**3. Chemistry of PU**

PU are carbonic acid derivatives. The older term for them is an ester of a substituted carbamic acid, polycarbamate, from carbamic acid. PU are formed by (i) the condensation polymerization reaction of bischloroformates with diamine (Scheme 3) and (ii) addition polymerization reaction of diisocyanates with di or polyfunctional hydroxy compounds, or other compounds having a plurality of active hydrogen atom (Scheme 4). The latter method is more important from the industrial point of view since in this method no by-product is formed.

**Scheme 3.** Reaction of bischloroformate with diamine

**Scheme 4.** Reaction of diisocyanate with di or poly hydroxy compound

The isocyanate reaction offers the possibility of producing tailor-made polymeric product ranging from fibres to rubber. Generally, the isocyanate reactions are divided into two classes, (a) addition (primary and secondary) reaction with compound containing active hydrogen (Schemes 5 and 6), (b) self-addition reaction (Scheme 7). In some of the reactions, CO2 is released which assists in the formation of PU foams.

8 Polyurethane

**3. Chemistry of PU**

formed.

over tertiary amines because they are comparatively less volatile and less toxic. Metals catalyse the isocyanate-hydroxyl reaction by complex formation with both isocyanate and hydroxyl groups. The positive metal centre interacts with electron rich oxygen atom of both the isocyanate and hydroxyl groups forming an intermediate complex, which by further rearrangement results in the formation of urethane bonds. Difunctional low molecual weight diols (ethylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol, 1,6-hexanediol), cyclohexane dimethanol, diamines, hydroxyl-amines (diethanolamine and triethanolamine) are used as chain extenders in PU synthesis while those with functionality 3 or > 3 are used as crosslinkers. Since isocyanates are too sensitive to moisture or water even in traces, moisture scavengers, which react more readily with water than an isocyanate, are incorporated to cut off/eliminate the involvement of water during PU synthesis, e.g., oxazolidine derivatives, zeolite type molecular sieves. Blowing agents are used to produce PU foams with cellular

PU are carbonic acid derivatives. The older term for them is an ester of a substituted carbamic acid, polycarbamate, from carbamic acid. PU are formed by (i) the condensation polymerization reaction of bischloroformates with diamine (Scheme 3) and (ii) addition polymerization reaction of diisocyanates with di or polyfunctional hydroxy compounds, or other compounds having a plurality of active hydrogen atom (Scheme 4). The latter method is more important from the industrial point of view since in this method no by-product is

NH2

The isocyanate reaction offers the possibility of producing tailor-made polymeric product ranging from fibres to rubber. Generally, the isocyanate reactions are divided into two

C

N H R'

N H

O

n

R'

O

n

O

R

O

C

C

N H R

N H C

O

O

O

O

structures by foaming process (e.g., hydrocarbons, CO2, hydrazine).

H2N R'

C

**Scheme 3.** Reaction of bischloroformate with diamine

+

**Scheme 4.**  Primary addition reactions of isocyanate with (a) amine, (b) water, (c) alcohol, (d) carboxylic acid, (e) urea.

Polyurethane: An Introduction 11

R N C O

3 R N C O

**Scheme 7.**  Secondary addition reactions of isocyanate with (a) polyurethane, (b) polyurea and (c) polyamide

Wurts in 1848 discovered the basic reaction of isocyanate (Scheme 4). He found that isocyanates having the structure R-N=C=O, where R= alkyl or aryl group, react rapidly at room temperature with compounds containing active hydrogen atoms, like amine, water, alcohol, carboxylic acid, urethanes and ureas (Scheme 8).

It is observed that a linear PU is formed when a diisocyanate react with diol whilst branched or cross-linked PU results with the reaction of polyhydric compound (polyol). The branched or cross- linked PU are also formed when a compound containing three or more isocyanate groups reacts with a diol; however, this approach is of limited commercial importance.

**Scheme 7.** Self -addition reactions of isocyanate

polyamide

importance.

R N C O +

N H

N

C

O

O

NH

O

H

+

alcohol, carboxylic acid, urethanes and ureas (Scheme 8).

+

N H

C

**Scheme 6.** Secondary addition reactions of isocyanate with (a) polyurethane, (b) polyurea and (c)

Wurts in 1848 discovered the basic reaction of isocyanate (Scheme 4). He found that isocyanates having the structure R-N=C=O, where R= alkyl or aryl group, react rapidly at room temperature with compounds containing active hydrogen atoms, like amine, water,

It is observed that a linear PU is formed when a diisocyanate react with diol whilst branched or cross-linked PU results with the reaction of polyhydric compound (polyol). The branched or cross- linked PU are also formed when a compound containing three or more isocyanate groups reacts with a diol; however, this approach is of limited commercial

O

R

**(c) Acylurea**

H

R

**(a) Allophanate**

**(b) Biuret**

R

H

N

H

N

C

C

O

N C

O

O

HN

O

N

O

O

N

C

O

N C

Polyurethane: An Introduction 13

groups is increased due to the presence of the electron withdrawing groups, and decreases by the electron donating groups. While the aromatic isocyanates are more reactive than the aliphatic isocyanates, steric hindrance at –NCO or HXR' groups reduce

The order of reactivity of active hydrogen compounds with isocyanates in uncatalyzed

Aliphatic amines> aromatic amines> primary alcohols> water>secondary alcohol> tertiary

The isocyanate reactions of class (a) are also extremely susceptible to catalysis. The various isocyanate reactions are influenced to different extents by different catalysts. Many commercial applications of isocyanates utilize catalysed reactions. Tertiary amines, metal compounds like tin compounds (as mentioned earlier in the chapter) are most widely used catalysts for the reaction (Schemes 10 and 11). The mechanisms are similar to that of the

R N C

**R'' : N 3**

H X R'

R N C O

**R'' : N 3**

O

R

H

N

C

+

**R'' : N 3**

O

X R'

R N C

**R'' : N 3**

O

alcohol> phenol> carboxylic acid> ureas> amides>urethanes.

The tertiary amines and metal salts catalyse the reaction as follows:

**4.2. Reaction in the presence of a catalyst**

uncatalyzed reaction (Scheme 9).

