**9. References**

252 Photonic Crystals – Innovative Systems, Lasers and Waveguides

expensive tunable elements. Moreover, since the output power can be continuously monitored (several power values per second can be measured), a real-time sensing is performed, which allows an instantaneous observation of the interactions taking place in the

The initial spectral alignment between the source and the sensor will determine the sensitivity and the linearity of the device. Eq. 1 describes the relative power variation at the output (in dB) as a function of the initial spectral overlap between source and sensor (*BW*) and the shift of the guided band's edge due to a change in the refractive

10 10 log 1 *BW*

Fig. 17 shows the output power variation depending on the initial overlap between the source and the sensor. A high initial overlap leads to a linear response of the sensor, although a lower sensitivity is obtained. On the other hand, as the initial overlap is reduced, the sensitivity increases but a more non-linear behaviour is observed. However, a proper modeling and calibration of the sensor response will allow working in the non-linear

Fig. 17. Power variation versus wavelength shift for different initial alignments between the

Another advantage of this readout technique is the possibility of continuously acquire the output power of the device (rigorously talking, many output power samples are taken each second). This will not only allow us to instantaneously observe any interaction taking place within the sensing device, but it will also allow to perform a temporal averaging of the power values and reduce the noise, thus leading to a significant reduction of the detection

Integrated planar photonic structures are one of the main candidates for the development of label-free biosensing devices, and among them, photonic crystal based structures. In this

source and the sensor. BW indicates the initial overlapping bandwidth.

regime, with a significant increase in the sensor sensitivity.

(1)

sensing structure.

limit of the device.

**7. Conclusion**

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**13**

*Italy*

Remo Proietti Zaccaria et al.\*

**Photonic Crystals for Plasmonics: From**

*Nanobiotech Facility, Italian Institute of Technology, Genova*

**Fundamentals to Superhydrophobic Devices**

In the last couple of decades we have been witnessing an enormous technological advancement in the field of micro-technology to the extent that nowadays we talk about nanotechnology. Faster computers, LCD based mobiles, nanoparticles for UV absorption in suntan lotions are just few of many examples where nanotechnology plays a fundamental role. The merit of this is mainly in the advance of the fabrication methods. Present techniques such as Focused Ion Beam (FIB) lithography guarantee a resolution of less than 10 nanometers which is about five times more precise than ten years before. Also Photonic Crystals (PhCs), among the others, take advantage from this extremely high resolution level allowing a downscale that permits the realization of structures which in principle can work at vey high energy. Historically PhCs were known as Bragg mirrors and only in 1987 (Yablonovitch, 1987; Sajeev, 1987) with the works of Yablonovitch and Sajeev the term Photonic Crystals was introduced. Nowadays, besides their natural application as filters in particular under full band gap conditions, PhCs see a number of applications: optical fibers (Birks et al., 1997; Zhao et al., 2010), vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (Yokouchi et al., 2003), high reflection coatings, temperature sensors (Song et al., 2006), high efficiency solar cells (Bermel et al., 2007), electric field detectors (Song & Proietti Zaccaria, 2007), non-linear analysis (Malvezzi et al., 2002; Malvezzi et al., 2003), just to name a few. Many are the techniques for the fabrication of PhCs, for example by means of focused-ion beam (Cabrini et al., 2005), two-photon fabrication (Deubel et al., 2004), laser-interference (Proietti Zaccaria et al., 2008a) or waver-fusion techniques (Takahashi et al., 2006). Here we shall focus on the role that PhCs can play for another exciting discipline known as *Plasmonics*. It refers to the capability of some devices of sustaining an *optical surface* mode, namely an electromagnetic wave travelling at the interface between two different materials such as a dielectric and a metal. Such a wave originates from the coupling of incident photons on the interface with

 Anisha Gopalakrishnan1, Gobind Das1, Francesco Gentile1**,**2, Ali Haddadpour3, Andrea Toma1, Francesco De Angelis1, Carlo Liberale1, Federico Mecarini1, Luca Razzari1, Andrea Giugni1, Roman

**1. Introduction**

 \*

Krahne1 and Enzo Di Fabrizio1,2

*Graecia University, viale Europa, Catanzaro, Italy*

*1Nanobiotech Facility, Italian Institute of Technology, Genova ,Italy 2BIONEM lab., Departement of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Magna*

