**An Overview on Cagaita (***Eugenia dysenterica* **DC) Macro and Micro Components and a Technological Approach**

Ediane Maria Gomes Ribeiro, Lucia Maria Jaeger de Carvalho, Gisela Maria Dellamora Ortiz, Flavio de Souza Neves Cardoso, Daniela Soares Viana, José Luiz Viana de Carvalho, Patricia Barros Gomes and Nicolas Machado Tebaldi

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53157

**1. Introduction**

Many fruit species native to the Brazilian Cerrado region have great economic and ecologi‐ cal potential, as well as social importance to the native population (Bezerra, Silva, Ferreira, Ferri, & Santos, 2002). These fruits often supplement the diet and are a source of medicine, textile fibers, building materials and fuel. The development of new technologies may result in these fruits becoming potential sources of economic exploitation (Martinotto, Soares, San‐ tos, & Nogueira, 2008).

The Cerrado region has an abundance of species of fruit, still underused by local communi‐ ties for scientific unknown and lack of incentive for marketing (Veira, Costa, Silva, Ferreira & Sano, 2006). The sustainable use of these species can be an excellent alternative to add val‐ ue to raw materials available in the Cerrado region and improve the health of the popula‐ tion, thereby contributing to the income of rural communities and encouraging the conservation of native species.

The cagaita tree, belongs to the Myrtaceae family of plants, consisting of 14 genera and rep‐ resented by 211 species that naturally occur in the Cerrado. Myrtaceae is one of 10 plant

© 2013 Ribeiro et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

families found in this biome or ecosystem that together contribute to more than 51% of its richness. The cagaita is found in the Brazilian states of Goias, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, To‐ cantins and Bahia (Silva, Chaves, &Naves, & 2001). It occurs at highest densities in latosoil and is observed in areas with mean annual temperatures between 21.1°C and 25.5°C and at altitudes of 380 m to 1100 m (Souza, Naves, Carneiro, Leandro & Borges, 2002).

**Feature Utility References** Tree Ornamental landescape Martinottoet al., 2008 Flowers Apiculture Lorenzi, 2002

Shell Tannery, antidiarrheal Lorenzi, 2002;

Leaves Lawn trees, antidiarrhoeal, antifungal, moluscocida and

**Table 1.** Forms of exploitation and use of *Eugenia dysenterica* DC.

other factors (Veira, Costa, Silva, Ferreira & Sano, 2006).

Tatagiba, 2012; Stolfi, 2012).

Stalk Construction, furniture, pallets, firewood and charcoal Chaves & Telles, 2006; Martinotto et al., 2008

treatment of diabetes and jaundice Chaves & Telles, 2006; Martinotto et al., 2008

An Overview on Cagaita (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC) Macro and Micro Components and a Technological Approach

The cagaiteira has a great potential for use in agricultural production systems, because it has high production and relatively stable over the years, the potential of the fruit to processed products, good living with pasture, high tolerance to drought, edaphic and biotic stress, fire resistance and ease of production by seed and seedling establishment in the field among

According to Zucchi, Brondani and Pinheiro (2003), the cagaita fruit is a flattened and globu‐ lar pale yellow berry, 2 to 3 cm in diameter, containing from 1 to 3 white seeds that are encased in a slightly acidic pulp (Fig. 2). These seeds are attached to the fruit by a dry, membranous mesocarp, although the endocarp is juicy. The seeds are globular in shape, pale yellow when

**Figure 2.** Cagaita fruit (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC): A – unripe; B – imature; C – ripefruit; D – Fruit with the seed (Source:

ripe, with an acidic flavor and weigh between 14 to 20 g (Silva, Chaves, & Naves, 2001).

Chaves & Telles, 2006; Martinotto et al., 2008

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5

The cagaiteira, is a medium-sized tree, is 30 m tall, and has a cylindrical and twisted trunk, ranging from 20 cm to 40 cm in diameter. Its suberous bark and crevices are very unique. Its crown is long and dense, with square hairless branches, and except for the buttons, the pedi‐ cels, leaves and young branches are puberula. It is a deciduous plant and is selectively helio‐ phytic and xerophilous (Donadio, Môro, & Servidone, 2002).

Flowering occurs in the middle of the dry season, from mid-July to early August, with the simultaneous emergence of new leaves of the cuprea (Fig.1) (Brito, Pereira, Pereira, & Ri‐ beiro, 2003). The cagaiteira's flowers are always axillary and are either singular or clustered in arrays of three. They are hermaphrodites, and complete, are from 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, actinomorphic, dialipetalous, dialisepalous, tetramerous, and are endowed with white pet‐ als (Lorenzi, 2000).

**Figure 1.** Cagaiteira flower and branches with flowers Source: www.plantasonya.com.br.

The cagaita tree can be used almost entirely, bringing its economic value, and the great po‐ tential for sustained exploration (Table 1).

An Overview on Cagaita (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC) Macro and Micro Components and a Technological Approach http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53157 5

**Table 1.** Forms of exploitation and use of *Eugenia dysenterica* DC.

families found in this biome or ecosystem that together contribute to more than 51% of its richness. The cagaita is found in the Brazilian states of Goias, Minas Gerais, São Paulo, To‐ cantins and Bahia (Silva, Chaves, &Naves, & 2001). It occurs at highest densities in latosoil and is observed in areas with mean annual temperatures between 21.1°C and 25.5°C and at

The cagaiteira, is a medium-sized tree, is 30 m tall, and has a cylindrical and twisted trunk, ranging from 20 cm to 40 cm in diameter. Its suberous bark and crevices are very unique. Its crown is long and dense, with square hairless branches, and except for the buttons, the pedi‐ cels, leaves and young branches are puberula. It is a deciduous plant and is selectively helio‐

Flowering occurs in the middle of the dry season, from mid-July to early August, with the simultaneous emergence of new leaves of the cuprea (Fig.1) (Brito, Pereira, Pereira, & Ri‐ beiro, 2003). The cagaiteira's flowers are always axillary and are either singular or clustered in arrays of three. They are hermaphrodites, and complete, are from 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, actinomorphic, dialipetalous, dialisepalous, tetramerous, and are endowed with white pet‐

altitudes of 380 m to 1100 m (Souza, Naves, Carneiro, Leandro & Borges, 2002).

phytic and xerophilous (Donadio, Môro, & Servidone, 2002).

**Figure 1.** Cagaiteira flower and branches with flowers Source: www.plantasonya.com.br.

tential for sustained exploration (Table 1).

The cagaita tree can be used almost entirely, bringing its economic value, and the great po‐

als (Lorenzi, 2000).

4 Food Industry

The cagaiteira has a great potential for use in agricultural production systems, because it has high production and relatively stable over the years, the potential of the fruit to processed products, good living with pasture, high tolerance to drought, edaphic and biotic stress, fire resistance and ease of production by seed and seedling establishment in the field among other factors (Veira, Costa, Silva, Ferreira & Sano, 2006).

According to Zucchi, Brondani and Pinheiro (2003), the cagaita fruit is a flattened and globu‐ lar pale yellow berry, 2 to 3 cm in diameter, containing from 1 to 3 white seeds that are encased in a slightly acidic pulp (Fig. 2). These seeds are attached to the fruit by a dry, membranous mesocarp, although the endocarp is juicy. The seeds are globular in shape, pale yellow when ripe, with an acidic flavor and weigh between 14 to 20 g (Silva, Chaves, & Naves, 2001).

**Figure 2.** Cagaita fruit (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC): A – unripe; B – imature; C – ripefruit; D – Fruit with the seed (Source: Tatagiba, 2012; Stolfi, 2012).

## **2. Cagaita pulp process**

The mature fruits of cagaita (*Eugenia dysenterica*) are harvested by hand. After cleaning (im‐ mersion in sodium hypochlorite 200 ppm) and selection, the fruits are depulped, packed in polyethylene bags, and freezing and stored at -18 oC (Fig. 3).

g.100ml-1; 2.90 to 2.69 and 8.20 to 8.70°Brix, respectively, leading to the conclusion that re‐ moving the peel results in a reduction of carbohydrate content such that some remains in it after extracting the juice. Silva, Lacerda, Santos, and Martins (2008) found 20.01 TEV (Ener‐ gy Total Value), 94.34 (moisture); protein 0.82; lipids 0.44; carbohydrates 3.08 and ash 0.28 g m-1 in the cagaita pulp. The authors did not mention whether the pulp was obtained with or

An Overview on Cagaita (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC) Macro and Micro Components and a Technological Approach

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In cagaita pulp extracted with the peels, Roesler et al., (2007) found 2.09 (proteins); 0.32 (lip‐ ids); 0.23 (ash); 89.71 (moisture); 20.47 (total sugars) pH of 2.8 and 26.4 (total acidity). Cardo‐ so et al., (2011) found 0.73 g of citric acid 100g−1, pH of 3.3 and soluble solids of 9.12°Brix in cagaita pulp from the Cerrado region of the state of Minas Gerais. Moisture content was 91.56 g 100g−1, with similar results found by Roesler et al. (2007) in cagaita pulp from the

Silva, Santos-Junior and Ferreira (2008) investigated the cagaita fruit at different stages of maturation; however, the results for the moisture did not differ significantly, ranging from

From the results obtained by Ribeiro (2011), one can conclude that the cagaita fruit, with or without peels, is basically made up of carbohydrates and water. As expected, the moisture content in pulp extracted without peels was higher than the moisture content in pulp with peels. This was because the latter contained peels and the former was essentially pulp with a high water content. The value for cagaita pulp without peels was 90.08 g 100g-1 and the pulp with peels was 88.55 g 100g-1. However, no significant difference (*P* < 0.05) was found. Removing the peels yields a reduction in carbohydrate content, although some remains in it

Other researchers studying the cagaita fruit obtained similar results. Roesler et al., (2007) evaluated only the pulp, obtaining 89.71%. Silva, Santos-Junior & Ferreira (2008) investigat‐ ed the fruit at different stages of maturation, however, the results for the moisture content

Martins (2006) found a carbohydrate content of 5.4 g 100 g-1, which was lower than that re‐ corded by Ribeiro (2011), at 7.62 and 8.73 g 100 g-1. These results may be related to the geo‐ graphic location of the analyzed fruits. For example, the temperature, sun exposure and

Due to its low lipid content, the cagaita fruit is recommended as part of a low calorie diet. The values found by Ribeiro (2011) varied from 0.20 to 0.36 g 100 g-1 for pulp extracted with and without peels. Those values were similar to those reported by Martins (2006) and Roes‐ ler et al., (2007), being 0.20 and 0.32 g 100 g-1, respectively. It is worth noting that this was the only parameter that did not yield a significant difference in the 5% level of significance,

Vallilo, Garbelotti, Oliveira, and Lamardo (2005) evaluated other Myrtaceae fruits and found similar low values of lipids: 0.23 g 100 g-1 in Surinam cherry (*Eugenia uniflora* L), 1.53 g 100 g-1 in cambuci (*Campomanesia phaea* Berg), 0.80 g 100 g-1 pears in the field (*Eugenia*

did not differ significantly, ranging from 92.77 to 93.21 g 100 g-1.

maturity, among other factors, may have had an effect on the results.

showing a higher content of lipids in the peels of the fruit.

*klotzchiana* Berg) and 0.54 g 100 g-1 in guava (*Psidium guajava*).

without peels.

92.77 to 93.21 g 100g-1.

after extracting the juice.

Cerrado region within the Goias state.

**Figure 3.** Whole cagaita pulp process (Cardoso et, 2011)

## **3. Nutritional and proximal composition**

Studies have shown that the cagaita fruit's nutritional composition indicates a high water content (95.01%). It has the highest percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (such as linole‐ ic (10.5%) and linolenic acids (11.86%)), surpassing corn, sunflower, peanut, soybean, olive and palm oils. Fatty acids play an important role in the human body, forming the basis of substances that are critical for developing cell membranes found in the brain, the retina and the reproductive system (Almeida, 1998).

Carvalho et al. (2010) found the moisture content of cagaita pulp to measure 94.12%, the ti‐ tratable acidity at 13.78 g m-1 and a pH of 3.05. These values are higher than other fruits of the same genera, such as the pitanga and jambo. Conversely, the ash and protein contents are lower than the jambo and pitanga (Oliveira, Figueiredo, & Queiroz, 2006). Similarly, Ri‐ beiro (2011) evaluated the proximal composition of the cagaita pulp that was extracted with and without peels. The test results for moisture, ash, protein, lipids and carbohydrates (by difference – NIFEXT) for this pulp (with and without peels) varied from 90.08 to 88.55 g∙100g-1; 0.25 to 0.33 g∙100g-1; 1.85 to 2.03 g∙100g-1; 0.20 to 0.36 g 100g-1 and 7.62 to 8.73 g 100g-1, respectively. The titratable acidity, pH and soluble solids ranged from 13.78 to 14.63 g.100ml-1; 2.90 to 2.69 and 8.20 to 8.70°Brix, respectively, leading to the conclusion that re‐ moving the peel results in a reduction of carbohydrate content such that some remains in it after extracting the juice. Silva, Lacerda, Santos, and Martins (2008) found 20.01 TEV (Ener‐ gy Total Value), 94.34 (moisture); protein 0.82; lipids 0.44; carbohydrates 3.08 and ash 0.28 g m-1 in the cagaita pulp. The authors did not mention whether the pulp was obtained with or without peels.