R N C O

+

**R'' : N**

**3**

R' X H

**Scheme 10.** Tertiary amine catalysed reaction

+

the reactivity.

systems is as follows:

**Scheme 8.** Reaction of isocyanate with active hydrogen compound


*Article* **Molecular Investigation of Zoonotic Intestinal Protozoa in Pet Dogs and Cats in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China**

**Yu-Gui Wang 1,2,3, Yang Zou 2,\*, Ze-Zhong Yu 4, Dan Chen 5, Bin-Ze Gui 3, Jian-Fa Yang 1, Xing-Quan Zhu 1,6, Guo-Hua Liu 3 and Feng-Cai Zou 1,\***

**Citation:** Wang, Y.-G.; Zou, Y.; Yu, Z.-Z.; Chen, D.; Gui, B.-Z.; Yang, J.-F.; Zhu, X.-Q.; Liu, G.-H.; Zou, F.-C. Molecular Investigation of Zoonotic Intestinal Protozoa in Pet Dogs and Cats in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China. *Pathogens* **2021**, *10*, 1107. https://doi.org/10.3390/ pathogens10091107

Academic Editors: David Carmena, David González-Barrio and Pamela Carolina Köster

Received: 4 August 2021 Accepted: 23 August 2021 Published: 30 August 2021

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

**Abstract:** *Giardia duodenalis*, *Enterocytozoon bieneusi* and *Cryptosporidium* spp. are common enteric pathogens that reside in the intestines of humans and animals. These pathogens have a broad host range and worldwide distribution, but are mostly known for their ability to cause diarrhea. However, very limited information on prevalence and genotypes of *G. duodenalis*, *E. bieneusi* and *Cryptosporidium* spp. in pet dogs and cats are available in China. In the present study, a total of 433 fecal samples were collected from 262 pet dogs and 171 pet cats in Yunnan province, southwestern China, and the prevalence and the genotypes of *G. duodenalis*, *E. bieneusi* and *Cryptosporidium* spp. were investigated by nested PCR amplification and DNA sequencing. The prevalence of *G. duodenalis*, *E. bieneusi* and *Cryptosporidium* spp. was 13.7% (36/262), 8.0% (21/262), and 4.6% (12/262) in dogs, and 1.2% (2/171), 2.3% (4/171) and 0.6% (1/171) in cats, respectively. The different living conditions of dogs is a risk factor that is related with the prevalence of *G. duodenalis* and *E. bieneusi* (*p* < 0.05). However, there were no statistically significant difference in prevalence of three pathogens in cats. DNA sequencing and analyses showed that four *E. bieneusi* genotypes (PtEb IX, CD9, DgEb I and DgEb II), one *Cryptosporidium* spp. (*C. canis*) and two *G. duodenalis* assemblages (C and D) were identified in dogs; two *E. bieneusi* genotypes (Type IV and CtEb I), one *Cryptosporidium* spp. (*C. felis*) and one *G. duodenalis* assemblage (F) were identified in cats. Three novel *E. bieneusi* genotypes (DgEb I, DgEb II and CtEb I) were identified, and the human-pathogenic genotypes/species Type IV *C. canis* and *C. felis* were also observed in this study, indicating a potential zoonotic threat of pet dogs and cats. Our results revealed the prevalence and genetic diversity of *G. duodenalis*, *E. bieneusi* and *Cryptosporidium* spp. infection in pet dogs and cats in Yunnan province, southwestern China, and suggested the potential threat of pet dogs and cats to public health.

**Keywords:** *Giardia duodenalis*; *Enterocytozoon bieneusi*; *Cryptosporidium* spp.; zoonotic genotypes; pet dogs and cats; Yunnan province; China


**Xiaoming Liu 1, Ke Xu 2,\*, Peng Zhou 1 and Huajie Liu 2**

Received: 17 September 2019; Accepted: 25 October 2019; Published: 1 November 2019

**Featured Application: First, the surface defect inspection characteristics of continuous casting slab is that the slab moves slowly on the production line, so the feature extraction method does not need too fast a calculation speed. Second, the inspection di**ffi**culties of continuous casting slabs are the defect with complex backgrounds, so some common feature extraction methods cannot meet these needs. DNST (discrete non-separable shearlet transform) is a new multiresolution analysis method with moderate computing speed. It can extract images information from multiple scales and directions. Therefore, this paper proposed a DNST-GLCM-KSR (discrete non-separable shearlet transform-gray-level co-occurrence matrix-kernel spectral regression) feature extraction method. The method is suitable for surface defects inspection with complex background and moderate running speed of production line.**

**Abstract:** A new feature extraction technique called DNST-GLCM-KSR (discrete non-separable shearlet transform-gray-level co-occurrence matrix-kernel spectral regression) is presented according to the direction and texture information of surface defects of continuous casting slabs with complex backgrounds. The discrete non-separable shearlet transform (DNST) is a new multi-scale geometric analysis method that provides excellent localization properties and directional selectivity. The gray-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) is a texture feature extraction technology. We combine DNST features with GLCM features to characterize defects of the continuous casting slabs. Since the combination feature is high-dimensional and redundant, kernel spectral regression (KSR) algorithm was used to remove redundancy. The low-dimension features obtained and labels data were inputted to a support vector machine (SVM) for classification. The samples collected from the continuous casting slab industrial production line—including cracks, scales, lighting variation, and slag marks—and the proposed scheme were tested. The test results show that the scheme can improve the classification accuracy to 96.37%, which provides a new approach for surface defect recognition of continuous casting slabs.

**Keywords:** continuous casting slabs; surface defect classification; discrete non-separable shearlet transform; gray-level co-occurrence matrix; kernel spectral regression


2.2.3. Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

The Tropical Rainfall Monitoring Mission (TRMM) is a joint project between the NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The TRMM was launched on 27th November, 1997 [20,29,55]. It provides measurement for the intensity and areal coverage (60◦S to 60◦N) of tropical and subtropical precipitation, which covers about two third of the world's rainfall [38]. There is a range of orbital and gridded TRMM products available, i.e., 3B42RT and 3B43RT datasets [39]. Specifically, the daily rainfall (mm day−1) estimate from the TRMM (TMPA-RT) Near Real-Time Precipitation L3 1day 0.25◦ × 0.25◦ Version 7 (TRMM\_3B42RT\_Daily) is used as the primary dataset during the verification process in the present study, moreover, which is derived from the original three-hour averaged precipitation values available at https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/#service=TmAvMp& starttime=&endtime=&dataKeyword=TRMM (Accessed on 20 June 2020). Further details can be found at https://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/datasets/TRMM\_3B42RT\_Daily\_7/summary (Accessed on 20 June 2020). The daily TRMM\_3B42RT product (365 days) is aggregated into the annual total precipitation for the

year 2001, 2006 and 2012 (Figure 2l–n) and the average annual (2001–2015) precipitation (Figure 2o) @ 0.25◦ spatial resolution, which is used during the verification process. The equation deriving the annual total and the average annual precipitation is given in Equations (2) and (3), respectively.


**Author details**

Hiroshi Maiwa\*

Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Department of Materials and Human Environmental Sciences, Shonan Institute of Technology, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan


**7. Stromal cells and clinical therapy**

Stromal cells have therapeutic potential in cancer treatment and targeting stromal components in combination with cancer cells may increase the efficacy of cancer therapy [4, 6]. Stromal signatures characteristic of different cancer subtypes may have clinical relevance and may even serve as a prognostic marker of the disease.