*3Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Tabriz, Iran*

Zlatanovic, S., Mirkarimi, L. W., Sigalas, M. M., Bynum, M. A., Chow, E., Robotti, K. M., Burr, G. W., Esener, S., & Grot, A. (2009). Photonic crystal microcavity sensor for ultracompact monitoring of reaction kinetics and protein concentration. *Sensors and Actuators, B: Chemical*, Vol. 141, No. 1, (August 2009), pp. 13-19, ISSN 0925- 4005


**5. Conclusions**

We have successfully developed the superior quality high dense microstructure BaTiO3 (BT) electroceramic material with *c/a* axial ratio of ~1.0144 having an average grain size ~7.8 μm. The BT exhibits the saturation and remnant polarization of Psat. = 24.13 μC/cm2 and Pr = 10.42 μC/cm2 respectively with lower coercive field of Ec = 2.047 kV/cm, which is good for ferroelectric memory device applications. The concept of peaking characteristics of the polarization current densityelectric field measurement is introduced to evidences the saturation state of polarization for most of the ferroelectric materials. The pure BT ceramics possesses the "sprout" shape nature instead of typical "butterfly loop" for strain-electric field measurements with remnant strain ~ 0.212%, converse piezoelectric constant *d*33 ∗ ~376.35 pm/V and electrostrictive coefficient Q33~ 0.03493 m4 /C2 . The lead-free Ba0.7Ca0.3Ti1−xSnx O3 (*x* = 0.00, 0.025, 0.050, 0.075, and 0.1, abbreviated as BCST) electroceramic system showed the maximum electrostrictive coefficient (*Q33*) value of 0.0667 m4 /C2 for *x* = 0.075 and it is higher than some of the significant lead based electrostrictive materials. From BCST system the compositions *x* = 0.05 and 0.075 showed the notable electrostrictive properties that may be useful for piezoelectric Ac device applications. For (1−x) BCST-xBCZT ceramics with x = 0.00, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, and 1 we are successful to push the polymorphic phase transition temperatures (PPT) close to room temperature by Ca2+, Sn4+ and Zr4+ substitution for BT system. For BCST-BCZT system the composition x = 0.75 exhibits the d33, *d*33 ∗ and *Q33* values of 310 pC/N, 385 pm/V and 0.089 m4 /C2 respectively which is greater than BT ceramics. Thus, the piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties of BT ceramic can significantly tune by Ca2+ and Sn4+, Zr4+ substitutions useful for electromechanical device application in future. Still there is a scope for BT based ceramics with Ca2+ and Sn4+, Zr4+ substitutions to achieve the morphotropic phase boundary composition having giant piezoelectric properties.


**2. Cryptocurrencies and the world economy**

The last thing on every analyst's mind was Bitcoin surpassing the gold rate. Even the techgurus could not predict it, as gold is a league of its own. A lot was dependent upon the US inflation rates and China's trading opportunities, while political instability being a constant factor. A volatile asset witnessed the making of overnight billionaires in a matter of seconds, when the price jumped from \$700 to \$2100+. The youngsters, who were merely experimenting with it, became "accidental millionaires", and history was made. Dash, Doge, Litcoin, PlexCoin, Ethereum and many more cryptocurrencies made their way to the volatile market to leave a mark of their own. While the price of gold remained flat in the last year, there has been an eruption of the virtual currencies while bringing down the fiat currencies. With the market trends going anywhere with prediction, the shift is incorrigible, the facts are surprising and more shocks are due.

A closer look in the historical rates of Bitcoin raises the question about the future of cryptocurrencies. With a surge of supply and demand, analysts are marking the mining to be completed by the year 2041. What needs to be seen is the price volatility post mining. The world changes at the speed of light, they say, the world of technology is even faster, quicker, not only in terms of change but also in terms of implementation. **Figure 2** shows the price volatility in Bitcoin in the US Dollar since Sep 2015. The daily data for the Bitcoin Price Index have been derived from coindesk [6].

Tapscott [7], author of Blockchain Revolution and one of the top most influencers of the world, quoted: *"Ethereum* [8] *blockchain has some extraordinary capabilities. One of them is that you can build smart contracts. It's kind of what it sounds like. It's a contract that self-executes, and the contract handles the enforcement, the management, performance, and payment"*. **Figure 3** shows the price volatility in Ethereum in the US dollar since Sep 2015. The daily data for Ethereum have been derived from coindesk [6].

