170 The Biosphere

molecule electronvolt 464 27.26/464 0.059

methane kilojoule 0.059

methane megajoule 0.059 20 0.079

reactant numerator denominator change ratio %

35.90-27.46 8.4 456 35.90/456 0.079

3438-2628 810 0.079

24 ?

joules/degree 17,879,562 18,365,986 2.7

1.455255

1.455255

(estimate) ?

Product-

case study unit of

computed from laboratory tests

single methane

mole of

kilogram of

typical boiler

237 tons of carbohydrate and 1000 tons of coal

0.7 ton coal 0.1 ton methane

global statistics all fossil fuels

village brickmakers

actual laboratory tests

actual laboratory tests

ton of coal gigajoules

"released" to "locked up" coulombic forces

entropy in

burned 2011 exajoules 450 26,000?

Table 7. A summary of 7 scales of exergy destruction starting from the combustion of one molecule of the simple fuel, methane, up to global fossil fuels estimated to be "consumed" in 2011. At different scales different units are used, and different methods of quantification are applied, but the universal point is that there is exergy destruction (mainly heat released) as a numerator over a denominator which in the past has not been acknowledged or even conceptualized. The denominator for global fossil fuels is simply an estimate commensurate

typical blast furnace

with computations at lower scales.

measure

	- 10/17/content\_6182376.htm

**Part 3**

**Biosphere Reserves**

**Part 3**

**Biosphere Reserves**

172 The Biosphere

Szargut, J, Morris D, Stewart F. (1988). *Exergy Analysis of Thermal, Chemical, and Metallurgical*

Szargut, J. (2003).Anthropegenic and natural exergy losses (exergy balance of the Earth's

Szargut, J. (2005) *Exergy Method: Technical and Ecological Applications*. Southhampton: WIT

Urone, P. (2004) *College Physics* (2nd edition), Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, ISBN 0-534-

surface and atmosphere). *Energy*, 2003, 28: 1047-1054

37688-6, reprinted in the People's Republic of China.

*Processes*. Monograph.

Press,

**9**

**Biosphere Reserves**

*Namk Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture*

Protected areas are essential for biodiversity conservation. They are the cornerstones of virtually all national and international conservation strategies, set aside to maintain functioning natural ecosystems, to act as refuges for species and to maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Protected areas act as benchmarks against which we understand human interactions with the natural world. Today they are often the only hope we have of stopping many threatened

Most protected areas exist in natural or near-natural ecosystems, or are being restored to such a state, although there are exceptions. Many contain major features of earth history and earth processes while others document the subtle interplay between human activity and nature in cultural landscapes. Larger and more natural protected areas also provide space for evolution and future ecological adaptation and restoration, both increasingly important

The term "protected area" is therefore shorthand for a sometimes bewildering array of land and water designations, of which some of the best known are *national park*, *nature reserve*, *wilderness area*, *wildlife management area* and *landscape protected area* but can also include such approaches as *community conserved areas*. More importantly, the term embraces a wide range of different management approaches, from highly protected sites where few if any people are allowed to enter, through parks where the emphasis is on conservation but visitors are welcome, to much less restrictive approaches where conservation is integrated into the traditional (and sometimes not so traditional) human lifestyles or even takes place alongside limited sustainable resource extraction. Some protected areas ban activities like food collecting, hunting or extraction of natural resources while for others it is an accepted and even a necessary part of management. The approaches taken in terrestrial, inland water and marine protected areas may also differ significantly and these differences are spelled out later in the guidelines (Dudley, 2008). Today roughly a tenth of the world's land surface is under some form of protected area. Over the last 40 years the global protected area estate has increased from an area the size of the United Kingdom to an area the size of South America. However, significant challenges remain. Many protected areas are not yet fully implemented or managed. Protected areas continue to be established, and received a boost in 2004 when the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed an ambitious *Programme of Work on Protected Areas*, based on the key outcomes from the Vth IUCN World Parks

or endemic species from becoming extinct (Dudley, 2008).

under conditions of rapid climate change.

**1. Introduction**

Murat Özyavuz

*Turkey*

## **Biosphere Reserves**

Murat Özyavuz

*Namk Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture Turkey*

### **1. Introduction**

Protected areas are essential for biodiversity conservation. They are the cornerstones of virtually all national and international conservation strategies, set aside to maintain functioning natural ecosystems, to act as refuges for species and to maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Protected areas act as benchmarks against which we understand human interactions with the natural world. Today they are often the only hope we have of stopping many threatened or endemic species from becoming extinct (Dudley, 2008).

Most protected areas exist in natural or near-natural ecosystems, or are being restored to such a state, although there are exceptions. Many contain major features of earth history and earth processes while others document the subtle interplay between human activity and nature in cultural landscapes. Larger and more natural protected areas also provide space for evolution and future ecological adaptation and restoration, both increasingly important under conditions of rapid climate change.

The term "protected area" is therefore shorthand for a sometimes bewildering array of land and water designations, of which some of the best known are *national park*, *nature reserve*, *wilderness area*, *wildlife management area* and *landscape protected area* but can also include such approaches as *community conserved areas*. More importantly, the term embraces a wide range of different management approaches, from highly protected sites where few if any people are allowed to enter, through parks where the emphasis is on conservation but visitors are welcome, to much less restrictive approaches where conservation is integrated into the traditional (and sometimes not so traditional) human lifestyles or even takes place alongside limited sustainable resource extraction. Some protected areas ban activities like food collecting, hunting or extraction of natural resources while for others it is an accepted and even a necessary part of management. The approaches taken in terrestrial, inland water and marine protected areas may also differ significantly and these differences are spelled out later in the guidelines (Dudley, 2008). Today roughly a tenth of the world's land surface is under some form of protected area. Over the last 40 years the global protected area estate has increased from an area the size of the United Kingdom to an area the size of South America. However, significant challenges remain. Many protected areas are not yet fully implemented or managed. Protected areas continue to be established, and received a boost in 2004 when the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed an ambitious *Programme of Work on Protected Areas*, based on the key outcomes from the Vth IUCN World Parks

Biosphere Reserves 177

*countries can exchange information and views*" (The International Union For Conservation of

Though its Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA), IUCN has given international guidance on the categorisation of protected areas for nearly a quarter of a century. The purposes of this advice have been (The International Union For Conservation

• to encourage governments to develop systems of protected areas with management

• to reduce the confusion which has arisen from the adoption of many different terms to

• to provide international standards to help global and regional accounting and

• to provide a framework for the collection, handling and dissemination of data about

• generally to improve communication and understanding between all those engaged in

As a first step, the General Assembly of IUCN defined the term "national park" in 1969. Much pioneer work was done by Dr Ray Dasmann from which emerged a preliminary categories system published by IUCN in 1973. In 1978, IUCN published the CNPPA report on Categories, Objectives and Criteria for Protected Areas, which was prepared by the CNPPA Committee on Criteria and Nomenclature chaired by Dr Kenton Miller. This proposed these ten categories. Ten categories were proposed, defined mainly by management objective, all of which were considered important, with no category inherently

• to alert governments to the importance to the importance of protected areas;

aims tailored to national and local circumstances

describe different kinds of protected areas;

comparisons between countries;

more valuable than another (Dudley, 2008):

i. Scientific Reserve/Strict Nature Reserve

iii. Natural Monument/Natural Landmark

vii. Natural Biotic Area/Anthropological Reserve

viii. Multiple Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area Group C: Categories that are part of international programmes.

Group A: Categories for which CNNPA will take special responsibility

iv. Nature Conservation Reserve/Managed Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary

Group B: Other categories of importance to IUCN, but not exclusively in the scope of

This system of categories has been widely used. It has been incorporated in some national legislation, used in dialogue between the world's protected area mangers, and has formed

the organisational structure of the UN List of National Parks and Protected Areas.

protected areas; and

conservation.

ii. National Park

CNNPA

v. Protected Landscape

vi. Resource Reserve

**ix. Biosphere reserve**

x. World Heritage Site (natural)

Nature [IUCN], 1994).

of Nature [IUCN], 1994):

Congress,1 which aims to complete ecologically-representative protected area systems around the world and has almost a hundred time limited targets.

The IUCN protected area management categories are a global framework, recognized by the Convention on Biological Diversity, for categorizing the variety of protected area management types. Squeezing the almost infinite array of approaches into six categories can never be more than an approximation. But the depth of interest and the passion of the debate surrounding the revision of these categories show that for many conservationists, and others, they represent a critical overarching framework that helps to shape the management and the priorities of protected areas around the world. The first effort to clarify terminology was made in 1933, at the International Conference for the Protection of Fauna and Flora, in London. This set out four protected area categories: *national park*; *strict nature reserve*; *fauna and flora reserve*; and *reserve with prohibition for hunting and collecting*. In 1942, the Western Hemisphere Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation also incorporated four types: *national park*; *national reserve*; *nature monument*; and *strict wilderness reserve* (Holdgate 1999). In 1978, Ten categories were proposed, defined mainly by management objective, all of which were considered important, with no category inherently more valuable than another: scientific reserve, *national park, natural monument/national landmark, nature conservation reserve, protected landscape, resource reserve, anthropological reserve, multiple-use management area, biosphere reserve and world heritage site (natural).* In 1994, IUCN and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre are definition new protected area categories: *strict protection/strict nature reserve and wilderness area, ecosystem conservation and protection, conservation of natural features, conservation through active management, landscape/seascape conservation and recreation, sustainable use of natural resources.* This is the most important changes in the definitions that the biosphere reserves and world heritage sites. These categories are not discrete management categories but international designations generally overlain on other categories.

The concept of biosphere reserves as originated by a task force of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme in 1974, The biosphere reserve network was launched in 1976 and, as of June 2011, has grown to include 580 reserves in 114 countries. The network is a key component in MAB's objective of achieving a sustainable balance between the sometimes-conflicting goals of conserving biological diversity, promoting economic development, and maintaining associated cultural values. Biosphere reserves are sites where this objective is tested, refined, demonstrated and implemented. In this chapter, which is one of the most important protected areas in the approach to the information given in relation to the biosphere reserve.

#### **2. Protected areas and management categories**

The original intent of the IUCN Protected Area Management Categories system was to create a common understanding of protected areas, both within and between countries. This is set out in the introduction to the Guidelines by the then Chair of CNPPA (Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, now known as the World Commission on Protected Areas), P.H.C. (Bing) Lucas who wrote: "*These guidelines have a special significance as they are intended for everyone involved in protected areas, providing a common language by which managers, planners, researchers, politicians and citizens groups in all*

Congress,1 which aims to complete ecologically-representative protected area systems

The IUCN protected area management categories are a global framework, recognized by the Convention on Biological Diversity, for categorizing the variety of protected area management types. Squeezing the almost infinite array of approaches into six categories can never be more than an approximation. But the depth of interest and the passion of the debate surrounding the revision of these categories show that for many conservationists, and others, they represent a critical overarching framework that helps to shape the management and the priorities of protected areas around the world. The first effort to clarify terminology was made in 1933, at the International Conference for the Protection of Fauna and Flora, in London. This set out four protected area categories: *national park*; *strict nature reserve*; *fauna and flora reserve*; and *reserve with prohibition for hunting and collecting*. In 1942, the Western Hemisphere Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation also incorporated four types: *national park*; *national reserve*; *nature monument*; and *strict wilderness reserve* (Holdgate 1999). In 1978, Ten categories were proposed, defined mainly by management objective, all of which were considered important, with no category inherently more valuable than another: scientific reserve, *national park, natural monument/national landmark, nature conservation reserve, protected landscape, resource reserve, anthropological reserve, multiple-use management area, biosphere reserve and world heritage site (natural).* In 1994, IUCN and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre are definition new protected area categories: *strict protection/strict nature reserve and wilderness area, ecosystem conservation and protection, conservation of natural features, conservation through active management, landscape/seascape conservation and recreation, sustainable use of natural resources.* This is the most important changes in the definitions that the biosphere reserves and world heritage sites. These categories are not discrete management categories but international

The concept of biosphere reserves as originated by a task force of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme in 1974, The biosphere reserve network was launched in 1976 and, as of June 2011, has grown to include 580 reserves in 114 countries. The network is a key component in MAB's objective of achieving a sustainable balance between the sometimes-conflicting goals of conserving biological diversity, promoting economic development, and maintaining associated cultural values. Biosphere reserves are sites where this objective is tested, refined, demonstrated and implemented. In this chapter, which is one of the most important protected areas in the approach to the information given in

The original intent of the IUCN Protected Area Management Categories system was to create a common understanding of protected areas, both within and between countries. This is set out in the introduction to the Guidelines by the then Chair of CNPPA (Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, now known as the World Commission on Protected Areas), P.H.C. (Bing) Lucas who wrote: "*These guidelines have a special significance as they are intended for everyone involved in protected areas, providing a common language by which managers, planners, researchers, politicians and citizens groups in all*

around the world and has almost a hundred time limited targets.

designations generally overlain on other categories.