**2. Cagaita pulp process**

6 Food Industry

The mature fruits of cagaita (*Eugenia dysenterica*) are harvested by hand. After cleaning (im‐ mersion in sodium hypochlorite 200 ppm) and selection, the fruits are depulped, packed in

> Cagaita (ripe fruit)

Selection and cleaning

Depulping, finishing, packaging in plastic bags

> Freezing and storage (- 18°C)

Studies have shown that the cagaita fruit's nutritional composition indicates a high water content (95.01%). It has the highest percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (such as linole‐ ic (10.5%) and linolenic acids (11.86%)), surpassing corn, sunflower, peanut, soybean, olive and palm oils. Fatty acids play an important role in the human body, forming the basis of substances that are critical for developing cell membranes found in the brain, the retina and

Carvalho et al. (2010) found the moisture content of cagaita pulp to measure 94.12%, the ti‐ tratable acidity at 13.78 g m-1 and a pH of 3.05. These values are higher than other fruits of the same genera, such as the pitanga and jambo. Conversely, the ash and protein contents are lower than the jambo and pitanga (Oliveira, Figueiredo, & Queiroz, 2006). Similarly, Ri‐ beiro (2011) evaluated the proximal composition of the cagaita pulp that was extracted with and without peels. The test results for moisture, ash, protein, lipids and carbohydrates (by difference – NIFEXT) for this pulp (with and without peels) varied from 90.08 to 88.55 g∙100g-1; 0.25 to 0.33 g∙100g-1; 1.85 to 2.03 g∙100g-1; 0.20 to 0.36 g 100g-1 and 7.62 to 8.73 g 100g-1, respectively. The titratable acidity, pH and soluble solids ranged from 13.78 to 14.63

polyethylene bags, and freezing and stored at -18 oC (Fig. 3).

**Figure 3.** Whole cagaita pulp process (Cardoso et, 2011)

the reproductive system (Almeida, 1998).

**3. Nutritional and proximal composition**

In cagaita pulp extracted with the peels, Roesler et al., (2007) found 2.09 (proteins); 0.32 (lip‐ ids); 0.23 (ash); 89.71 (moisture); 20.47 (total sugars) pH of 2.8 and 26.4 (total acidity). Cardo‐ so et al., (2011) found 0.73 g of citric acid 100g−1, pH of 3.3 and soluble solids of 9.12°Brix in cagaita pulp from the Cerrado region of the state of Minas Gerais. Moisture content was 91.56 g 100g−1, with similar results found by Roesler et al. (2007) in cagaita pulp from the Cerrado region within the Goias state.

Silva, Santos-Junior and Ferreira (2008) investigated the cagaita fruit at different stages of maturation; however, the results for the moisture did not differ significantly, ranging from 92.77 to 93.21 g 100g-1.

From the results obtained by Ribeiro (2011), one can conclude that the cagaita fruit, with or without peels, is basically made up of carbohydrates and water. As expected, the moisture content in pulp extracted without peels was higher than the moisture content in pulp with peels. This was because the latter contained peels and the former was essentially pulp with a high water content. The value for cagaita pulp without peels was 90.08 g 100g-1 and the pulp with peels was 88.55 g 100g-1. However, no significant difference (*P* < 0.05) was found. Removing the peels yields a reduction in carbohydrate content, although some remains in it after extracting the juice.

Other researchers studying the cagaita fruit obtained similar results. Roesler et al., (2007) evaluated only the pulp, obtaining 89.71%. Silva, Santos-Junior & Ferreira (2008) investigat‐ ed the fruit at different stages of maturation, however, the results for the moisture content did not differ significantly, ranging from 92.77 to 93.21 g 100 g-1.

Martins (2006) found a carbohydrate content of 5.4 g 100 g-1, which was lower than that re‐ corded by Ribeiro (2011), at 7.62 and 8.73 g 100 g-1. These results may be related to the geo‐ graphic location of the analyzed fruits. For example, the temperature, sun exposure and maturity, among other factors, may have had an effect on the results.

Due to its low lipid content, the cagaita fruit is recommended as part of a low calorie diet. The values found by Ribeiro (2011) varied from 0.20 to 0.36 g 100 g-1 for pulp extracted with and without peels. Those values were similar to those reported by Martins (2006) and Roes‐ ler et al., (2007), being 0.20 and 0.32 g 100 g-1, respectively. It is worth noting that this was the only parameter that did not yield a significant difference in the 5% level of significance, showing a higher content of lipids in the peels of the fruit.

Vallilo, Garbelotti, Oliveira, and Lamardo (2005) evaluated other Myrtaceae fruits and found similar low values of lipids: 0.23 g 100 g-1 in Surinam cherry (*Eugenia uniflora* L), 1.53 g 100 g-1 in cambuci (*Campomanesia phaea* Berg), 0.80 g 100 g-1 pears in the field (*Eugenia klotzchiana* Berg) and 0.54 g 100 g-1 in guava (*Psidium guajava*).

The protein levels were low; although, as expected, they were higher in the fruit with their peels (2.03 g 100 g-1) than in peeled fruits (1.85 g 100 g-1). Some studies with the same result found similar values: 2.09 g 100 g-1 for the whole pulp (Roesler et al., 2007) and 0.99 g 100 g-1 in cagaita pulp (Martins, 2006).

The low glucose, fructose and sucrose values in the cagaita indicate that this fruit is less sweet and contains less sugar than the guava, for example. This comparison has been veri‐ fied by Lee & Kader (2000). Analyzing the fruits by High Performance Liquid Chromatogra‐ phy (HPLC), their study found higher values in the ripe guava pulp (11.52 g.100 ml-1 of

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According to Andrade, Diniz, Neves & Nóbrega (2002), the sources of ascorbic acid are clas‐ sified by different levels: high sources, such as strawberry, guava and pineapple, contain 100 to 300 mg∙100 g-1; medium sources, such as orange, lemon and papaya contain an average of 50 to 100 mg∙100 g-1; and low sources, such as lime, pear and mango, contain 25 to 50 mg∙100 g-1. The vitamin C content in cagaita pulp as reported by Ribeiro (2011) was 56.66

of ascorbic acid and 4.08 mg 100 g−1 of de-hydro ascorbic acid. Therefore, the cagaita can be classified as a medium source of ascorbic acid. The pulp of the cagaita fruit has shown con‐ siderable promise for its vitamin C content and is considered a source of that nutrient when compared to other fruit. Silva, Santos-Junior, and Ferreira (2008) found the level of vitamin

On the other hand, the National Sanitary Surveillance Agency (ANVISA) legislation (Brazil, 1998) recommends that for a food to be considered a "source" of a certain vitamin, it should contain, at least, 15% of the Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) per 100 g of reference. To be

C to be 27.46 mg 100 g−1 in cagaita pulp from the Cerrado region in the state of Goias.

1 (Fig. 5) and by Cardoso et al. (2011), it was 34.11 mg 100 g−1, with 30.03 mg 100 g−1

sucrose, fructose 11.37 g.100 ml-1 and, glucose 5.12 g.100 ml-1.

**Figure 5.** HPLC chromatogram of ascorbic acid in whole cagaita pulp.

**5. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)**

mg 100 g-

In another study of guava, cited later in this paper, Gutiérrez, Mitchell, and Solis (2008), re‐ viewed the fruit in relation to its protein content of 0.88%.

It can be concluded that the cagaita fruit is not high-caloric due to its low levels of protein, carbohydrates, and especially lipids.

## **4. Glucose, fructose and sucrose**

Carvalho et al. (2009) and Ribeiro (2011) found a high concentration of fructose (2.54 g 100 mL-1), followed by glucose (1.75 g 100 mL-1) and the lowest concentration of sucrose (0.59 g 100 mL-1) (*P* >0.05) (Fig. 4). The high fructose content can be explained by the fact that the cagaita fruit used in their study was fully ripened.

Many different factors could have contributed to the low soluble sugar content in the cagaita pulp. One factor is mineral fertilization, where potassium is the primary mineral element causing starch accumulation in Citrus leaves (Lavon, Goldschmidt, Salomon, & Frank, 1995). On the other hand, the shortage of free sugars may trigger ethylene synthesis because defoli‐ ation, which drastically reduces sucrose transport to the fruit, increases ethylene synthesis (Ortolá, Monerri, & Guardiola, 2007) and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) ac‐ cumulation (Gómez-Cadenas, Mehouachi, Tadeo, Primo-Millo, & Talón, 2000).

**Figure 4.** HPLC chromatogram of glucose, frutose and sucrose in whole cagaita pulp.

The low glucose, fructose and sucrose values in the cagaita indicate that this fruit is less sweet and contains less sugar than the guava, for example. This comparison has been veri‐ fied by Lee & Kader (2000). Analyzing the fruits by High Performance Liquid Chromatogra‐ phy (HPLC), their study found higher values in the ripe guava pulp (11.52 g.100 ml-1 of sucrose, fructose 11.37 g.100 ml-1 and, glucose 5.12 g.100 ml-1.

## **5. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)**

The protein levels were low; although, as expected, they were higher in the fruit with their peels (2.03 g 100 g-1) than in peeled fruits (1.85 g 100 g-1). Some studies with the same result found similar values: 2.09 g 100 g-1 for the whole pulp (Roesler et al., 2007) and 0.99 g 100 g-1

In another study of guava, cited later in this paper, Gutiérrez, Mitchell, and Solis (2008), re‐

It can be concluded that the cagaita fruit is not high-caloric due to its low levels of protein,

Carvalho et al. (2009) and Ribeiro (2011) found a high concentration of fructose (2.54 g 100 mL-1), followed by glucose (1.75 g 100 mL-1) and the lowest concentration of sucrose (0.59 g 100 mL-1) (*P* >0.05) (Fig. 4). The high fructose content can be explained by the fact that the

Many different factors could have contributed to the low soluble sugar content in the cagaita pulp. One factor is mineral fertilization, where potassium is the primary mineral element causing starch accumulation in Citrus leaves (Lavon, Goldschmidt, Salomon, & Frank, 1995). On the other hand, the shortage of free sugars may trigger ethylene synthesis because defoli‐ ation, which drastically reduces sucrose transport to the fruit, increases ethylene synthesis (Ortolá, Monerri, & Guardiola, 2007) and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) ac‐

cumulation (Gómez-Cadenas, Mehouachi, Tadeo, Primo-Millo, & Talón, 2000).

**Figure 4.** HPLC chromatogram of glucose, frutose and sucrose in whole cagaita pulp.

in cagaita pulp (Martins, 2006).

8 Food Industry

carbohydrates, and especially lipids.

**4. Glucose, fructose and sucrose**

cagaita fruit used in their study was fully ripened.

viewed the fruit in relation to its protein content of 0.88%.

According to Andrade, Diniz, Neves & Nóbrega (2002), the sources of ascorbic acid are clas‐ sified by different levels: high sources, such as strawberry, guava and pineapple, contain 100 to 300 mg∙100 g-1; medium sources, such as orange, lemon and papaya contain an average of 50 to 100 mg∙100 g-1; and low sources, such as lime, pear and mango, contain 25 to 50 mg∙100 g-1. The vitamin C content in cagaita pulp as reported by Ribeiro (2011) was 56.66 mg 100 g-1 (Fig. 5) and by Cardoso et al. (2011), it was 34.11 mg 100 g−1, with 30.03 mg 100 g−1 of ascorbic acid and 4.08 mg 100 g−1 of de-hydro ascorbic acid. Therefore, the cagaita can be classified as a medium source of ascorbic acid. The pulp of the cagaita fruit has shown con‐ siderable promise for its vitamin C content and is considered a source of that nutrient when compared to other fruit. Silva, Santos-Junior, and Ferreira (2008) found the level of vitamin C to be 27.46 mg 100 g−1 in cagaita pulp from the Cerrado region in the state of Goias.

**Figure 5.** HPLC chromatogram of ascorbic acid in whole cagaita pulp.

On the other hand, the National Sanitary Surveillance Agency (ANVISA) legislation (Brazil, 1998) recommends that for a food to be considered a "source" of a certain vitamin, it should contain, at least, 15% of the Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) per 100 g of reference. To be considered "rich" in a vitamin, it should contain at least 30% of the RDI. Therefore, the cagai‐ ta can be categorized as rich in vitamin C because it exceeds 30% of the RDI (US National Academy of Sciences, 2000).