#### **2.1. The stock market volume and the dollar value**

tackle inflation and its value, Bitcoins have a predetermined number of having 120 million Bitcoins in circulation around the world for the next 25 years. At the moment, 16.5 million Bitcoins [3] have already been mined. So, is this the currency of the world, without having

Prominent Market Analysts [4] compare it to the "sharing" economy, which is expected to grow from \$15 billion in 2015 to \$335 billion by the year 2025, according to a report by PricewaterhouseCoopers. Airbnb, founded in 2008, is a notable player in the sharing economy. The company provides a platform for property owners and visitors to agree and transact short-term rental contracts. While it does not own rental properties, Airbnb today has over 2 million listings in 34,000 cities in 191 countries, generating annual revenue of over \$1 billion

The decentralized cryptocurrency, Bitcoin, relies on blockchain technology to record its transactions in a public ledger: a technology originally conceived for Bitcoin in 2008 and first implemented in 2009. The blockchain [5] is a distributed database that maintains a continuously growing list of records called blocks secured from tampering and revision. Each block contains a timestamp and a link to a previous block. It serves as the public ledger for all transactions. Every compatible client can connect to the network, send new transactions to it, verify them, and take part in the competition to create new blocks. The competition creating new blocks is known as mining. The Bitcoin design has been the inspiration for other applications and certainly for other cryptocurrencies. If blockchain technology is like metal, then Bitcoin

The last thing on every analyst's mind was Bitcoin surpassing the gold rate. Even the techgurus could not predict it, as gold is a league of its own. A lot was dependent upon the US inflation rates and China's trading opportunities, while political instability being a constant factor. A volatile asset witnessed the making of overnight billionaires in a matter of seconds, when the price jumped from \$700 to \$2100+. The youngsters, who were merely experimenting with

any central authority?

is like gold (**Figure 1**).

**2. Cryptocurrencies and the world economy**

with a market value of \$24 billion.

**Figure 1.** Bitcoin circulation: the mining map.

270 Financial Management from an Emerging Market Perspective

Trading volume is generally reported not only in terms of number of shares but also in terms of the dollar value. These are the two most fundamental figures in the stock market,

Bitcoin/USD Close Price

**Figure 2.** Bitcoin price in USD from September 2015 to July 2017.

**Figure 3.** Ethereum price in USD from Sep 2015 to July 2017.

the price and the volume. In public stock exchanges, shares are publicly traded, transactions are recorded and the volumes are displayed. Hence, it becomes easy to calculate the trading volume for such stock exchanges. To better understand this trade volume, let us consider the following example:

#### EXAMPLE:

Suppose that Samsung only changes hands twice during the day. Let's assume that 20 million shares were bought at \$10 a share; later 30 million shares were purchased at \$10.5 a share.

The total trading volume = 20 +30 = 50 million shares

Dollar amount equals = (20X10) + (30X10.5) = \$515 million

So, the total circulation of Samsung Shares is 515 million for that day.


**7.8 Deterioration in the air quality**

Atash [12] highlighted the deterioration of urban environments in developing countries. The lifestyle need on automobiles for transportation especially cars forced by sprawl guide to increase in fossil fuel utilization and emissions of greenhouse gases Urban sprawl create to poor air quality by accepting more automobile use, thereby adding more air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, volatile organic carbons, ground-level ozone, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and microscopic particles. These pollutants can slow plant growth, create air smog and acid rain, cause global warming, and cause serious human health issues.

**183**

**Author details**

Balamurugan Paramasivam1

1 Erode Sengunthar Engineering College, Tamilnadu, India

planners, policy makers, environmentalists and people in general.

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
2 Government Arts College, Salem, Tamilnadu, India

provided the original work is properly cited.