### *Stromal Cells and Extracellular Vesicles DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106721*

Previously, chemotherapeutic agents were used to target all cells within the tumour microenvironment however, efficacy of these therapies is reduced by the development of drug resistance [7, 59]. Drug resistance occurs primarily by activation or mutation of signal transducers downstream of the targeted molecule or secondarily when neoplastic cells originally sensitive to these drugs lose their response to drugs [6, 8, 59]. In recent years, advancement in therapeutic targeting of the tumour microenvironment has led to specific targeting of cells within the tumour microenvironment. Poorly vascularised stroma supports tumorigenesis and simultaneously forms a barrier for chemotherapeutic drugs making it as an attractive drug target [6, 8]. Since tumours require endothelial cells to form new blood vessels to help relieve oxygen deprivation and accumulate metabolic wastes, angiogenesis is one of the mechanisms targeted by chemotherapy.

Most of these drugs such as bevacizumab, aflibercept, sorafenib and ramucirumab target the VEGF-VEGF signalling pathway in diverse ways as this is associated with tumour progression and poor prognosis in breast cancer [7, 8, 51, 58]. Bevacizumab acts a neutralising antibody to VEFG that reduces vascular permeability thus affecting the first step of tumour stroma development however aflibercept acts a decoy receptor for VEGF. Sorafenib acts a tyrosine kinase inhibitor and ramucirumab acts as an antibody that blocks VEGF from binding to its receptor. However, these chemotherapeutic agents have shown limited success when administered to patients as a single agent. Most patients develop resistance or do not respond to this anti-angiogenic therapy. Metastatic tumour cells have a striking feature/ability to plastically adapt to different microenvironmental conditions and overcome a singledrug treatment [7, 8, 51, 58, 66].

To enhance success within the clinical settings, combination of these drugs or other drugs/approaches may likely prove to be beneficial. For example, combination of bevacizumab and PDL1 proved to be a success in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma and renal cancer [7]. Combination therapies targeting thyroid cancer cells and stroma may also offer treatment alternatives as there have been no convincing clinical studies that show the efficacy of tumour stroma inhibition in the most aggressive forms of thyroid cancer.

In addition, an antibody that blocks IL-8 has also been trialled to target the tumour-promoting effect of endothelial cells in glioblastoma with success [6, 23, 31]. This led to a marked reduction in tumour size. Other researchers have also shown that inhibition of IL-8 re-sensitised tumour cells to chemotherapeutic agents, cisplatin, and paclitaxel [6, 31]. Furthermore, CCL5 and IL-6 have also been shown to be associated with acquisition of chemoresistance [6, 31]. These suggest that these cytokines as well as other ligands of CXC chemokine receptors 1 and 2 could be very important in the induction of chemoresistance via recruitment of MSCs around the tumour. In addition, EGF secreted by endothelial cells has been associated with drug resistance in squamous cell carcinoma [6]. Nevertheless, there are very few existing FDA-approved treatments with limited efficacy, but new therapeutic targets and strategies will be identified as researchers continue to understand how the tumour microenvironment contributes to tumour progression and metastasis. There is potential for the use of chimeric antigen receptor natural killer cells, liver stellate cells and fibroblasts [7, 51].

In addition, CAFs may be novel and attractive targets for cancer therapy. CAFs also show the strongest expression level of the stem/mesenchymal transcription subtype of cancer. The crosstalk between CAFs and cancer stem cells is a convincing strategy for immune suppression, drug resistance, metastasis and stemness of cancer cells [6, 23]. CAFs secrete TGF-β and HGF that contribute to drug resistance in tumour cells, including tamoxifen-associated resistance in breast cancer cells [6, 23]. As a result, some novel drugs target the interaction between CAFs and breast cancer cells as it is believed that CAFs increase interstitial pressure within the tumour thereby reducing the efficacy of drug delivery [6, 23, 66]. Also, pirfenidone, which is an anti-fibrotic agent with multiple functions including anti-TGF-β activity, was combined with doxorubicin to inhibit tumour growth and metastasis in a preclinical triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) model [6, 23].

Targeting CAFs may affect other stromal cells such as polarising tumour-associated macrophages (TAM) and cause suppression of the cytotoxic activities of NK cells since CAFs are involved in promoting immunosuppression [23]. Partial depletion of stroma using CD40-activated macrophages has shown to improve patient survival and increase drug delivery into the tumour [6]. CAFs-induced EMT causes resistance to cisplatin in non-small-cell lung carcinoma [6, 28, 51]. Therefore, a build of CAFs in the tumour microenvironment is associated with poor prognosis in many cancers, including lung adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and colorectal cancer, where it is associated with diseases reoccurrence [6, 23, 51]. However, these cells are associated with improved prognosis and overall survival in small lung cell carcinoma. Some researchers have illustrated that targeting Hedgehog-activated CAFs results in improved survival, chemosensitivity and reduced metastatic burden in breast cancer [6, 67].

However, depleting CAFs is not always beneficial and has been associated with increased angiogenesis and enhanced cancer cell properties in pancreatic cancer with shorter patient survival. Hence, these suggest that therapeutic targeting of these CAFs may ameliorate some cancers. Furthermore, the expression of CD44 on CAFs can be functional target for destroying cancer cells in the TME and TGF-β signalling mediated by CAFs plays a role in regulating cancer cells in gastric cancer. Inactivating CAFs or lowering the level of infiltrating CAFs in the TME are potential therapeutic strategies for reducing cancer stemness. Targeting myofibroblast-like CAFs using focal adhesion kinase (FAK) inhibitor resulted in a reduction of pancreatic cancer cells [6]. CAFs can also be targeted by inhibiting their activation by using drugs to target CAF-associated proteins such as fibroblast activation protein (FAP) and DNA methyltransferase 1 (DMNT1) [6]. Sibrotuzumab, a FAP-targeting antibody has been tested in the treatment of Phase II metastatic colorectal cancer whilst combination of DNMT1 and DNMT1 and Janus Kinase (JAK) signalling resulted in the normalisation of fibroblasts, but these failed to demonstrate efficacy [6, 8, 31]. Thus, it is noteworthy to mention that identifying and targeting fibroblasts is problematic due to heterogeneity of markers found on these cells. This, identifying CAFs aid define activate stroma borders and may even affect clinical response to treatment.

Furthermore, interaction between adipocytes and cancer cells has been therapeutically targeted using BMS309403, a FABP4-specific inhibitor in breast cancer [6]. The results revealed a reduction in tumour growth with changes in secretion of IL-6 and ALDH1 expression. Another drug, anti-leptin blocking peptide, impeded the migration of ovarian cancer cells thereby suggesting antibodies against leptin may be an effective therapy for different cancers, including breast cancer [6]. An agonist of Farnesoid X, GW4064, also decreases the signalling of leptin whilst doxorubicin and pirfenidone have been combined to reduce the progression and motility of tumours in the ECM components by inhibiting the production of collagen [6]. Decreased collagen production has also been induced by vaccination, which sensitises fibroblasts to CD8 T-cell attack thereby significantly increasing the uptake of chemotherapeutic drugs.

### *Stromal Cells and Extracellular Vesicles DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106721*

Furthermore, stromal cells also play an important role in regenerative therapy as well as haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), which is the major treatment for cancer where they enhance HSC engraftment and prevent graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) [4, 8]. GVHD is a major complication of HSCT in the treatment of haematological malignancies. GVHD is caused by an attack on recipient tissues by transplanted immune cells.