Therefore, no significant difference was found at a 5% level between them. Thus, the cagaita

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Determining the antioxidant activity of foods, in addition to recognizing its antioxidant po‐ tential before being consumed, is important to assess the defense against oxidation and deg‐ radation reactions that can lead to the degradation of its quality and nutritional value (Lima, 2008). Currently, there are no approved or standard methods for the determination of anti‐ oxidant activity. However, several *in vitro* methods have been and are being tested to evalu‐ ate the total antioxidant activity of substances and foods, especially in complex matrices such as wine, fruits and other vegetables. These methods are necessary because of the diffi‐ culty in comparing and measuring each compound separately and also because of the po‐ tential interactions between different antioxidants in the system. (Cao & Prior, 1999;

The methods most often cited in the literature include the antioxidant power in the reduc‐ tion of iron (FRAP), DPPH (radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrihidrazil) Activity of Oxygen Radical Absorption (ORAC), ABTS [acid 2,2 - Azin-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline) – 6 - sulfonic acid Spectrometry and Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) (Kulkarni, Aradhya and Divakar, 2004; Li‐

While evaluating the efficiency of using methanol and ethanol as solvents to determine the antioxidant activity in cagaita pulp (Ribeiro et al., 2011) found that the amount of ethanol ranged between 6.6% and 96.82% and that of methanol ranged between 11.20% and 92.60%, in different concentrations. It was also shown that the cagaita pulp reached its maximum

Roesler et al*.* (2007) found the antioxidant activity (IC50) in cagaita pulp extracted with peels to measure 387.47 mg ml-1 in the ethanolic extract and 879.33 mg ml-1 in the aqueous extract.

Gomes et al*.* (2011) measured the total carotenoid content in the whole cagaita pulp and also in the freeze-dried pulp and found 0.87 and 9.29 mg 100 g-1, respectively (Table 2 and Fig. 6). Lutein was the most abundant carotenoid in the whole and freeze-dried pulps (0.21 and 2.22 mg 100 g-1, respectively), followed by zeaxanthin (0.19 and 2.05 mg 100 g-1, respectively) and

According to these results, cagaita may be a source of lutein and zeaxanthin (which are nat‐ ural antioxidants), particularly in freeze-dried pulp. By microencapsulating the freeze-dried pulp, it can become a beneficial food additive because cagaita pulp is widely consumed in

fruit was found to have high total phenolic compounds.

Kulkarni, Aradhya, & Divakar, 2004; Scherer & Godoy, 2009).

value at a concentration of 500 µg ml-1, in both cases.

β-carotene (0.11 and 1.33 mg 100 g-1, respectively).

**7. Antioxidant capacity**

ma, 2008).

**8. Carotenoids**

the Brazilian Cerrado.

The ascorbic acid content of 26 kinds of exotic fruits from a variety of species and families were evaluated by Valente, Albuquerque, Sanches-Silva and Costa (2011). The results ranged from 1.42 to 117 mg 100 g-1, and those fruits that had values similar to cagaita were guava (*Psidium guajava*) with 65.8 mg 100 g-1, kiwi (*Actinidia chinensis* Planch), cv. Hayward with 55.2 mg 100 g-1, papaya (*Carica papaya*), cv. Taiwan with 64.2 mg 100 g-1 and mango (*Mangifera indica* L), cv. Palmer, with 40.9 mg 100 g-1, among others.

## **6. Polyphenols compounds**

In general, phenolic compounds behaving as antioxidants are multifunctional, achieving bi‐ oactivity in several ways: fighting free radicals by donating a hydrogen atom from a hydrox‐ yl group (OH) of their aromatic structure; chelating transition metals, such as the Fe2+ and Cu+ ; interrupting the propagation reaction of free radicals in lipid oxidation; modifying the redox potential of the medium and repairing the damage in molecules attacked by free radi‐ cals (Podsedek, 2007; Kyungmi & Ebel, 2008). These same phenolic compounds also block the action of specific enzymes that cause inflammation, modify the metabolic pathways of prostaglandins, permit platelet clumping and inhibit activation of carcinogens (Liu, 2005; Valko et al., 2007).

Historically, like tannins, phenolic compounds were classified as anti-nutrients, which have demonstrated adverse effects on human metabolism. However, identifying the specific properties of these phenolic compounds has stimulated the development of research aimed at identifying their potential health benefits (Kaur & Kapoor, 2001).

It is worth noting that a substance can be defined as polyphenolic antioxidant if it meets two conditions: (1) presence at a low concentration on the substrate to be oxidized (and this may delay or prevent oxidation), and (2) high stability of radicals formed after the reaction (Kaur & Kapoor, 2001).

Several spectrophotometric methods have been developed for the quantification of phenolic compounds in foods. The most commonly used by the scientific community is the Folin-Cio‐ calteau method, which involves the oxidation of phenol with a reagent and yellow phospho‐ molybdate heteropolyacid phosphotungsten (Folin-Ciocalteau) and colorimetric measurement of W-Mo blue complex formed in reaction in an alkaline medium (Singleton, Orthof, & Lamuel-Raventos, 1999). The results are expressed in gallic acid equivalents.

Some results of the polyphenols content in ethanolic (18.38 g GAE kg-1) and aqueous (16.23 g GAE kg-1) extracts of cagaita pulp were reported by Roesler et al. (2007). The content of the total phenolics in cagaita pulp was evaluated by Ribeiro et al. (2011) who found 10.51 mg GA g-1 in pulp with peels and, in the pulp without peels, found 9.01 mg gallic acid g-1. Therefore, no significant difference was found at a 5% level between them. Thus, the cagaita fruit was found to have high total phenolic compounds.

## **7. Antioxidant capacity**

considered "rich" in a vitamin, it should contain at least 30% of the RDI. Therefore, the cagai‐ ta can be categorized as rich in vitamin C because it exceeds 30% of the RDI (US National

The ascorbic acid content of 26 kinds of exotic fruits from a variety of species and families were evaluated by Valente, Albuquerque, Sanches-Silva and Costa (2011). The results ranged from 1.42 to 117 mg 100 g-1, and those fruits that had values similar to cagaita were guava (*Psidium guajava*) with 65.8 mg 100 g-1, kiwi (*Actinidia chinensis* Planch), cv. Hayward with 55.2 mg 100 g-1, papaya (*Carica papaya*), cv. Taiwan with 64.2 mg 100 g-1 and mango

In general, phenolic compounds behaving as antioxidants are multifunctional, achieving bi‐ oactivity in several ways: fighting free radicals by donating a hydrogen atom from a hydrox‐ yl group (OH) of their aromatic structure; chelating transition metals, such as the Fe2+ and

; interrupting the propagation reaction of free radicals in lipid oxidation; modifying the redox potential of the medium and repairing the damage in molecules attacked by free radi‐ cals (Podsedek, 2007; Kyungmi & Ebel, 2008). These same phenolic compounds also block the action of specific enzymes that cause inflammation, modify the metabolic pathways of prostaglandins, permit platelet clumping and inhibit activation of carcinogens (Liu, 2005;

Historically, like tannins, phenolic compounds were classified as anti-nutrients, which have demonstrated adverse effects on human metabolism. However, identifying the specific properties of these phenolic compounds has stimulated the development of research aimed

It is worth noting that a substance can be defined as polyphenolic antioxidant if it meets two conditions: (1) presence at a low concentration on the substrate to be oxidized (and this may delay or prevent oxidation), and (2) high stability of radicals formed after the reaction (Kaur

Several spectrophotometric methods have been developed for the quantification of phenolic compounds in foods. The most commonly used by the scientific community is the Folin-Cio‐ calteau method, which involves the oxidation of phenol with a reagent and yellow phospho‐ molybdate heteropolyacid phosphotungsten (Folin-Ciocalteau) and colorimetric measurement of W-Mo blue complex formed in reaction in an alkaline medium (Singleton, Orthof, & Lamuel-Raventos, 1999). The results are expressed in gallic acid equivalents.

Some results of the polyphenols content in ethanolic (18.38 g GAE kg-1) and aqueous (16.23 g GAE kg-1) extracts of cagaita pulp were reported by Roesler et al. (2007). The content of the total phenolics in cagaita pulp was evaluated by Ribeiro et al. (2011) who found 10.51 mg GA g-1 in pulp with peels and, in the pulp without peels, found 9.01 mg gallic acid g-1.

(*Mangifera indica* L), cv. Palmer, with 40.9 mg 100 g-1, among others.

at identifying their potential health benefits (Kaur & Kapoor, 2001).

Academy of Sciences, 2000).

10 Food Industry

**6. Polyphenols compounds**

Cu+

Valko et al., 2007).

& Kapoor, 2001).

Determining the antioxidant activity of foods, in addition to recognizing its antioxidant po‐ tential before being consumed, is important to assess the defense against oxidation and deg‐ radation reactions that can lead to the degradation of its quality and nutritional value (Lima, 2008). Currently, there are no approved or standard methods for the determination of anti‐ oxidant activity. However, several *in vitro* methods have been and are being tested to evalu‐ ate the total antioxidant activity of substances and foods, especially in complex matrices such as wine, fruits and other vegetables. These methods are necessary because of the diffi‐ culty in comparing and measuring each compound separately and also because of the po‐ tential interactions between different antioxidants in the system. (Cao & Prior, 1999; Kulkarni, Aradhya, & Divakar, 2004; Scherer & Godoy, 2009).

The methods most often cited in the literature include the antioxidant power in the reduc‐ tion of iron (FRAP), DPPH (radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrihidrazil) Activity of Oxygen Radical Absorption (ORAC), ABTS [acid 2,2 - Azin-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline) – 6 - sulfonic acid Spectrometry and Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) (Kulkarni, Aradhya and Divakar, 2004; Li‐ ma, 2008).

While evaluating the efficiency of using methanol and ethanol as solvents to determine the antioxidant activity in cagaita pulp (Ribeiro et al., 2011) found that the amount of ethanol ranged between 6.6% and 96.82% and that of methanol ranged between 11.20% and 92.60%, in different concentrations. It was also shown that the cagaita pulp reached its maximum value at a concentration of 500 µg ml-1, in both cases.

Roesler et al*.* (2007) found the antioxidant activity (IC50) in cagaita pulp extracted with peels to measure 387.47 mg ml-1 in the ethanolic extract and 879.33 mg ml-1 in the aqueous extract.

## **8. Carotenoids**

Gomes et al*.* (2011) measured the total carotenoid content in the whole cagaita pulp and also in the freeze-dried pulp and found 0.87 and 9.29 mg 100 g-1, respectively (Table 2 and Fig. 6). Lutein was the most abundant carotenoid in the whole and freeze-dried pulps (0.21 and 2.22 mg 100 g-1, respectively), followed by zeaxanthin (0.19 and 2.05 mg 100 g-1, respectively) and β-carotene (0.11 and 1.33 mg 100 g-1, respectively).

According to these results, cagaita may be a source of lutein and zeaxanthin (which are nat‐ ural antioxidants), particularly in freeze-dried pulp. By microencapsulating the freeze-dried pulp, it can become a beneficial food additive because cagaita pulp is widely consumed in the Brazilian Cerrado.

Cardoso et al*.* (2011) found a lower total carotenoid content (0.77 mg100 g−1) in the cagaita pulp from the Cerrado in the state of Minas Gerais. The major carotenoids were the α--caro‐ tene (0.31 mg 100 g−1) and β-carotene (0.39 mg 100 g−1) provitamin A carotenoids. They still found a small quantity of lycopene (0.06 mg100 g−1), however lutein and zeaxanthin were

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13

According to Carvalho et al*.* (2009), the most abundant mineral found in the cagaita pulp was potassium (75.83 mg 100 g-1), followed by sodium (6.80 mg 100 g-1), phosphorus (6.68 mg 100 g-1) and magnesium (5.92 mg 100 g-1). The levels of zinc were lower (0.23 mg 100 g-1), as were the levels of iron (0.06 mg 100 g-1) and calcium (0.65 mg 100 g-1) (Table 1). Higher values of calcium (0.8 mg 100 g-1) and, similarly, iron (0.04 mg 100 g-1) were found by Silva, Santos-Junior Junior, and Ferreira (2008) in the cagaita pulp, but zinc was not found at high‐ er levels. Leterme, Buldgen, Estrada, and Londoño (2006), in analyzing the fruits of araçáboi (belonging to the same family and genus as the cagaita), found similar values: 78 mg 100 g-1 (potassium), 7 mg 100 g-1 (phosphorus), 2 mg 100 g-1 (sodium) and 9 mg 100 g-1 (magnesi‐

**Mineral mg/100g Mineral mg/100g**

Comparing the cagaita (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC) to the results of the study by Dembitsky et al. (2011), in which different fruits were analyzed, confirms that the acerola (*Malpighia puni‐ cifolia* Linn) contains lower amounts of potassium (41 mg/100 g), zinc (0.09 mg/100 g) and manganese (0.7 mg 100 g-1) and much higher amounts of calcium (4 mg 100 g-1), iron (37 mg

While analyzing the fruits of guava-boi (*Eugenia stipit*ata Mark Vaughn) that belong to the same family and genus as the cagaita, Leterme, Buldgen, Estrada, and Londoño (2006) found similar amounts: 78 mg 100 g-1 of potassium, phosphorus 7mg 100 g-1, mg 100 g-1, 2 mg 100 g-1 and 9 mg 100 g-1 of sodium and magnesium. These variations could be due to

climatic conditions, soil type and the addition of fertilizers, for example.