**2. Protected areas and management categories**

relation to the biosphere reserve.

*countries can exchange information and views*" (The International Union For Conservation of Nature [IUCN], 1994).

Though its Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA), IUCN has given international guidance on the categorisation of protected areas for nearly a quarter of a century. The purposes of this advice have been (The International Union For Conservation of Nature [IUCN], 1994):

As a first step, the General Assembly of IUCN defined the term "national park" in 1969. Much pioneer work was done by Dr Ray Dasmann from which emerged a preliminary categories system published by IUCN in 1973. In 1978, IUCN published the CNPPA report on Categories, Objectives and Criteria for Protected Areas, which was prepared by the CNPPA Committee on Criteria and Nomenclature chaired by Dr Kenton Miller. This proposed these ten categories. Ten categories were proposed, defined mainly by management objective, all of which were considered important, with no category inherently more valuable than another (Dudley, 2008):

Group A: Categories for which CNNPA will take special responsibility

Group B: Other categories of importance to IUCN, but not exclusively in the scope of CNNPA

viii. Multiple Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area

Group C: Categories that are part of international programmes.

#### **ix. Biosphere reserve**

x. World Heritage Site (natural)

This system of categories has been widely used. It has been incorporated in some national legislation, used in dialogue between the world's protected area mangers, and has formed the organisational structure of the UN List of National Parks and Protected Areas.

Biosphere Reserves 179

and, as of June 2011, had grown to include 580 reserves in 114 countries. The network is a key component in MAB's objective of achieving a sustainable balance between the sometimes-conflicting goals of conserving biological diversity, promoting economic development, and maintaining associated cultural values. Biosphere reserves are sites where this objective is tested, refined, demonstrated and implemented (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 1996). Landmarks in the history of the Man and Biosphere Programme are given below Table 1 (Pocono Environmental Education Center

**1970: UNESCO General Conference. Delegates support the formation of the Man and**  Biosphere program, intended to ensure harmonious coexistence between rural

The official birthday of the MAB program sees the establishment of 13 (later 14) research

Recommendations are made for establishing a global network of protected areas to

Delegates develop a detailed action plan for biosphere reserves, including proposals for

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) introduced the "ecosystem approach" promoting holistic analysis of environmental as well as social and economic problems. The Agenda 21 Action Plan advocates conserving local environments and involving the

The "Seville Strategy" is adopted, emphasizing the importance of sustainable development in biosphere reserve creation and management. The Statuary Framework is drawn up regarding the nomination, approval, networking, periodic revision, and

Delegates review the implementation of the Seville Strategy over the past five years on

*Madrid Action Plan* was agreed at the 3rd World Congress of Biosphere Reserves which was held in Madrid in February 2008. It builds on the Seville Strategy and aims to capitalize on the strategic advantages of the Seville instruments and raise biosphere reserves to be the principal internationally-designated areas dedicated to sustainable

In 1983, UNESCO and UNEP jointly convened the First International Biosphere Reserve Congress in Minsk (Belarus), in cooperation with FAO and IUCN. The Congress's activities

and The Center for Russian Nature Conservation/Tides Center, 2001)

**1972: UN Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm.**

conserve representative examples of ecosystems around the world. **1976: UNESCO meeting on the designation of Biosphere Reserves.**  A total of 59 biosphere reserves are established in eight countries. **1983: First International Biosphere Reserve Conference, Minsk.**

research, monitoring, training, education, and local participation.

**2008: Madrid Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves (2008-2013)**

**1992: Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro.**

**1995: UNESCO Seville Conference.**

**2000: Seville +5 Meeting, Pamplona.**

development in the 21st century

Table 1. History of Biosphere Reserve Program

the international level.

local population in conservation and development.

withdrawal of biosphere reserves by UNESCO.

populations and the environment from which they derive their subsistence. **1971: First meeting of the MAB International Coordinating Committee.**

programs aimed at evaluating human impact on various natural systems.

Nonetheless, experience has shown that the 1978 categories system is in need of review and updating. The differences between certain categories are not always clear, and the treatment of marine conservation needs strengthening. Categories IX and X are not discrete management categories but international designations generally overlain on other categories. Some of the criteria have been found to be in need of rather more flexible interpretation to meet the varying conditions around the world. Finally, the language used to describe some of the concept underlying the categorisation needs updating, reflecting new understanding of the, natural environment, and of human interactions with it, which have emerged over recent years (The International Union For Conservation of Nature [IUCN], 1994).

In 1984 CNNPA established a task force to update the categories. This reported in 1990, advising that a new system be built around the 1978 categories I–V, whilst abandoning categories VI–X (Eidsvik, 1990). CNPPA referred this to the 1992 World Parks Congress in Caracas, Venezuela. A three-day workshop there proposed maintaining a category that would be close to what had previously been category VIII for protected areas where sustainable use of natural resources was an objective. The Congress supported this and in January 1994, the IUCN General Assembly meeting in Buenos Aires approved the new system. Guidelines were published by IUCN and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre later that year. These set out a definition of a "protected area" – *An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means* – and six categories (Dudley, 2008):

Areas managed mainly for:

The 1994 guidelines (Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories) are based on key principles: the basis of categorization is by primary management objective; assignment to a category is not a commentary on management effectiveness; the categories system is international; national names for protected areas may vary; all categories are important; and a gradation of human intervention is implied (Dudley, 2008).

#### **2.1 Biosphere reserve**

Biosphere reserves are designed to deal with one of the most important questions the World faces today: How can we reconcile conservation of biodiversity and biological resources with their sustainable use? An effective Biosphere reserve involves natural and social scientists; conservation and development groups; management authorities and local communities, all working together on this complex issue.

The concept of biosphere reserves as originated by a Task Force of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme in 1974, The biosphere reserve network was launched in 1976

Nonetheless, experience has shown that the 1978 categories system is in need of review and updating. The differences between certain categories are not always clear, and the treatment of marine conservation needs strengthening. Categories IX and X are not discrete management categories but international designations generally overlain on other categories. Some of the criteria have been found to be in need of rather more flexible interpretation to meet the varying conditions around the world. Finally, the language used to describe some of the concept underlying the categorisation needs updating, reflecting new understanding of the, natural environment, and of human interactions with it, which have emerged over recent years (The International Union For Conservation of Nature

In 1984 CNNPA established a task force to update the categories. This reported in 1990, advising that a new system be built around the 1978 categories I–V, whilst abandoning categories VI–X (Eidsvik, 1990). CNPPA referred this to the 1992 World Parks Congress in Caracas, Venezuela. A three-day workshop there proposed maintaining a category that would be close to what had previously been category VIII for protected areas where sustainable use of natural resources was an objective. The Congress supported this and in January 1994, the IUCN General Assembly meeting in Buenos Aires approved the new system. Guidelines were published by IUCN and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre later that year. These set out a definition of a "protected area" – *An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means* – and six

i. Strict protection [1a] Strict nature reserve and [1b] Wilderness area ii. Ecosystem conservation and protection (i.e., National Park) iii. Conservation of natural features (i.e. Natural Monuments)

a gradation of human intervention is implied (Dudley, 2008).

communities, all working together on this complex issue.

iv. Conservation through active management (i.e. Habitat/species management area) v. Landscape/seascape conservation and recreation (i.e. Protected landscape/seascape)

The 1994 guidelines (Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories) are based on key principles: the basis of categorization is by primary management objective; assignment to a category is not a commentary on management effectiveness; the categories system is international; national names for protected areas may vary; all categories are important; and

Biosphere reserves are designed to deal with one of the most important questions the World faces today: How can we reconcile conservation of biodiversity and biological resources with their sustainable use? An effective Biosphere reserve involves natural and social scientists; conservation and development groups; management authorities and local

The concept of biosphere reserves as originated by a Task Force of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme in 1974, The biosphere reserve network was launched in 1976

vi. Sustainable use of natural resources (i.e. Managed resource protected areas)

[IUCN], 1994).

categories (Dudley, 2008): Areas managed mainly for:

**2.1 Biosphere reserve**

and, as of June 2011, had grown to include 580 reserves in 114 countries. The network is a key component in MAB's objective of achieving a sustainable balance between the sometimes-conflicting goals of conserving biological diversity, promoting economic development, and maintaining associated cultural values. Biosphere reserves are sites where this objective is tested, refined, demonstrated and implemented (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 1996). Landmarks in the history of the Man and Biosphere Programme are given below Table 1 (Pocono Environmental Education Center and The Center for Russian Nature Conservation/Tides Center, 2001)

**1970: UNESCO General Conference. Delegates support the formation of the Man and**  Biosphere program, intended to ensure harmonious coexistence between rural populations and the environment from which they derive their subsistence.

**1971: First meeting of the MAB International Coordinating Committee.**

The official birthday of the MAB program sees the establishment of 13 (later 14) research programs aimed at evaluating human impact on various natural systems.

**1972: UN Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm.**

Recommendations are made for establishing a global network of protected areas to conserve representative examples of ecosystems around the world.

#### **1976: UNESCO meeting on the designation of Biosphere Reserves.**

A total of 59 biosphere reserves are established in eight countries.

**1983: First International Biosphere Reserve Conference, Minsk.**

Delegates develop a detailed action plan for biosphere reserves, including proposals for research, monitoring, training, education, and local participation.

#### **1992: Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro.**

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) introduced the "ecosystem approach" promoting holistic analysis of environmental as well as social and economic problems. The Agenda 21 Action Plan advocates conserving local environments and involving the local population in conservation and development.

**1995: UNESCO Seville Conference.**

The "Seville Strategy" is adopted, emphasizing the importance of sustainable development in biosphere reserve creation and management. The Statuary Framework is drawn up regarding the nomination, approval, networking, periodic revision, and withdrawal of biosphere reserves by UNESCO.

#### **2000: Seville +5 Meeting, Pamplona.**

Delegates review the implementation of the Seville Strategy over the past five years on the international level.

#### **2008: Madrid Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves (2008-2013)**

*Madrid Action Plan* was agreed at the 3rd World Congress of Biosphere Reserves which was held in Madrid in February 2008. It builds on the Seville Strategy and aims to capitalize on the strategic advantages of the Seville instruments and raise biosphere reserves to be the principal internationally-designated areas dedicated to sustainable development in the 21st century

Table 1. History of Biosphere Reserve Program

In 1983, UNESCO and UNEP jointly convened the First International Biosphere Reserve Congress in Minsk (Belarus), in cooperation with FAO and IUCN. The Congress's activities

Biosphere Reserves 181

meeting for its 13th session (12-16 June 1995) gave its strong support to the Seville Strategy

In sum, biosphere reserves should preserve and generate natural and cultural values through management that is scientifically correct, culturally creative and operationally sustainable. The World Network of Biosphere Reserves, as implemented through the Seville Strategy, is thus an integrating tool which can help to create greater solidarity among

In addition, goals and objectives for biosphere reserves as shortly defined in the Seville Strategy. These objectives were defined in the context of broad goals and recommendations at three organizational levels: international, national and individual reserves. The objectives

**GOALS OBJECTIVES**

local people

reserve zones

involvement

managers

reserves

Table 2. Goals and objectives for biosphere reserves as defined in the Seville Strategy

**GOAL 1. Use Biosphere Reserves to Conserve Natural and Cultural Diversity**

Objective 1.2. Integrate biosphere reserves into conservation planning.

