, generates a summary for each search result, based on the web pages' re‐ pository, and renders its link. Whereas, the web user interface allows submitting queries and view the search results. When a user performs a search through the web interface, the query is passed to the query engine, which retrieves the search results and passes them back to the user, who can specify the number of retrieved web pages per each result page.

this ID, called also docID, a web page is assigned whenever a new URL is parsed.

that is mainly structured on three parts: data crawling, indexing, and searching.

Amazigh linguistics corpora are currently enjoying a surge activity. As the growth in the number of available Amazigh corpora continues, there is an increased need for robust tools that can process this data, whether it is for research or teaching. One such tool that is useful for both groups is the concordancer, which is displaying a specified target word in its con‐ text. However, obtaining one that can reliably cope with the Amazigh language characteris‐ tics has proved an extreme difficulty. Therefore, an online concordancer that supports all Moroccan Amazigh language scripts was developed [32].

**Figure 5.** Amazigh concordancer conception.

This concordancer is relatively simple to get up and running. Its interface ensures:

**•** Corpus selection: The Amazigh concordancer accepts compressed file format and most common text file formats including proprietary and non-proprietary formats such as Mi‐ crosoft Word, RTF, and PDF files.

**•** Management: Management is a process for managing user's account and electronic docu‐ ments. It allows creating or deleting user account, and modifying user information or privileges. Also, it provides to store different range of data, namely original documents, transliterated or corrected ones. Furthermore, it provides a standardized format of the an‐

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**•** Annotation: This process assists linguists to grammatically annotate a text, by providing them sentences segmented into single words, and allowing them the ability to select for each word its morphological tag from a list of tags that has been elaborated in collabora‐ tion with some linguists. Moreover, it requires them to specify the appropriate lemma of each word. Then, the process stores the triples (word, tag, lemma) in the database for fur‐

**•** Validation: Validation process consists on comparing tags and lemmas specified by all lin‐ guists working on the same document, and extracting a list of anomalies. Then, the proc‐ ess returns the context of each word in the list and the information related to, namely the name of linguists that have annotated the word along with the selected tags and the speci‐ fied lemmas. After, the process allows the correction by updating inconsistent annotations.

Human language technologies are showing more interest in the Amazigh language in recent years. Suitable resources for Amazigh are becoming a vital necessity for the progress of this

Corpora are a very valuable resource for CLP tasks, but Amazigh lacks such resources. There‐ fore, researchers at IRCAM have tried to build Amazigh corpora in progressive way until reaching a large-scale corpus that follows TREC's standards. Thus, three parallel works are undertaking [[34], [35], [36]]. The first consists in building a general corpus based on texts deal‐ ing with different literary genres: novels, poems, stories, newspaper articles, and covering var‐ ious topics; while the second is based on POS tagged data that was collected from IRCAM's newspapers, websites and pedagogical supports; whereas the third work is dealing with the construction of a corpus for evaluating information retrieval system, where the queries' crea‐

Although many paper dictionaries are available for the Amazigh language, none of them is computational. To deal with this lack, an application that is helping in collecting and access‐ ing Amazigh words has been elaborated [22]. This application has provided all necessary in‐ formation such as definition, Arabic French and English equivalent words, synonyms, classification by domains, and derivational families. Moreover, it provides the possibility to

tion and the relevance assessment are manually performed by narrative speakers.

research. In this context some efforts are currently underway.

notated corpus.

ther processing.

**5.4. Language resources**

*5.4.1. Corpora*

*5.4.2. Dictionary*

generate a word copy of the dictionary.

### *5.3.5. Tagging assistance tool*

The use of corpora in CLP, especially those annotated morphosyntactically, has become an indispensable step in the language tools' production and in the process of language comput‐ erization. In this context, an initiative has been taken to build a morphosyntactic corpus, which has elicited the development of a tool providing support and linguists' assistance [33].

**Figure 6.** Tagging assistance tool conception.

This tool is structured in three-step process: management, annotation, and validation proc‐ esses.

#### **5.4. Language resources**

Human language technologies are showing more interest in the Amazigh language in recent years. Suitable resources for Amazigh are becoming a vital necessity for the progress of this research. In this context some efforts are currently underway.