**Potassium** 75.83 (± 0.43) **Aluminum** 0.23 (± 0.06) **Phosphorus** 6.68 (± 0.14) **Zinc** 0.23 (± 001) **Sodium** 6.80 (± 0.13) **Manganese** 0.13 (± 0.01) **Magnesium** 5.92 (± 0.08) **Iron** 0.06 (± 0.01) **Calcium** 0.65 (± 0.08) **Copper** 0.01 (± 0.01)

Mean Value (± Standard deviation (n = 3)). Source: Carvalho et al*.*, 2009

**Table 3.** Minerals in the unpeeled cagaita pulp (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC).

100 g-1) and magnesium (22 mg 100 g-1).

not found.

**9. Minerals**

um), respectively.

**Table 2.** Carotenoids (μg/g) and isomers of saponified and not saponified cagaita pulp

Lutein can be found in a variety of vegetables and is especially plentiful in cabbage (15 mg 100 g-1), parsley (10.82 mg 100 g-1), spinach (9.20 mg 100 g-1) and pumpkin (2.40 mg 100 g-1). However, it is found in lower concentrations in fruits such as peach and orange (0.02 and 0.35 mg 100 g-1, respectively).

Gomes (2012) identified α-carotene, β-carotene isomers and 9:13-cis β-carotene, β-cryptox‐ anthin, lutein and zeaxanthin in the pulp produced in cagaita Damianópolis, Goias, Brazil (Fig. 6).

The β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin the most abundant carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin and the carotenoids intermediate, and the α-carotene carotenoid the minority (Table 2).

There were significant differences in levels of total carotenoids according to the saponifica‐ tion step. The hydrolysis step was necessary to facilitate the identification of different caro‐ tenoids. The average concentration of total carotenoids found in the extracted pulp without the saponification step was 8.22 mg / g. There was a 29% decrease in total carotenoid content of the pulp subjected to saponification step (5.83 µ / g ± 0.18). This drop was expected and may occur as a function of temperature application of tests, and also by the exposure time of the pigment to the alkali (Mercadante, 1999; Penteado, 2003).

**Figure 6.** HPLC chromatogram of saponified cagaita pulp. Source: Gomes, 2012

Cardoso et al*.* (2011) found a lower total carotenoid content (0.77 mg100 g−1) in the cagaita pulp from the Cerrado in the state of Minas Gerais. The major carotenoids were the α--caro‐ tene (0.31 mg 100 g−1) and β-carotene (0.39 mg 100 g−1) provitamin A carotenoids. They still found a small quantity of lycopene (0.06 mg100 g−1), however lutein and zeaxanthin were not found.

## **9. Minerals**

**Samples**

12 Food Industry

Whole Pulp

Saponified Whole Pulp

(Fig. 6).

Source: Gomes, 2012

**Total**

8.22 ± 0.06

5.83 ± 0.52

0.35 mg 100 g-1, respectively).

**Carotenoids β-carotene 9-cis-β-**

0.97 ± 0.08

1.70 ± 0.18 **carotene**

0.20 ± 0.01

**Table 2.** Carotenoids (μg/g) and isomers of saponified and not saponified cagaita pulp

the pigment to the alkali (Mercadante, 1999; Penteado, 2003).

**Figure 6.** HPLC chromatogram of saponified cagaita pulp. Source: Gomes, 2012

Nd Nd

**13-cis-βcarotene**

> 0.09 ± 0.01

Lutein can be found in a variety of vegetables and is especially plentiful in cabbage (15 mg 100 g-1), parsley (10.82 mg 100 g-1), spinach (9.20 mg 100 g-1) and pumpkin (2.40 mg 100 g-1). However, it is found in lower concentrations in fruits such as peach and orange (0.02 and

Gomes (2012) identified α-carotene, β-carotene isomers and 9:13-cis β-carotene, β-cryptox‐ anthin, lutein and zeaxanthin in the pulp produced in cagaita Damianópolis, Goias, Brazil

The β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin the most abundant carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin and the carotenoids intermediate, and the α-carotene carotenoid the minority (Table 2).

There were significant differences in levels of total carotenoids according to the saponifica‐ tion step. The hydrolysis step was necessary to facilitate the identification of different caro‐ tenoids. The average concentration of total carotenoids found in the extracted pulp without the saponification step was 8.22 mg / g. There was a 29% decrease in total carotenoid content of the pulp subjected to saponification step (5.83 µ / g ± 0.18). This drop was expected and may occur as a function of temperature application of tests, and also by the exposure time of

**βcriptoxantin**

> 0.35 ± 0.01

> 1.49 ± 0.11

Nd

0.18 ± 0.16

**α-carotene Lutein Zeaxanthin**

1.81 ± 0.12

0.85 ± 0.01

1.99 ± 0.05

0.79 ± 0.02

> According to Carvalho et al*.* (2009), the most abundant mineral found in the cagaita pulp was potassium (75.83 mg 100 g-1), followed by sodium (6.80 mg 100 g-1), phosphorus (6.68 mg 100 g-1) and magnesium (5.92 mg 100 g-1). The levels of zinc were lower (0.23 mg 100 g-1), as were the levels of iron (0.06 mg 100 g-1) and calcium (0.65 mg 100 g-1) (Table 1). Higher values of calcium (0.8 mg 100 g-1) and, similarly, iron (0.04 mg 100 g-1) were found by Silva, Santos-Junior Junior, and Ferreira (2008) in the cagaita pulp, but zinc was not found at high‐ er levels. Leterme, Buldgen, Estrada, and Londoño (2006), in analyzing the fruits of araçáboi (belonging to the same family and genus as the cagaita), found similar values: 78 mg 100 g-1 (potassium), 7 mg 100 g-1 (phosphorus), 2 mg 100 g-1 (sodium) and 9 mg 100 g-1 (magnesi‐ um), respectively.

Mean Value (± Standard deviation (n = 3)). Source: Carvalho et al*.*, 2009

**Table 3.** Minerals in the unpeeled cagaita pulp (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC).

Comparing the cagaita (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC) to the results of the study by Dembitsky et al. (2011), in which different fruits were analyzed, confirms that the acerola (*Malpighia puni‐ cifolia* Linn) contains lower amounts of potassium (41 mg/100 g), zinc (0.09 mg/100 g) and manganese (0.7 mg 100 g-1) and much higher amounts of calcium (4 mg 100 g-1), iron (37 mg 100 g-1) and magnesium (22 mg 100 g-1).

While analyzing the fruits of guava-boi (*Eugenia stipit*ata Mark Vaughn) that belong to the same family and genus as the cagaita, Leterme, Buldgen, Estrada, and Londoño (2006) found similar amounts: 78 mg 100 g-1 of potassium, phosphorus 7mg 100 g-1, mg 100 g-1, 2 mg 100 g-1 and 9 mg 100 g-1 of sodium and magnesium. These variations could be due to climatic conditions, soil type and the addition of fertilizers, for example.

## **10. Volatile compounds**

Volatile compounds are responsible for the aroma and flavor of foods. The same fruit, even if native to Brazil, can vary greatly from region to region, with different varieties having a dissimilar volatile composition (Alves & Franco, 2003). The methods used for the extraction of volatile substances are time-consuming, requiring large amounts of sample (Sánchez-Pal‐ omo, Díaz-Maroto, & Pérez-Coello, 2005). Solid-phase Microextraction (SPME) is a fast, lowcost technique that allows the extraction of volatile substances that can then be analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrophotometry (GC/MS). This technique replaces traditional extraction methods, avoiding the formation of artifacts without the need for sol‐ vents, thereby minimizing artifact formation (Pawliszyn, 1997; Riu-Aumatell, Castellari, & López-Tamames, 2004).

pounds in murici, finding esters and alcohols. Ethanol (28.1%), ethyl hexanoate (25.1%) and methyl hexanoate (5.2%) were the major components. However, they reported that the high ethanol levels could be due to fermentation following maturation. Because no other authors re‐ ported these compounds, it is not possible to compare the reported results. A typical total ion

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15

It is noteworthy that this is the first time that volatile compounds have been found in cagaita

The consumption of fruit juice in Brazil and in the industrialized world has increased signif‐ icantly in recent decades. Using fruit juice or pulp that has been clarified by the membrane processes of microfiltration is already a reality in the international market. The cagaita pulp can be introduced as a new product used in the formulation of carbonated beverages, ener‐ gy and isotonic drinks. The demand for products with less nutritional and sensory changes led to the development of non-thermal preservation techniques such as the process of mem‐ brane separation. The membrane separation process is based on the selective permeability of one or more components through a membrane. The determination of the hydraulic permea‐ bility is an important tool in evaluating the permeate flux and the integrity of the mem‐ brane. Cardoso et al., (2011) evaluated the cagaita pulp clarified by microfiltration with a tubular polyethersulfone membrane (0.3 µm) at 2 Bar (Fig. 8). A mean flux after 2 hours

h. and the clarified juice yield was 43%. The results for the flux of the

chromatogram obtained from the cagaita pulp analysis is presented in Figure 7.

juice permeate were acceptable and the permeate was clear and translucent.

**Figure 8.** Cagaita pulps (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC): A – Whole, B – Concentrated e C – Clarified. (Cardoso et al., 2011).

**11. Membrane processes applied to cagaita pulp**

fruit from the Cerrado region in Goias.

process was 20 L./m2

**Figure 7.** Chromatogram of the cagaita pulp volatile compounds. Source: Cardoso et al, (2011).

Fifty six volatile compounds were found in cagaita pulp extracted by solid phase micro-extrac‐ tion and were analyzed by GC/MS. Among them, 19 could not be identified by Carvalho et al. (2009). Ethyl hexanoate was the most abundant compound in the cagaita pulp (51.4%), fol‐ lowed by the ethyl butanoate (14.7%), which also imparts the fruity aroma of the fruit juices and pulp. The results revealed that a greater concentration of esters, mainly methyl, ethyl hex‐ anoate (6.5%) and butanoate, are responsible for the fruity aroma. Alcohols and terpenes were present at low concentrations, with ethanol being the most abundant (3.0%). These volatile compounds were also found in pineapple, apple and papaya, among other fruits (Van Den Dool, & Kratz, 1963; Adams, 1972). Alves and Franco (2003) also identified some major com‐ pounds in murici, finding esters and alcohols. Ethanol (28.1%), ethyl hexanoate (25.1%) and methyl hexanoate (5.2%) were the major components. However, they reported that the high ethanol levels could be due to fermentation following maturation. Because no other authors re‐ ported these compounds, it is not possible to compare the reported results. A typical total ion chromatogram obtained from the cagaita pulp analysis is presented in Figure 7.

It is noteworthy that this is the first time that volatile compounds have been found in cagaita fruit from the Cerrado region in Goias.

## **11. Membrane processes applied to cagaita pulp**

**10. Volatile compounds**

14 Food Industry

López-Tamames, 2004).

Volatile compounds are responsible for the aroma and flavor of foods. The same fruit, even if native to Brazil, can vary greatly from region to region, with different varieties having a dissimilar volatile composition (Alves & Franco, 2003). The methods used for the extraction of volatile substances are time-consuming, requiring large amounts of sample (Sánchez-Pal‐ omo, Díaz-Maroto, & Pérez-Coello, 2005). Solid-phase Microextraction (SPME) is a fast, lowcost technique that allows the extraction of volatile substances that can then be analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrophotometry (GC/MS). This technique replaces traditional extraction methods, avoiding the formation of artifacts without the need for sol‐ vents, thereby minimizing artifact formation (Pawliszyn, 1997; Riu-Aumatell, Castellari, &

**Figure 7.** Chromatogram of the cagaita pulp volatile compounds. Source: Cardoso et al, (2011).

Fifty six volatile compounds were found in cagaita pulp extracted by solid phase micro-extrac‐ tion and were analyzed by GC/MS. Among them, 19 could not be identified by Carvalho et al. (2009). Ethyl hexanoate was the most abundant compound in the cagaita pulp (51.4%), fol‐ lowed by the ethyl butanoate (14.7%), which also imparts the fruity aroma of the fruit juices and pulp. The results revealed that a greater concentration of esters, mainly methyl, ethyl hex‐ anoate (6.5%) and butanoate, are responsible for the fruity aroma. Alcohols and terpenes were present at low concentrations, with ethanol being the most abundant (3.0%). These volatile compounds were also found in pineapple, apple and papaya, among other fruits (Van Den Dool, & Kratz, 1963; Adams, 1972). Alves and Franco (2003) also identified some major com‐ The consumption of fruit juice in Brazil and in the industrialized world has increased signif‐ icantly in recent decades. Using fruit juice or pulp that has been clarified by the membrane processes of microfiltration is already a reality in the international market. The cagaita pulp can be introduced as a new product used in the formulation of carbonated beverages, ener‐ gy and isotonic drinks. The demand for products with less nutritional and sensory changes led to the development of non-thermal preservation techniques such as the process of mem‐ brane separation. The membrane separation process is based on the selective permeability of one or more components through a membrane. The determination of the hydraulic permea‐ bility is an important tool in evaluating the permeate flux and the integrity of the mem‐ brane. Cardoso et al., (2011) evaluated the cagaita pulp clarified by microfiltration with a tubular polyethersulfone membrane (0.3 µm) at 2 Bar (Fig. 8). A mean flux after 2 hours process was 20 L./m2 h. and the clarified juice yield was 43%. The results for the flux of the juice permeate were acceptable and the permeate was clear and translucent.