Objective 2.1. Secure the support and involvement of local people

The decisions made at conference in Seville in detail the goals and objectives are given

**GOAL 2. Utilize Biosphere Reserves as Models of Land Management and of Approaches**

Objective 1.1. Improve the coverage of natural and cultural biodiversity by means of the

Biosphere Reserves

planning

Secure the support and involvement of

interaction among the different biosphere

Integrate biosphere reserves into regional

Improve education, public awareness and

Improve training for specialists and

Integrate the functions of biosphere

Strengthen the World Network of

Improve knowledge of the interactions between humans and the biosphere Improve monitoring activities

Ensure better harmonization and

for individual reserves are described in Table 2 (UNESCO, 2010).

(UNESCO, 1996).

peoples and nations of the world.

Utilize Biosphere Reserves as models of land management and of approaches to sustainable

Use Biosphere Reserves for research, monitoring, education

Implement the Biosphere Reserve

World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

development

and training

Concept

below (UNESCO, 1996).

**to Sustainable Development**

gave rise in 1984 to an 'Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves.' which was formally endorsed by the UNESCO General Conference and by the Governing Council of UNEP. While much of this Action Plan remains valid today, the context in which biosphere reserves operate has changed considerably as was shown by the UNCED process and, in particular, the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Convention was signed at the 'Earth Summit' in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, entered into force in December 1993 and has now been ratified by more than 100 countries. The major objectives of the Convention are: conservation of biological diversity; sustainable use of its components; and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. Biosphere reserves promote this integrated approach and are thus well placed to contribute to the implementation of the Convention (UNESCO, 1996).

In the decade since the Minsk Congress, thinking about protected areas as a whole and about the biosphere reserves has been developing along parallel lines. Most importantly, the link between conservation of biodiversity and the development needs of local communities – a central component of the biosphere reserve approach – is now recognized as a key feature of the successful management of most national parks, nature reserves and other protected areas. At the Fourth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, held in Caracas, Venezuela, in February 1992, the world's protected-area planners and managers adopted many of the ideas (community involvement, the links between conservation and development, the importance of international collaboration) that are essential aspects of biosphere reserves. The Congress also approved a resolution in support of biosphere reserves.

There have also been important innovations in the management of biosphere reserves themselves. New methodologies for involving stakeholders in decision-making processes and resolving conflicts have been developed, and increased attention has been given to the need to use regional approaches. New kinds of biosphere reserves, such as cluster and transboundary reserves, have been devised, and many biosphere reserves have evolved considerably, from a primary focus on conservation to a greater integration of conservation and development through increasing cooperation among stakeholders. And new international networks, fuelled by technological advances, including more powerful computers and the Internet, have greatly facilitated communication and cooperation between biosphere reserves in different countries (UNESCO, 1996).

In this context, the Executive Board of UNESCO decided in 1991 to establish an Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves, This Advisory Committee considered that it was time to evaluate the effectiveness of the 1984 Action Plan, to analyze its implementation, and to develop a strategy for biosphere reserves as we move into the 21st century. To this end, and in accordance with Resolution 27/C/2.3 of the General Conference, UNESCO organized the International Conference on Biosphere Reserves at the invitation of the Spanish authorities in Seville (Spain) from 20 to 25 March 1995. This Conference was attended by some 400 experts from 102 countries and 15 international and regional organizations. The Conference was organized to enable an evaluation of the experience in implementing the 1984 Action Plan, a reflection on the role for biosphere reserves in the context of the 21st century (which gave rise to the vision statement) and the elaboration of a draft Statutory Framework for the World Network. The Conference drew up the Seville Strategy, which is presented below. The International Coordinating Council of the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme,

gave rise in 1984 to an 'Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves.' which was formally endorsed by the UNESCO General Conference and by the Governing Council of UNEP. While much of this Action Plan remains valid today, the context in which biosphere reserves operate has changed considerably as was shown by the UNCED process and, in particular, the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Convention was signed at the 'Earth Summit' in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, entered into force in December 1993 and has now been ratified by more than 100 countries. The major objectives of the Convention are: conservation of biological diversity; sustainable use of its components; and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. Biosphere reserves promote this integrated approach and are thus well placed to contribute to the implementation of the

In the decade since the Minsk Congress, thinking about protected areas as a whole and about the biosphere reserves has been developing along parallel lines. Most importantly, the link between conservation of biodiversity and the development needs of local communities – a central component of the biosphere reserve approach – is now recognized as a key feature of the successful management of most national parks, nature reserves and other protected areas. At the Fourth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, held in Caracas, Venezuela, in February 1992, the world's protected-area planners and managers adopted many of the ideas (community involvement, the links between conservation and development, the importance of international collaboration) that are essential aspects of biosphere reserves. The Congress also approved a resolution in support of biosphere

There have also been important innovations in the management of biosphere reserves themselves. New methodologies for involving stakeholders in decision-making processes and resolving conflicts have been developed, and increased attention has been given to the need to use regional approaches. New kinds of biosphere reserves, such as cluster and transboundary reserves, have been devised, and many biosphere reserves have evolved considerably, from a primary focus on conservation to a greater integration of conservation and development through increasing cooperation among stakeholders. And new international networks, fuelled by technological advances, including more powerful computers and the Internet, have greatly facilitated communication and cooperation

In this context, the Executive Board of UNESCO decided in 1991 to establish an Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves, This Advisory Committee considered that it was time to evaluate the effectiveness of the 1984 Action Plan, to analyze its implementation, and to develop a strategy for biosphere reserves as we move into the 21st century. To this end, and in accordance with Resolution 27/C/2.3 of the General Conference, UNESCO organized the International Conference on Biosphere Reserves at the invitation of the Spanish authorities in Seville (Spain) from 20 to 25 March 1995. This Conference was attended by some 400 experts from 102 countries and 15 international and regional organizations. The Conference was organized to enable an evaluation of the experience in implementing the 1984 Action Plan, a reflection on the role for biosphere reserves in the context of the 21st century (which gave rise to the vision statement) and the elaboration of a draft Statutory Framework for the World Network. The Conference drew up the Seville Strategy, which is presented below. The International Coordinating Council of the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme,

between biosphere reserves in different countries (UNESCO, 1996).

Convention (UNESCO, 1996).

reserves.

meeting for its 13th session (12-16 June 1995) gave its strong support to the Seville Strategy (UNESCO, 1996).

In sum, biosphere reserves should preserve and generate natural and cultural values through management that is scientifically correct, culturally creative and operationally sustainable. The World Network of Biosphere Reserves, as implemented through the Seville Strategy, is thus an integrating tool which can help to create greater solidarity among peoples and nations of the world.

In addition, goals and objectives for biosphere reserves as shortly defined in the Seville Strategy. These objectives were defined in the context of broad goals and recommendations at three organizational levels: international, national and individual reserves. The objectives for individual reserves are described in Table 2 (UNESCO, 2010).

Table 2. Goals and objectives for biosphere reserves as defined in the Seville Strategy

The decisions made at conference in Seville in detail the goals and objectives are given below (UNESCO, 1996).

#### **GOAL 1. Use Biosphere Reserves to Conserve Natural and Cultural Diversity**

Objective 1.1. Improve the coverage of natural and cultural biodiversity by means of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

Objective 1.2. Integrate biosphere reserves into conservation planning.

#### **GOAL 2. Utilize Biosphere Reserves as Models of Land Management and of Approaches to Sustainable Development**

Objective 2.1. Secure the support and involvement of local people

Biosphere Reserves 183

mechanisms of such sites are often innovative, consisting of a consortium or a committee on which all stakeholders are represented, usually with a rotating chair. New funding

Computer technology increases the ease of informal communications and access to information and has enhanced cooperation in regional groupings. Various sub-networks include ArabMAB, AfriMAB, IberoMAB (19 countries of Latin America plus Portugal and Spain), EABRN (East Asian Biosphere Reserves Network) and EuroMAB (including North

Madrid Action Plan is one of the latest studies on Biosphere Reserves. *The Madrid Action Plan* was agreed at the 3rd World Congress of Biosphere Reserves which was held in Madrid in February 2008. It builds on the Seville Strategy and aims to capitalize on the strategic advantages of the Seville instruments and raise biosphere reserves to be the principal internationally-designated areas dedicated to sustainable development in the 21st century. The biosphere reserve (BR) concept has proved its value beyond protected areas and is increasingly embraced by scientists, planners, policy makers and local communities to bring a variety of knowledge, scientific investigations and experiences to link biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development for human well-being. Thus the focus is on developing models for global, national and local sustainability, and for biosphere reserves to serve as learning sites for policy professionals, decision-makers, research and scientific communities, management practitioners and stakeholder communities to work together to translate global principles of sustainable development into locally relevant praxis. Individual biosphere reserves remain under the jurisdiction of the States where they are situated, which take the measures they deem necessary to improve the functioning of the

Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof which are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO's Programme on Man and The Biosphere (MAB) (Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere reserves). Reserves are nominated by national governments; each reserve must meet a minimal set of criteria and adhere to a minimal set of conditions before being

Biosphere reserves are 'living laboratories for sustainable development' and represent learning centers for environmental and human adaptability. Biosphere reserves are the only sites under the UN systems that specifically call for conservation and sustainable development to proceed along mutually supportive paths. Such mutuality requires cultural sensitivity, scientific expertise, and consensus-driven policy and decision-making

Biosphere Reserves are special entities (sites) for both the people and the nature and are living examples of how human beings and nature can co-exist while respecting each other's

**Strengthen regional networks as components of the World Network of Biosphere**

America). A new MAB network for South and Central Asia was recently formed.

mechanisms are also being tried.

individual sites (UNESCO, 2008).

**2.1.1 The Biosphere Reserve concept**

admitted to the Network (UNESCO, 1996).

(UNESCO, 2010).

**Reserves**

Objective 2.2. Ensure better harmonization and interaction among the different biosphere reserve zones.

Objective 2.3. Integrate biosphere reserves into regional planning.

#### **GOAL 3. Use Biosphere Reserves for Research, Monitoring, Education and Training**

Objective 3.1. Improve knowledge of the interactions between humans and the biosphere.

Objective 3.2. Improve monitoring activities.

Objective 3.3. Improve education, public awareness and involvement.

Objective 3.4. Improve training for specialists and managers.

#### **GOAL 4. Implement the Biosphere Reserve Concept**

Objective 4.1. Integrate the functions of biosphere reserves. Objective 4.2. Strengthen the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

The Statutory Framework sets out the rules for governing the functioning of the World Network, giving a formal definition, a set of functions and criteria, and a designation procedure. In particular, it sets out a periodic review of biosphere reserves designated over eleven years ago to bring them up to the revised standards and criteria. At the request of the MAB ICC, a "Seville +5" international meeting of experts was organized in October 2000 in Pamplona, Spain. Aimed at taking stock of the first five years of implementation of the Seville Strategy, the meeting highlighted the following points (Pocono Environmental Education Center and The Center for Russian Nature Conservation/Tides Center, 2001):

#### **Use biosphere reserves to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity**

The biosphere reserve concept encapsulates the three major concerns of the Convention on Biological Diversity (conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use and sharing of benefits at the local, national and international levels). Moreover, this Convention has now adopted the "Ecosystem Approach" which is close to the principles of biosphere reserves.