*3.3. PSMA-Targeting Probes*

PSMA is overexpressed on the prostate cancer cell membrane. Recently, several studies found unexpected PSMA-targeted radiotracer uptake by TCs, including RR-DTCs [87–91] (Figure 6). In addition, ~50% of TC microvessels showed high expression of PSMA related to tumor size and vascular invasion [89]. Thus, it is reasonable that high-grade TCs can be targeted by PSMA-specific radioligands like [177Lu]Lu-PSMA and [225Ac]Ac-PSMA [92], establishing a novel theranostic platform for TCs that are refractory to radioiodine treatment. Currently, the clinical interest and focus of PSMA-targeted theranostics remain primarily oriented towards prostate cancers. It is worth exploring the performance of PSMA-targeted agents in RR-DTCs. The authors wonder if PSMA-targeted agents will open a new horizon for RR-DTCs in the future.


**Abstract**

The patent ductus arteriosus contribute to many neonatal morbidities. There are different approaches for treatment including conservative, pharmacological and definitive closure. Most commonly, pharmacological therapy is attempted before consideration of surgical intervention.

**Keywords:** preterm infant, PDA, NSAIDs


Role of Mosquito Microbiome in Insecticide Resistance

*Sahar Fazal, Rabbiah Manzoor Malik, Ahmad Zafar Baig, Narjis Khatoon, Huma Aslam, Aiza Zafar and Muneeba Ishtiaq*

#### **Abstract**

The gut microbiota of insects is one of the unexplored areas. The association with these microbiomes plays a vital role in supporting their survival and combat with ecological challenges. Mosquito is one of the focal attention insects among the Arthopods, being the vector of many pathogenic diseases including dengue and malaria. A variety of strategies have been designed and implemented to fight against these vectors including obnoxious use of insecticides. Indiscriminate use of insecticides has led to development of resistance against broad range of insecticides. Crucial role of bacteria in insecticide resistance has been under discussion. Many studies focus on the insecticide resistance due to gut microbiome. Thus, the role of gut microbiome is an important area for designing new vector control strategies and their role in improvement of a healthy environment.

**Keywords:** mosquito, microbiome, microbiome diversity, insecticide resistance, gut microbiota, Anopheles, metagenome

#### **1. Introduction**

The medical importance of mosquito can be estimated from this fact that almost 300–500 million people are affected from malaria annually, from which 1 million people lost their lives with the maximum numbers of mortalities in infants and young children. The region mostly affected by malaria is Sub-Saharan African region. In the recent years, dengue virus has expanded its range to 50–100 million population annually with thousands of mortalities due to severe form, i.e., dengue hemorrhage fever. In the past few decades, a new endemic emerged in East Africa and America by West Nile virus named Chikungunya, which caused many deaths in the region [1]. Mosquitoes (family *Culicidae*) have great medical importance due to their property as vector for medically important diseases of human. The wide range of disease spread is due to the dual property of mosquito as it can be biological vector as well as can be the mechanical vector [2, 3]. It is known that half of the world population is at risk of getting mosquito vectored disease such as Malaria, Dengue, Chikungunya, West Nile Virus, and Japanese encephalitis [4]. According a World Health Organization (WHO) report published in 2010, about 247 million world's population became ill due to mosquito and around 1 million people got the disease in 2008. The worldwide distribution of mosquitoes is misinterpreted only in tropical and subtropical environments. But to a certain extent, it is not true as mosquito can cause annoyance or can also spread pathogens or viruses in temperate latitudes [4–6].

Current studies suggested the progress in the overall global malaria control, and it is estimated that 2 million more cases of malaria have appeared in 2017 as compared with 2016. The number of malaria cases is increasing within the region of the Americas [7]. Similarly, reports of resistance to insecticides increase over time [7, 8]. This fact constitutes a great challenge for malaria vector control programs [9]. The fundamental mechanisms of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors are not clearly identified and recognized. However, the following four basic mechanisms underlying insecticide resistance in mosquitoes were described [10].

There are still substantial gaps available to young researchers, particularly in high-dose insecticide resistance in the mosquito population. The increased use of genomic methods has encouraged the study of many facets of mosquito biology, such as the microbiota of mosquito populations, which is related to insecticide resistance [10]. Just like other organisms, mosquito is also hosting various types of microbes, and these microbes are basically acquired during their immature developmental stages, such as from the habitat in which mosquitoes are breeding and also from the food source of mosquitoes from where these mosquitoes take their food [11]. Different ways of obtaining microorganisms have been reported, such as microbes obtained from the environment and/or the food supply, the transmission of the bacteria from the female at the time of egg laying through the transovarian mechanism [12], and transmission from the young stage to the adult stage [13]. These microbes have multiple roles in the mosquito, among which some are also known to the metabolizing nature against the insecticides [14–16] and vigorously change as per the physiology of the host [11, 17]. Hence, the microbiota of the mosquitoes has the capabilities to contribute toward the detoxification of the insecticides and increase the resistance in the host. It is the same phenomenon that has been reported previously in agricultural pests [18–23].

#### **2.  This leads to the conclusion that there is hardly any water body that didn't lend itself a breeding site for mosquito. In temporary flooded areas, the areas near rivers and lake with the water flow fluctuations, flood waters, mosquitoes such as *Aedes vexans* or *Ochlerotatus sticticus* have developed such adaptation that allows them to breed and their ability to fly in places even far from their breeding sites [24].

Some species of *Ochlerotatus* have also adapted to breed in the harsh environments such as snow-melt, swampy woodlands; these mosquitoes include *Ochlerotatus communis*, *Ochlerotatus cataphylla*, *Ochlerotatus cantans*, *Ochlerotatus hexodontus*, and *Ochlerotatus punctor*. There are some species of mosquitoes that encounter conditions and make them ideal for growth. In the flood plains along coastal areas, the environment contains large amount of salt, thus in these areas, the *Halophilous* species, which prefer salt water or brackish habitats, for example *Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus, Ochlerotatus sollicitans, Ochlerotatus vigilax, Ochlerotatus caspius, Ochlerotatus detritus*, are in focus in large numbers [24].

The Anopheles larvae developed an associative link with mosquito species in every habitat such as freshwater, salt water, edges of streams, rice fields, mangrove swamps, and grassy ditches or in temporary or permanent water bodies. Some species are known that prefer tree hollows as habitat; these are known as tree species, among which are *Aedes cretinus, Ochlerotatus geniculatus, Orthopodomyia pulcripalpis*, and *Anopheles plumbeus*. Some species of mosquitoes can also breed in small water bodies such as containers, rain water, water drums, tires, cemetery pots, or small clay pots; these species include *Culex pipiens, Aedes aegypti* (*Stegomyia aegypti*)*, Aedes albopictus* (*Stegomyia albopicta*), or *Ochlerotatus japonicas* [4, 24]. These adaptations helped mosquitoes to change their habitat, such as Asian Tiger Mosquitoes *Aedes albopictus* that originally found in the tropical regions, but during this climate change, they brought evolution in them as they became photoperiodic sensitive. When the days are shorter, the photoperiodic sensitive female lays different eggs as it lays eggs in longer days. The eggs laid in shorter days are inactive and hatch themselves in suitable seasons, which ensures the species survival in the winter [4].

