*Cinnamomum zeylanicum*: Morphology, Antioxidant Properties and Bioactive Compounds

*Asel Chandula Weerasekera, Kanchana Samarasinghe, Heethaka Krishantha Sameera de Zoysa, Thushara Chathuranga Bamunuarachchige and Viduranga Yashasvi Waisundara*

## **Abstract**

*Cinnamomum zeylanicum* is one of the oldest spices used for culinary purposes in Asian countries. Its extracts have demonstrated a positive impact on controlling the progression of disease pathologies due to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-mutagenic, anti-tyrosinase and antidiabetic characteristics. *C. zeylanicum* also has its unique variations which makes it necessary to distinguish it from other species of cinnamon. Phenolic compounds such as cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, carvacrol, cinnamic acetate and thymol are the main compounds that can be found in essential oils of *C. zeylanicum*. However, cinnamaldehyde and eugenol act as the main bioactive antioxidant compounds found in *C. zeylanicum* because of their active functional groups in the structures. There are many examples of the use of *C. zeylanicum* extracts for medicinal purposes, specifically cinnamon metabolite proanthocyanidins which suppress inflammatory compounds and help pathways such as insulin signaling. Moreover, the bioactive compounds in essential oils of this plant are used against many pathogenic (including food-borne) and spoilage bacteria.

**Keywords:** Alzheimer's disease, Ayurveda, cinnamaldehyde, Ceylon cinnamon, eugenol

## **1. Introduction**

*Cinnamomum zeylanicum* (family Lauraceae), known as 'Ceylon cinnamon' or 'true cinnamon', grows as an ever-green tree native to Sri Lanka (earlier Ceylon), and India including other regions of tropical Indochina and Madagascar (**Figure 1**). This is one of the oldest traditional spice species used for culinary purposes in South Asian countries [1, 2]. Additionally, according to toponymical and historical evidence, *C. zeylanicum* has been used for medicinal purposes since the establishment of Aryan settlements in the Anuradhapura kingdom [3]. Moreover, the indigenous species of Ceylon cinnamon has been used in the Ayurveda system of Sri Lanka [3, 4]. Ethnopharmacological studies show that

**Figure 1.** *Typical* Cinnamomum zeylanicum *tree (a), leaf (b), and processed bark (c) in Sri Lanka.*

*C. zeylanicum* has gained more importance in Ayurveda and folklore medicine as it can be used in concoctions and decoctions. The inner bark of *C. zeylanicum* is used for medicine preparation in flatulence control, indigestion and in fluprevention in the Sri Lankan Ayurveda system. *C. zeylanicum* has also been found in various other folklore treatments against inflammation of eyes, dyspnoea, leucorrhoea, rheumatism, neuralgia, wounds, toothache and diabetes [4–6].

*C. zeylanicum* and it extracts have demonstrated their ability to have a positive impact on controlling the progression of disease pathologies in modern times as well. This is mainly due to the functional properties of *C. zeylanicum* and its compounds behaving as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-mutagenic, anti-tyrosinase and antidiabetic agents [1, 2]. In fact, Ceylon cinnamon is considered one of the few plants in the world that have made it to the modern pharmacy in the form of pills, powders, oils and ointments.

A striking resemblance in terms of appearance exists between different Cinnamon varieties. In particular, *C. zeylanicum* is sometimes confused with other varieties resulting in incorrect information being disseminated about the functional properties and bioactive compounds. To avoid consequences of these similarities, as well as due to the lack of data about the antioxidant properties of the plant and the importance of this information to its folkloristic use and pharmacological activities, it was deemed necessary to address the morphological features and antioxidant properties of *C. zeylanicum* in detail in this chapter, as well as the culinary and traditional uses, and the phytochemical composition and pharmacological activities.

## **2. Morphological features of** *Cinnamomum zeylanicum*

*C. zeylanicum* has its unique variations which are quite useful in distinguishing it from other species of cinnamon. It is generally grown in loamy, lateritic, and

**409**

**Table 2.**

Cinnamomum zeylanicum: *Morphology, Antioxidant Properties and Bioactive Compounds*

silver sand soil and can grow up to 12 m in height. The morphological features which enable the identification of the varieties of *C. zeylanicum* from other species of Cinnamon based on leaf traits are shown in **Table 1** [7]. While the deep vein distribution appears to be common to all Cinnamon species, the color change of the

> when young And deep green when matured.

Red leaves when young and dark green when matured.

when young.

brown leaves.

Slightly pinkish when young and green when matured.

> **when rolled**

Multiple layers and curls inward from both edges.

Few layers and curls inward from one edge.

Few layers

*Significant differences in the bark of* Cinnamomum zeylanicum *and in other species of cinnamon.*

**size**

Small to medium

Medium to large

Small to medium

Small to medium

Small to medium

Fragile Exotic

Harder to break

One layer Fragile Strong

Harder to break

aroma

Mild aroma

aroma

Strong aroma

**Venation References**

[7, 8]

[8]

[11]

[4, 12]

[12]

[4, 12]

Spicy [4, 12]

Marginal bitter and astringent

Slightly bitter and astringent

Deep vein distribution pattern present.

Deep vein distribution pattern present

Deep veins. Three-nerved from close above the base almost to the apex

**Fragility Odor Taste References**

Mild sweet

Deep veins [9]

Deep veins [10]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97492*

*Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Sri Wijaya)*

*Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Sri Gemunu)*

*Cinnamomum cassia*

*Cinnamomum burmannii*

*Cinnamomum tamala*

**Table 1.**

**Type of Cinnamon**

*Cinnamomum zeylanicum*

*Cinnamomum burmannii*

*Cinnamomum loureiroi Nees*

*Cassia Cinnamon* Reddish

**Type Leaf shape Leaf color Leaf**

Ovate to elliptic

Ellipticoblong, ovate

*Morphological traits of leaves of varieties of cinnamon.*

Tan brown

dark brown

Light reddish brown

Reddish brown

Acute Red leaves

Lanceolate Red leaves

Ovate-oblong Pale greenish

**Color Texture Layers**

Thin, soft and papery

Thick and rough

Thin and soft

Thin and rough

silver sand soil and can grow up to 12 m in height. The morphological features which enable the identification of the varieties of *C. zeylanicum* from other species of Cinnamon based on leaf traits are shown in **Table 1** [7]. While the deep vein distribution appears to be common to all Cinnamon species, the color change of the

#### **Table 1.**

*Antioxidants - Benefits, Sources, Mechanisms of Action*

*C. zeylanicum* has gained more importance in Ayurveda and folklore medicine as it can be used in concoctions and decoctions. The inner bark of *C. zeylanicum* is used for medicine preparation in flatulence control, indigestion and in fluprevention in the Sri Lankan Ayurveda system. *C. zeylanicum* has also been found in various other folklore treatments against inflammation of eyes, dyspnoea, leucorrhoea, rheumatism, neuralgia, wounds, toothache and diabetes [4–6]. *C. zeylanicum* and it extracts have demonstrated their ability to have a positive impact on controlling the progression of disease pathologies in modern times as well. This is mainly due to the functional properties of *C. zeylanicum* and its compounds behaving as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-mutagenic, anti-tyrosinase and antidiabetic agents [1, 2]. In fact, Ceylon cinnamon is considered one of the few plants in the world that have made it to the

*Typical* Cinnamomum zeylanicum *tree (a), leaf (b), and processed bark (c) in Sri Lanka.*

modern pharmacy in the form of pills, powders, oils and ointments.