**Figure 8.** Cagaita pulps (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC): A – Whole, B – Concentrated e C – Clarified. (Cardoso et al., 2011).

## **12. Microbiological quality**

Microbiological studies of cagaita pulp revealed no growth of microorganisms. Coliforms at 45°C, were indicative of its tolerance to sample 10² CFU (colony forming units) as was the absence of salmonella in 25 g of the sample (Carvalho et al*.,* 2009). Therefore, the analyzed pulps were found fit for human consumption because they were in accordance with stand‐ ards established by ANVISA (Brasil, 1998).

particle size ranging from 5 to 900 µm, and the greatest particle size reduction after hydroly‐

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17

Based on the results reported by several authors cited in this paper regarding the physical and chemical characteristics of the antioxidant action of the cagaita fruit, one can conclude that there is potential for therapeutic and medicinal applications. Additionally, a variety of new products with beneficial properties, such as jams, juices and energy beverages, can be made from the fruit of the cagaita. Using an established technology such as membrane proc‐ essing, to acquire clarified juice, and then adding nutrients, offers the potential for another profitable business venture. Because the population of the Brazilian Cerrado region con‐ sumes the fruit both, whole or processed by hand, the industrial manufacture of cagaita fruit products is a viable business opportunity, especially considering that most of the production

The authors thank FAPERJ by the financial support and research initiation fellowships and

sis ranged from 5 to 200 m. There were few particles above this size.

**Figure 9.** Particle size and frequency of cagaita pulp (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC).

**14. Conclusions and future trends**

fails to be fully utilized at this time.

**Acknowledgements**

CAPES for scholarships.

## **13. Particle size of the cagaita pulp**

Particle size analysis is an important tool to observe the enzymatic hydrolysis and the parti‐ cle size reduction in order to optimize the membrane pore size before clarification processes.

Particle size analysis can be an useful tool to observe particle size reduction during enzy‐ matic hydrolysis optimization to reduce juice viscosity. Few studies are found in the litera‐ ture reporting the use of particle size analysis to observe viscosity decrease in fruit juices.

Laser diffraction analysis was used to evaluate the effects of cloud particle characteristics such as shape, volume fraction, and soluble pectin on the viscosity of cloudy apple juice. Cloudy apple juice results in a suspension of irregular-shaped particles ranging from 0.25 to 0.5 µm in size. Data indicate that the effect of nonspherical particles on cloudy apple juice viscosity can be neglected and soluble pectin can significantly increase the viscosity (Geno‐ vese & Lozano, 2000).

The distribution of the average particle diameter, i.e., its frequency as measure by Carvalho et al. (2009 and 2011), was 12.11%, and the average particle diameter within cagaita pulp was 68.17 µm (Fig. 9). The presence of nanoparticles of less than 1 micrometers was still ob‐ served, but in low frequency (0.1%).

After enzymatic hydrolysis of lemon juice at different incubation times, Carvalho et al., (2006) evaluated the particle size reduction in prior membrane microfiltration processes in order to obtain better permeate fluxes. The whole lemon juice showed a wide distribution of particle size ranging from 5 to 900 µm, and the greatest particle size reduction after hydroly‐ sis ranged from 5 to 200 m. There were few particles above this size.

**Figure 9.** Particle size and frequency of cagaita pulp (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC).

## **14. Conclusions and future trends**

**12. Microbiological quality**

**Samples**

16 Food Industry

ards established by ANVISA (Brasil, 1998).

**Total Coliforms (UFC/mL)**

**13. Particle size of the cagaita pulp**

vese & Lozano, 2000).

served, but in low frequency (0.1%).

Microbiological studies of cagaita pulp revealed no growth of microorganisms. Coliforms at 45°C, were indicative of its tolerance to sample 10² CFU (colony forming units) as was the absence of salmonella in 25 g of the sample (Carvalho et al*.,* 2009). Therefore, the analyzed pulps were found fit for human consumption because they were in accordance with stand‐

> **Yeast and Mold (UFC/mL)**

*Salmonella* **sp. (Absence 25 g or mL)**

**Thermotolerant Coliforms (UFC/mL)**

WCP: Whole Cagaita Pulp; RCP: Retentate Cagaita Pulp; CCP: Clarified Cagaita Pulp

**Table 4.** Microbiological analysis of whole, retentate and clarified cagaita pulp.

WCP < 10 < 10 < 10 Absence RCP < 10 < 10 < 10 Absence CCP < 10 < 10 < 10 Absence

Particle size analysis is an important tool to observe the enzymatic hydrolysis and the parti‐ cle size reduction in order to optimize the membrane pore size before clarification processes.

Particle size analysis can be an useful tool to observe particle size reduction during enzy‐ matic hydrolysis optimization to reduce juice viscosity. Few studies are found in the litera‐ ture reporting the use of particle size analysis to observe viscosity decrease in fruit juices.

Laser diffraction analysis was used to evaluate the effects of cloud particle characteristics such as shape, volume fraction, and soluble pectin on the viscosity of cloudy apple juice. Cloudy apple juice results in a suspension of irregular-shaped particles ranging from 0.25 to 0.5 µm in size. Data indicate that the effect of nonspherical particles on cloudy apple juice viscosity can be neglected and soluble pectin can significantly increase the viscosity (Geno‐

The distribution of the average particle diameter, i.e., its frequency as measure by Carvalho et al. (2009 and 2011), was 12.11%, and the average particle diameter within cagaita pulp was 68.17 µm (Fig. 9). The presence of nanoparticles of less than 1 micrometers was still ob‐

After enzymatic hydrolysis of lemon juice at different incubation times, Carvalho et al., (2006) evaluated the particle size reduction in prior membrane microfiltration processes in order to obtain better permeate fluxes. The whole lemon juice showed a wide distribution of Based on the results reported by several authors cited in this paper regarding the physical and chemical characteristics of the antioxidant action of the cagaita fruit, one can conclude that there is potential for therapeutic and medicinal applications. Additionally, a variety of new products with beneficial properties, such as jams, juices and energy beverages, can be made from the fruit of the cagaita. Using an established technology such as membrane proc‐ essing, to acquire clarified juice, and then adding nutrients, offers the potential for another profitable business venture. Because the population of the Brazilian Cerrado region con‐ sumes the fruit both, whole or processed by hand, the industrial manufacture of cagaita fruit products is a viable business opportunity, especially considering that most of the production fails to be fully utilized at this time.

## **Acknowledgements**

The authors thank FAPERJ by the financial support and research initiation fellowships and CAPES for scholarships.

## **Author details**

Ediane Maria Gomes Ribeiro1 , Lucia Maria Jaeger de Carvalho1 , Gisela Maria Dellamora Ortiz1 , Flavio de Souza Neves Cardoso1 , Daniela Soares Viana1 , José Luiz Viana de Carvalho2 , Patricia Barros Gomes1 and Nicolas Machado Tebaldi1

(*Eugenia dysenterica* L) pulp by microfiltration. EFFoST 2011 Annual Meeting: Proc‐

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53157

19

An Overview on Cagaita (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC) Macro and Micro Components and a Technological Approach

ess, Structure- Function Relationships. November, Berlin, Germany., 09-12.

*limon* L), cv. Tahiti. *Brazilian Journal of Food Technology,* , 9, 277-282.

[11] Carvalho, L. M. J., Castro, I. M., Silva, C. A. B., Fonseca, R. B., & Silva, E. M. M. (2006). Effect of enzymatic hydrolysis on particle size reduction in lemon juice (*Citrus*

[12] Carvalho, L. M. J., Ribeiro, E. M. G., Moura, M. R. L., Viana, D. S., Motta, E. L., Barbi, N., & Figueiredo, V. (2009). Study of volatile compounds in cagaita. CIGR- *VI Interna‐ tional Symposium on Food Processing.* Monitoring Technology in Bioprocesses and

[13] Carvalho, L. M. J., Ribeiro, E. M. G., Viana, D. S., Moura, M. R. L., & Vieira, A. C. R. A. (2010). Use of different solvents to determine cagaita antioxidant activity. IUFOST

[14] Chaves, L. J., & Telles, M. P. C. (2006). Capítulo 7: Cagaita in Frutas Nativas da Re‐ gião Centro-Oeste. Brasília: Embrapa Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, 2006. 320

[15] Dembitsky, V. M., Poovarodom, S., Leontowicz, H. M., Vearasilp, S., Trakhtenberg, S., & Gorinstein, S. (2011). The multiple nutrition properties of some exotic fruits: Bi‐ ological activity and active metabolites. Food Research International*,* 44 (7),

[16] Donadio, L. C., Môro, F. V., & Servidone, A. A. (2002). *Frutas brasileiras.* Jaboticabal:

[17] Genovese, D. D., & Lozano, J. E. (2000). Effect of cloud particle characteristics on the

[18] Gomes, P. B., Carvalho, L. M. J., Cardoso, F. N., Tebaldi, N., Ribeiro, E. M. G., & Car‐ valho, J. L. V. (2011). Carotenoids in cagaita (*Eugenia dysenterica* DC): whole and lyophilized pulps. Book of Abstracts: EFFOST 2011 Annual Meeting- Process- Struc‐

[19] Gomes, P. B. (2012). Cagaita pulp clarification by microfiltration and evaluation of carotenoids losses after membrane process. MsC Thesis. Rio de Janeiro Federal Uni‐ versity, Pharmaceutical Sciences MSc and Ph.D Programm, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. [20] Gómez-Cadenas, A., Mehouachi, J., Tadeo, F. R., Primo-Millo, E., & Talón, M. (2000). Hormonal regulation on fruitlet abscission induced by carbohydrate shortage in *Cit‐*

[21] Gutiérrez, R. M. P., Mitchell, S., & Solis, R. V. (2008). *Psidium guajava*: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. *Journal of Ethnopharmacology,* ,

[22] Kaur, C., & Kapoor, H. C. (2001). Antioxidants in fruits and vegetables the Millenni‐

viscosity of cloud apple juice*. Journal of Food Science, 65*(4), 641- 645.

ture Function Relationships. November, Berlin, Germany., 9-11.

um's Health. *International Journal of Food Chemistry,* , 36, 703-725.

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th *World Congress of Food Science and Technology*. Shangay. China., 2010-15.

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1 Pharmacy College, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil

2 Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Brasil

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(*Eugenia dysenterica* L) pulp by microfiltration. EFFoST 2011 Annual Meeting: Proc‐ ess, Structure- Function Relationships. November, Berlin, Germany., 09-12.

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**Author details**

18 Food Industry

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**Chapter 2**

**The Bean – Naturally Bridging Agriculture and Human**

Human existence requires a steady supply of food containing a multitude of vitamins, min‐ erals, trace elements, amino acids, essential fatty acids and obviously starch. Advances in crop production have mostly occurred in cereals like rice, wheat and maize, whereas grain legumes like bean and lentils only have experienced a quarter of these advances [1]. The shift have had consequences on the human wellbeing [2] as cereals after polishing or de‐

The plant family *Leguminosae* is particular interesting as it is protein rich and possesses the capability to fix atmospheric N2, which makes it independent off fuel-driven supplies of ni‐ trogen fertilizers. Common bean (*Phaseolus vulgaris* L.) is without comparison eaten more than any other grain legume [3]. Because of its importance it is often considered the 'poor man's meat' although this comparison may not give full justice to the bean. Beans are rich in the amino acids lysine and methionine, making beans complementary to cereals. In addi‐ tion, they are rich in dietary fibre and low in oil content. Beans are genetically very diverse, adapted to local conditions and dietary preferences. An evaluation of the various collections by in particular CIAT and USDA Plant Germ System for useful traits has started but sophis‐

Beans are consumed as mature grain and immature seeds as well as green pods and leaves taken as vegetables [6]. As early as 1958, the UN organisation FAO organised a conference where the production and consumption of bean were discussed. In this context, [7] noted that data on production and consumption on grain legumes generally were incomplete. It seems plausible that this condition prevails till today given that a large proportion of the

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 Høgh-Jensen et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,

**Wellbeing**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53164

**1. Introduction**

Henning Høgh-Jensen, Fidelis M. Myaka, Donwell Kamalongo and Amos Ngwira

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

husking only contain small amounts of protein and micronutrients.

ticated plant breeding of the bean is sparse [e.g. 4, 5].

## **The Bean – Naturally Bridging Agriculture and Human Wellbeing**

Henning Høgh-Jensen, Fidelis M. Myaka, Donwell Kamalongo and Amos Ngwira

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53164

## **1. Introduction**

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[54] Van Den, Dool. H., & Kratz, P. D. (1963). A Generalization of the retention index sys‐ tem including linear temperature programmed gas-liquid partition chromatography.