Medically important mosquitoes are responsible for transporting different valuable pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites that mostly produce lethal diseases such as Malaria, Dengue, Yellow Fever, Chikungunya fever and Encephalitis. The process of pathogen transmission can be in two ways: (i) mechanical vector (e.g., Myxomatosis in rabbits is caused by Myxoma virus); (ii) biological vector. The latest one is more complicated due to following reasons: (a) It associates in necessary rather obligatory period of replication by the parasite in host. (b) Pathogen's development. (c) Parasitic containment by vector insect. The pathogens that are vectored by insects are one of the most leading causes of the pandemics and epidemics; it is also one of the leading causes of declining and fall of empires, for example, Roman Empire and Greece Empire. The malarial case study in the Roman Empire is best example of fall of Empire. The malaria was a big issue in latter days, and the Roman marshy places were notorious for the "Malaria" (bad air). The blood-sucking mosquitoes make them capable of attaining pathogens from one host, and this behavior makes them capable of passing it to other vertebrate hosts. The physiology of mosquitoes is applicable for the mechanism of transmitting the parasite from one host to other. When certain forms of blood stage parasites (gametocytes) are ingested by a female *Anopheles* mosquito during blood feeding, the gametes mate inside the gut of the female mosquito and beginning of a new life cycle occurs followed by growth and multiplication of parasite in the mosquito. After 10–18 days, a sporozoite form of the parasite is migrated to the salivary glands of the mosquito. When this Anopheles mosquito bites another human, sporozoites are injected into the blood of the human together with the saliva of mosquito. This sporozoite migrates to the liver and begins a new life cycle.

Thus, the infected mosquitoes carry the disease from one human to another human (acting as a "vector"), and infected humans transmit the falciparum parasite to the mosquitoes. Contrary to the human host, the mosquito vectors do not suffer despite the presence of the parasites.

The efficient vectors have a close association with their hosts, and they should have enough long-life span that it should be sufficient for them to make pathogen/ parasite enable for the proliferation or to develop the infective stages in the vector. The successful parasite transmission is dependent on the multiple blood meals. If we investigate the stats of mortality and morbidity of vector-borne diseases, the mosquitoes are the most fatal vector to the humanity. The mosquitoes only threaten 3 billion people worldwide alone in subtropical or tropical areas and not only affect the human health but also the socioeconomic factors and political factors [25–28].

### **3. Microbiota of mosquitoes**

A mosquito's gut microbiota contains prokaryotes and eukaryotic community. Mosquito gut microbiota is primarily acquired from the environment, its composition is highly dynamic, varying greatly with species, diet, stage of development of mosquitoes, and geography [29]. Sequencing of the 16S rRNA or18S rRNA hypervariable regions is used as a culture-independent tool for the study of mosquito microbiota composition [30]. Many of the mosquitoes are marine and terrestrial during their developmental periods as adults. Larvae primarily consume organic detritus, singlecell organisms, and small invertebrates, while adults of both sexes usually feed on extra floral nectarines. Results outlined in several recent studies suggest that adult mosquito gut microbiota may have both a positive and a negative effect on vector competency, referring to the capacity of females to obtain, retain, and transmit pathogen to vertebrates. Studies show that the microbes form colonies in mosquitoes, which influences their physiological and metabolic functions control. The mosquitoes have a community of microbes, which includes bacteria, algae, fungi, and viruses. These microbes live in close proximity causing the combined effect on the mosquito's physiology and metabolic functions [31].

#### **3.1 Composition of gut microbiota of mosquitoes**

Most of the microbiota in the gut of the mosquitoes is demonstrated as being predominantly Gram-negative of facultative nature, which actually belongs to four different phyla (*Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes*, and *Actinobacteria*). These phyla are the most prominent members of the growing insect community, obtaining them primarily from the microenvironments in which they develop. With this, insects can easily proliferate on a regular basis. In addition, multiple members of the bacterial community are known to be part of the gut community and have also been successfully extracted and cultured in mosquitoes. Mosquito's viruses have also been categorized in studies as a part of microbiome. Multiple genera belonging to *Flaviviridae* family are part of mosquitoes' community, which sometimes have the activity of a pathogen in vertebrates. By comparison, the absence of bacteriophages in published research indicates that either viruses infecting bacteria in the intestine are underrepresented, or that few bacteriophages infect bacteria in the intestine of the mosquito [30].

#### **3.2 Gut microbiota acquisition by larvae mosquito**

Some species obtain intestine microbiota directly from their parents while others obtain their intestinal microbiota primarily from the environment. Three lines of evidence indicate that growing generation of mosquitoes reacquires the gut microbiota mainly from the environment. Second, laboratory experiments indicate that the mosquito larvae hatch and in their intestine left without bacteria. Second, gut-community composition studies suggest that the majority of microbes found in larvae correlate with those found in their aquatic environment. Third, mosquitoes host highly variable gut communities that it is not expected that the congeners acquired those communities directly. Studies indicate that adult mosquito reproductive tracts contain multiple species of bacteria and some of these bacteria are on the surface of laid female eggs; the majority of these bacteria are acquired of the mosquitoes environment. This can lead to the larvae to develop such microbes that can be ingest directly as eggshell fragments at hatching or inoculation of the aquatic environment in which larvae live. Many species of mosquitoes harbor intracellular bacteria that spread vertically such as bacteria of the genus *Wolbachia*. Additionally, these species are not part of the extracellular microbial population, which is the gut microbiota. Cultural studies initially indicated that mosquito larvae remove their gut microbiota at metamorphosis in a meconium having adults with little gut microbes. Such results have indicated that adults develop a gut microbiota by immersing water from the larval environment and/or feeding on resources such as extrafloral nectarines. However, studies of the composition of the gut bacteria community provide clear evidence that larvae of mosquitoes of genus *Aedes* and *Anopheles* transfer a proportion of their gut microbiota to adults. However, subsequently, the adult gut microbiota may change by consuming microbe containing water, nectar, or other food sources. Vertebrate blood generally contains a few bacteria, but some experiments indicate that the intake of a blood meal changes the composition of the gut microbiota persistently to transiently through alterations in redox status or metabolism. Infection by various vectorborne pathogens can also affect gut microbiota composition through unknown mechanisms [30].