**2. Morphological features of** *Cinnamomum zeylanicum*

A striking resemblance in terms of appearance exists between different Cinnamon varieties. In particular, *C. zeylanicum* is sometimes confused with other varieties resulting in incorrect information being disseminated about the functional properties and bioactive compounds. To avoid consequences of these similarities, as well as due to the lack of data about the antioxidant properties of the plant and the importance of this information to its folkloristic use and pharmacological activities, it was deemed necessary to address the morphological features and antioxidant properties of *C. zeylanicum* in detail in this chapter, as well as the culinary and traditional uses, and the phytochemical composition and pharmacological activities.

*C. zeylanicum* has its unique variations which are quite useful in distinguishing it from other species of cinnamon. It is generally grown in loamy, lateritic, and

**408**

**Figure 1.**

*Morphological traits of leaves of varieties of cinnamon.*

#### **Table 2.**

*Significant differences in the bark of* Cinnamomum zeylanicum *and in other species of cinnamon.*

#### **Table 3.**

*Variations of flower and inflorescence in* Cinnamomum zeylanicum *and other kinds of cinnamon.*

leaves from red to deep green and a larger size help to distinguish the *C. zeylanicum* from *C. cassia*, *C. burmannii* and *C. tamala*.

The Cinnamon bark of *C. zeylanicum* is where most of the bioactive compounds exist, and, there are certain traits which help identify the plant, based on bark characteristics which are shown in **Table 2** [4, 12]. However, it is also shown that the bark of *C. zeylanicum* in powder form is practically impossible to distinguish from other wild species of cinnamon due to its identical appearance – a character which is often misused by Cinnamon producers for adulteration. In these instances, an analytical method or a microscope is essential for the identification of Ceylon Cinnamon in its powdered form. However, the aroma from *C. zeylanicum* is more fragrant and exotic than other varieties. Owing to continued exposure to the plant, traditional Cinnamon growers would have the best sense of distinguishing *C. zeylanicum* from other varieties simply based on the aroma of the bark.

Flowers of *C. zeylanicum* are greenish in color and are arranged in panicles both from the axial or apex [10, 13, 14]. Variations in the Cinnamon flowers based on the different varieties are shown in **Table 3**. *C. zeylanicum* flowers have a noticeable green hue which would set it apart from flowers of other Cinnamon varieties.

#### **3. Antioxidant properties and beneficial effects**

Antioxidants are known as substances or compounds, that delay/stop the oxidation by ceasing the damage caused by free radicals. They are able to easily interact with free radicals by oxidation, and generally, the reaction occurs either in single or multi-step fashion. Antioxidants can also react through single electron transfer, hydrogen atom transfer or by chelating transitional metals. Moreover, antioxidants in the biological systems occur as enzymatic and non-enzymatic forms at both extracellular and intracellular environments [2, 15, 16]. The balance of free radicals and antioxidant defense mechanisms is critically important in health aspects from the perspective of mitigating oxidative stress [17–20]. Oxidative stress, which is induced by free radicals, is associated with many chronic diseases such as cancer, osteoporosis, diabetes and coronary heart disease [2, 4, 16, 21]. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) induce oxidative stress and are responsible for the cumulative damage imparted on DNA, lipids, proteins and other molecules, subsequently resulting in even permanent damage [17–19, 22]. Many spices, fruits and vegetables have already been identified as rich in antioxidant compounds such as polyphenols, vitamins, flavonoids and carotenoids [23–25]. Moreover, antioxidant-rich foodstuff are good sources to combat and prevent the incidence of many chronic diseases associated with oxidative stress [23].

*C. zeylanicum* is rich in phenolic compounds. These compounds and their activities are defined by their structure (reactive benzene rings), which is directly linked with quenching radicals in biological systems [17, 22, 26]. Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, carvacrol, cinnamic acetate and thymol are the main phenolic compounds

**411**

Cinnamomum zeylanicum: *Morphology, Antioxidant Properties and Bioactive Compounds*

that can be found in essential oils of *C. zeylanicum* [27, 28]. Characterization of phenolic compounds in *C. zeylanicum* revealed that it can improve hyperlipidemia; possibly by lowering cholesterol production, and suppressing lipid peroxidation [1]. Among the parts used in the *C. zeylanicum* tree for various medicinal purposes, the bark demonstrated the highest antioxidant activity compared to the leaves and flowers [2]. However, essential oils appear to have the greatest antioxidant activity

Peroxynitrite (ONOO-) is a compound capable of reacting with almost every

tion. These radicals can promote oxidative damage to blood vessels, skin, heart, lungs, kidney, and brain. Eugenol – a component of the active oils extracted from Cinnamon was found to be effective in preventing peroxynitrite-induced damage *in vitro*. However, the concentration of eugenol present in active oil extracts differ depending on the Cinnamon variety it was extracted from, with *C. zeylanicum* activity demonstrating the highest. Therefore, from a pure peroxynitrite inhibitory standpoint, Cinnamon oil extracts with a high eugenol content can be classified as a

and OH•

and OH•

Besides, many studies have been conducted to assess the antioxidant properties of *C. zeylanicum* with extractions from different parts of the tree, under both *in vitro* and *in vivo* conditions [2, 19]. Multiple studies have exposed the total antioxidant capacity and its beneficial results such as a decrease in blood lipid peroxide levels through the improvement of hepatic antioxidant enzyme activities [2, 19, 25], and lowered risks of male infertility, and inflammatory diseases [17]. A study done with swiss albino mice by using Cinnamon 0.25% and Cardamom 0.5%, orally administered at doses of 100 ml/mouse/day, observed that azoxymethane induced colon carcinogenesis could be significantly controlled by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and enhancing Glutathione-S-transferase (GST)