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[56] Zucchi, M. I., Brondani, R. P. V., & Pinheiro, J. B. (2003). Genetic structure and gene flow in *Eugenia dysenterica* DC in the brazilian cerrado utilizing SSR markers. *Genetics*

tion databases. *Food Research International*, doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2011.02.012,

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condições do Cerrado. *Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura, 24* (2), 491-495.

Press, 506p.

22 Food Industry

*Fruticultura,* , 27(2), 241-244.

gia. Brasília, DF.

*Journal of Chromatography*, , 11, 463-471.

*and Molecular Biology, 26* (4), 449-457.

Human existence requires a steady supply of food containing a multitude of vitamins, min‐ erals, trace elements, amino acids, essential fatty acids and obviously starch. Advances in crop production have mostly occurred in cereals like rice, wheat and maize, whereas grain legumes like bean and lentils only have experienced a quarter of these advances [1]. The shift have had consequences on the human wellbeing [2] as cereals after polishing or de‐ husking only contain small amounts of protein and micronutrients.

The plant family *Leguminosae* is particular interesting as it is protein rich and possesses the capability to fix atmospheric N2, which makes it independent off fuel-driven supplies of ni‐ trogen fertilizers. Common bean (*Phaseolus vulgaris* L.) is without comparison eaten more than any other grain legume [3]. Because of its importance it is often considered the 'poor man's meat' although this comparison may not give full justice to the bean. Beans are rich in the amino acids lysine and methionine, making beans complementary to cereals. In addi‐ tion, they are rich in dietary fibre and low in oil content. Beans are genetically very diverse, adapted to local conditions and dietary preferences. An evaluation of the various collections by in particular CIAT and USDA Plant Germ System for useful traits has started but sophis‐ ticated plant breeding of the bean is sparse [e.g. 4, 5].

Beans are consumed as mature grain and immature seeds as well as green pods and leaves taken as vegetables [6]. As early as 1958, the UN organisation FAO organised a conference where the production and consumption of bean were discussed. In this context, [7] noted that data on production and consumption on grain legumes generally were incomplete. It seems plausible that this condition prevails till today given that a large proportion of the

© 2013 Høgh-Jensen et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2013 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

bean crops are produced for home consumption in backyards and small gardens and fre‐ quently it is also intercropped with maize by smallholders as a secondary crop. Consequent‐ ly, reliable statistics may be difficult to obtain regarding production.

Protein (%)

and less welcoming soils.

per hectare to almost 3 tonnes (Table 3).

 Nutrient content of two grain legumes (Cajanus cajan: pigeonpea and Phaseolus vulgaris L.: bean) and maize (with or without husk) cultivated under farmers' conditions in eastern and southern Africa. Included is also the content of rice, wheat and potato flour sampled from various shops. After [11] and Høgh-Jensen, unpublished data).

In a trial with approx. 100 bean genotypes grown under relatively fertile one-site conditions in Malawi, an unexpected small variation was observed in terms of iron and zinc content of the grain. Mean contents of iron in the bean grains were 67.7 (± a SE of 0.95) and zinc were 33.6 (± a SE of 0.54) ppm (Høgh-Jensen and Chirwa, unpublished data). This demonstrated that genetic diversity may not be fully expressed when conditions are the same. However, seven of the best performing varieties were selected for subsequent trialling under varying local conditions in Malawi and Tanzania in the dry season of 2005 utilizing residual mois‐ ture. This trialling expressed on average over 230 plots selected for variation a content of 90 and 37 ppm iron and zinc, respectively (Table 2). The promising varieties consequently per‐ formed above expectations and certainly above average - even under fairly harsh conditions

What varied the most was actually the yield between farmers. Consequently, the low hang‐ ing fruit is to focus on trialling and selecting the highest yielding varieties and to work with farmers to optimize the cultivation of beans (Table 3). Breeders have had some success by simply selecting for yields under conditions with semi-controlled drought periods [13,14] or across environments [15]. This approach does not disregard the more sophisticated breeding efforts like marker-assisted selection [e.g. 5]. However, the diversity seems yet only partly tapped, which means that local conditions to a large extent can be accommodated in a sim‐ pler trialling approach. The effect of this localness is expressed in the yield differences shown in a trialling of 6-8 bean varieties in Tanzania and Malawi, ranging from 100 kg grain

Na (ppm)

1.1 0.002 0.024 0.113 0.015 0.011 0 96.3 0.40 0.15 3.58 0.29 0.18 0.9 0.02

Cr (ppm)

Mn (ppm)

Fe (ppm)

The Bean – Naturally Bridging Agriculture and Human Wellbeing

Ni (ppm)

Cu (ppm)

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53164

Zn (ppm)

Mo (ppm) 25

Bridging agriculture and human wellbeing is the answer to major challenges like world hunger, diminishing natural resources, and climate changes. The bridging can be done in two ways, either by enhancing the content of nutrients in the starch-rich stable food or by enhancing the accessibility of nutrient-dense food in the diet. Acknowledging beans impor‐ tance in the diet of large segments of the world population, we will in this chapter explore possibilities to bridge the production side with the consumption side. This we will do by fo‐ cussing on enhancing the amounts of important nutrients in our dominant diets.

Enhancing the content of nutrient in the available food can be done via traditional fortifica‐ tion through the processing of diet elements. Or it can be done via the so-called 'biofortifica‐ tion', which aims at improving the genetic basis for making plant foods more nutritious as the plants are.

Improving our access to nutrient dense food elements requires a different look as such food elements already may be part of the traditional diet. Such a look requires that local produc‐ tion and productivity is our vantage point and that peoples' specific preferences and cul‐ tures may influence their preferences for cultivating particular cultivars. Such a vantage point requires that people are involved in the process [8] and this chapter will pursue this using the *Phaseolus* bean as a model for one nutrient-dense element of the diet.

## **2. The bean**

Improving the content in the starch-rich food elements like wheat, rice and maize is obvi‐ ously possibly but the starting point is very low (Table 1). The grain legumes, on the contra‐ ry, have a high starting point from where to seek improvements. Beans are superior to cereals in their macro- and micronutrient content as demonstrated in Table 1, in agreement with [9] although trials with other pulses under farmers' conditions have demonstrated that genetic potential are not always expressed under more marginal conditions. Furthermore, the legumes holds a potential for entering the diet in a diversity of ways, ranging from the dry mature seeds, to green seeds and pods as well as leaves used as vegetables, see also [10]. An efficient bridge to human wellbeing can thus be established by enhancing the access to and intake of the beans with their high nutrient density.

The production and the uses of legumes decrease in some regions while it increases in oth‐ ers. Brazil and Argentina have become major producers and exporters of soya bean due to its value in the feed industry, while the production of grain legumes for home consumption decreases steadily in a country like Bangladesh [12]. A historical view since 1970 show how‐ ever a consistent decline in the average annual consumption of grain legumes per capita from 9 to 7 kg per person [6].

bean crops are produced for home consumption in backyards and small gardens and fre‐ quently it is also intercropped with maize by smallholders as a secondary crop. Consequent‐

Bridging agriculture and human wellbeing is the answer to major challenges like world hunger, diminishing natural resources, and climate changes. The bridging can be done in two ways, either by enhancing the content of nutrients in the starch-rich stable food or by enhancing the accessibility of nutrient-dense food in the diet. Acknowledging beans impor‐ tance in the diet of large segments of the world population, we will in this chapter explore possibilities to bridge the production side with the consumption side. This we will do by fo‐

Enhancing the content of nutrient in the available food can be done via traditional fortifica‐ tion through the processing of diet elements. Or it can be done via the so-called 'biofortifica‐ tion', which aims at improving the genetic basis for making plant foods more nutritious as

Improving our access to nutrient dense food elements requires a different look as such food elements already may be part of the traditional diet. Such a look requires that local produc‐ tion and productivity is our vantage point and that peoples' specific preferences and cul‐ tures may influence their preferences for cultivating particular cultivars. Such a vantage point requires that people are involved in the process [8] and this chapter will pursue this

Improving the content in the starch-rich food elements like wheat, rice and maize is obvi‐ ously possibly but the starting point is very low (Table 1). The grain legumes, on the contra‐ ry, have a high starting point from where to seek improvements. Beans are superior to cereals in their macro- and micronutrient content as demonstrated in Table 1, in agreement with [9] although trials with other pulses under farmers' conditions have demonstrated that genetic potential are not always expressed under more marginal conditions. Furthermore, the legumes holds a potential for entering the diet in a diversity of ways, ranging from the dry mature seeds, to green seeds and pods as well as leaves used as vegetables, see also [10]. An efficient bridge to human wellbeing can thus be established by enhancing the access to

The production and the uses of legumes decrease in some regions while it increases in oth‐ ers. Brazil and Argentina have become major producers and exporters of soya bean due to its value in the feed industry, while the production of grain legumes for home consumption decreases steadily in a country like Bangladesh [12]. A historical view since 1970 show how‐ ever a consistent decline in the average annual consumption of grain legumes per capita

cussing on enhancing the amounts of important nutrients in our dominant diets.

using the *Phaseolus* bean as a model for one nutrient-dense element of the diet.

and intake of the beans with their high nutrient density.

from 9 to 7 kg per person [6].

ly, reliable statistics may be difficult to obtain regarding production.

the plants are.

24 Food Industry

**2. The bean**

**Table 1.** Nutrient content of two grain legumes (Cajanus cajan: pigeonpea and Phaseolus vulgaris L.: bean) and maize (with or without husk) cultivated under farmers' conditions in eastern and southern Africa. Included is also the content of rice, wheat and potato flour sampled from various shops. After [11] and Høgh-Jensen, unpublished data).

In a trial with approx. 100 bean genotypes grown under relatively fertile one-site conditions in Malawi, an unexpected small variation was observed in terms of iron and zinc content of the grain. Mean contents of iron in the bean grains were 67.7 (± a SE of 0.95) and zinc were 33.6 (± a SE of 0.54) ppm (Høgh-Jensen and Chirwa, unpublished data). This demonstrated that genetic diversity may not be fully expressed when conditions are the same. However, seven of the best performing varieties were selected for subsequent trialling under varying local conditions in Malawi and Tanzania in the dry season of 2005 utilizing residual mois‐ ture. This trialling expressed on average over 230 plots selected for variation a content of 90 and 37 ppm iron and zinc, respectively (Table 2). The promising varieties consequently per‐ formed above expectations and certainly above average - even under fairly harsh conditions and less welcoming soils.

What varied the most was actually the yield between farmers. Consequently, the low hang‐ ing fruit is to focus on trialling and selecting the highest yielding varieties and to work with farmers to optimize the cultivation of beans (Table 3). Breeders have had some success by simply selecting for yields under conditions with semi-controlled drought periods [13,14] or across environments [15]. This approach does not disregard the more sophisticated breeding efforts like marker-assisted selection [e.g. 5]. However, the diversity seems yet only partly tapped, which means that local conditions to a large extent can be accommodated in a sim‐ pler trialling approach. The effect of this localness is expressed in the yield differences shown in a trialling of 6-8 bean varieties in Tanzania and Malawi, ranging from 100 kg grain per hectare to almost 3 tonnes (Table 3).

**3. Innovation in a value chain that also accommodate human well-being**

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27

Documented trialling efforts have so far been dominated by the researchers and only includ‐ ing the farmers, processers, traders, etc. to a limited extend. This does not mean that actors of change like innovative farmers, NGO, etc., have not had such activities. Our experiences tell us however that many of these data are difficult to get access to as they appear in reports, note‐ books, newsletters, and similar documents that are found on shelves and stores. It appears log‐ ical that such trialling efforts must be linked to a learning process. The localness must however not hinder that the conclusions from such learning processes to be made available to others. The increasing using of open online repositories of research documents, which often is termed "grey literature", is an important step to share knowledge. The increasing publication rate in open access literature is another that will bring actors of change into the knowledge stream and

Since the Second World War, the innovation model in science has been linear, although a new model – less linear – emerged in the 1990s, called the 'Triple-Helix model', based on interactions between policy, science and society [17]. Increasingly, this model is being seen as also having a fourth leg, namely that of business. The fairly sequential linear innovation approach where production >> processing >> retailing may be adequate when talking about industrialized agricultural commodities. However, when quality requirements are less standard, the development of the requested traits at the commodities at various steps along

Such a process have been depicted by [18], drawing on experiences from working with small and market-inexperienced farmers, small processers with limited financial and proc‐ essing capacity, and more fragmented retailers where market requirements are only partly known. Due to the limited experiences and capacities along the chain, a number of learning loops are included where the various stakeholders interact. These interactions are centred on value chain forums and actions related to each transforming step in the chain. Such value chain forums are found very important to enable the adjustment and enabling of mutual learning. Included in the model are also the feedback loops and the transformation of the

The value chain forums can be regarded as the places that prototyping is taking place. Pro‐ totyping is an important step in the innovation process as this is where ideas are being pre‐ sented, discussed and validated – or maybe even more importantly discharged. Prototyping is a very important mode of action to avoid mistakes that will be very expensive in the lon‐ ger run, if the solutions are allowed to travel further up the value chain. Clearly such learn‐ ing processes are a challenge to researchers as management is becoming management of the

Prototypes are designed to answer questions. The prototypes need not to be sophisticated but should best be as simple as possible. Simplicity is important to keep costs down and to enable the question-solution discussion. At a moment where management wisdom insists that speed to market is the key to competitiveness, the maintenance of the learning loop is

to our common building of joint research capacity [see e.g. 16].

the chain may require quite different orchestrated processes [16].

intelligence regarding market requirements (Figure 1).

process and not management of the variables.