#### **Develop biosphere reserves in a wide variety of environmental, economic, and cultural situations**

Since 1995, an increasing number of biosphere reserves worldwide founded in coastal marine areas. Biosphere reserves have been established in previously un-represented regions noted for their exceptional biodiversity, and are also increasingly being established near or around important urban centers.

#### **Explore and demonstrate approaches to sustainable development on a regional scale**

Since 1995, the new biosphere reserve nominations demonstrate a clear rise in the size and complexity of decision making in biosphere reserves. In some cases, these recent biosphere reserves correspond to entire "bioregions" spanning several administrative areas. As a result, interest in creating transboundary biosphere reserves has grown. The Seville +5 meeting produced specific recommendations for transboundary biosphere reserves.

#### **Bring together all interested groups in a partnership approach**

In this process of creating larger sites, the biosphere reserve often consists of multiple units, with several core areas and buffer zones within a large transition area. The coordination

**GOAL 3. Use Biosphere Reserves for Research, Monitoring, Education and Training**

Objective 2.3. Integrate biosphere reserves into regional planning.

Objective 3.3. Improve education, public awareness and involvement.

Objective 4.2. Strengthen the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

**Use biosphere reserves to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity**

Objective 3.4. Improve training for specialists and managers.

Objective 4.1. Integrate the functions of biosphere reserves.

biosphere reserve zones.

Objective 3.2. Improve monitoring activities.

**GOAL 4. Implement the Biosphere Reserve Concept**

biosphere.

reserves.

**situations**

near or around important urban centers.

Objective 2.2. Ensure better harmonization and interaction among the different

Objective 3.1. Improve knowledge of the interactions between humans and the

The Statutory Framework sets out the rules for governing the functioning of the World Network, giving a formal definition, a set of functions and criteria, and a designation procedure. In particular, it sets out a periodic review of biosphere reserves designated over eleven years ago to bring them up to the revised standards and criteria. At the request of the MAB ICC, a "Seville +5" international meeting of experts was organized in October 2000 in Pamplona, Spain. Aimed at taking stock of the first five years of implementation of the Seville Strategy, the meeting highlighted the following points (Pocono Environmental Education Center and The Center for Russian Nature Conservation/Tides Center, 2001):

The biosphere reserve concept encapsulates the three major concerns of the Convention on Biological Diversity (conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use and sharing of benefits at the local, national and international levels). Moreover, this Convention has now adopted the "Ecosystem Approach" which is close to the principles of biosphere

**Develop biosphere reserves in a wide variety of environmental, economic, and cultural**

**Explore and demonstrate approaches to sustainable development on a regional scale**

meeting produced specific recommendations for transboundary biosphere reserves.

**Bring together all interested groups in a partnership approach**

Since 1995, an increasing number of biosphere reserves worldwide founded in coastal marine areas. Biosphere reserves have been established in previously un-represented regions noted for their exceptional biodiversity, and are also increasingly being established

Since 1995, the new biosphere reserve nominations demonstrate a clear rise in the size and complexity of decision making in biosphere reserves. In some cases, these recent biosphere reserves correspond to entire "bioregions" spanning several administrative areas. As a result, interest in creating transboundary biosphere reserves has grown. The Seville +5

In this process of creating larger sites, the biosphere reserve often consists of multiple units, with several core areas and buffer zones within a large transition area. The coordination

#### **Strengthen regional networks as components of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves**

Computer technology increases the ease of informal communications and access to information and has enhanced cooperation in regional groupings. Various sub-networks include ArabMAB, AfriMAB, IberoMAB (19 countries of Latin America plus Portugal and Spain), EABRN (East Asian Biosphere Reserves Network) and EuroMAB (including North America). A new MAB network for South and Central Asia was recently formed.

Madrid Action Plan is one of the latest studies on Biosphere Reserves. *The Madrid Action Plan* was agreed at the 3rd World Congress of Biosphere Reserves which was held in Madrid in February 2008. It builds on the Seville Strategy and aims to capitalize on the strategic advantages of the Seville instruments and raise biosphere reserves to be the principal internationally-designated areas dedicated to sustainable development in the 21st century. The biosphere reserve (BR) concept has proved its value beyond protected areas and is increasingly embraced by scientists, planners, policy makers and local communities to bring a variety of knowledge, scientific investigations and experiences to link biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development for human well-being. Thus the focus is on developing models for global, national and local sustainability, and for biosphere reserves to serve as learning sites for policy professionals, decision-makers, research and scientific communities, management practitioners and stakeholder communities to work together to translate global principles of sustainable development into locally relevant praxis. Individual biosphere reserves remain under the jurisdiction of the States where they are situated, which take the measures they deem necessary to improve the functioning of the individual sites (UNESCO, 2008).

#### **2.1.1 The Biosphere Reserve concept**

Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof which are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO's Programme on Man and The Biosphere (MAB) (Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere reserves). Reserves are nominated by national governments; each reserve must meet a minimal set of criteria and adhere to a minimal set of conditions before being admitted to the Network (UNESCO, 1996).

Biosphere reserves are 'living laboratories for sustainable development' and represent learning centers for environmental and human adaptability. Biosphere reserves are the only sites under the UN systems that specifically call for conservation and sustainable development to proceed along mutually supportive paths. Such mutuality requires cultural sensitivity, scientific expertise, and consensus-driven policy and decision-making (UNESCO, 2010).

Biosphere Reserves are special entities (sites) for both the people and the nature and are living examples of how human beings and nature can co-exist while respecting each other's

Biosphere Reserves 185

The main principal tasks of biosphere reserves are as detailed below (The Federal Ministry

• Ecologically adapted and site-appropriate land use, with due regard for a regions

• Advancement of interdisciplinary research in ecological, social and economic disciplines

In order to undertake complementary activities of biodiversity conservation and development of sustainable management aspects, Biosphere Reserves are demarcated into three inter-related zones. These are natural or core zone manipulation or buffer zone and a

• Preservation and restoration of natural and near-natural ecosystems • Development and preservation of diverse cultural landscapes • Sustainable use of the natural resources of water, soil and air • Safeguarding genetic resources and the diversity of ecosystems

• Production and marketing of sustainability produced products.

• Public relations work, practice-based information and education

• Long-term ecosystem research and environmental monitoring

transition zone outside the buffer zone (Anonymous, 2007) (Figure 2).

Fig. 1. Biosphere reserves functions

*Conservation of natural systems and biodiversity;*

• Use of environmentally sound Technologies • Establishment of regional value chains

• Environmentally and socially compatible tourism.

*Education for sustainable development, research and monitoring:*  • Development of the skills to shape a sustainable future

for The Environment, 2007):

*Economic sustainability;*

distinctive characteristics

• Promotion of sustainable lifestyles

**Structure and design of Biosphere Reserves**

needs. These reserves contain genetic elements evolved over millions of years that hold the key to future adaptations and survival. The high degree of diversity and endemism and associated traditional farming systems and knowledge held by the people in these reserves are the product of centuries of human innovation and experimentation. These sites have Global importance, having tremendous potential for future economic development, especially as a result of emerging new trends in Biotechnology (Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2007).

Biosphere reserves are areas that are recognized by the UNESCO's program on MAB. One of the primary objectives of MAB is to achieve a sustainable balance between the goals of conserving biological diversity, promoting economic development, and maintaining associated cultural values.

#### **Characteristics of Biosphere Reserves**

The characteristic features of Biosphere reserves are (Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2007):

	- i. BRs are representative examples of natural biomes.
	- ii. BRs conserve unique communities of biodiversity or areas with unusual natural features of exceptional interest. It is recognized that these representative areas may also contain unique features of landscapes, ecosystems and genetic variations e.g. one population of a globally rare species; their representativeness and uniqueness may both be characteristics of an area.
	- iii. BRs have examples of harmonious landscapes resulting from traditional patterns of land-use.
	- iv. BRs have examples of modified or degraded ecosystems capable of being restored to more natural conditions.
	- v. BRs generally have a non-manipulative core area, in combination with areas in which baseline measurements, experimental and manipulative research, education and training is carried out. Where these areas are not contiguous, they can be associated in a cluster.

Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal/marine ecosystems. Reserves are nominated by national governments; each reserve must meet a minimal set of criteria and adhere to a minimal set of conditions before being admitted to the World Network. Each biosphere reserve is intended to fulfill three complementary functions: 1) a conservation function, to preserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems and landscapes; 2) a development function, to foster sustainable economic and human development; and, 3) a logistic support function, to support demonstration projects, environmental education and training, and research and monitoring related to local, national and global issues of conservation and sustainable development (UNESCO, 2010) (Figure1).

needs. These reserves contain genetic elements evolved over millions of years that hold the key to future adaptations and survival. The high degree of diversity and endemism and associated traditional farming systems and knowledge held by the people in these reserves are the product of centuries of human innovation and experimentation. These sites have Global importance, having tremendous potential for future economic development, especially as a result of emerging new trends in Biotechnology (Government of India

Biosphere reserves are areas that are recognized by the UNESCO's program on MAB. One of the primary objectives of MAB is to achieve a sustainable balance between the goals of conserving biological diversity, promoting economic development, and maintaining

The characteristic features of Biosphere reserves are (Government of India Ministry of

1. Each Biosphere Reserves are protected areas of land and/or coastal environments wherein people are an integral component of the system. Together, they constitute a worldwide network linked by International understanding for exchange of scientific

ii. BRs conserve unique communities of biodiversity or areas with unusual natural features of exceptional interest. It is recognized that these representative areas may also contain unique features of landscapes, ecosystems and genetic variations e.g. one population of a globally rare species; their representativeness and uniqueness

iii. BRs have examples of harmonious landscapes resulting from traditional patterns of

iv. BRs have examples of modified or degraded ecosystems capable of being restored

v. BRs generally have a non-manipulative core area, in combination with areas in which baseline measurements, experimental and manipulative research, education and training is carried out. Where these areas are not contiguous, they can be

Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal/marine ecosystems. Reserves are nominated by national governments; each reserve must meet a minimal set of criteria and adhere to a minimal set of conditions before being admitted to the World Network. Each biosphere reserve is intended to fulfill three complementary functions: 1) a conservation function, to preserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems and landscapes; 2) a development function, to foster sustainable economic and human development; and, 3) a logistic support function, to support demonstration projects, environmental education and training, and research and monitoring related to local, national and global issues of

conservation and sustainable development (UNESCO, 2010) (Figure1).

2. The network of BRs includes significant examples of biomes throughout the world.

3. Each BR includes one or more of the following categories i. BRs are representative examples of natural biomes.

may both be characteristics of an area.

to more natural conditions.

associated in a cluster.

Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2007).

**Characteristics of Biosphere Reserves**

Environment and Forests, 2007):

associated cultural values.

information.

land-use.

Fig. 1. Biosphere reserves functions

The main principal tasks of biosphere reserves are as detailed below (The Federal Ministry for The Environment, 2007):

*Conservation of natural systems and biodiversity;*

#### *Economic sustainability;*

*Education for sustainable development, research and monitoring:*

#### **Structure and design of Biosphere Reserves**

In order to undertake complementary activities of biodiversity conservation and development of sustainable management aspects, Biosphere Reserves are demarcated into three inter-related zones. These are natural or core zone manipulation or buffer zone and a transition zone outside the buffer zone (Anonymous, 2007) (Figure 2).

2010).