In addition to the health benefits, these antioxidants have been used as a primary additive or preservative especially in food industries to prevent or delay the spoilage of food rich in fats and oils [23] and for enhancement flavor [19]. Nowadays, many food industries are concerned with producing food which is less toxic, have fewer health risks and contain a smaller number of synthetic compounds during processing. Therefore, plant-derived antioxidants, especially those coming from *C. zeylanicum*, has commanded the attention of manufacturers and consumers [2, 26, 27]. The natural compounds, which are characterized by their antioxidant properties have shown great potential in terms of their health benefits (**Table 4**) [22, 27]. Additionally, these antioxidant compounds are used as substitutes for the synthetic ones such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) [22, 27, 34]. Studies have also revealed that when *C. zeylanicum* is used as an antioxidant in food, it enhances antioxidant enzymes and remove the ROS, while decreasing malondialdehyde which is naturally present during situations of elevated oxidative stress [17]. *C. zeylanicum* compounds appear to withstand severe processing conditions as well, since a study has shown that irradiation – which is used frequently to preserve foods these days, does not affect the antioxidant properties of *C. zeylanicum* extracts [15]. This indicates its suitability as a food preservative [15, 35]. Moreover, *C. zeylanicum* is used in the pharmaceutical industry as a nutraceutical. It is also used in the essence industries

due to its fragrance to produce foods, perfumes and drugs [2, 22, 23].

dant compounds present in *C. zeylanicum* are listed in **Table 5.**

In terms of the bioactive antioxidant compounds present in *C. zeylanicum*, cinnamaldehyde and eugenol act as the main bioactive antioxidant compound because of their active functional groups in the structures [36]. Health benefits of antioxi-

[29].

radicals via degrada-

compared to leaves, bark and extracts from other parts of the plant [18].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97492*

class of biomolecules due to formation of NO2•

spice to inhibit the activity of radicals NO2•

activity in liver and colon [30].

#### Cinnamomum zeylanicum: *Morphology, Antioxidant Properties and Bioactive Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97492*

that can be found in essential oils of *C. zeylanicum* [27, 28]. Characterization of phenolic compounds in *C. zeylanicum* revealed that it can improve hyperlipidemia; possibly by lowering cholesterol production, and suppressing lipid peroxidation [1]. Among the parts used in the *C. zeylanicum* tree for various medicinal purposes, the bark demonstrated the highest antioxidant activity compared to the leaves and flowers [2]. However, essential oils appear to have the greatest antioxidant activity compared to leaves, bark and extracts from other parts of the plant [18].

Peroxynitrite (ONOO-) is a compound capable of reacting with almost every class of biomolecules due to formation of NO2• and OH• radicals via degradation. These radicals can promote oxidative damage to blood vessels, skin, heart, lungs, kidney, and brain. Eugenol – a component of the active oils extracted from Cinnamon was found to be effective in preventing peroxynitrite-induced damage *in vitro*. However, the concentration of eugenol present in active oil extracts differ depending on the Cinnamon variety it was extracted from, with *C. zeylanicum* activity demonstrating the highest. Therefore, from a pure peroxynitrite inhibitory standpoint, Cinnamon oil extracts with a high eugenol content can be classified as a spice to inhibit the activity of radicals NO2• and OH• [29].

Besides, many studies have been conducted to assess the antioxidant properties of *C. zeylanicum* with extractions from different parts of the tree, under both *in vitro* and *in vivo* conditions [2, 19]. Multiple studies have exposed the total antioxidant capacity and its beneficial results such as a decrease in blood lipid peroxide levels through the improvement of hepatic antioxidant enzyme activities [2, 19, 25], and lowered risks of male infertility, and inflammatory diseases [17]. A study done with swiss albino mice by using Cinnamon 0.25% and Cardamom 0.5%, orally administered at doses of 100 ml/mouse/day, observed that azoxymethane induced colon carcinogenesis could be significantly controlled by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and enhancing Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity in liver and colon [30].

In addition to the health benefits, these antioxidants have been used as a primary additive or preservative especially in food industries to prevent or delay the spoilage of food rich in fats and oils [23] and for enhancement flavor [19]. Nowadays, many food industries are concerned with producing food which is less toxic, have fewer health risks and contain a smaller number of synthetic compounds during processing. Therefore, plant-derived antioxidants, especially those coming from *C. zeylanicum*, has commanded the attention of manufacturers and consumers [2, 26, 27]. The natural compounds, which are characterized by their antioxidant properties have shown great potential in terms of their health benefits (**Table 4**) [22, 27]. Additionally, these antioxidant compounds are used as substitutes for the synthetic ones such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) [22, 27, 34]. Studies have also revealed that when *C. zeylanicum* is used as an antioxidant in food, it enhances antioxidant enzymes and remove the ROS, while decreasing malondialdehyde which is naturally present during situations of elevated oxidative stress [17]. *C. zeylanicum* compounds appear to withstand severe processing conditions as well, since a study has shown that irradiation – which is used frequently to preserve foods these days, does not affect the antioxidant properties of *C. zeylanicum* extracts [15]. This indicates its suitability as a food preservative [15, 35]. Moreover, *C. zeylanicum* is used in the pharmaceutical industry as a nutraceutical. It is also used in the essence industries due to its fragrance to produce foods, perfumes and drugs [2, 22, 23].

In terms of the bioactive antioxidant compounds present in *C. zeylanicum*, cinnamaldehyde and eugenol act as the main bioactive antioxidant compound because of their active functional groups in the structures [36]. Health benefits of antioxidant compounds present in *C. zeylanicum* are listed in **Table 5.**

*Antioxidants - Benefits, Sources, Mechanisms of Action*

from *C. cassia*, *C. burmannii* and *C. tamala*.

**Table 3.**

**Type of Cinnamon Flower color Arrangement References** *Cinnamomum zeylanicum* Greenish In panicles [10, 13] *Cinnamomum cassia* White In panicles [13] *Cinnamomum burmannii* Whitish Yellow In panicles [14] *Cinnamomum tamala* Yellow In panicles [13]

*Variations of flower and inflorescence in* Cinnamomum zeylanicum *and other kinds of cinnamon.*

leaves from red to deep green and a larger size help to distinguish the *C. zeylanicum*

exist, and, there are certain traits which help identify the plant, based on bark characteristics which are shown in **Table 2** [4, 12]. However, it is also shown that the bark of *C. zeylanicum* in powder form is practically impossible to distinguish from other wild species of cinnamon due to its identical appearance – a character which is often misused by Cinnamon producers for adulteration. In these instances, an analytical method or a microscope is essential for the identification of Ceylon Cinnamon in its powdered form. However, the aroma from *C. zeylanicum* is more fragrant and exotic than other varieties. Owing to continued exposure to the plant, traditional Cinnamon growers would have the best sense of distinguishing

*C. zeylanicum* from other varieties simply based on the aroma of the bark.