**Table 2.** Mean grain yield, individual grain weight, and iron and zinc content in dry matter for tested varieties in Malawi and Tanzania in the dry season of 2005.

**Table 3.** Average bean grain yield per farmer, who tested 6-8 varieties.

## **3. Innovation in a value chain that also accommodate human well-being**

**Variety per country**

26 Food Industry

**Malawi**

**Tanzania**

Grain yield (kg DM ha-1)

Malawi and Tanzania in the dry season of 2005.

Grain weight (g 1000 grains-1)

 1671 516 88 39 1410 444 88 39 1131 442 114 46 1470 478 88 38 1262 419 110 41 1749 503 91 39 Napilira 1280 408 104 42

Jesca 782 324 61 33 Lyamungo85 860 358 81 32 Lyamungo90 1015 393 77 31 Selian94 1010 314 88 36 Selian97 1121 346 82 34 Uyole84 710 259 70 33 Uyole96 746 404 87 40 Wanja 924 385 78 34

**Table 2.** Mean grain yield, individual grain weight, and iron and zinc content in dry matter for tested varieties in

**Farmer Country Grain yield (kg ha-1) Country Grain yield (kg ha-1)**

**1** Tanzania 296 Malawi 1129 **2** 740 1146 **3** 146 2006 **4** 634 1508 **5** 432 1696 **6** 155 1602 **7** 189 1600 **8** 99 1415 **9** 1924 844 **10** 1475 1068 **11** 2829 648 **12** 704 1518 **13** 1534 1241 **14** 1336 876 **15** 716 1573

**Table 3.** Average bean grain yield per farmer, who tested 6-8 varieties.

Iron (ppm) Zinc (ppm)

> Documented trialling efforts have so far been dominated by the researchers and only includ‐ ing the farmers, processers, traders, etc. to a limited extend. This does not mean that actors of change like innovative farmers, NGO, etc., have not had such activities. Our experiences tell us however that many of these data are difficult to get access to as they appear in reports, note‐ books, newsletters, and similar documents that are found on shelves and stores. It appears log‐ ical that such trialling efforts must be linked to a learning process. The localness must however not hinder that the conclusions from such learning processes to be made available to others. The increasing using of open online repositories of research documents, which often is termed "grey literature", is an important step to share knowledge. The increasing publication rate in open access literature is another that will bring actors of change into the knowledge stream and to our common building of joint research capacity [see e.g. 16].

> Since the Second World War, the innovation model in science has been linear, although a new model – less linear – emerged in the 1990s, called the 'Triple-Helix model', based on interactions between policy, science and society [17]. Increasingly, this model is being seen as also having a fourth leg, namely that of business. The fairly sequential linear innovation approach where production >> processing >> retailing may be adequate when talking about industrialized agricultural commodities. However, when quality requirements are less standard, the development of the requested traits at the commodities at various steps along the chain may require quite different orchestrated processes [16].

> Such a process have been depicted by [18], drawing on experiences from working with small and market-inexperienced farmers, small processers with limited financial and proc‐ essing capacity, and more fragmented retailers where market requirements are only partly known. Due to the limited experiences and capacities along the chain, a number of learning loops are included where the various stakeholders interact. These interactions are centred on value chain forums and actions related to each transforming step in the chain. Such value chain forums are found very important to enable the adjustment and enabling of mutual learning. Included in the model are also the feedback loops and the transformation of the intelligence regarding market requirements (Figure 1).

> The value chain forums can be regarded as the places that prototyping is taking place. Pro‐ totyping is an important step in the innovation process as this is where ideas are being pre‐ sented, discussed and validated – or maybe even more importantly discharged. Prototyping is a very important mode of action to avoid mistakes that will be very expensive in the lon‐ ger run, if the solutions are allowed to travel further up the value chain. Clearly such learn‐ ing processes are a challenge to researchers as management is becoming management of the process and not management of the variables.

> Prototypes are designed to answer questions. The prototypes need not to be sophisticated but should best be as simple as possible. Simplicity is important to keep costs down and to enable the question-solution discussion. At a moment where management wisdom insists that speed to market is the key to competitiveness, the maintenance of the learning loop is

important – the cycle should be kept running to produce different ideas. Simplicity and dif‐ ferentiation is the two carrying principles here! But the circle MUST be stimulated by feed‐ ing in intelligence from the other actors along the chain, e.g. retailers and sellers, among others, to maintain chain agility. Consequently, innovation is not solely about technology. Innovation in this context is more about means to obtain, consolidate, translate and manage knowledge, means to transform knowledge, and organisational learning. In that sense, inno‐ vation becomes a culture of prototyping [see e.g. 20,21]. The possibilities of including diet‐ ary requirements in the first learning loop (Figure 1) are good as long as these requirements can be quantified and described and as long as they are causal.

**4. Naturally bridging agriculture and human wellbeing**

hectare in extensive mid-USA or north Spain [25].

per area unit has remained low (Figure 2).

Green Revolution" [see e.g. 29].

[30].

To maintain productivity in agroecosystems, before the era of the fertilizer industry, hu‐ mans traditionally have included animals in the systems and used their manures as fertiliz‐ ers to drive the cereal production [23] in combination with grassland legumes to enhance the supply of nitrogen via symbiotic fixation [24]. Depending on locality, up to an average of 4-5 tonnes of manure could be applied per hectare in the UK [23] or as low as 1.5 tonnes per

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29

The tropics have few examples where livestock is integrated in the agroecosystems in the same manner as frequently found under Northern temperate conditions [26). As fertilizer use in Africa is still a very modest proportion of worlds fertilizer use [27], the cereal yields

The response of data like those of low yield levels (depicted in Figure 2) follows a paradigm development [26], which also is referred by [8]. During the 1960s and 1970s, an external in‐ put paradigm was driving the research and development agenda which later has been known as the 'Green Revolution'. In the early 1980s, the balance shifted from mineral inputs only, to low external input sustainable agriculture (LEISA) where organic resources were be‐ lieved to enable sustainable agricultural production. During the 1990s, the Integrated Natu‐ ral Resource Management research approach and ultimately the Integrated Soil Fertility Management paradigm emerged. Still it was however argued that Sub-Saharan African farmers must use more fertilizer, improved germplasm, etc. to achieve a so-called "Second

**Figure 2.** Official UN 5-year running average maize yield in the Sub Saharan African region between 1961 and 2010

A critical lesson from all this work is that a highly context-specific approach is required which takes into account the fertility status of the soil, the availability of organic inputs and

the ability to access and pay for mineral fertilizers [28,31].

**Figure 1.** Prototyping in value chains innovation and development [modified after 19].

Nutrient dense diets can be sought in two ways. One is to find variation within one element of the diet that can form the basis for selecting the most promising in order to enhance the content. Or to seek a better production and/or access to the part of the diet that is particular‐ ly contributing with the nutrients. The later may be done by enhancing the production po‐ tential of bean varieties. It may however also be by promoting the use of the leaves for vegetable stews. [22] documented that the iron contents of the leaves compared to the ma‐ ture grains could be 5-10 times higher on a dry matter basis. Leafy vegetables are indeed good sources of iron but they are mostly eaten for their vitamin-A and vitamin-C content. On a volume basis, the leafy vegetable and the boiled beans may provide similar amounts of iron. The boiled mature grain may however be a much better source of zinc [22].

## **4. Naturally bridging agriculture and human wellbeing**

important – the cycle should be kept running to produce different ideas. Simplicity and dif‐ ferentiation is the two carrying principles here! But the circle MUST be stimulated by feed‐ ing in intelligence from the other actors along the chain, e.g. retailers and sellers, among others, to maintain chain agility. Consequently, innovation is not solely about technology. Innovation in this context is more about means to obtain, consolidate, translate and manage knowledge, means to transform knowledge, and organisational learning. In that sense, inno‐ vation becomes a culture of prototyping [see e.g. 20,21]. The possibilities of including diet‐ ary requirements in the first learning loop (Figure 1) are good as long as these requirements

can be quantified and described and as long as they are causal.

28 Food Industry

**Figure 1.** Prototyping in value chains innovation and development [modified after 19].

Nutrient dense diets can be sought in two ways. One is to find variation within one element of the diet that can form the basis for selecting the most promising in order to enhance the content. Or to seek a better production and/or access to the part of the diet that is particular‐ ly contributing with the nutrients. The later may be done by enhancing the production po‐ tential of bean varieties. It may however also be by promoting the use of the leaves for vegetable stews. [22] documented that the iron contents of the leaves compared to the ma‐ ture grains could be 5-10 times higher on a dry matter basis. Leafy vegetables are indeed good sources of iron but they are mostly eaten for their vitamin-A and vitamin-C content. On a volume basis, the leafy vegetable and the boiled beans may provide similar amounts of

iron. The boiled mature grain may however be a much better source of zinc [22].

To maintain productivity in agroecosystems, before the era of the fertilizer industry, hu‐ mans traditionally have included animals in the systems and used their manures as fertiliz‐ ers to drive the cereal production [23] in combination with grassland legumes to enhance the supply of nitrogen via symbiotic fixation [24]. Depending on locality, up to an average of 4-5 tonnes of manure could be applied per hectare in the UK [23] or as low as 1.5 tonnes per hectare in extensive mid-USA or north Spain [25].

The tropics have few examples where livestock is integrated in the agroecosystems in the same manner as frequently found under Northern temperate conditions [26). As fertilizer use in Africa is still a very modest proportion of worlds fertilizer use [27], the cereal yields per area unit has remained low (Figure 2).

The response of data like those of low yield levels (depicted in Figure 2) follows a paradigm development [26], which also is referred by [8]. During the 1960s and 1970s, an external in‐ put paradigm was driving the research and development agenda which later has been known as the 'Green Revolution'. In the early 1980s, the balance shifted from mineral inputs only, to low external input sustainable agriculture (LEISA) where organic resources were be‐ lieved to enable sustainable agricultural production. During the 1990s, the Integrated Natu‐ ral Resource Management research approach and ultimately the Integrated Soil Fertility Management paradigm emerged. Still it was however argued that Sub-Saharan African farmers must use more fertilizer, improved germplasm, etc. to achieve a so-called "Second Green Revolution" [see e.g. 29].

**Figure 2.** Official UN 5-year running average maize yield in the Sub Saharan African region between 1961 and 2010 [30].

A critical lesson from all this work is that a highly context-specific approach is required which takes into account the fertility status of the soil, the availability of organic inputs and the ability to access and pay for mineral fertilizers [28,31].

The response further assumes that the markets are perfect and that all agricultural commod‐ ities are entering a market. On one hand, large proportions of the diet of Africans are pro‐ duced and consumed locally and may not enter the market. The part that enters the market may ignore the markets needs and preferences as it is sold as surplus on a local market. One commonly used model of innovation is the so-called value-chain model developed by Kline and Rosenberg, which emerged from studies of technological innovation. Modern innova‐ tion models must thus see many reverse processes and feedback loops in the incremental changes along the value chain, which further often has to include local conditions, cultural preferences, etc.

Differentiating farmers are thus the approach in the so-called adaptability analysis [41]. This is an analysis that depicts the performance of the individual genotype across a wide range of environments versus the mean performance of the tested varieties can indicate if some vari‐

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31

In terms of dry matter grain yield (Figure 3), there were no significant difference between the regression lines fitted to the observations in Malawi whereas the lines differed signifi‐ cantly (p<0.05) in Tanzania. In Tanzania, the slopes of the lines (Figure 3, right) had the fol‐ lowing order in decreasing order: Selian97 > Selian94 > Lyamungo90 > Wanja > Lyamungo85

**Figure 3.** Individual observations and regression lines of grain dry matter yield of individual genotypes versus the

Phosphorus content in the grain follows pretty much a 1:1 ratio – so there is no effect of en‐ vironment here as the slopes of the fitted regression lines did not differ (p>0.05). This is sur‐ prizing as the environment generally is considered P-scarce. The two environments clearly gave different proportions of phosphorus in the grain (Figure 4). And most observations from Malawi indicate that phosphorus in no way could be viewed as a limiting factor for beans at the current site with a mean site phosphorus proportion of 0.5% in the grain. Fur‐ ther, there seems no reason to believe that the individual genotypes could maintain a higher proportion of phosphorus in the gain across a phosphorus limiting environments as it ap‐

**Figure 4.** Individual observations and regression lines of the proportion (%) of phosphorus in the grain dry matter of

eties perform better or worse.

> Uyole96 > Jesca > Uyole84.

pears to be the case in Tanzania.

individual genotypes versus the mean site yield.

mean site yield.