Biosphere Reserves 187

Although originally envisioned as a series of concentric rings, the three zones have been implemented in many different ways in order to meet local needs and conditions. In fact, one of the greatest strengths of the biosphere reserve concept has been the flexibility and creativity with which it has been carried out in various situations. Some countries have enacted legislation specifically to establish biosphere reserves. In many others, the core areas and buffer zones are designated (in whole or in part) as protected areas under national law. A large number of biosphere reserves simultaneously belong to other national systems of protected areas (such as national parks or nature reserves) and/or other international networks (such as World Heritage or Ramsar sites). Ownership arrangements may vary, too. The core areas of biosphere reserves are mostly public land, but can also be privately owned, or belong to non-governmental organizations. In many cases, the buffer zone is in private or community ownership and this is generally the case for the transition area. The Seville Strategy for Biosphere Reserves reflects this wide range of circumstances (UNESCO,

At first glance, much of the biosphere reserves and other protected status may not be seen a difference. At first glance, much of the biosphere reserves and other protected status may not be seen a difference. But the nature of the biosphere reserves and other protected areas management objectives and the expected functions of these areas are quite different from each other. In fact, within the biosphere reserves and the IUCN classification independent of each other in fields such as nature conservation areas must be thinking. In some cases fields are independent of each other as in the examples are designed mostly with the biosphere reserve approach Occasionally, there also exist examples in nature conservation areas are being adapted to the existing nature conservation area, covering a wider area as a biosphere reserve is determined. The differences between the biosphere reserves and other

The coordinator of the Biosphere Reserve is not the direct manager of the territory concerned: he/she merely coordinates or facilitates. One of the main problems encountered in Biosphere Reserves is the need for visibility of the management structure and adequate recognition of the coordinator. The role of the Biosphere Reserve coordinator is to moderate and communicate the different aspirations and needs of each partner around a 'common territory project' (a project which balances consideration of the environment, economy and equity of a specific area) with which all stakeholders can identify themselves (resource users, professional groups, local populations, government agencies, elected officials,

• Identification of the main conservation and development issues and potentialities, both at the scale of the territory concerned and at the scale of the wider biogeographically region. Certain conservation or development priorities and even sustainable

• Identification of the main management issues concerning human interaction with nature using the ecosystem approach. Different types of interaction can be highlighted

scientists etc.). Hence a Biosphere Reserve coordinator must ensure (Bioret, 2001):

conservation areas are given in Table 3 (Bioret, 2001).

development experiments may be envisaged.

• negative interactions: divergence of interests;

• positive interactions: convergence of interests. • resolving conflicts throughout mediation processes.

• neutral interactions and;

including

Fig. 2. Biosphere reserves zoning system

#### **The Core Zone**

The core zone is kept absolutely undisturbed. It must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species, including higher order predators and may contain centres of endemism. Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important genetic reservoirs. The core zones also contain places of exceptional scientific interest. A core zone secures legal protection and management and research activities that do not affect natural processes and wildlife are allowed. Strict nature reserves and wilderness portions of the area are designated as core areas of BR. The core zone is to be kept free from all human pressures external to the system.

#### **The Buffer Zone**

In the Buffer Zone, which adjoins or surrounds core zone, uses and activities are managed in ways that protect the core zone. These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing and grazing, which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within BR, are likely to be permitted to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.

#### **The Transition Zone**

The Transition Zone is the outermost part of a Biosphere Reserve. This is usually not delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation, knowledge and management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the Biosphere Reserve. This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and area for intensive recreation, and other economic uses characteristic of the region. In Buffer Zone and the Transition Zones, manipulative macro-management practices are used. Experimental research areas are used for understanding the patterns and processes in the ecosystem. Modified or degraded landscapes are included as rehabilitation areas to restore the ecology in a way that it returns to sustainable productivity.

The core zone is kept absolutely undisturbed. It must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species, including higher order predators and may contain centres of endemism. Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important genetic reservoirs. The core zones also contain places of exceptional scientific interest. A core zone secures legal protection and management and research activities that do not affect natural processes and wildlife are allowed. Strict nature reserves and wilderness portions of the area are designated as core areas of BR. The core zone is to be

In the Buffer Zone, which adjoins or surrounds core zone, uses and activities are managed in ways that protect the core zone. These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing and grazing, which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within BR, are likely to be

The Transition Zone is the outermost part of a Biosphere Reserve. This is usually not delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation, knowledge and management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the Biosphere Reserve. This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and area for intensive recreation, and other economic uses characteristic of the region. In Buffer Zone and the Transition Zones, manipulative macro-management practices are used. Experimental research areas are used for understanding the patterns and processes in the ecosystem. Modified or degraded landscapes are included as rehabilitation areas to restore

permitted to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.

Fig. 2. Biosphere reserves zoning system

kept free from all human pressures external to the system.

the ecology in a way that it returns to sustainable productivity.

**The Core Zone**

**The Buffer Zone**

**The Transition Zone**

Although originally envisioned as a series of concentric rings, the three zones have been implemented in many different ways in order to meet local needs and conditions. In fact, one of the greatest strengths of the biosphere reserve concept has been the flexibility and creativity with which it has been carried out in various situations. Some countries have enacted legislation specifically to establish biosphere reserves. In many others, the core areas and buffer zones are designated (in whole or in part) as protected areas under national law. A large number of biosphere reserves simultaneously belong to other national systems of protected areas (such as national parks or nature reserves) and/or other international networks (such as World Heritage or Ramsar sites). Ownership arrangements may vary, too. The core areas of biosphere reserves are mostly public land, but can also be privately owned, or belong to non-governmental organizations. In many cases, the buffer zone is in private or community ownership and this is generally the case for the transition area. The Seville Strategy for Biosphere Reserves reflects this wide range of circumstances (UNESCO, 2010).

At first glance, much of the biosphere reserves and other protected status may not be seen a difference. At first glance, much of the biosphere reserves and other protected status may not be seen a difference. But the nature of the biosphere reserves and other protected areas management objectives and the expected functions of these areas are quite different from each other. In fact, within the biosphere reserves and the IUCN classification independent of each other in fields such as nature conservation areas must be thinking. In some cases fields are independent of each other as in the examples are designed mostly with the biosphere reserve approach Occasionally, there also exist examples in nature conservation areas are being adapted to the existing nature conservation area, covering a wider area as a biosphere reserve is determined. The differences between the biosphere reserves and other conservation areas are given in Table 3 (Bioret, 2001).

The coordinator of the Biosphere Reserve is not the direct manager of the territory concerned: he/she merely coordinates or facilitates. One of the main problems encountered in Biosphere Reserves is the need for visibility of the management structure and adequate recognition of the coordinator. The role of the Biosphere Reserve coordinator is to moderate and communicate the different aspirations and needs of each partner around a 'common territory project' (a project which balances consideration of the environment, economy and equity of a specific area) with which all stakeholders can identify themselves (resource users, professional groups, local populations, government agencies, elected officials, scientists etc.). Hence a Biosphere Reserve coordinator must ensure (Bioret, 2001):

	- negative interactions: divergence of interests;
	- neutral interactions and;
	- positive interactions: convergence of interests.
	- resolving conflicts throughout mediation processes.

Biosphere Reserves 189

The concept of ecotourism and the concept of Biosphere Reserves go together in many ways. Some people feel that although tourism is and should be an important activity in Biosphere Reserves, especially in the core areas, the only responsible tourism in these areas is ecologically conscious and sustainable tourism, thus "ecotourism". Others have pointed out, however, that there are some distinctive and possibly diffi cult aspects to ecotourism in Biosphere Reserves that must be considered if ecotourism is to contribute positively to all functions of a Biosphere Reserve -in the core area, the buffer zones, and the transition or cooperation zone ,and if the Biosphere Reserve is to contribute in a strong and positive way to the ecotourism experience. For it is that positive experience, which requires a high level of knowledge and preparation from both leaders and participants, that will give the ecotourists the emotional and inspirational stimulus that Biosphere Reserves can provide, and develop increased understanding and perspective so that they will take henceforth an active personal responsibility toward the natural environment. If it can achieve this understanding and commitment, ecotourism can help Biosphere Reserves fulfill their responsibilities to demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans and Nature (Canada MAB

A decade ago, a perceptive report of the Canadian Environmental Advisory Council called "Ecotourism in Canada" (Scace, et.al., 1992) drew attention to characteristics of ecotourism in protected and managed areas that had been identified by Prof. James Butler (Butler, 1990). Although the situations and institutions are always evolving, the characteristics of ecotourism in protected and environmentally managed areas listed by Butler are pertinent

• Ecotourism must promote positive environmental ethics - fostering environmentally

• Ecotourism does not degrade the natural resource or interfere with natural

• Ecotourism concentrates on intrinsic rather than extrinsic values. Facilities and services

• Ecotourism is biocentric rather than homocentric in philosophy. Ecotourists enter the environment accepting it on its terms, not expecting it to be modified for their

• Ecotourism must benefit the wildlife and natural environment. The environment and

• Ecotourism provides a first-hand experience with the natural environment. movies and

• Ecotourism has an "expectation of gratification" that is measured in terms of education

Biosphere reserve planning work to be done to be successful eco-tourism activities are given

1. To be successful within Biosphere Reserves, the ecotourism activities and tourist experience should be compatible with all the characteristics of ecotourism in protected

and/or appreciation rather than in thrill-seeking or physical achievement; • Ecotourism has a high knowledge-based and experience-based dimension.

ecological functions remain essentially undisturbed by the tourism;

zoological parks do not constitute an ecotourism experience;

**2.1.2 Ecotourism and Biosphere Reserves**

Committee, 2002).

today (Canada MAB Committee, 2002):

environmental processes;

convenience;

below (Roots, 2002). **General comments**

conscious behavior in its participants;

never become attractions in their own right;

Table 3. TitleThe differences between the biosphere reserves and other protected areas (Bioret, 2001)

This approach can be realized by setting up a management guide for the Biosphere Reserve Territory. Here, a GIS can prove to be a relevant and efficient tool for the Biosphere Reserve Coordinator, since it can be used to set up, structure and continuously update a database for the Biosphere Reserve, and provide an excellent basis for decision-making by facilitating the elaboration of various zoning scenarios. The maps produced using a GIS can also help in discussions and consultations with the local communities and the various stakeholders (Bioret, 2001).

• Setting up working groups devoted to the common concerns of the main groups of actors.

• Carrying out the periodic review of the Biosphere Reserve using a multidisciplinary

**Protected Areas Biosphere Reserves**

A mosaic of different types of land *several categories of land, generally managed*

*for different purposes (conservation,*

*tourism, science, local and national*

*three zones, transition area without*

Overlapping of different types of

*conservation, development, logistical support*

*often conflicting: farming, forestry, fisheries,*

*working more or less independently without*

*Regulation limited to the core areas, existence of management agreements or contracts*

Guide to Biosphere Reserve coordination *harmonization of different planning scenarios for different areas in line with Biosphere Reserve concept; emphasis on local*

*development, etc)*

*government*

*consultation*

*Participation*

Landscape approach *complex of ecosystems*

Several managers

*demarcated outer limit*

objectives and functions

Multitude of interests

• Organization of thematic workshops and training sessions.

Simple zonation Complex zonation

Manager Coordinator

Protection through regulation Various means of protection

Table 3. TitleThe differences between the biosphere reserves and other protected areas

This approach can be realized by setting up a management guide for the Biosphere Reserve Territory. Here, a GIS can prove to be a relevant and efficient tool for the Biosphere Reserve Coordinator, since it can be used to set up, structure and continuously update a database for the Biosphere Reserve, and provide an excellent basis for decision-making by facilitating the elaboration of various zoning scenarios. The maps produced using a GIS can also help in discussions and consultations with the local communities and the various stakeholders

• Promotion of results of successful experiments.

One type of land *a single category of land,*

*in size and managed for a single purpose (e.g.*

One type of objective and function

*well identified, directly in charge of the*

*single planning scenario applied to a well-*

*management of the territory*

Management plan

Single ecosystem approach *populations, ecosystem functioning*

*defined land area*

(Bioret, 2001)

(Bioret, 2001).

One main category of interests

approach.