#### **3.3 Microbial variation in gut**

As a holobiont, mosquito undergoes a metamorphic transformation from larval stage to adult stage. Microbial mosquito residents (*P. falciparum*) and their larvae refer to the microbial communities that colonize within the target organism (humans). In the adult mosquito, the larvae-associated microflora is replaced by a new set of microbes. This microbiota variation is due to significant changes in the host mosquito that are associated with the environment and feeding habits. This microbial cleaning and acquisition process is termed gut sterilization. Mosquitoes mainly consume bacteria and planktons as nutritious resources during their larval stage. This paves the initial stage of invasion of bacteria that contributes to the inhabitants. Among the microbes, the bacteria colonize more in the midgut than in the reproductive organs and salivary glands [32–34]. Later during adult stages, mosquitoes begin to feed on nectar and blood, which triggers the proliferation of some types of microbes and the decline of the other bacteria. Thus, the host diet and its developmental stage play a crucial role in shaping the gut microbiome [35]. Mosquitoes then begin feeding

on nectar and blood during adult stages, it then regulates some types of the proliferation of different microbes and decline of some other bacteria. Therefore, the host diet and its level of growth play a key vital role in the structure of gut microbiome [36]. In the gut of mosquitoes, resident communities can vary from microscopic dominant bacteria to even Protista members. This resident consortium can be changed by the influx of new microbes from their natural habitat. Mosquitoes such as *Anopheles*, *Aedes*, and *Culex* normally lay eggs in water that contains bacteria [35]. Aquatic plants affect the microbial populations of mosquitoes providing microbes to larvae, and many of them are often transferred trans-steadily to adult gut [37–39]. These microbes have a significant impact on the characteristics of mosquito life such as fecundity, reproduction vector competency, and immunity. As per previous earlier studies, the general bacterial flora in mosquitoes includes Gram-negative phylum Proteobacteria (Gammaproteobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria) phylum Bacteroidetes, Gram-positive phylum Firmicutes including *Clostridia*, *Actinomycetes*, *Spirochetes*, and other species. Naturally, a bacterial community in mosquito gut can reduce the development of *Plasmodium*, a human parasite due to the presence of Gram-negative bacteria. The outer membrane of the cell wall in these Gram-negative bacteria contains lipopolysaccharides, which acts as a physical barrier for harmful agents such as hydrogen peroxide, etc. [40], while Gram-positive bacteria have no such barrier. Furthermore, different Gram-negative bacteria have varying effects against *Plasmodium*. These bacteria produce some metabolites that protect the mosquito. *Plasmodium*, for example, is found to be effective against prodigiosin of red pigment produced by Gram-negative bacteria. The mechanism for this is the upregulation of antimicrobial peptide encoding immune genes (AMP) and a protein containing thioester, which has an antiparasitic effect.

The symbiotic microbes are beneficial for the host in several ways. These require nutritional supplementation, strengthening of the digestive system, and tolerance to environmental perturbation and prevention against parasites. The *Anopheline* gut microbiome is strongly influenced by microbes suspended in its natural habitat. This has been proved by gut analysis of mosquito larvae by Howland [41], who dissected over 1000 larvae of eight species, in where they identified algae in the gut community and associated them to abundance in the food. She concluded that the abundance of algae in the larval food is correlated with algal abundance in the habitats. Also, this has been shown in another study on *Anopheles quadrimaculatus* larvae, a common vector of malaria in the Eastern United States [42] wherein the elimination of algae from a small pond with copper sulfate demonstrated its absence in their food. However, after recolonization the same pond, algal cells were again observed in the larval gut.

Researchers have been identified 98 genera of bacteria in the *Anopheles* mosquitoes, the most common being *Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, Asaia, Comamonas, Elizabethkingia, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Pantoea*, and *Serratia*. Likewise, Gram-negative bacteria also predominate in *Aedes spp*. The *Anopheline* gut is dominated by resident bacteria of genus *Pantoea* and *Asaia*. These bacteria have shown stable association with *Anopheline* mosquitoes during different life stages. *Pantoea*, natural mosquito symbiont, can cross-colonize several mosquito species and is readily transformed and cultured. This property of *Pantoea* has been proposed for paratransgenic applications [43, 44]. *Asaia* acts as an immunomodulator by producing antimicrobial peptides that interfere with the course of infection particularly its invasion to epithelial tissues and salivary gland [36]. Recent research on two *Anopheles* species *An. gambiae* and *An. coluzzii* from Ghana [45] compared the midgut microbiota of mosquitoes during rainy and dry seasons from urban and rural breeding sites using 454 pyrosequencing. The

#### *Role of Mosquito Microbiome in Insecticide Resistance DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104265*

data suggested that *An. gambia*e and *An*. *coluzzi* do not differ significantly in their gut microenvironment. *Shewanellaceae* family was observed in both the species. Bacterial families *Enterobacteriaceae* and *Aeromonadaceae* were also associated with *Anopheles* mosquitoes. The only difference observed was among *An*. *gambiae* collected from the different breeding site during summer. *Aeromonas*, *Shewanella*, and *Thorsellia* were other bacterial genera with variation in abundance according to the breeding sites. This indicates that larval breeding site has a significant impact on the adult mosquito midgut composition. The presence of *Enterobacter* and *Serratia* strain in *Anopheles* mosquito gut has an antiparasitic effect on mosquito. *Enterobacteriaceae* that survived during the rainy season is found to be more in number than that of during the dry season. Two members of this family include *Enterobacter* species and *Thorsellia anopheles*. This Gram-negative *Enterobacter* can directly act on *Plasmodium falciparum* and hinders the development of the parasite. *T. anophelis* was the dominant species in the midgut of *An. gambiae*. This symbiotic association with host mosquito vector attributes to its high tolerance for mosquito midgut alkalinity. *Serratia marcescens* HB3, isolated from laboratory-reared *An*. *stephensi* mosquitoes, inhibits *Plasmodium* development within the mosquito midgut by interrupting ookinete invasion through the midgut epithelial cells. Phenotypic variation at the cellular and structural levels was observed and directly correlated with the ability to induce resistance against *Plasmodium* invasion [46]. The prevailing environmental conditions have a great influence on the gut microbiome and host-vector competence. One parameter is the influence of chemicals in regulating the bacterial community in mosquito gut. For example, *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* boost the larval development of *Culex quinquefasciatus* in phosphate-rich medium [47].

A part of the mosquito gut microbiota is eukaryotic microorganism such as fungi. Its position as commensal, mutualist, or pathogenic in preserving the ecological balance of mosquitoes is inevitable. During the metamorphic transition, mosquitoes are exposed to fungi in the form of mosquito larvae in water, or by ingestion of fungi in sugar meals, or physical contact with conidia (adult mosquitoes) [48]. Filamentous fungi and yeast are the common fungal isolates present in the midgut and other tissues of mosquitoes. A filamentous fungus comprises some species of *Aspergillus* and *Penicillium* as pathogenic forms and some genera of fungi such as *Beauveria* and *Metarhizium* as entomopathogenic forms [49]. Different genera of yeast such as *Candida*, *Pichia*, and *Wickerhamomyces* have been identified in *Aedes* and *Anopheles* mosquitoes through culture-dependent and culture-independent methods. Earlier explorations in mosquito fungi diversity were based on these types of the culturedependent method. For example, a yeast strain *Wickerhamomyces anomalus* has been reported in the midgut and reproductive organ of *An. stephensi*, a primary vector of malaria [50]. Recently, with the advent of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technique, the knowledge about mosquito mycobiome has widened [51]. This HTS approach has been used to analyze the mycobiome formation in *Ae. triseriatus*, from the Japanese E. The series documented the presence of 21 distinct taxonomic fungal operating units (OTUs), of which 15 were identified by both parties. Ascomycota phylum is the major fungal taxa among these two *Aedes* species. Although the existence of mycobiome in mosquito is evident, the tripartite connection between vector, pathogen, and fungus is less known. Hence, there are enough evidences of the fungi present in mosquitoes. These eukaryotic organisms are responsible for the masking of many signals in the organisms.