Elements in the bridge between agriculture and human wellbeing would thus be to trial for lo‐ cally adapted bean varieties and to form a network among researchers that can promote a le‐ gume-based agriculture in these regions, in their particular social context. This approach would also recognize that a large proportion of the bean production occurs under conditions of significant drought stress [32], where agricultural inputs may not be an economically viable option. To overcome these particular stress conditions in combination with a vulnerable crop establishment phase, [10]) suggested investing in semi-perennial leguminous crops that has capacity to cope with short term weather variations. However, given the dominant role that beans have in nutrition in Africa and Latin America, robustness to environmental stress must be sought (Table 3) and combined with proper seed availability programmes [33].

The traditional plant-based diet is quite voluminous, i.e. it has high moisture content, with a limited protein and fat content. This is a particular challenge to children who require a diet of higher nutrient density than adults [34,35]. Some studies suggest that supplementary intake of animal protein, especially milk and fish, may stimulate childhood growth [e.g. 36]. However, some population segments may not have access to animal protein or cultural reasons limit their use of animal protein. Furthermore, dietary compositions vary over season in rural Africa and there may be temporal windows with surplus, adequate or lack of particular nutrients. Such windows may be influenced by reproduction cycles, health issues, harvest time and stor‐ age capacity, climate variability, household composition, among others [e.g. 37,38,39]. There is thus every reason to seek a higher density of nutrients in plant-based diets.

Cereals typical have a positive correlation between the nitrogen supply of the crop, thus the nitrogen content of the grain and the iron and zinc content [40]. Legumes are self-reliant on nitrogen through the biological fixation process. Consequently, correlations between nitro‐ gen, iron and/or zinc content cannot be expected.

## **5. Seeking the nutrient dense diet – An adaptability analysis**

It has frequently been assumed that farmers management and local growth conditions are fairly homogeneous and recommendations based on information generated on experimental stations dominate the extension services [e.g. 22]. However, homogeneity may be an illusion [e.g. 11]. Methods must thus be applied that allows for evaluation of performance under varying conditions.

Differentiating farmers are thus the approach in the so-called adaptability analysis [41]. This is an analysis that depicts the performance of the individual genotype across a wide range of environments versus the mean performance of the tested varieties can indicate if some vari‐ eties perform better or worse.

The response further assumes that the markets are perfect and that all agricultural commod‐ ities are entering a market. On one hand, large proportions of the diet of Africans are pro‐ duced and consumed locally and may not enter the market. The part that enters the market may ignore the markets needs and preferences as it is sold as surplus on a local market. One commonly used model of innovation is the so-called value-chain model developed by Kline and Rosenberg, which emerged from studies of technological innovation. Modern innova‐ tion models must thus see many reverse processes and feedback loops in the incremental changes along the value chain, which further often has to include local conditions, cultural

Elements in the bridge between agriculture and human wellbeing would thus be to trial for lo‐ cally adapted bean varieties and to form a network among researchers that can promote a le‐ gume-based agriculture in these regions, in their particular social context. This approach would also recognize that a large proportion of the bean production occurs under conditions of significant drought stress [32], where agricultural inputs may not be an economically viable option. To overcome these particular stress conditions in combination with a vulnerable crop establishment phase, [10]) suggested investing in semi-perennial leguminous crops that has capacity to cope with short term weather variations. However, given the dominant role that beans have in nutrition in Africa and Latin America, robustness to environmental stress must

The traditional plant-based diet is quite voluminous, i.e. it has high moisture content, with a limited protein and fat content. This is a particular challenge to children who require a diet of higher nutrient density than adults [34,35]. Some studies suggest that supplementary intake of animal protein, especially milk and fish, may stimulate childhood growth [e.g. 36]. However, some population segments may not have access to animal protein or cultural reasons limit their use of animal protein. Furthermore, dietary compositions vary over season in rural Africa and there may be temporal windows with surplus, adequate or lack of particular nutrients. Such windows may be influenced by reproduction cycles, health issues, harvest time and stor‐ age capacity, climate variability, household composition, among others [e.g. 37,38,39]. There is

Cereals typical have a positive correlation between the nitrogen supply of the crop, thus the nitrogen content of the grain and the iron and zinc content [40]. Legumes are self-reliant on nitrogen through the biological fixation process. Consequently, correlations between nitro‐

It has frequently been assumed that farmers management and local growth conditions are fairly homogeneous and recommendations based on information generated on experimental stations dominate the extension services [e.g. 22]. However, homogeneity may be an illusion [e.g. 11]. Methods must thus be applied that allows for evaluation of performance under

be sought (Table 3) and combined with proper seed availability programmes [33].

thus every reason to seek a higher density of nutrients in plant-based diets.

**5. Seeking the nutrient dense diet – An adaptability analysis**

gen, iron and/or zinc content cannot be expected.

varying conditions.

preferences, etc.

30 Food Industry

In terms of dry matter grain yield (Figure 3), there were no significant difference between the regression lines fitted to the observations in Malawi whereas the lines differed signifi‐ cantly (p<0.05) in Tanzania. In Tanzania, the slopes of the lines (Figure 3, right) had the fol‐ lowing order in decreasing order: Selian97 > Selian94 > Lyamungo90 > Wanja > Lyamungo85 > Uyole96 > Jesca > Uyole84.

**Figure 3.** Individual observations and regression lines of grain dry matter yield of individual genotypes versus the mean site yield.

Phosphorus content in the grain follows pretty much a 1:1 ratio – so there is no effect of en‐ vironment here as the slopes of the fitted regression lines did not differ (p>0.05). This is sur‐ prizing as the environment generally is considered P-scarce. The two environments clearly gave different proportions of phosphorus in the grain (Figure 4). And most observations from Malawi indicate that phosphorus in no way could be viewed as a limiting factor for beans at the current site with a mean site phosphorus proportion of 0.5% in the grain. Fur‐ ther, there seems no reason to believe that the individual genotypes could maintain a higher proportion of phosphorus in the gain across a phosphorus limiting environments as it ap‐ pears to be the case in Tanzania.

**Figure 4.** Individual observations and regression lines of the proportion (%) of phosphorus in the grain dry matter of individual genotypes versus the mean site yield.

A picture similar to phosphorus emerge (Figure 4) when plotting the proportions of iron in the grain (Figure 5). Obviously the two sites gave a different proportion of iron in the grain and there were tendencies to believe that some genotypes could be richer or poorer in iron than others. The 3 varieties with the highest proportion of grain iron content in Malawi were 103, 108 and Napilira while they in Tanzania were Selian94, Uyole96 and Selian97. In the Tanzanian case, the righest in iron thus seems to be the highest yielding across environ‐ ments. An almost identical picture emerged regarding the proportion of zinc in the grain (Figure 6). The 3 varieties with the highest proportion of grain zinc content in Malawi were 103, 108 and Napilira while the 2 varieties with the richest zinc content in Tanzania were Selian94 and Uyole96.

crops [40]. In other words, bean appears to continue to fill in elements in to the grain togeth‐

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33

The current data (Figures 4-5) demonstrate that efforts to find the genetic material that tend to accumulate elements, which are important for human wellbeing, in higher concentrations in the grains are justified. Naturally we may - from an evolutionary point of view - wonder what benefit the plant gets from this. But it should not stop us from utilizing this variation

However, we are in a situation where we rely on small scale farmers to increase their produc‐ tion substantially. This production is both for home or local consumption but even more also for industrial purposes because of the rapid urbanisation of Africa and Asia. Building on farm‐ ers' capability and knowledge of their own environments may be the best way to enhance out‐ put from agriculture. That requires innovative approaches at farm level to test and select the best suited genetic material (Figure 2) to that particular environment. This will further require new approaches to seed supply systems as "one type fits all" approach will not do the job. On the contrary, seed supply systems must build on an approach of "multiple types to fit any envi‐

The complementarity in the amino acid composition among beans and maize has been rec‐ ognized for long [7, and references herein]. Grain legumes are characterised by being mark‐ edly deficient in the essential amino acids of methionine and tryptophan but rich on lysine. Cereals normally hold more methionine than the grain legumes so a high complementarity and higher combined nutritional value could be expected. Indian scientists were front run‐ ners in documenting such efforts [e.g. 43,44]. In recent years there has been a change in the consumption of grain legumes in developed countries were they increasingly are viewed as

The traditional plant-based diet in part of Africa and Asia can be quite voluminous, i.e. it have a high moisture content, and the protein and fat content may also be limited [35,44]. This pose a particular challenges to population segments that cannot ingest sufficient food

Dietary diversity is important for the wellbeing of humans [45,46]. An inexpensive bowl of beans or other grain legumes would benefit many people. Agriculture has the potential to supply this bowl. Here we argue that by accepting that conditions vary much locally, we will have to adapt a learning approach to selecting bean varieties based on local productivi‐ ty of the various genotypes given the local pest and disease pressures, soil fertilities and soil fertility management practices, on local preferences for processing and eating the beans, on the beans role in the local cropping systems, on differentiated population and resource

to cover their needs, in shorter or longer periods of their lives [e.g. 35,36,37].

ronment", which obviously is a major challenge to extension and research.

er with carbon while maturing.

in modern plant breeding efforts.

**6. A bowl of beans**

"health foods".

groups.

**Figure 5.** Individual observations and regression lines of the proportion (%) of iron in the grain dry matter of individu‐ al genotypes versus the mean site yield.

**Figure 6.** Individual observations and regression lines of the proportion (%) of zinc in the grain dry matter of individu‐ al genotypes versus the mean site yield.

Interestingly, however, is the fact that grain size did not appear to explain the differences between the element concentration as Malawi tended to have varieties that had individually larger grains (Table 2) and the grains with the highest proportion of phosphorus, iron and zinc in the grain dry matter. That eliminates a theory of element dilution at the end of the grain filling period which is often observed in bread wheat [42] but not always in other crops [40]. In other words, bean appears to continue to fill in elements in to the grain togeth‐ er with carbon while maturing.

The current data (Figures 4-5) demonstrate that efforts to find the genetic material that tend to accumulate elements, which are important for human wellbeing, in higher concentrations in the grains are justified. Naturally we may - from an evolutionary point of view - wonder what benefit the plant gets from this. But it should not stop us from utilizing this variation in modern plant breeding efforts.

However, we are in a situation where we rely on small scale farmers to increase their produc‐ tion substantially. This production is both for home or local consumption but even more also for industrial purposes because of the rapid urbanisation of Africa and Asia. Building on farm‐ ers' capability and knowledge of their own environments may be the best way to enhance out‐ put from agriculture. That requires innovative approaches at farm level to test and select the best suited genetic material (Figure 2) to that particular environment. This will further require new approaches to seed supply systems as "one type fits all" approach will not do the job. On the contrary, seed supply systems must build on an approach of "multiple types to fit any envi‐ ronment", which obviously is a major challenge to extension and research.

## **6. A bowl of beans**

A picture similar to phosphorus emerge (Figure 4) when plotting the proportions of iron in the grain (Figure 5). Obviously the two sites gave a different proportion of iron in the grain and there were tendencies to believe that some genotypes could be richer or poorer in iron than others. The 3 varieties with the highest proportion of grain iron content in Malawi were 103, 108 and Napilira while they in Tanzania were Selian94, Uyole96 and Selian97. In the Tanzanian case, the righest in iron thus seems to be the highest yielding across environ‐ ments. An almost identical picture emerged regarding the proportion of zinc in the grain (Figure 6). The 3 varieties with the highest proportion of grain zinc content in Malawi were 103, 108 and Napilira while the 2 varieties with the richest zinc content in Tanzania were

**Figure 5.** Individual observations and regression lines of the proportion (%) of iron in the grain dry matter of individu‐

**Figure 6.** Individual observations and regression lines of the proportion (%) of zinc in the grain dry matter of individu‐

Interestingly, however, is the fact that grain size did not appear to explain the differences between the element concentration as Malawi tended to have varieties that had individually larger grains (Table 2) and the grains with the highest proportion of phosphorus, iron and zinc in the grain dry matter. That eliminates a theory of element dilution at the end of the grain filling period which is often observed in bread wheat [42] but not always in other

Selian94 and Uyole96.

32 Food Industry

al genotypes versus the mean site yield.

al genotypes versus the mean site yield.

The complementarity in the amino acid composition among beans and maize has been rec‐ ognized for long [7, and references herein]. Grain legumes are characterised by being mark‐ edly deficient in the essential amino acids of methionine and tryptophan but rich on lysine. Cereals normally hold more methionine than the grain legumes so a high complementarity and higher combined nutritional value could be expected. Indian scientists were front run‐ ners in documenting such efforts [e.g. 43,44]. In recent years there has been a change in the consumption of grain legumes in developed countries were they increasingly are viewed as "health foods".

The traditional plant-based diet in part of Africa and Asia can be quite voluminous, i.e. it have a high moisture content, and the protein and fat content may also be limited [35,44]. This pose a particular challenges to population segments that cannot ingest sufficient food to cover their needs, in shorter or longer periods of their lives [e.g. 35,36,37].