*usually relatively small*

*nature conservation)*

*conservation*

– *natural – landscape – cultural – historical*

One manager

#### **2.1.2 Ecotourism and Biosphere Reserves**

The concept of ecotourism and the concept of Biosphere Reserves go together in many ways. Some people feel that although tourism is and should be an important activity in Biosphere Reserves, especially in the core areas, the only responsible tourism in these areas is ecologically conscious and sustainable tourism, thus "ecotourism". Others have pointed out, however, that there are some distinctive and possibly diffi cult aspects to ecotourism in Biosphere Reserves that must be considered if ecotourism is to contribute positively to all functions of a Biosphere Reserve -in the core area, the buffer zones, and the transition or cooperation zone ,and if the Biosphere Reserve is to contribute in a strong and positive way to the ecotourism experience. For it is that positive experience, which requires a high level of knowledge and preparation from both leaders and participants, that will give the ecotourists the emotional and inspirational stimulus that Biosphere Reserves can provide, and develop increased understanding and perspective so that they will take henceforth an active personal responsibility toward the natural environment. If it can achieve this understanding and commitment, ecotourism can help Biosphere Reserves fulfill their responsibilities to demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans and Nature (Canada MAB Committee, 2002).

A decade ago, a perceptive report of the Canadian Environmental Advisory Council called "Ecotourism in Canada" (Scace, et.al., 1992) drew attention to characteristics of ecotourism in protected and managed areas that had been identified by Prof. James Butler (Butler, 1990). Although the situations and institutions are always evolving, the characteristics of ecotourism in protected and environmentally managed areas listed by Butler are pertinent today (Canada MAB Committee, 2002):

Biosphere reserve planning work to be done to be successful eco-tourism activities are given below (Roots, 2002).

#### **General comments**

1. To be successful within Biosphere Reserves, the ecotourism activities and tourist experience should be compatible with all the characteristics of ecotourism in protected

Biosphere Reserves 191

3. Biosphere Reserves are fundamentally places of research and monitoring in both the natural and social sciences. This means that all activities, including all aspects of tourism itself, can and should be scientifically studied and monitored; and the effects of such activities on the biosphere, natural resources, local and regional economy, cultural

*Biosphere Reserves may offer an unique opportunity to observe and measure the impacts of different numbers or groupings, timing, movements, etc., of tourists. Thus they can provide assessment or models of the "tourist carrying capacity" of landscapes and ecosystems. Such studies require investment, data-gathering and persons knowledgeable in the theoretical and applied social and behavioral sciences to be associated with the ecotourism activity. The network of Biosphere Reserves,*

4. Biosphere Reserves are areas that will be managed, studied, and monitored over a long period of time - at least over several decades. They are throughout much of the world prime places to observe and record long-term environmental and ecological change, including the effects of regional and global changes due to natural causes as well as to

*Ecotourism in Biosphere Reserves can be an excellent way of educating people about global change or changes in the local Nature and the environment over time. At the same time extreme care must be taken to ensure that tourism activities do not disrupt the irreplaceable role of Biosphere Reserves as*

Biosphere reserves are part of an international program implemented by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization since 1970 for conservation of biological diversity and sustainable land management using a participatory approach. The main goal of this program is effectiveness of the participatory approach for sustainable resources management. Conservation of biological diversity, training, monitoring, information sharing, and experience exchanging at a global level are fundamental elements of this program (Özyavuz et al. 2006; Özyavuz and Yazgan, 2010). According to the Madrid Declaration (UNESCO, 2008), the biosphere reserves, to be considered learning sites of sustainable development, should be territories where the relationship between conservation of biodiversity and local cultural and socioeconomic development has been reconciled. In other words, biosphere reserves are expected to be territories where all the four above mentioned functions are being permanently fulfilled. Empirical evidence gained by our field survey suggests that association of the biosphere reserve with the administration of protected area, either the protected landscape area or the national park, does not seem to be an ideal institutional model for the biosphere reserve existence. At least, such a model is hardly to guarantee fulfilling of the fourth function of the biosphere reserve – promotion of sustainable development (Kusova et al., 2008). Though the biosphere-reserve approach, established for the protection and sustainability of biodiversity and natural resources, is a new concept for our country, there are many protected areas which could incorporate into the international network

integrity and expression should also be studied and monitored.

*within a country or internationally, can facilitate comparative studies.*

changing human activities and technologies.

*long-term ecological benchmarks and monitors.*

**3. Conclusion**

system.

and managed areas as outlined by Butler (previously referred to) and in addition should also help the tourist to understand, take part in, and contribute to the three main functions of a Biosphere Reserve:

	- Ecosystems
	- Ecological functions
	- Landscape, hydrology/coastal features, and habitats
	- Historical and local cultural attributes

#### **Characteristics of Biosphere Reserves that is important to ecotourism**

There are some important characteristics of Biosphere Reserves that should be kept in mind as they relate to tourism in general and to ecotourism (Roots, 2002):

1. Biosphere Reserves are, above all, selected places where relatively undisturbed Nature and active economic and social development, with all its cultural overtones, exist side by side in the same ecological setting. It is the study and knowledge of interaction and inter-dependence of these, and the lessons learned from that study, that characterize a Biosphere Reserve and its role as an exemplary of sustainable development.

*Tourists must be able to visualize and understand this interaction, and learn from it. Tour operators must understand and support this purpose. Otherwise, the tourist visit will not be "ecotourism" in a Biosphere Reserve.*

2. Biosphere Reserves are not government structures or entities. They typically include land of which some parts are owned and managed by governments, and other parts owned by industry, private citizens and institutions, all of whom have voluntarily cooperated for a common purpose of ecological protection, sustained social and economic development, and learning about long-term management of living resources and ecological productivity. No ownership or legal rights are in any way changed by the creation of a Biosphere Reserve.

*Therefore Biosphere Reserves, as complete entities, are not subject to special regulations. They are subject to and must be governed by all the regulations that apply to their component parts. Tourists must be helped to understand that Biosphere Reserves are not special protected "parks", but places where ecological responsibility is exercised through ordinary land rights and regulations.*

b. Improvement of Social, economic and cultural development and sustainability; c. Provision of sites and opportunities for research, monitoring, education, communication and international contact and Exchange (the logistic function) 2. Ecotourism in Biosphere Reserves must incorporate visits to and explanations to visitors of the role of the Core Areas, Buffer Zones, and Transition or Co-operation zones in a way that shows to the visitors that these, together, demonstrate balance

3. Biosphere Reserves, in general, can support the preamble to the Declaration on Ecotourism and help to implement the spirit of all the main clauses. But the priority for Biosphere Reserves is Nature and the future, not immediate commercial business. 4. In turn, ecotourism, properly informed and conducted, can support the functions of

There are some important characteristics of Biosphere Reserves that should be kept in mind

1. Biosphere Reserves are, above all, selected places where relatively undisturbed Nature and active economic and social development, with all its cultural overtones, exist side by side in the same ecological setting. It is the study and knowledge of interaction and inter-dependence of these, and the lessons learned from that study, that characterize a

*Tourists must be able to visualize and understand this interaction, and learn from it. Tour operators must understand and support this purpose. Otherwise, the tourist visit will not be "ecotourism" in a*

2. Biosphere Reserves are not government structures or entities. They typically include land of which some parts are owned and managed by governments, and other parts owned by industry, private citizens and institutions, all of whom have voluntarily cooperated for a common purpose of ecological protection, sustained social and economic development, and learning about long-term management of living resources and ecological productivity. No ownership or legal rights are in any way changed by the

*Therefore Biosphere Reserves, as complete entities, are not subject to special regulations. They are subject to and must be governed by all the regulations that apply to their component parts. Tourists must be helped to understand that Biosphere Reserves are not special protected "parks", but places where ecological responsibility is exercised through ordinary land rights and*

Biosphere Reserve and its role as an exemplary of sustainable development.

• Landscape, hydrology/coastal features, and habitats

**Characteristics of Biosphere Reserves that is important to ecotourism**

as they relate to tourism in general and to ecotourism (Roots, 2002):

• Historical and local cultural attributes

functions of a Biosphere Reserve:

• Ecological functions

between human activities and Nature.

a. Conservation of: • Ecosystems

Biosphere Reserves.

*Biosphere Reserve.*

*regulations.*

creation of a Biosphere Reserve.

and managed areas as outlined by Butler (previously referred to) and in addition should also help the tourist to understand, take part in, and contribute to the three main 3. Biosphere Reserves are fundamentally places of research and monitoring in both the natural and social sciences. This means that all activities, including all aspects of tourism itself, can and should be scientifically studied and monitored; and the effects of such activities on the biosphere, natural resources, local and regional economy, cultural integrity and expression should also be studied and monitored.

*Biosphere Reserves may offer an unique opportunity to observe and measure the impacts of different numbers or groupings, timing, movements, etc., of tourists. Thus they can provide assessment or models of the "tourist carrying capacity" of landscapes and ecosystems. Such studies require investment, data-gathering and persons knowledgeable in the theoretical and applied social and behavioral sciences to be associated with the ecotourism activity. The network of Biosphere Reserves, within a country or internationally, can facilitate comparative studies.*

4. Biosphere Reserves are areas that will be managed, studied, and monitored over a long period of time - at least over several decades. They are throughout much of the world prime places to observe and record long-term environmental and ecological change, including the effects of regional and global changes due to natural causes as well as to changing human activities and technologies.

*Ecotourism in Biosphere Reserves can be an excellent way of educating people about global change or changes in the local Nature and the environment over time. At the same time extreme care must be taken to ensure that tourism activities do not disrupt the irreplaceable role of Biosphere Reserves as long-term ecological benchmarks and monitors.*

## **3. Conclusion**

Biosphere reserves are part of an international program implemented by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization since 1970 for conservation of biological diversity and sustainable land management using a participatory approach. The main goal of this program is effectiveness of the participatory approach for sustainable resources management. Conservation of biological diversity, training, monitoring, information sharing, and experience exchanging at a global level are fundamental elements of this program (Özyavuz et al. 2006; Özyavuz and Yazgan, 2010). According to the Madrid Declaration (UNESCO, 2008), the biosphere reserves, to be considered learning sites of sustainable development, should be territories where the relationship between conservation of biodiversity and local cultural and socioeconomic development has been reconciled. In other words, biosphere reserves are expected to be territories where all the four above mentioned functions are being permanently fulfilled. Empirical evidence gained by our field survey suggests that association of the biosphere reserve with the administration of protected area, either the protected landscape area or the national park, does not seem to be an ideal institutional model for the biosphere reserve existence. At least, such a model is hardly to guarantee fulfilling of the fourth function of the biosphere reserve – promotion of sustainable development (Kusova et al., 2008). Though the biosphere-reserve approach, established for the protection and sustainability of biodiversity and natural resources, is a new concept for our country, there are many protected areas which could incorporate into the international network system.

**10**

*Turkey*

**The Importance of Biosphere Reserve in Nature**

"Preservation" implies keeping things as they are, and "protection" implies keeping outside interference at bay. "Reservation" involving refuges, reserves and sanctuaries, aims to avoid use or exploitaion of an area and 'zoning' or 'segregation' seeks multipurpose use by careful management of resources. "Conservation" in its modern sense is a broader concept, comprehanding all of these limited approaches and more (Evans, 1997). According to another description, the concept of conservation is a set of precautions which are needed for the sustainability of life and are developed in order to prevent the extinction of future resources by determining optimum usage methods (Gul&

Today environmental problems have reached to an alarming level and this has drawn strong attention to the subject of "protection and sustainable usage of environmental resources" which has been on the agenda for a long period of time. Besides being a common problem for all the nations of the world, this problem has become the common policy of

Irresponsible use of natural resources and destruction of natural factors on the Earth are not something new. Therefore, the precautions that are taken to protect nature are not new as well (Yucel, 1995). The notion of modern protection started to develop at the beginning of 1800s and 'Nature Protection' was accepted as a discipline in 1900s (Zeydanli, 2008). However, by the 21st century efforts for the protection of nature have a significant rising tendency in global scale (Yalinkilic&Arpa, 2005). Although the actions taken for protecting nature vary partially from country to country, the common problem is that the protected areas cannot be managed effectively due to several reasons, including the variation in the physical size of the areas. The main reason of the problem is the disagreement between the human use in the area and the conservation of natural and cultural values. It has been realized that the reason of the failure in the efforts of protection in protected areas was at the point of avoiding the local residents. Therefore, integration of the local people with the protection efforts is required. Over the last few decades, the participation-paradigm has grown in research, policy, and practice of natural resource management, biodiversity conservation, and stewardship of ecosystem services

**1. Introduction**

Sahin, 2010).

their governments.