Mosquito acts as an exclusive host for a large group of viruses, which are insect-specific. A metagenomic approach was used to evaluate viral load in

two genera of mosquitoes *Aedes* and Culex. The comparison presented a striking difference in the virome of mosquitoes, where in genus *Aedes* showed a low viral diversity and less abundance than *Culex*. This metagenomic approach led to the identification/discovery of different viral families in mosquitoes such as *Bunyaviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Flaviviridae, Mesoviridae, Reoviridae*, unclassified *Chuvirus*, and *Negevirus* groups. Most resident virome acts as commensal microbe due to its inability to infect vertebrate cell lines, prolonged host infection, and vertical transmission [52–54].

#### **3.4 Microbes influence on host vector property**

Vectorial capacity is a quantitative measure of several factors such as cellular, biochemical, behavioral, immunological, genetic, and environmental parameters, which can influence vector density, longevity, and vector competence. All these factors are interrelated and can determine the pathogenicity and nonpathogenicity in mosquitoes. *Acetobacteria*, a dominant member of gut microflora, may interact directly or indirectly with invading pathogens. The indirect interaction is by activating innate immune response. Usually pattern recognition receptors (PRRSs) on the host cell recognize preserved surface determinants known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are present/found in microbes exclusively. Such linking activates immune signaling mechanisms such as the road toll or the route to immune deficiency (IMD). A cascade of events leads to the degradation of IF ranging from transcription factor (Cactus), nuclear translocation of NF—ranging from transcription factors (Dif and Dorsal) to antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes being expressed, in the toll cell signaling pathway. This AMP, produced in the fat body, is secreted into hemolymph where it directly kills the invading microorganism. Genetic research showed that the AMP gene expressions are mainly regulated through the toll pathway and the IMD pathway. The toll pathway is mainly activated by Gram-positive bacteria, human *P. falciparum*, and DENV. The development of Gram-negative bacteria stimulates the IMD pathway, which regulates the antibacterial peptide gene [55–57].

#### **3.5 Applications of microbiome of insects**

Microbiome study in the last few decades has led to an understanding of the potential microbial functions. The few examples of which are as follows:

#### *3.5.1 Cellulose and xylan hydrolysis*

Termites belong to an extremely successful class of organisms that degrade wood, and they are considered as the potential catalytic sources for efforts aimed to convert wood into biofuels. Researchers have reported the presence of a huge, diverse set of cellulose and xylan-hydrolyzing bacterial genes through the metagenomic and genomic analysis of the communities of bacteria residing in the hindgut of higher wood-feeding *Nasutitermes* species. They have identified a number of previously uncharacterized protein families. Thus, degradation of lignocellulose does not occur by a single enzyme but due to the interaction of many macromolecular complexes that lead to its degradation. These macromolecular complexes have been termed as cellulosomes and are partially known in several microbes. The cellulose degradation of termite was long thought to rely only on microbial gut symbionts. More recently,

*Role of Mosquito Microbiome in Insecticide Resistance DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104265*

cellulase gene transcripts have been identified from the termite itself. Similarly, three xylanases genes have been discovered from lepidopteran intestinal tract samples, and one from termite sample. The digestome of the insect gut comprising microbial as well as termite coded enzymes acts together to bring out the complete digestion of lignocelluloses. Many microbes have been identified and play important roles in the conversion of wood into a biofuel, such as ethanol, because of its potential for at least partially replacing fossil fuels in transportation and thereby lowering greenhouse gas emissions.

#### *3.5.2 Vitamin production*

The sequencing of genome of *Wigglesworthia* sp., the mycetocyte symbiont of *Glossina brevipalpis*, has been done and the annotation has shown the presence of encoded genes for the formation of thiamin (Vitamin B1), pantothenate (Vitamin B5), riboflavin FAD (Vitamin B2), nicotinamide (Vitamin B3), pyridoxine (Vitamin B6), biotin (Vitamin B7), and folate (Vitamin B9).

#### *3.5.3 Phenolics metabolism and nitrogen fixation*

Insects can absorb the atmospheric nitrogen only through the symbiotic association with gut-associated bacteria because the ability to fix nitrogen is widely available among bacteria but apparently absent from all eukaryotes. Nitrogen-fixing *Enterobacter* species have been isolated from the southern pine beetle, which together with some fungal associates may concentrate nitrogen on developing larvae. *Rahnella aquatilis*, *Klebsiella* species, and *Pantoea* species were commonly found in southern pine beetle, and the pine beetle (*Dendroctonus frontalis*) larvae are known to fix nitrogen in other environments. Another important role might be detoxification of conifer defensive compounds, which consists primarily of monoterpenes, diterpenes, and phenolics groups known to be metabolized by bacteria.

#### *3.5.4 Antibiotic resistance*

It has been reported in a study that microbial community of gypsy moth midgut shelters genes of hitherto unknown antibiotic resistance. For example, a new group of enzymes beta lactamase was identified from midgut metagenome of gypsy moth. The genes encoding these enzymes were found to be responsible for creating antibiotic resistance in *E. coli*, showing that insects may play some role in propagating resistance genes against important antibiotics.

#### *3.5.5 Signal mimics*

Microbes produce metabolites with diverse chemical feature and biological activities. Signal molecules have been reported from the uncultured microbial world through insect gut metagenomics. A study applied the matrix screen to a metagenomic library constructed from the microorganism associated with midgut of gypsy moth. They have reported the identification of a metagenomic clone of gypsy moth midgut microbiomes that produce inducers of quorum sensing and that are chemically different from the earlier quorum sensing inducers. The clone harbored the gene coding for monooxygenase homologue that mediates a pathway of indole oxidation, which resulted in the production of a quorum-sensing compound.

Impact of microbiota on mosquitoes plays critical roles in many mosquito biology processes including feeding, digestion, matting and sexual reproduction, development, immune response, and refractory pathogeny [58].