## *5.4.1. Corpora*

This concordancer is relatively simple to get up and running. Its interface ensures:

crosoft Word, RTF, and PDF files.

212 Theory and Applications for Advanced Text Mining Text Mining

quency panel.

and their frequency.

**•** Context size choice.

*5.3.5. Tagging assistance tool*

**Figure 6.** Tagging assistance tool conception.

esses.

**•** Corpus selection: The Amazigh concordancer accepts compressed file format and most common text file formats including proprietary and non-proprietary formats such as Mi‐

**•** Query keyboarding: The goal of the Amazigh concordance system is to allow a user to look for instances of specific words or expressions. For this purpose, the system opens up two ways for the user to enter his/her query in any one of the scripts involved. The first way is by specifying one of the following kinds of query: exact single word query, or ex‐ act string query. Whereas, the second way allows choosing a word from a list in the fre‐

**•** Word frequency panel: The Amazigh concordancer displays a list of the corpus words

**•** Display of results: Concordances generated by the Amazigh concordancer can be sent ei‐

The use of corpora in CLP, especially those annotated morphosyntactically, has become an indispensable step in the language tools' production and in the process of language comput‐ erization. In this context, an initiative has been taken to build a morphosyntactic corpus, which has elicited the development of a tool providing support and linguists' assistance [33].

This tool is structured in three-step process: management, annotation, and validation proc‐

ther to screen, to printer as hard copy, or to file for future manipulation.

Corpora are a very valuable resource for CLP tasks, but Amazigh lacks such resources. There‐ fore, researchers at IRCAM have tried to build Amazigh corpora in progressive way until reaching a large-scale corpus that follows TREC's standards. Thus, three parallel works are undertaking [[34], [35], [36]]. The first consists in building a general corpus based on texts deal‐ ing with different literary genres: novels, poems, stories, newspaper articles, and covering var‐ ious topics; while the second is based on POS tagged data that was collected from IRCAM's newspapers, websites and pedagogical supports; whereas the third work is dealing with the construction of a corpus for evaluating information retrieval system, where the queries' crea‐ tion and the relevance assessment are manually performed by narrative speakers.

## *5.4.2. Dictionary*

Although many paper dictionaries are available for the Amazigh language, none of them is computational. To deal with this lack, an application that is helping in collecting and access‐ ing Amazigh words has been elaborated [22]. This application has provided all necessary in‐ formation such as definition, Arabic French and English equivalent words, synonyms, classification by domains, and derivational families. Moreover, it provides the possibility to generate a word copy of the dictionary.

## *5.4.3. Terminology database*

While the Amazigh language is given new status, it becomes necessary, even inevitable to own a terminology covering the largest number of lexical fields. Thus, a tool managing ter‐ minology database has been developed to facilitate the work of researchers allowing an effi‐ cient exploitation of users. This tool allows the processing of new terminology data, the compilation, and the management of existing terminology [37].

 Tifinaghe-Ircam Alphabet.

## **6. Conclusion and future directions**

In this paper, we have outlined the key strategies to uphold under and less resourced lan‐ guages on human language technologies. We have specified a road map based on the ele‐ mentary and necessary processing, resources and applications needed to ensure the survival of under and less resourced languages in "information society". Moreover, we have dis‐ cussed the main challenges in processing the Amazigh language, and we have attempted to survey the research work on Amazigh CLP in Morocco.

In the aim to convert Amazigh language from a less resourced language into a resourced and well studied language from computational point of view we need to expedite the basic research on Amazigh CLP tools development by addressing the following issues:

However, there are other research tracks, especially those related to recent technologies, that need to be taken into account to attract young generations, namely:

#### **Apendix Appendix**

*5.4.3. Terminology database*

214 Theory and Applications for Advanced Text Mining Text Mining

While the Amazigh language is given new status, it becomes necessary, even inevitable to own a terminology covering the largest number of lexical fields. Thus, a tool managing ter‐ minology database has been developed to facilitate the work of researchers allowing an effi‐ cient exploitation of users. This tool allows the processing of new terminology data, the