**Protection and the Situation in Turkey**

*1Osmangazi University Faculty of Agriculture, Eskisehir 2Ege University Center for Environmental Studies, Izmir*

Sibel Saricam1 and Umit Erdem2

#### **4. References**

## **The Importance of Biosphere Reserve in Nature Protection and the Situation in Turkey**

Sibel Saricam1 and Umit Erdem2

*1Osmangazi University Faculty of Agriculture, Eskisehir 2Ege University Center for Environmental Studies, Izmir Turkey*

### **1. Introduction**

192 The Biosphere

Bioret, F. (2001). Biosphere Reserve Manager or Coordinator?, *Parks*, Conclusion from

Butler, J. (1990). A protected Areas Vision for Canada. *Canadian Environmental Advisory*

Canada MAB Commitee, (2002). Ecotourism and Sustainable Development in Biosphere

Dudley, N. (Editor) (2008). Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management

Eidsvik, H. (1990). A Framework for Classifying Terrestrial and Marine Protected Areas.

Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests, (2007). Protection, Development,

Özyavuz, M., Korkut, A.B., Etli, B. (2006). The concept of Biosphere Reserves and Biosphere

Özyavuz, M., Yazgan, M.E. (2010). Planning of İğneada Longos (Flooded) Forests as a

Pocono Environmental Education Center and The Center for Russian Nature

The Federal Ministry for The Environment, (2007). UNESCO Biosphere Reserves, Model

UNESCO, (1996). Biosphere reserves: The Seville Strategy and the Statutory Framework of

UNESCO, (2008). Madrid Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves (2008-2013), 32 pp., *UNESCO,*

UNESCO, (2010). Lessons from Biosphere Reserves in the Asia-Pacific Region, and a Way

Biosphere Reserves, *Journal of Coastal Research*, 26(6), 1104-1111.

*Nature Conservation*, No: 27, 43pp., ISSN 1026-6380, Moscow, Russia. Roots, F. (2002). Some Factors in the Relationship Between Tourism and Biosphere Reserves,

Reserves: Experiences and Prospects, *Workshop Summary Reports*, Canada MAB

Categories*, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,* 86

Based on the Work of the CNPPA Task Force on Classification, *IUCN/CNPPA*,

Maintenance and Research in Biosphere Reserves in India, *Guidelines and Proformae*, Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests, 35 pp., New Delhi. IUCN. (1994). Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories, *IUCN Commission on*

*National Parks and Protected Areas with the assistance of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre*, pp. 5-7, ISBN 2-8317-0201-1, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Kušová, D., Těšitel, J., Bartoš, M. (2008). Biosphere reserves - learning sites of sustainable

Reserve Area Studies in Turkey, *Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology*, 3,

Conservation/Tides Center, (2001). Biosphere Reserves in Russia, *Russian Conservation News, Pocono Environmental Education Center and The Center for Russian*

Ecotourism and Sustainable Development in Biosphere Reserves: Experiences and Prospects, *Workshop Summary Reports,* Canada MAB Committee, 54 pp., Canada. Scace, R.C. et al. 1991. Ecotourism in Canada. Vol. 1. *Unpublished report for Canadian*

Regions of World Standing, *the Federal Ministry for The Environment, Nature*

Forward, Regional Science Bureau for Asia&the Pacific, 76 pp. *UNESCO Office*,

EuroMAB IUCN, Vol. 11, No. 1, 26-28 p., UK.

pp., ISBN 978-2-8317-1086-0, Gland, Switzerland:

development?, *Silva Gabreta*, vol. 14(3), 221-234.

*Environmental Advisory Council*, Canada.

the World Network, 19 p*., UNESCO*, Paris.

*Conservation and Nuclear Safety,* 40 pp., Berlin, Germany.

*Council*, 88 pp., Ottawa.

Unpublisged.

638-647.

Paris.

Jakarta.

Committee, 54 pp., Canada.

**4. References**

"Preservation" implies keeping things as they are, and "protection" implies keeping outside interference at bay. "Reservation" involving refuges, reserves and sanctuaries, aims to avoid use or exploitaion of an area and 'zoning' or 'segregation' seeks multipurpose use by careful management of resources. "Conservation" in its modern sense is a broader concept, comprehanding all of these limited approaches and more (Evans, 1997). According to another description, the concept of conservation is a set of precautions which are needed for the sustainability of life and are developed in order to prevent the extinction of future resources by determining optimum usage methods (Gul& Sahin, 2010).

Today environmental problems have reached to an alarming level and this has drawn strong attention to the subject of "protection and sustainable usage of environmental resources" which has been on the agenda for a long period of time. Besides being a common problem for all the nations of the world, this problem has become the common policy of their governments.

Irresponsible use of natural resources and destruction of natural factors on the Earth are not something new. Therefore, the precautions that are taken to protect nature are not new as well (Yucel, 1995). The notion of modern protection started to develop at the beginning of 1800s and 'Nature Protection' was accepted as a discipline in 1900s (Zeydanli, 2008). However, by the 21st century efforts for the protection of nature have a significant rising tendency in global scale (Yalinkilic&Arpa, 2005). Although the actions taken for protecting nature vary partially from country to country, the common problem is that the protected areas cannot be managed effectively due to several reasons, including the variation in the physical size of the areas. The main reason of the problem is the disagreement between the human use in the area and the conservation of natural and cultural values. It has been realized that the reason of the failure in the efforts of protection in protected areas was at the point of avoiding the local residents. Therefore, integration of the local people with the protection efforts is required. Over the last few decades, the participation-paradigm has grown in research, policy, and practice of natural resource management, biodiversity conservation, and stewardship of ecosystem services

The Importance of Biosphere Reserve in Nature Protection and the Situation in Turkey 195

scientists, non-governmental organizations, cultural groups, economic interests and other stakeholders work together to manage and sustainably develop the area's resources

**3. The difference of biosphere reserve in the concept of nature protection**

logical land use change made by human" throughout history (Dudley et al., 2005).

Protected areas exist in almost all countries. Most of these areas were determined throughout 20th century and announced officially and this is accepted as "the largest scaled,

Today the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) determines the fundamental policies and systems for conserving nature and IUCN defines a protected area as "an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means". According to "1978-Protected Area Classification of IUCN" Biosphere reserves were in the status of protected areas, later on in 1994 they were removed from this status, but were transformed into a state of area which has international importance including other categories, as well (IUCN, 1994). At first sight, there seems to be slight differences between biosphere reserve areas and other areas with conservation status. However, management purposes and expected functions of these areas are rather different

Nature conservation is often understood to occur only within the limited boundaries of protected areas, managed by government agencies. These are conceived as islands of conservation where any form of human intervention is considered harmful for conservation. In contrast to this model, yet complementing its very cause, are thousands of 'unofficial' protected areas across the globe, managed and sustained by ordinary people. In fact, indigenous, mobile, and local communities have played a critical role in conserving a diversity of natural environments and species for millennia, for various economic, cultural, spiritual and aesthetic purposes (Pathak et al, n.d). At this point, the difference of biosphere areas becomes clear with the fact that they do not ignore "human" factor. Today, national parks in many countries increasingly reflect the objectives of biosphere reserves--more cooperation among adjacent land managers, more local involvement, more emphasis on the

(Unesco, 1996).

Fig. 1. Biosphere reserve zoning scheme

(Zal et al., 2006). The differences are indicated in Table 1.

role of research and public education (Gregg, 1989).

(Schultz et al., 2010). One of the points of view emerged from the participation of local communities to the management process of the protected areas is the holistic approach. For most of the local communities, the most important purpose of the protected area management is to provide the continuity of their lifestyles and cultural heritage. The protection of biological diversity is a component of the mentioned purpose, it does not constitute a purpose on its own. Within this context, "Human and the Biosphere" Programme of UNESCO is extremely important because it is the first environmental program which targets the relationship of the human and the nature. In 1984, MAB ICC approved the concept "Human is a part of biosphere reserve" in "Action Plan for Biosphere Reserve Areas". At the same time, while describing a biosphere reserve area and its management, the importance of local residents and their socio-economic development is included in the description (Price et al., 1998). Participation and cooperation have been increasingly emphasized in the discussions concerning biosphere reserves (Kleeman&Welp, 2008). In fact, this cooperation becomes more meaningful in "transboundary biosphere reserves". "Transboundary Biosphere Reserve Areas" have support in functions like promoting peace, protecting and managing resources and the environment, preserving and enhancing cultural values and especially protecting transboundary people, in addition to the three functions of classic biosphere reserve areas. Moreover, sharing the same "Transboundary Biosphere Reserve Area" can be helpful for building up trust and peace among neighbouring countries (Corn, 1993).

As can be seen, the role of Biosphere reserves in nature protection is unique and important.

#### **2. What is a biosphere reserve?**

Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and recognized under UNESCO's "Human and the Biosphere" (MAB) Programme to promote sustainable development based on local community efforts and sound science. As places that seek to reconcile conservation of biological and cultural diversity and economic and social development through partnerships between people and nature, they are ideal to test and demonstrate innovative approaches to sustainable development from local to international scales. For achieving the three interconnected functions: conservation, development and logistic support, each biosphere reserve must contain three connected zones (Unesco, 2011).

The zonation scheme, with the three zones, is the landmark and the identity of biosphere reserves and is recognized as such (Cibien&Jardin, 2007). These zones are called "the core zone, the buffer zone and the transition/development zone" (Fig. 1). The functions of these zones are going to be explained below.

Core zone can be one or more in number. It is a securely protected site for conserving biological diversity, monitoring minimally disturbed ecosystems and undertaking nondestructive research and other low-impact uses (such as education); buffer zone is the part which usally surrounds or adjoins the core area, and is used for co-operative activities compatible with sound ecological practices, including environmental education, recreation, ecotourism and applied and basic research; and a flexible transition/development zone, or area of co-operation, is the part which may contain a diversity of agricultural activities, settlements and other uses and in which local communities, management agencies, scientists, non-governmental organizations, cultural groups, economic interests and other stakeholders work together to manage and sustainably develop the area's resources (Unesco, 1996).

Fig. 1. Biosphere reserve zoning scheme

194 The Biosphere

(Schultz et al., 2010). One of the points of view emerged from the participation of local communities to the management process of the protected areas is the holistic approach. For most of the local communities, the most important purpose of the protected area management is to provide the continuity of their lifestyles and cultural heritage. The protection of biological diversity is a component of the mentioned purpose, it does not constitute a purpose on its own. Within this context, "Human and the Biosphere" Programme of UNESCO is extremely important because it is the first environmental program which targets the relationship of the human and the nature. In 1984, MAB ICC approved the concept "Human is a part of biosphere reserve" in "Action Plan for Biosphere Reserve Areas". At the same time, while describing a biosphere reserve area and its management, the importance of local residents and their socio-economic development is included in the description (Price et al., 1998). Participation and cooperation have been increasingly emphasized in the discussions concerning biosphere reserves (Kleeman&Welp, 2008). In fact, this cooperation becomes more meaningful in "transboundary biosphere reserves". "Transboundary Biosphere Reserve Areas" have support in functions like promoting peace, protecting and managing resources and the environment, preserving and enhancing cultural values and especially protecting transboundary people, in addition to the three functions of classic biosphere reserve areas. Moreover, sharing the same "Transboundary Biosphere Reserve Area" can be helpful for

building up trust and peace among neighbouring countries (Corn, 1993).

biosphere reserve must contain three connected zones (Unesco, 2011).