**3. Antioxidant properties and beneficial effects**

associated with oxidative stress [23].

The Cinnamon bark of *C. zeylanicum* is where most of the bioactive compounds

Flowers of *C. zeylanicum* are greenish in color and are arranged in panicles both from the axial or apex [10, 13, 14]. Variations in the Cinnamon flowers based on the different varieties are shown in **Table 3**. *C. zeylanicum* flowers have a noticeable green hue which would set it apart from flowers of other Cinnamon varieties.

Antioxidants are known as substances or compounds, that delay/stop the oxidation by ceasing the damage caused by free radicals. They are able to easily interact with free radicals by oxidation, and generally, the reaction occurs either in single or multi-step fashion. Antioxidants can also react through single electron transfer, hydrogen atom transfer or by chelating transitional metals. Moreover, antioxidants in the biological systems occur as enzymatic and non-enzymatic forms at both extracellular and intracellular environments [2, 15, 16]. The balance of free radicals and antioxidant defense mechanisms is critically important in health aspects from the perspective of mitigating oxidative stress [17–20]. Oxidative stress, which is induced by free radicals, is associated with many chronic diseases such as cancer, osteoporosis, diabetes and coronary heart disease [2, 4, 16, 21]. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) induce oxidative stress and are responsible for the cumulative damage imparted on DNA, lipids, proteins and other molecules, subsequently resulting in even permanent damage [17–19, 22]. Many spices, fruits and vegetables have already been identified as rich in antioxidant compounds such as polyphenols, vitamins, flavonoids and carotenoids [23–25]. Moreover, antioxidant-rich foodstuff are good sources to combat and prevent the incidence of many chronic diseases

*C. zeylanicum* is rich in phenolic compounds. These compounds and their activities are defined by their structure (reactive benzene rings), which is directly linked with quenching radicals in biological systems [17, 22, 26]. Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, carvacrol, cinnamic acetate and thymol are the main phenolic compounds

**410**

#### **Table 4.**

*Antioxidant compounds of* C. zeylanicum *products and their properties.*

#### **Table 5.**

*Antioxidant properties of bioactive compounds present in* C. zeylanicum.

There are other demonstrated beneficial properties of *C. zeylanicum*. Acetaminophen is an over-the-counter antipyretic-analgesic drug. It exhibits antiinflammatory properties at therapeutic doses. However, it also causes hepatotoxicity

**413**

and spoilage bacteria [17, 31, 46].

Cinnamomum zeylanicum: *Morphology, Antioxidant Properties and Bioactive Compounds*

and nephrotoxicity at large doses. Trials conducted by supplementing high doses of Cinnamon with acetaminophen in four rat groups discovered that pre-treatment with Cinnamon significantly ameliorated cellular alterations and apoptosis [39]. Tauopathy neurodegeneration is a subset of diseases involving a trademark neurofibrillary tangling. Hyperphosphorylation in the microtubular protein known as tau results in the protein disassociating from the microtubules and forming insoluble aggregates. These neurofibrillary tangles of tau are believed to be one of the possible central pathologies of Alzheimer's disease. Cinnamon extract was found to effectively inhibit the aggregation of human tau *in vitro*. The activity was attributed to a proanthocyanidin trimer and cinnamaldehyde. The same study observed that while the Cinnamon extract inhibited the aggregation of tau, not all polyphenols in the Cinnamon extract are active in the inhibitory process. Therefore, the inhibitory activity cannot be linked to the general antioxidant properties of the extract. However, the studies were performed *in vitro*, raising concerns about the bioavailability of compounds. Regardless, this study has set the stage and qualified

Cinnamon extract also exhibited significant gastroprotective effects in a study

performed with Wistar albino rats. Gastric lesions were induced via an orally administered indomethacin solution. A Cinnamon suspension was administered 30 min prior to the oral indomethacin, and the animals were sacrificed 6 hours after the treatment. The results found a significant decrease in basal gastric acid secretion

*C. zeylanicum* antioxidant compounds are found in many of parts of the plant such as leaves, buds, flowers, fruits, bark, root bark and oils. Additionally, *C. zeylanicum* is also rich with volatile compounds, most of which act as antioxidants. *C. zeylanicum* contains cinnamyl acetate, eugenol, trans-cinnamaldehyde (the main component of Cinnamon flavor), cymene, cinnacassiol, cineol, camphene, catechins,

coumarin cinnamic acid and gamma-terpinene, terpinolene, and α-thujene, α-terpineol, linalool, l-borneol, E-nerolidol, pinene, phyllandrene, proanthocyanidins, safrole, tannins constituting polymeric 5,7,3,4-tetrahydroxy-tetrahydroxy flavan-3-4-diol units, α-cubene and resins [1, 17, 23]. In addition, most of the compounds are mainly derived from cinnamyl, hydrolyzed phenol, tannins, phenylpropanoids and terpenoids compounds [42]. There are several other bioactive compounds listed in **Table 6**, according to the type of extraction using different parts of the *C. zeylanicum* tree [26]. However, eugenol, benzyl benzoate, linalool and eugenyl acetate are reported as the common antioxidants of *C. zeylanicum* species [27].

Among the bioactive constitutes of *C. zeylanicum*, cinnamaldehyde and transcinnamaldehyde are considered as the major compounds, especially concerning anti-tyrosinase activity [17]. The spicy and fragrance characters of *C. zeylanicum* is mainly due to cinnamaldehyde [23]. Based on the richness of bioactive compounds and its medicinal properties, *C. zeylanicum* is used traditionally to provide aroma and essence compounds. It is also used as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-lipidemic, antidiabetic, anticancer, antitumor, anthelmintic, anti-aflatoxigenic, antifungal and antimicrobial agent medicinally [1, 29, 32, 43–47]. There are many examples of its use for medicinal purposes such as Cinnamon metabolite proanthocyanidins which suppresses inflammatory compounds helping pathways such as insulin signaling. Moreover, essential oil bioactive compounds are used against many pathogenic (including food-borne)

Cinnamon extract for additional testing in clinical trials [40].

and ulcer protective effects across a range of models [41].