In this paper, we have outlined the key strategies to uphold under and less resourced lan‐ guages on human language technologies. We have specified a road map based on the ele‐ mentary and necessary processing, resources and applications needed to ensure the survival of under and less resourced languages in "information society". Moreover, we have dis‐ cussed the main challenges in processing the Amazigh language, and we have attempted to

In the aim to convert Amazigh language from a less resourced language into a resourced and well studied language from computational point of view we need to expedite the basic

**•** Building a large and representative Amazigh corpus which will be helpful for spelling

**•** Re-use the existing language technologies developed over the years for resourced lan‐ guages and particularly for Arabic that shares with Amazigh a number of linguistic prop‐

**•** Elaborating an E-learning application to ensure the language and culture transmission to

**•** Developing a machine translation system which will immensely contribute to promote

**•** Creating a pool of competent human resources to carry out research work on Amazigh CLP by offering scholarship for higher degrees and attracting young researchers with at‐

However, there are other research tracks, especially those related to recent technologies, that

**•** Investing on media social contents will strongly contribute in the salvation of many less

**•** Developing mobile phone and tablet applications will also keep language alive for future generations and help foreign visitors to discover the region for better understanding of

**•** Elaborating special applications in Amazigh language for people with disabilities, in or‐ der to offer them opportunities to access information and services in their native language.

need to be taken into account to attract young generations, namely:

research on Amazigh CLP tools development by addressing the following issues:

and grammar checking, speech generation, and many other related topics.

compilation, and the management of existing terminology [37].

survey the research work on Amazigh CLP in Morocco.

erties, which will allow saving time and funds.

and disseminate the Amazigh language.

young generation.

tractive salary.

resourced languages.

the local culture.

**6. Conclusion and future directions**

**Table 2.** Tifinaghe-Ircam Alphabet.

## **Author details**

Fadoua Ataa Allah and Siham Boulaknadel

Computer Science Studies, Information Systems and Communications Center, The Royal In‐ stitute of the Amazigh Culture, Rabat, Morocco

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## *Edited by Shigeaki Sakurai*

Due to the growth of computer technologies and web technologies, we can easily collect and store large amounts of text data. We can believe that the data include useful knowledge. Text mining techniques have been studied aggressively in order to extract the knowledge from the data since late 1990s. Even if many important techniques have been developed, the text mining research field continues to expand for the needs arising from various application fields. This book is composed of 9 chapters introducing advanced text mining techniques. They are various techniques from relation extraction to under or less resourced language. I believe that this book will give new knowledge in the text mining field and help many readers open their new research fields.

Photo by Franck-Boston / iStock

Theory and Applications for Advanced Text Mining

Theory and Applications for

Advanced Text Mining

*Edited by Shigeaki Sakurai*


*<IP_ADDRESS> Corrosive wear*

The corrosive or chemical wear happens while sliding takes place in a chemical atmosphere. The oxygen is considered as a most dominant corrosive medium in air atmosphere. So that the corrosive wear in air atmosphere is normally called as oxidative wear. The corrosive wear is significant in many factories such as slurry handling, chemical processing, mining and mineral processing. The chemical wear can arise due to the electrochemical or chemical interaction of the surfaces with the atmosphere. However, the chemical corrosive wear occurs in extremely high corrosive atmosphere and in high humidity and high temperature atmosphere. The electrochemical corrosive wear can occur with chemical reaction accompanied of an electric current. The potential variations can be observed between those two regions. The high potential region and low potential region is known as cathode and anode, respectively. There will be a current flow between the cathode and anode over an electrolyte conductive medium, the metal dissolve at the anode side in the form of liberates electrons and ions [29].

While conducting the experiment, the electron transfers via metal to the cathode and minimize the oxygen or ions. After corrosion test, these surfaces changes to some other appearance with corroded region. Further, the electrochemical corrosion is influenced through the electro potential. The aqueous is a most common liquid environment in corrosion atmosphere. In this working atmosphere, the less amount of gases may dissolve, normally carbon dioxide or oxygen may influence the corrosion. **Figure 12** indicates the electrochemical corrosion testing setup and corroded micrograph with layer formation.