#### **3.6 Impact of microbiota on mosquito physiology**

Scientists have compared transcriptome between septic and aseptic adult female mosquitoes fed various diets and observed that microbiota stimulates some genes involved in digestion and metabolic processes such as glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and sugar transport. Midgut microbiota, most especially *Enterobacter sp*. in *Ae. aegypti* and *Serratia* sp., have hemolytic activity that can contribute to lysis of the red blood cells (RBCs) and hemoglobin release. Antibiotic treatment of female mosquitoes reduced RBC lysis and egg production within *Ae. aegypti*. Yet not every bacterium supports the growth of the eggs. Various bacterial genera have been used to construct adult mosquitoes that have evolved from gnotobiotic larvae. Tests were carried out on five bacteria (*Aquitalea, Sphingobacterium, Chryseobacterium, Paenibacillus*, and *Comamonas*) that helped with egg development in *Ae. aegypti*. It was observed that *Ae. atropalpus* only was helped by *Comamonas* in the development of eggs [58].

#### **3.7 Metabolic detoxification of insecticides**

Three major metabolic gene families are being involved in the mechanism of the detoxification of insecticides in mosquitoes: esterases, cytochrome P450s (P450s), and the S-transferases (GSTs) glutathione. Cytochrome P450s are among those genes families that have the most significant role in both biochemical and the physiological functions of the living organisms. Cytochrome P450s are the most critical and significant to detoxify and also to activate the endogenous compounds as well as the xenobiotics [59]. The largest quantity of the exogenous as well as the endogenous compounds in the metabolic detoxification and the excretion are GSTs, which are dimeric proteins having the property of the solubilization [60–62]. An important property of the GSTs and the P450s is the upregulation at the transcriptional level, which in turn results in the formation of excessive production of proteins; hence, excessive enzymatic activity is being done. Moreover, it also increases the detoxification of the insecticides and toxins of plants with oxidation of compounds, in the insects, and this further leads to the tolerance of these chemical compounds. It was also stated that the production of the resistance against the insecticides required that genes encoding P450s be amplified/duplicated. A large number of organisms have a variety of esterase enzymes being a heterogeneous community of enzymes. The overproduction of these enzymes has been studied extensively as the amplification, and non-frequent overexpression of the genes of esterase enzymes has been proven to have increased detoxifying protein production [63–73].

Researchers have done the comparison of the toxicity level with or without the synergists and conclude that these enzymes are related to detoxification mechanisms in resistance development. In same way, research on resistance to pyrethroids in various species of mosquitoes strongly supports the importance of mitochondrial detoxification in insecticide resistance. Nonetheless, the findings of synergistic studies must be interpreted with caution: while in many cases the use of synergists can correctly indicate the role of detoxification proteins in insecticide resistance, in some cases synergists may be imperfect inhibitors for some of the detoxification enzymes induced by the resistance. Further work is required to support the

#### *Role of Mosquito Microbiome in Insecticide Resistance DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104265*

synergistic study's findings. Metabolic enzyme activity assays are alternative and separate diagnostic tool for detecting the possible involvement of a metabolic enzyme in resistance is to assess elevated levels of enzyme activity and/or an increase in insecticidal metabolism. For permithrin-resistant Cx, the metabolism of permithrin to 4-hydroxypermethrin by microsomal P450 monooxygenases was stated to be significantly greater. *Quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes than vulnerable counterparts thereof [74–80]. Elevated levels of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, esterase, or GST activities in insecticide-resistant mosquitoes of several species have also been reported; these include *An. albimanus*, *An. gambiae*, *An*. *stephensi*, *An*. *funestus*, *Ae*. *aegypti*, *An*. *culicifacies*, *Anopheles annularis* [81–85]. Although these types of measurements suggest the critical function of metabolic enzymes in the production of resistance. No specific evidence is available to determine the performance of the metabolic enzymes. Initiation of individual metabolic gene/protein characterization cloning, sequencing of partial or full-length individual metabolic genes, purification of individual metabolic proteins, and screening of resistant mosquito-resistant cDNA libraries have helped to understand the molecular basis of metabolic-detoxificationmediated resistance. This area has been extensively studied in the 20 years since the publication of the first report on 17 partial CYP4 gene sequences from *An. albimanus*. After this, it was followed by the first full-length CYP6E1 sequence from *Cx. quinquefasciatus*, which was calculated using techniques for reaction of the polymerase chain. The availability of individual partial or complete sequences has allowed researchers to identify gene expression and amplification and protein expression. These findings reveal significant details about the metabolic enzyme characteristics associated with increased metabolic detoxification of insecticides in resistant mosquitoes via transcriptional up regulation/DNA amplification. Several P450 genes, including P450 genes from deltamethrin-resistant *Anopheles minimus*, pyrethroid-resistant, have been individually reported to be overexpressed in resistant mosquito species/strains. *Funestus*, Cx-resistant to permithrin *Quinquefasciatus* and Cx-resistant to deltamethrin *Pippiens pallens*. Along with same methodologies, the overregulation of the GST genes especially GSTE-2 was being identified in the mosquito resistant to the DDT, which is *An*. *gambiae*. And, the findings suggest that the overproduction of the esterase genes can help the amplification of GST genes in the mosquito *Cx*. *quinquefasciatus*. Certainly, there are a lot of studies that suggest the duplication and amplification of the detoxifying genes. It is very critical in the insecticide resistance phenomenon related to bacteria, since not a single gene analysis shows the complete complexity of this process. It is not clear that how so many of these genes are responsible for the detoxification directly or indirectly in mosquitoes species and what are the methods with which these genes are upregulated. There is no pathway that is completely showing the role in insecticide resistance [86–92].

#### **3.8 Methods to study microbiota of insects**

Insect's gut descends from the mouth to anus and is one of the largest organs in insect body. The major microbiome community is present in the insects' gut. Thus, it is very important to carefully isolate the insects' gut microbiota. For this purpose, no specific technique has been standardized up till now. Firstly, we have to carefully disinfect the insects' body by a disinfecting buffer and make dissection to obtain the complete gut. The insects' gut can be separated into three parts, i.e., fore gut, mid gut, and hind gut. After the collection of each part, it is treated with extraction buffer, and metagenomics DNA extraction is made. Cell lysis is a critical step in metagenomics

DNA extraction; thus it is carried out with the help of gentle means such as lysis enzymes. The gut cells are lysed and the remaining gut microbial cellular community is washed. For this purpose, mechanical lysis can also be made like homogenization, bead beating, and shocks to attain complete lysis [93].


**Meet the editor**

Mohammad Mahdi Najafpour received his PhD in Inorganic Chemistry from the Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, in 2009. Mahdi is a recipient of several awards and fellowships, notably the gold medal of the National Chemistry Olympiad in 2004; he ranked first in the Khwarizmi Youth Festival in 2010, and he was selected for the TWAS young affiliateship (2014),

the Al-Biruni award by the Academy of Sciences of Iran (2015), and he was selected among the best researchers in Iran by Ministry of Science of Iran (2015). Currently, he is a faculty member in Chemistry in the Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences (IASBS) (Zanjan, Iran). As a nanobioinorganic chemist, Mahdi believes that with learning strategies from natural systems, design of modern catalysts for all reactions using only earth-abundant, low-cost and environment-friendly metal ions is possible. Mahdi and his research group explore transition metal compounds such as water-oxidizing catalysts for artificial photosynthesis. He is the author of over 160 publications in these and other areas.