**2.

As can be seen, the role of Biosphere reserves in nature protection is unique and important.

Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and recognized under UNESCO's "Human and the Biosphere" (MAB) Programme to promote sustainable development based on local community efforts and sound science. As places that seek to reconcile conservation of biological and cultural diversity and economic and social development through partnerships between people and nature, they are ideal to test and demonstrate innovative approaches to sustainable development from local to international scales. For achieving the three interconnected functions: conservation, development and logistic support, each

The zonation scheme, with the three zones, is the landmark and the identity of biosphere reserves and is recognized as such (Cibien&Jardin, 2007). These zones are called "the core zone, the buffer zone and the transition/development zone" (Fig. 1). The functions of these

Core zone can be one or more in number. It is a securely protected site for conserving biological diversity, monitoring minimally disturbed ecosystems and undertaking nondestructive research and other low-impact uses (such as education); buffer zone is the part which usally surrounds or adjoins the core area, and is used for co-operative activities compatible with sound ecological practices, including environmental education, recreation, ecotourism and applied and basic research; and a flexible transition/development zone, or area of co-operation, is the part which may contain a diversity of agricultural activities, settlements and other uses and in which local communities, management agencies,

## **3. The difference of biosphere reserve in the concept of nature protection**

Protected areas exist in almost all countries. Most of these areas were determined throughout 20th century and announced officially and this is accepted as "the largest scaled, logical land use change made by human" throughout history (Dudley et al., 2005).

Today the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) determines the fundamental policies and systems for conserving nature and IUCN defines a protected area as "an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means". According to "1978-Protected Area Classification of IUCN" Biosphere reserves were in the status of protected areas, later on in 1994 they were removed from this status, but were transformed into a state of area which has international importance including other categories, as well (IUCN, 1994). At first sight, there seems to be slight differences between biosphere reserve areas and other areas with conservation status. However, management purposes and expected functions of these areas are rather different (Zal et al., 2006). The differences are indicated in Table 1.

Nature conservation is often understood to occur only within the limited boundaries of protected areas, managed by government agencies. These are conceived as islands of conservation where any form of human intervention is considered harmful for conservation. In contrast to this model, yet complementing its very cause, are thousands of 'unofficial' protected areas across the globe, managed and sustained by ordinary people. In fact, indigenous, mobile, and local communities have played a critical role in conserving a diversity of natural environments and species for millennia, for various economic, cultural, spiritual and aesthetic purposes (Pathak et al, n.d). At this point, the difference of biosphere areas becomes clear with the fact that they do not ignore "human" factor. Today, national parks in many countries increasingly reflect the objectives of biosphere reserves--more cooperation among adjacent land managers, more local involvement, more emphasis on the role of research and public education (Gregg, 1989).

The Importance of Biosphere Reserve in Nature Protection and the Situation in Turkey 197

(Keskin&Sarac, 2008). Furthermore, since Anatolia has hosted numerous civilizations for

Forest Law and Land Hunting Law are the first laws related with the nature conservation that came into force in 1937. However, "Nature Conservation and National Park" concept which firstly entered the agenda of Turkey in 1948 by scientific studies could exist in a law with the revised Forest Law in 1956 and turned out to be an application (Kaplan,

In Table 2. the status of protected natural and cultural resources/areas in Turkey are shown in accordance with their current legal basis. With a new regulation of law on August 17, 2011, the authority related with the determination, registration, announcement and management of National Parks, Natural Sites, Nature Protection Areas, Natural Monuments, Natural Parks, Wetland Areas, Private Nature Protection Areas and other areas with protection status is conveyed to Special Environmental Protection Agency of

Natural Parks Law

Heritage Protection Law

International Agreements

Forest Law

Ministry of Environment (Special Environmental Protection Agency, 2011).

**Protected Areas Legal Basis**

Wildlife Protection Area, Wildlife Development Area Land Hunting Law

Natural Sites Cultural and Natural

In spite of all these protection status, unfortunately the reality of losing natural and cultural diversity all around the world and especially in developing countries is also valid for Turkey as well. Main reason of this situation is the disagreement between the rules and the human use in the protected area. However, if biosphere reserve area approach is applied to the protected area and its surroundings, it seems to be an effective solution in protection by

Camili (Macahel) Biosphere Reserve Area which is officially approved in 2005 is the one and only Biosphere Reserve Area in Turkey for now. On the other hand, "Project of Protection and Sustainable Development of Biological Diversity and Natural Resources in Yildiz Mountains" is being carried out with biosphere reserve approach by General Directorate of

Aquaculture Production Areas Aquaculture Law

ages, it has a unique and rich cultural heritage.

National Park, Nature Protection Area, Natural

Protection Forests, Gene Protection Forests, Seed Stands,

World Heritage Areas, Private Nature Protection Areas, Emerald Network Areas, Wetland Areas/Ramsar Areas,

Table 2. Legal Structure of Protected Areas In Turkey

Monument and Natural Park

and Inner Forest Resting Places

Biosphere Reserve and Nature 2000

balancing the usage.

2003).

Table 1. Differences between Protected Areas and Biosphere Reserve (Bioret 2001)

### **4. Biosphere reserve action in Turkey**

Turkey is located at the point where the continents Asia, Europe and Africa meet. Therefore, it is endowed with a rich biodiversity which makes it unique on European and World scale

**Protected Areas Biosphere Reserves**

Conservation, development, logistical

often conflicting: farming, forestry, fisheries, tourism, science, local and

working more or less independently

Regulation limited to the core areas, existence of management agreements or

three zones, transition/development area

purposes and functions

national government

without consultation

demarcated outer limit

support

without

contracts

local participation

(e.g. nature conservation)

management of the territory

Natural, Landscape,Cultural,Historical

well identified, directly in charge of the

single planning scenario applied to a well-

Table 1. Differences between Protected Areas and Biosphere Reserve (Bioret 2001)

Turkey is located at the point where the continents Asia, Europe and Africa meet. Therefore, it is endowed with a rich biodiversity which makes it unique on European and World scale

purpose

Conservation

defined land area

populations, ecosystem functioning

**4. Biosphere reserve action in Turkey**

Manager Coordinator

a single category of land, usually relatively small in size and managed for a single

(Keskin&Sarac, 2008). Furthermore, since Anatolia has hosted numerous civilizations for ages, it has a unique and rich cultural heritage.

Forest Law and Land Hunting Law are the first laws related with the nature conservation that came into force in 1937. However, "Nature Conservation and National Park" concept which firstly entered the agenda of Turkey in 1948 by scientific studies could exist in a law with the revised Forest Law in 1956 and turned out to be an application (Kaplan, 2003).

In Table 2. the status of protected natural and cultural resources/areas in Turkey are shown in accordance with their current legal basis. With a new regulation of law on August 17, 2011, the authority related with the determination, registration, announcement and management of National Parks, Natural Sites, Nature Protection Areas, Natural Monuments, Natural Parks, Wetland Areas, Private Nature Protection Areas and other areas with protection status is conveyed to Special Environmental Protection Agency of Ministry of Environment (Special Environmental Protection Agency, 2011).

Table 2. Legal Structure of Protected Areas In Turkey

In spite of all these protection status, unfortunately the reality of losing natural and cultural diversity all around the world and especially in developing countries is also valid for Turkey as well. Main reason of this situation is the disagreement between the rules and the human use in the protected area. However, if biosphere reserve area approach is applied to the protected area and its surroundings, it seems to be an effective solution in protection by balancing the usage.

Camili (Macahel) Biosphere Reserve Area which is officially approved in 2005 is the one and only Biosphere Reserve Area in Turkey for now. On the other hand, "Project of Protection and Sustainable Development of Biological Diversity and Natural Resources in Yildiz Mountains" is being carried out with biosphere reserve approach by General Directorate of

The Importance of Biosphere Reserve in Nature Protection and the Situation in Turkey 199

Coastal areas of the peninsula are 1st, 2nd and 3rd Level Natural Sites. 1st Level Natural Sites are the areas which must be protected as they are in terms of public weal because they have universal values in terms of scientific protection and they have interesting properties and beauties which are rare. 2nd Level Natural Sites are defined as areas which can be put into service by considering public weal besides protection and development of the natural structure. 3rd Level Natural Sites are defined as areas which can be opened to housing by considering the region's potential and land use features in the way of protection and development of the natural structure (Gul&Sahin, 2010). 61 km2 of the peninsula is in the 1st Level Natural Sites Category, an area of 3,9 km2 is in the 2nd Level Natural Sites Category and 5,3 km2 of the peninsula is considered in the 3rd Level Natural Sites Category. Black Island in Gerence Bay was registered as Wildlife Protection Area in 1994 besides being in the

Wildlife Protection Areas are defined as the areas which have wildlife values and which are absolutely protected with their plants and animal species and their continuity is provided (Ministry of Forest and Water Works, 2011). Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs General Directorate of Protection Control prohibited the fishery activities down to 20m depth from the coast, in the area between Ardic Headland and Ege University Control Station in Mordogan District (except the sedimentation fishery area which is active in

Although the area is protected with "protection status" like "Natural Site, Wildlife Protection Site" and with a special regulation for Mediterranean Monk Seals which is called "No Fishing Zone", threats against nature and cultural structure of the area are increasingly

1st Level Natural Sites Category.

Fig. 3. Protected Areas

continuing.

Ayibaligi Location) (Sad-Afag, 2011). (Figure 3)

Forestry in coordination with General Directorate of Nature Protection and National Parks. In addition, studies pertaining to discussion of some areas with biosphere reserve approach are made and continuing to be made in scientific platforms.

Moreover, Cetinkaya (2002), Altan et al., (2004), Zal et al., (2006), Ozyavuz (2010), Saricam&Erdem (2010) have made several studies related with the planning of several areas as biosphere reserve areas in our country.

### **5. A potential biosphere reserve: Karaburun Peninsula**

Karaburun Peninsula, has an area of 436 km2 between meridians of 38º 21 N-38º 41 N latitude and 26º 21 E- 26º 39 E longitude. With the islands around the peninsula, the total area is 442 km2 (Fig 2).

Fig. 2. Location of Karaburun Peninsula

Karaburun Peninsula is one of the rare areas which has protected its natural and cultural characteristics relatively compared with other Aegean coasts because of its rocky coasts and difficulties in transportation. It is the living and breeding ground of Mediterranean Monk Seal (*Monachus monachus*) and Audouin's Gull (*Larus audouinii*) which are included in IUCN Red List. This situation makes the area important on international scale. At the same time, all the islands of the area and untouched coasts are important for the existence of raptors and sea birds (Eken et al., 2006). Forest, maquias and frigana vegetation formations which represent Mediterranean climate geography exist in the area.

Karaburun Peninsula in which Turkish-Greek population lived together in part has traces of the interaction of this population. This cultural fact makes the history of the peninsula and the traditional usage types of the peninsula important. Fundamental human activity is agriculture in the peninsula although the agricultural areas are limited because of its rough topographic structure. Fishery and livestock are listed as the second and the third activities in the area. Tourism sector is not a common means for a living.

Coastal areas of the peninsula are 1st, 2nd and 3rd Level Natural Sites. 1st Level Natural Sites are the areas which must be protected as they are in terms of public weal because they have universal values in terms of scientific protection and they have interesting properties and beauties which are rare. 2nd Level Natural Sites are defined as areas which can be put into service by considering public weal besides protection and development of the natural structure. 3rd Level Natural Sites are defined as areas which can be opened to housing by considering the region's potential and land use features in the way of protection and development of the natural structure (Gul&Sahin, 2010). 61 km2 of the peninsula is in the 1st Level Natural Sites Category, an area of 3,9 km2 is in the 2nd Level Natural Sites Category and 5,3 km2 of the peninsula is considered in the 3rd Level Natural Sites Category. Black Island in Gerence Bay was registered as Wildlife Protection Area in 1994 besides being in the 1st Level Natural Sites Category.