Next Generation Fiber-Reinforced Composites - New Insights

*Edited by Longbiao Li, António B. Pereira and Alexandre Luiz Pereira*

Published in London, United Kingdom

Next Generation Fiber-Reinforced Composites - New Insights http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102170 Edited by Longbiao Li, António B. Pereira and Alexandre Luiz Pereira

#### Contributors

Citlalli Gaona-Tiburcio, Manuel Alejandro Lira Martinez, Jesús M. Jaquez-Muñoz, Miguel Angel Baltazar-Zamora, Demetrio Nieves-Mendoza, Francisco Estupiñan-López, Facundo Almeraya-Calderón, Laura Landa-Ruiz, Marianggy Del Carmen Gomez Avila, Bahadir Birecikli, Laxmisha M. Sridhar, Timothy M. Champagne, Jawed Qureshi, Hassaan A. Butt, German V. Rogozhkin, Dmitry V. Krasnikov, Albert G. Nasibulin, Andrei Starkov, Jalal El Bahaoui, Mohamed Chairi, Francisco Mata Cabrera, Issam Hanafi, Guido Di Bella, António B. Bastos Pereira, Alexandre Luiz Pereira, Mamaru Wutabachew, Longbiao Li

#### © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2023

The rights of the editor(s) and the author(s) have been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECHOPEN LIMITED. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECHOPEN LIMITED's written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECHOPEN LIMITED rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com).

Violations are liable to prosecution under the governing Copyright Law.

Individual chapters of this publication are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License which permits commercial use, distribution and reproduction of the individual chapters, provided the original author(s) and source publication are appropriately acknowledged. If so indicated, certain images may not be included under the Creative Commons license. In such cases users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. More details and guidelines concerning content reuse and adaptation can be found at http://www.intechopen.com/copyright-policy.html.

#### Notice

Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book.

First published in London, United Kingdom, 2023 by IntechOpen IntechOpen is the global imprint of INTECHOPEN LIMITED, registered in England and Wales, registration number: 11086078, 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
Next Generation Fiber-Reinforced Composites - New Insights Edited by Longbiao Li, António B. Pereira and Alexandre Luiz Pereira p. cm. Print ISBN 978-1-80356-920-8 Online ISBN 978-1-80356-921-5 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-1-80356-922-2


**4. Social and Affordable Housing Legislative in Serbia**

In Serbia, social housing is defined in the Law on Social Housing [54] as "housing of an appropriate standard that is provided with state support to households that for social, economic and other reasons cannot provide housing under market conditions." It has a "housing of an appropriate standard that is provided with state support to households that for social, economic and other reasons cannot provide housing under market conditions." It has a "residual" role [55] which means it is primarily intended for the most socially vulnerable categories, unlike in some developed European countries. Master Plan of Belgrade (MPB) 2021 from 2003 [56] played a key role in introducing and defining the concept of social housing in Serbia, following the example of developed European countries. This Plan identifies socially vulnerable categories of society that need assistance in finding housing and provides certain guidelines for design and construction standards, as well as criteria for determining locations. The Plan has defined a list of 58 locations with a total area of 228.6 ha planned for social housing in Belgrade.

The adoption of the Law on Social Housing in 2009 was followed by the National Social Housing Strategy [57] and The Decree on Standards and Norms for Planning, Design, Construction and Conditions for the Use and Maintenance of Apartments for Social Housing [58]. This is important to mention because in the period from 2001 to 2014, several social housing programs were implemented in Serbia, despite the lack of a defined comprehensive housing system, as well as appropriate technical regulations for planning and designing this type of housing [55,59].

The program of construction of solidarity apartments 2001–2005 was implemented by the Assembly of the City of Belgrade with the public fund for financing the construction of apartments. The project of constructing 2000 socially non-profit apartments in Belgrade started in 2005 by adoption of the Decision on the conditions of sale of 2000 socially nonprofit apartments in Belgrade [60]. Since social housing is seen as a good of public interest, a number of public architectural and urban competitions were announced in cooperation with the Society of Architects of Belgrade. On the other side, public competitions are considered directly related to the public interest, including the widest professional public, and therefore require the highest level of professional and social responsibility. However, in the competitions conducted by the City of Belgrade, the topic of social housing was mostly problematized from the aspect of economy, without considering other specific requirements in that housing category [55].