**4. Bioactive compounds**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97492*

#### Cinnamomum zeylanicum: *Morphology, Antioxidant Properties and Bioactive Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97492*

and nephrotoxicity at large doses. Trials conducted by supplementing high doses of Cinnamon with acetaminophen in four rat groups discovered that pre-treatment with Cinnamon significantly ameliorated cellular alterations and apoptosis [39].

Tauopathy neurodegeneration is a subset of diseases involving a trademark neurofibrillary tangling. Hyperphosphorylation in the microtubular protein known as tau results in the protein disassociating from the microtubules and forming insoluble aggregates. These neurofibrillary tangles of tau are believed to be one of the possible central pathologies of Alzheimer's disease. Cinnamon extract was found to effectively inhibit the aggregation of human tau *in vitro*. The activity was attributed to a proanthocyanidin trimer and cinnamaldehyde. The same study observed that while the Cinnamon extract inhibited the aggregation of tau, not all polyphenols in the Cinnamon extract are active in the inhibitory process. Therefore, the inhibitory activity cannot be linked to the general antioxidant properties of the extract. However, the studies were performed *in vitro*, raising concerns about the bioavailability of compounds. Regardless, this study has set the stage and qualified Cinnamon extract for additional testing in clinical trials [40].

Cinnamon extract also exhibited significant gastroprotective effects in a study performed with Wistar albino rats. Gastric lesions were induced via an orally administered indomethacin solution. A Cinnamon suspension was administered 30 min prior to the oral indomethacin, and the animals were sacrificed 6 hours after the treatment. The results found a significant decrease in basal gastric acid secretion and ulcer protective effects across a range of models [41].

## **4. Bioactive compounds**

*Antioxidants - Benefits, Sources, Mechanisms of Action*

Essential oils Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol,

Essential oils Cinnamaldehyde, α-pinene,

eucalyptol

Essential oils Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol and carvacrol

Essential oil Cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acetate

trans-cinnamaldehyde

*Antioxidant compounds of* C. zeylanicum *products and their properties.*

Essential oil Cinnamaldehyde and

thymol, carvacrol, safrole, menthol, 1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, p-cymene

eugenol, β-caryophyllene, and

*C. zeylanicum* **plant product type or parts**

Cinnacassiol, eugenol, camphene, coumarin, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid and

Essential oil rich in eugenol, (E)- cinnamaldehyde,

gamma-terpinene

Cinnamon (*C. zeylanicum*)

tea

**Table 4.**

and linalool

**Antioxidants compounds Activity Reference**

Trans-cinnamaldehyde Decrease blood lipid

Cinnamaldehyde and other compounds of Cinnamon Activity against the production

Eugenol Against peroxynitrite induced

Cinnamate Improves hyperlipidemia and

Cinnamaldehyde Reduce visfatin-induced breast

Cuminaldehyde Inhibition of proliferation and

There are other demonstrated beneficial properties of *C. zeylanicum*. Acetaminophen is an over-the-counter antipyretic-analgesic drug. It exhibits antiinflammatory properties at therapeutic doses. However, it also causes hepatotoxicity

*Antioxidant properties of bioactive compounds present in* C. zeylanicum.

Cinnamaldehyde and trans-cinnamaldehyde Anti-tyrosinase activity. [17, 23]

toxicity

**Main Antioxidant compounds Properties or benefits Reference**

As agro-food natural antioxidants to conserve fatty foods used in all formulations containing fats, as food additives and as a natural food

high inhibitory effect against β-carotene discoloration, suppress lipid

reaction, and as a food preservative.

As feed additives and potential alternative to antibiotics in poultry

inhibition of 2-hexenal

As a drug in phytotherapy disease treatment.

peroxides, increase antioxidant capacity and total

thiol molecules.

preservative.

oxidation

industry.

oxidation

oxide.

cancer.

Against high cholesterol diet

nitration and lipid peroxidation.

decrease triglyceride levels.

apoptosis induction.

of nitric oxide and the expression of inducible nitric [17]

[26]

[31]

[32]

[28]

[33]

[19]

[23, 37]

[23]

[37]

[1]

[38]

[38]

**412**

**Table 5.**

*C. zeylanicum* antioxidant compounds are found in many of parts of the plant such as leaves, buds, flowers, fruits, bark, root bark and oils. Additionally, *C. zeylanicum* is also rich with volatile compounds, most of which act as antioxidants. *C. zeylanicum* contains cinnamyl acetate, eugenol, trans-cinnamaldehyde (the main component of Cinnamon flavor), cymene, cinnacassiol, cineol, camphene, catechins, coumarin cinnamic acid and gamma-terpinene, terpinolene, and α-thujene, α-terpineol, linalool, l-borneol, E-nerolidol, pinene, phyllandrene, proanthocyanidins, safrole, tannins constituting polymeric 5,7,3,4-tetrahydroxy-tetrahydroxy flavan-3-4-diol units, α-cubene and resins [1, 17, 23]. In addition, most of the compounds are mainly derived from cinnamyl, hydrolyzed phenol, tannins, phenylpropanoids and terpenoids compounds [42]. There are several other bioactive compounds listed in **Table 6**, according to the type of extraction using different parts of the *C. zeylanicum* tree [26]. However, eugenol, benzyl benzoate, linalool and eugenyl acetate are reported as the common antioxidants of *C. zeylanicum* species [27].

Among the bioactive constitutes of *C. zeylanicum*, cinnamaldehyde and transcinnamaldehyde are considered as the major compounds, especially concerning anti-tyrosinase activity [17]. The spicy and fragrance characters of *C. zeylanicum* is mainly due to cinnamaldehyde [23]. Based on the richness of bioactive compounds and its medicinal properties, *C. zeylanicum* is used traditionally to provide aroma and essence compounds. It is also used as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-lipidemic, antidiabetic, anticancer, antitumor, anthelmintic, anti-aflatoxigenic, antifungal and antimicrobial agent medicinally [1, 29, 32, 43–47]. There are many examples of its use for medicinal purposes such as Cinnamon metabolite proanthocyanidins which suppresses inflammatory compounds helping pathways such as insulin signaling. Moreover, essential oil bioactive compounds are used against many pathogenic (including food-borne) and spoilage bacteria [17, 31, 46].

**415**

**Author details**

**5. Conclusion**

**Table 6.**

Sri Lanka

Asel Chandula Weerasekera1

of Sri Lanka, Mihintale, Sri Lanka

provided the original work is properly cited.