\* and Illanthirayan Arumugavelu2

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Urban Sprawl*

**8. Conclusions**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92383*

A new growth be it intended or unexpected could begin on waste land or on land that was before used for some other agricultural purpose. In most cases, however, whenever the need arises, it is the outer edge of the city that provides for "boundless" open land because urban areas are usually unbroken. Urban sprawl is a dynamic process. This results in changes and the transformation of urban areas. Urban sprawl means the migration of people from urban rural areas to suburban or urban fringes. It also defined a small village's conversion into a town and city. In India, urban settlement is defined as places having minimum inhabitants of 5000, with at least 75% of male employees being occupied in secondary and tertiary activities, and the density of the population should be 400 inhabitants per sq.km. Urban sprawl means unexpected, uncontrolled spreading of urban growth into rural areas sharing the border with the outer edge of a city. Urban migration and dwellers have changed the urban environment due to the overpopulation. If the population increases the need for transportation and space for living, all other needs to be provided. The overpopulation and development of unexpected urban settlements have risen to change the urban environment. Different situations are observed to cause sprawl. In almost all cases, the rise in population plays a major role as a main cause. Urban sprawl has been recognized as a problematic aspect of metropolitan growth and development worldwide. The growing concern about the issue is shared among


**4. Conclusions**

This study attempts an early exploration of functional food-related uses of spent *Aurantiochytrium* sp. biomass, which is a significant part of the industrial waste associated with the production of high added-value PUFAs from this source. Doing so could attribute this waste with value comparable to its lipid fraction and thus greatly increase the profitability and sustainability of all industrial exploitation of *Aurantiochytrium*. The chemical characterisations performed on the defatted biomass show a highly protein and dietary fibre-rich product that is simultaneously rid of most of its most caloric fraction. The amino acid profile revealed a fairly balanced distribution of essential variants, though it was not enough to warrant the use of this product as a protein supplement individually. High levels of glutamic and aspartic acid suggest it could be used as a source of flavourenhancing umami compounds. The spent *Aurantiochytrium* was depleted of most of its lipophilic antioxidant compounds, but some residual activity was still registered by the FRAP assay, which was likely caused by antioxidant amino acids. The prebiotic potential assays revealed that after an in vitro enzymatic digestion, the sample held the capacity to enhance the growth of important probiotic strains. Together with its high dietary fibre content, these results point to a promising prebiotic supplement as one of the potential uses for the depleted biomass.

The results presented warrant a great deal of follow-up research, as many of its conclusions could be built upon a better understanding of the elemental composition of *Aurantiochytrium* sp., particularly of its non-lipid fractions. Additionally, the prebiotic potential demonstrated here is the result of a screening that is limited in scope and can be followed by either the testing of more strains and/or the use of a more in-depth digestion simulation and gut microbiota consortia from clinical samples. With these next steps fulfilled, a valuable application of the main by-products of *Aurantiochytrium* cultivation could be quickly implemented in both existing industries and upcoming biorefineries looking to maximise their profit and sustainability.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, C.M.S., J.A.S., N.M.B., M.C.P., J.C., M.M.R.d.M. and M.F.L.L.; methodology, J.R., B.T. and R.M.; validation, R.F., C.F., N.M.B. and M.F.L.L.; investigation, J.R. and R.F.; resources, M.F.L.L.; writing—original draft preparation, J.R.; writing—review and editing, R.F., C.F., N.M.B. and M.F.L.L.; supervision, C.F. and M.F.L.L.; project administration, C.M.S., J.A.S., N.M.B., M.C.P., J.C. and M.F.L.L.; funding acquisition, C.M.S., J.A.S., N.M.B., M.C.P., J.C. and M.F.L.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This study had the support of Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) through the Strategic Project UID/MAR/04292/2020 to MARE, UIDB/50011/2020 & UIDP/50011/2020 to CICECO, and the University of Aveiro and FCT/MCT for the financial support for LAQV-REQUIMTE research Unit (FCT UIDB/50006/2020) through national founds, and, where applicable, co-financed by the FEDER, within the PT2020 Partnership Agreement. This work was also funded by the project Algavalue—Valorização dos subprodutos do processo biotecnológico de produção de esqualeno e DHA pela microalga *Aurantiochytrium* sp. (POCI-01-0247-FEDER-017680) supported by COMPETE 2020, and Integrated Programme of SR&TD "SmartBioR" (reference Centro-01-0145-FEDER-000018) cofunded by Centro 2020 program, Portugal 2020, European Union, through the European Regional Development Fund.

**Data Availability Statement:** Data is available upon reasonable request.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**Author details**

Luis-Miguel Gomez-Osorio1 \*, Zhengyu Jiang2 , Qian Zhang3 , Hui Yan4 , Ana-Maria Villegas5 and Todd Applegate5

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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*Secretory Defense Response in the Bird's Gastro-Intestinal Tract and Nutritional Strategies… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95952*