This is not surprising because, according to Djokic et al. [59], "social housing has been often seen as a measure of the social care system, a tool of poverty reduction, in achieving social justice and ensuring the fundamental human right to housing, but seldom as an instrument of economic development." However, this should not limit the possibility of implementing a strategic framework for improving environmental sustainability in housing with increased resilience and adaptability of housing, the provision of healthy living conditions and a healthy environment, and the reduction of waste from the use of heating and cooling energy, coupled with carbon dioxide emissions, reduction of water and soil pollution, adequate use of materials and waste recycling.

The existing technical regulations for the planning, design and construction of social housing in Serbia do not sufficiently consider specific guidelines in the field of energy optimization and IAQ that would be usable in the development of planning solutions, which is a significant limitation [61]. This is seen in the gap between the recommendations of sustainability in the planned development of the social housing sector in Serbia and their practical application. In addition, "there is a large gap between the inherited experiences of "quantitative" satisfaction of housing needs through mass state housing and "qualitative", long-term goals of sustainable development" [61]. Furthermore, there are no regulations aimed at improving and maintaining indoor air quality. Unlike outdoor air quality, the monitoring and assessing of IAQ are not regulated by legal acts, only guidelines and recommendations related to certain pollutants.

It is also necessary to mention that public buildings constructed within the period between 2010 and 2012 were built in accordance with the special conditions, applying the Law on Encouraging the Construction Industry in Serbia in the Conditions of Economic Crisis [62]. This Law had a fixed term with emphasis on encouraging the development and employment of domestic construction companies and providing liquidity to this sector to strengthen the development and employment of domestic companies engaged in the production of construction materials. The buildings covered by this Law are fully or partially financed from the budget of the local self-government unit, the autonomous province (i.e., the Republic of Serbia) and include schools and kindergartens, hospitals and other health facilities, flats, sport objects, facilities for the purpose of performing cultural activities, highways and other state roads and other objects of public importance. In accordance with the above, the construction of facilities of public interest were completed exclusively by domestic construction companies and with domestic construction materials (70% of the total amount of construction materials and equipment).


**4. Proposed molecular mechanism for implantation failure in endometriosis and future treatment strategies**

In the present study, a hypothesis correlating various factors responsible for implantation failure in endometriosis is proposed (Figure 16). It is well established that endometriosis is an estrogen-dependent disorder. As mentioned earlier, estrogen regulates the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in matrix turnover and VEGF mediated angiogenic activities in various physiological and pathological conditions.  This, in turn, affects endometrial remodelling by up-regulating the expression of MMP-2 and -9, the major molecules responsible for matrix degradation and also increases the expression of VEGF and its receptors, considered to be key angiogenic molecules. This hypothesis is further evidenced by abnormal expression of implantation markers in these women suggesting poor endometrial receptivity and high rate of implantation failure. Molecules which can effectively control excessive endometrial matrix degradation by inhibiting over-expression of various factors responsible for matrix turnover and angiogenesis may be considered as a new therapeutic option for the treatment of endometriosis.

Fig. 16. Schematic representation of the molecular mechanism regulating the process of endometrial receptivity in endometriosis during implantation window

### **5. References**

338 Endometriosis - Basic Concepts and Current Research Trends

Endometrial expression of VEGF and its receptors VEGFR1 and VEGFR2 were observed to be lower and higher respectively in women with endometriosis when compared with controls.

**4. Proposed molecular mechanism for implantation failure in endometriosis**

In the present study, a hypothesis correlating various factors responsible for implantation failure in endometriosis is proposed (Figure 16). It is well established that endometriosis is an estrogen-dependent disorder. As mentioned earlier, estrogen regulates the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in matrix turnover and VEGF mediated angiogenic activities in various physiological and pathological conditions.  This, in turn, affects endometrial remodelling by up-regulating the expression of MMP-2 and -9, the major molecules responsible for matrix degradation and also increases the expression of VEGF and its receptors, considered to be key angiogenic molecules. This hypothesis is further evidenced by abnormal expression of implantation markers in these women suggesting poor endometrial receptivity and high rate of implantation failure. Molecules which can effectively control excessive endometrial matrix degradation by inhibiting over-expression of various factors responsible for matrix turnover and angiogenesis may be considered as a new therapeutic option for the treatment of

Fig. 16. Schematic representation of the molecular mechanism regulating the process of

endometrial receptivity in endometriosis during implantation window

**and future treatment strategies**

endometriosis.