Heethaka Krishantha Sameera de Zoysa3,4, Thushara Chathuranga Bamunuarachchige3

1 Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia

efficacy and ability to prevent specific diseases.

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Cinnamomum zeylanicum: *Morphology, Antioxidant Properties and Bioactive Compounds*

**Parts of** *C. zeylanicum* **Antioxidant compounds Reference** Root Bark • Camper [23, 36]

> • Trans-Cinnamaldehyde • Terpene hydrocarbons • *alpha*-Bergamotene • *alpha*-Copaene • Oxygenated terpenoids • (E)-Cinnamyl acetate • *trans-alpha*-Bergamotene • Caryophyllene oxide

, Kanchana Samarasinghe2

Based on the evidence presented above, it is only pertinent to identify *C. zeylanicum* as a potent disease-preventing herb due to its superior antioxidant power. While most of the bioactive compounds responsible for this functional property have been isolated and identified, it is evident that the compounds vary with the variety of the plant, environmental conditions as well as the analytical method used for the characterization process. Thus, it is inevitable that more potent antioxidant compounds can be discovered in *C. zeylanicum*. Even though currently considered as a spice and a traditional medicinal herb, *C. zeylanicum* has the potential to serve as the source for generating compounds for clinical trials for further evaluation of

3 Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

2 Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Kandy,

4 Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

,

and Viduranga Yashasvi Waisundara<sup>2</sup>

[23, 28, 36]

\*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97492*

*Bioactive compounds find in the* C. zeylanicum *species.*

Flowers and fruits and in lower

amounts in buds

Cinnamomum zeylanicum: *Morphology, Antioxidant Properties and Bioactive Compounds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97492*

**Table 6.**

*Antioxidants - Benefits, Sources, Mechanisms of Action*

Essential oil • Cinnamaldehyde

**Parts of** *C. zeylanicum* **Antioxidant compounds Reference**

• Camphor • Cinnamyl-acetate • Caryophyllene • Carvacrol

• Eugenol • E-nerolidol • b-caryophyllene

• Guaiol • Terpinolene • Thymol • Safrole • Menthol • 1,8-cineole • α-terpineol • p-cymene

• Trans-Cinnamaldehyde

[23, 26, 28].

[23, 36]

[23, 36]

• Caryophyllene oxide

• Trans α-bergamotene

• Linalool • L-borneol • L-bornyl acetate • Geraniol • Bornyl acetate • α-cubebene • -terpineol • -thujene • γ-elemene • α-copaene

Oils from the buds • Mono and sesquiterpenes [28]

• Eugenol

• Eugenol • Linalool • Safrole • Pinene • Phyllandrene • Cymene • Cineol

• Catechins • Proanthocyanidins

• Resins

• Tannins constituting polymeric 5,7,3,4-tetrahydroxy-tetrahydroxy flavan-3-4-diol units

Leaves • Cinnamaldehyde

Cinnamon Bark • Cinnamaldehyde

**414**

*Bioactive compounds find in the* C. zeylanicum *species.*

## **5. Conclusion**

Based on the evidence presented above, it is only pertinent to identify *C. zeylanicum* as a potent disease-preventing herb due to its superior antioxidant power. While most of the bioactive compounds responsible for this functional property have been isolated and identified, it is evident that the compounds vary with the variety of the plant, environmental conditions as well as the analytical method used for the characterization process. Thus, it is inevitable that more potent antioxidant compounds can be discovered in *C. zeylanicum*. Even though currently considered as a spice and a traditional medicinal herb, *C. zeylanicum* has the potential to serve as the source for generating compounds for clinical trials for further evaluation of efficacy and ability to prevent specific diseases.

## **Author details**

Asel Chandula Weerasekera1 , Kanchana Samarasinghe2 , Heethaka Krishantha Sameera de Zoysa3,4, Thushara Chathuranga Bamunuarachchige3 and Viduranga Yashasvi Waisundara<sup>2</sup> \*

1 Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia

2 Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Kandy, Sri Lanka

3 Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Mihintale, Sri Lanka

4 Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Bandaranayake PCG, Wijesinghe KGG,

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[8] Ariyarathne HBMA,

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BANKO/article/view/2981

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[29] Chericoni S, Prieto JM, Iacopini P, Cioni P, Morelli I. In vitro activity of the essential oil of *Cinnamomum zeylanicum* and eugenol in peroxynitrite-induced oxidative processes. J Agric Food Chem [Internet]. 2005 Jun 15 [cited 2021 Jan 9];53(12):4762-5. Available from: https://pubs.acs.org/sharingguidelines

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**418**

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[38] Kubatka P, Kello M, Kajo K, Samec M, Jasek K, Vybohova D, et al. Chemopreventive and Therapeutic Efficacy of *Cinnamomum zeylanicum* L. Bark in Experimental Breast Carcinoma: Mechanistic In Vivo and In Vitro Analyses. Molecules [Internet]. 2020 Mar 19 [cited 2021 Jan 20];25(6):1-32. Available from: https://www.mdpi. com/1420-3049/25/6/1399

[39] Abdeen A, Abdelkader A, Abdo M, Wareth G, Aboubakr M, Aleya L, et al. Protective effect of cinnamon against acetaminophen-mediated cellular damage and apoptosis in renal tissue. 2019 [cited 2021 Jan 9];26:240-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11356-018-3553-2

[40] Peterson DW, George RC, Scaramozzino F, Lapointe NE, Anderson RA, Graves DJ, et al. Cinnamon extract inhibits tau aggregation associated with alzheimer's disease in vitro. J Alzheimer's Dis. 2009 Jan 1;17(3):585-97.

[41] Alqasoumi S. Anti-secretagogue and antiulcer effects of "cinnamon" *Cinnamomum zeylanicum* in rats. J Pharmacogn Phyther [Internet]. 2012 Jul 31 [cited 2021 Jan 9];4(4):53-61.

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**421**

**Chapter 21**

**Abstract**

Dietary Phytochemicals: As a

phytochemicals and their role of in disease prevention and cure.

antioxidant enzymes, phytochemicals

**1. Introduction**

**Keywords:** Oxidative stress, antioxidants, reactive oxygen species,

Life threatening diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, neurodisorders, diabetes, and cancers are world health problems and account for morbidity and mortality to millions of people. These diseases/disorders are mainly linked to oxidative stress due to free radical induced toxicity. The free radicals (oxidants) are unstable species with a very short half-life, but they are highly reactive metabolites which are harmful to normal functions of the cells and body. They produce oxidative damage toward macromolecules like proteins, DNA, and lipids. In general, the reactive oxygen species circulating in the body tend to react with the electron of other molecules in the body and these also affect various enzyme systems and cause DNA damage which may further contribute to oxidative damage and inflammatory diseases and conditions such as cancer, ischemia, aging, adult respiratory distress syndromes, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. Oxidative stress occurs as result of an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidant defense system. A plant-based diet protects against

Natural Source of Antioxidants

*Manju Singh Makhaik, Arvind K. Shakya and Raosaheb Kale*

Since time immemorial, plants are used as the source of food and medicine. It can be traced back to the start of humanity. Bringing plant-based food, such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, rich in phytochemicals, with beneficial nutrients, opens the door for healthy living. The health benefits are partly attributed to the compounds which possess antioxidants. Several epidemiological observations have shown an opposite relationship between consumption of plant-based foods, rich in phytochemicals, and many diseases including cancer. The majority of the ailments are related to oxidative stress induced by free radicals. Free radicals are extremely unstable with a very short half-life, highly reactive molecule which leads to oxidative damage to macromolecules such as proteins, DNA, and lipids. Free radical induced cellular inflammation appears to be a major contributing factor to cause aging, and degenerative diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hepatic diseases, renal ailments, and brain dysfunction. Free radicals have been caught up in the pathogenesis of several diseases. Providentially, free radical formation is controlled naturally by phytochemicals, through their antioxidant potential which plays a key role in preventing many diseases including cancer by suppressing oxidative stress-induced DNA damage. Keeping these facts in mind, an attempt has been made to highlight the oxidative stress, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant, dietary

*Antioxidants - Benefits, Sources, Mechanisms of Action*

[47] Diniz do Nascimento L, Moraes AAB de, Costa KS da, Pereira

Galúcio JM, Taube PS, Costa CML, et al. Bioactive Natural Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils from Spice Plants: New Findings and Potential Applications. Biomolecules [Internet]. 2020 Jul 1 [cited 2021 Jan 21];10(7):1-35. Available from: https:// www.mdpi.com/2218-273X/10/7/988

**420**


**1. Introduction**

Complexity analysis is an approach that is gaining strength when evaluating environmental policies [1]. In the water sector, complexity has been associated with problems such as environmental pollution, the overexploitation of aquifers, and the insufficient supply of adequate quality water to all people. This complexity results in the difficulty of fully understanding all variables that influence how these problems may be resolved [1,2]. These variables are linked to social, cultural, political, economic, technological, and environmental factors at different scales [3]. Moreover, complexity is an attribute assumed to be inherent in water governance, which is in part due to specific water-related problems [1,3,4] and the social–ecological system in which it is immersed [5–7]. Other studies have attributed complexity as a characteristic of adaptive [8] and polycentric governance models [9,10] due to their ability to incorporate uncertainty and feedback into the decision-making and water

**Citation:** Gumeta-Gómez, F.; Sáenz-Arroyo, A.; Hinojosa-Arango, G.; Monzón-Alvarado, C.; Mesa-Jurado, M.A.; Molina-Rosales, D. Understanding the Complexity of Water Supply System Governance: A Proposal for a Methodological Framework. *Water* **2021**, *13*, 2870. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/w13202870

Academic Editors: Athanasios Loukas and Luis Garrote

Received: 10 September 2021 Accepted: 11 October 2021 Published: 14 October 2021

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

management process. Nonetheless, we argue that water governance can be complex not only as a characteristic of an adaptative or polycentric governance model but because of the complex problems it addresses across different jurisdictional, spatial, and temporal scales.

However, in the field of water governance, there is a lack of appropriate frameworks and pertinent variables to address complexity beyond a heuristic concept. In other research areas, such as the forest, fisheries, and aquaculture sectors, the diversity of stakeholders and institutions [11], the multilevel governance structure [12], legal pluralism [13], and the nestedness of the institution [14,15] have been proposed as approximations to understand the complexity of governance. However, these approaches largely ignore local processes, fail to identify multilevel structural elements or processes that contribute to complexity, or are unable to clearly define nestedness measures by overlooking the ambiguity between what is or what is not nested. In addition, we consider that approaching complexity via a single property is short-sighted while not being fully linked to the theory of complexity. In this theory, complexity attempts to holistically and synergistically understand the outcomes based on the interactions (e.g., exchange of information, goods, services, or energy) of system components (e.g., stakeholders and institutions), the evolution of the system, and the manner in which component interactions define the structure of the system while allowing for the emergence of qualities that cannot be either predicted or controlled [16]. In this sense, the question of how the complexity of water governance may be understood in a way that allows for analyses of empirical cases remains unanswered. Understanding the complexity of water governance is relevant due to the tendencies towards water management decentralization in many countries [17–19] and the existence of a multi-level process regarding the human right to water and sanitation that operates from global to local levels [20]. The decentralization of water management and the creation of new institutions and rights (e.g., human water rights) can create legal pluralism, resulting in new or different interactions between stakeholders and institutions. Evaluations of these new interactions will provide a solid foundation to establish new water policies, reform existing laws, or transition to more desirable polycentric or adaptative governance models [14] to ensure the human right to water and sanitation.

In this study, we propose a new conceptual–methodological framework called the Water Governance Complexity Framework, which is based on some elements of the Kooiman Interactive Governance Framework [14,21,22], to understand the complexity of water governance. To illustrate this framework, we used the water supply system for domestic use in Mexico. As in many other rural and suburban locations in Latin America, the inhabitants of Oaxaca use a variety of institutional arrangements to govern the water supply system. In this study, we argue that framing the governance of this system under the lens of complexity allows for its structure and function at state and national levels to be evaluated. For this, we aimed to answer three questions: (1) How is the current governance of the water supply system for domestic use in Oaxaca, Mexico, structured, and how does it function, considering the different jurisdictional levels? (2) Over time, how have institutional changes shaped the current governance structure of the water supply system for domestic use? (3) Can the water governance for domestic use in Mexico be considered complex?

### **2. Materials and Methods**

### *2.1. Building the Water Governance Complexity Framework*

To develop the Water Governance Complexity Framework, we began by establishing and linking basic concepts such as water governance and complexity. Subsequently, based on the Interactive Governance Framework (IGF) [14], we structured a new conceptual– methodological framework to understand the complexity of water governance.

We adopted a water governance definition in a broad sense to avoid controversy. Thus, we define water governance as a set of interactions used to make decisions among different stakeholders and institutions with common objectives to manage water resources [23]. These different stakeholders include governments, the private sector, and civil society [24]. Meanwhile, we distinguished institutions as formal rules, laws, and norms (e.g., constitutions, laws, regulations, and policies) and informal institutions as social agreements, as defined by North [25], which guide and regulate stakeholder decision making and actions. According to complexity theory, complexity is related to uncertainty and the challenges associated with predicting non-linear interactions between constantly changing entities [16]. A looser approach relates complexity to patterns and structures that are not easily describable or predictable [26]. If it is assumed that entities can be stakeholders and institutions and that the variables are their interactions (e.g., linear and non-linear) and change (e.g., institutional change), the first link is established between complexity and water governance. The second link between complexity and water governance is offered by the IGF proposed by Kooiman [14], as it considers the diversity of the governance system. A greater diversity of stakeholders and institutions may produce more dynamic and less predictable interactions between these entities. Ostrom sees the diversity of institutions as similar to that of ecological systems. In ecological systems, greater species diversity increases the structural complexity of biotic communities [27]. In ecological and economic systems, diversity helps to promote complexity and functionality [27,28]. However, diversity alone is not enough to produce complexity given that it requires that entities establish interactions and that new structures emerge as a result of those interactions [26]. These properties are vital in understanding the functionality of the system, which in our case, is water governance.

In this sense, the IGF offers a good starting point for integrating the variables of interaction, change, diversity, and complexity as properties of the stakeholders and institutions. The IGF is a relatively broad framework that addresses the *societal system*, defined as "the whole of interrelations among a given number of entities belonging to the natural and social worlds" [28]. According to the IGF, the societal system is made up of three parts that characterize it: the governing system (GS), system-to-be-governed (SG), and governing interactions (GI), in addition to the properties (i.e., *complexity*, *diversity*, *dynamics*, and scale), elements (i.e., image, instrument, and action), and orders (first- and second-order and meta-governance). The IGF mainly focuses on interactions to solve social problems and create opportunities, emphasizing interactions as its main innovation [15]. In this study, we focus on the properties of the GS in the first and second orders of governance. A full description of the other framework components can be found in Kooiman [14] and Kooiman and Bavinck [22].

Our proposal includes the following:

	- - Diversity is defined in terms of variation in the attributes or characteristics [26] of stakeholders and institutions [15] in the GS, SG, or GI [21]. Bavinck and Kooiman propose legal pluralism as a proxy for GS in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors [15].
	- - Dynamics "create the potential for change" [15]. Bavinck and Kooiman propose institutional change as a proxy for GS in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors [15]. The principal analysis of institutional theory focuses on how stakeholders, institutions, and arrangements change over time [29]. The analysis also focuses on institutions that do not change or resist change due to stagnation, atrophy, or robustness [29].
	- - Scale "represents the level at which the combined effects of diversity and dynamics can be best observed and analyzed" [21]. Following Gibson et al. [30], we clarify that scale and level are two different but related aspects. Scale refers to any dimension (e.g., spatial, temporal, and jurisdictional), and level refers to the unit of analysis in a different place on a given scale.

• Order of governance focuses on different processes.

Our approach differs from the Kooiman IGF by viewing complexity as an umbrella property encompassing diversity and dynamics. Additionally, we propose incorporating nestedness as a property (Figure 1). Nestedness is a property linked to the interactions between entities (e.g., stakeholders and institutions). The importance of this property lies in analyzing the influence of the structure of the system on the behavior of the subsystem [33]. In this sense, emphasis is placed on the nestedness of the scalar property [34], which for our purposes represents a jurisdictional scalar (i.e., local, state, or national levels). We argue that considering complexity as a supra-property can help reconcile the IGF approach with the conceptualizations derived from complexity theory. Therefore, we consider scale to be a cross-sectional condition of all properties, as it is not practical to begin an analysis without clearly defining the scales or levels under observation [35].

**Figure 1.** The Water Governance Complexity Framework proposes the analysis of diversity, nestedness, and dynamics properties in at least three levels in jurisdictional (i.e., local, state, and national) and temporal (levels are defined a posteriori according to periods of institutional change) scales in the first and second orders of governance. Source: Adapted from Kooiman and Bavinck [22].

### *2.2. Case Study: Water Supply System for Domestic Use in Oaxaca and Mexico*

This study applies the Water Governance Complexity Framework to analyze the complexity of the governance of the water supply system for domestic use in Oaxaca and Mexico. This system refers to water obtained from freshwater resources using hydraulic infrastructure, which allows for its storage, treatment (to ensure it is suitable for human consumption), and transport (to satisfy the food, health, and hygiene needs of each household). Our analysis focuses on formal and informal stakeholders and institutions immersed or involved in managing the water supply system for domestic use to solve appropriation and provision problems [36] through jurisdictional and temporal scales.

At the national level, we reviewed the institutions, stakeholders, and institutional changes of the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first centuries related to the management of the water supply system for domestic use. At the state level, we selected Oaxaca and its legislation related to water for domestic use. We chose 13 rural communities in the Mixtecan Alta region in Oaxaca (Figure 2) to explore the diversity of stakeholders and institutions, nestedness, and dynamics at the local level. In its broadest sense, we emphasize that community refers to a social unit that shares things in common, such as norms, religion, values, or identity [37]. We selected Oaxaca because the local government systems are considered unique and relatively more autonomous than those of other Mexican states [38]. The 13 rural communities selected for this study (Figure 2) are indigenous and cover different political and administrative configurations. Six communities are municipal seats (San Francisco Teopán, Santa Magdalena Jicotlan, Concepción Buenavista, Santiago Ihuitlán Plumas, San Juan de los Cues, and Santiago Tepetlapa), and seven communities are municipal agencies (El Enebro, San Miguel Aztatla, Santa Cruz Corunda, San Antonio Abad, La Mexicana, Santiago Quiotepec, and Santa Cruz Capulalpam). Municipal agencies are subdivisions of the same municipality that encompass peripheral population centers and are subordinate to the municipal seat. In the municipal seat, the municipal council is established and acts as the leading local authority in the municipality.

### *2.3. Operationalization, Data Collection, and Analysis*

The diversity, nestedness, and dynamics of the Water Governance Complexity Framework were approached by assessing proxies for legal pluralism, formal and informal stakeholders, nestedness among jurisdictional levels, and institutional change at national and local levels, following the proposal of Kooiman [14,15,39]. We present the proxies, their operative definitions (Table 1), the methodology used to obtain data, and the implemented analyses in detail in the following subsections.


Author details

Gennadiy Churyumov1 , Jinghui Qiu2 and Nannan Wang2 \*

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapteris distributed underthe terms oftheCreative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.