Alteration in Endometrial Remodeling: A Cause for Implantation Failure in Endometriosis? 341

[28] Nayak NR, Brenner RM. Vascular proliferation and vascular endothelial growth factor

[29] Okada H, Sanezumi M, Nakajima T, Okada S, Yasuda K, Kanzaki H. Rapid down-

[30] Ota H, Igarashi S, Tanaka T. Morphometric evaluation of stromal vascularization in the

[31] Perrot-Applanat M, Ancelin M, Buteau-Lozano H, Meduri G, Bausero P. Ovarian

[32] Popovici RM, Irwin JC, Giaccia AJ, Giudice LC. Hypoxia and cAMP Stimulate Vascular

[33] Rogers PA, Au CL, Affandi B. Endometrial microvascular density during the normal

[34] Salata IM, Stojanovic N, Cajdler-�uba A, Lewandowski KC, Lewiński A. Gelatinase

[35] Sharara FI, McClamrock HD. Ratio of oestradiol concentration on the day of human

[37] Simón C, Cano F, Valbuena D, RemohÃ- J, Pellicer A. Implantation: Clinical evidence

[38] Smith SK. Angiogenesis, vascular endothelial growth factor and the endometrium.

[39] Sugino N, Kashida S, Karube-Harada A, Takiguchi S, Kato H. Expression of vascular

[40] Torry DS, Torry RJ. Angiogenesis and the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in endometrium and placenta. Am J Reprod Immunol 1997;37:21-9.

endometrium in adenomyosis. Hum Reprod 1998;13:715-9.

steroids in endometrial angiogenesis. Steroids 2000;65:599-603.

2002;87:1845-55.

1993;8:1396-404.

1995;10:2432-7.

2002;123:379-87.

Hum Reprod Update 1998;4:509-19.

cells. Mol Hum Reprod 1999;5:554-8.

Endocrinology & Metabolism 1999;84:2245.

Gynecological Endocrinology 2008;24:326-30.

endometriosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:3112-8.

expression in the rhesus macaque endometrium. J Clin Endocrinol Metab

regulation of CD63 transcription by progesterone in human endometrial stromal

Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) in Human Endometrial Stromal Cells: Potential Relevance to Menstruation and Endometrial Regeneration. Journal of Clinical

menstrual cycle and following exposure to long-term levonorgestrel. Hum Reprod

A (MM-2), gelatinase B (MMP-9) and their inhibitors (TIMP 1, TIMP-2) in serum of women with endometriosis: Significant correlation between MMP-2, MMP9 and their inhibitors without difference in levels of matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases in relation to the severity of endometriosis.

chorionic gonadotrophin administration to mid-luteal oestradiol concentration is predictive of in-vitro fertilization outcome. Human Reproduction 1999;14:2777-82. [36] Shifren JL, Tseng JF, Zaloudek CJ, Ryan IP, Meng YG, Ferrara N *et al.* Ovarian steroid

regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor in the human endometrium: implications for angiogenesis during the menstrual cycle and in the pathogenesis of

for a detrimental effect on uterine receptivity of high serum oestradiol concentrations in high and normal responder patients. Human Reproduction

endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors in human endometrium throughout the menstrual cycle and in early pregnancy. Reproduction

[14] Gipson IK, Ho SB, Spurr-Michaud SJ, Tisdale AS, Zhan Q, Torlakovic E. Mucin genes

[15] Groothuis PG, Dassen HH, Romano A, Punyadeera C. Estrogen and the endometrium:

[16] Hilkens J, Ligtenberg MJL, Vos HL, Litvinov SV. Cell membrane-associated mucins and

[17] Hulboy DL, Rudolph LA, Matrisian LM. Matrix metalloproteinases as mediators of reproductive function. Molecular Human Reproduction 1997;3:27-45. [18] Hung Yu Ng E, Shu Biu Yeung W, Yee Lan Lau E, Wai Ki So W, Chung Ho P. A rapid

[19] Itatsu K, Sasaki M, Yamaguchi J, Ohira S, Ishikawa A, Ikeda H *et al.* Cyclooxygenase-2 Is

[20] Kosmas IP, Kolibianakis EM, Devroey P. Association of estradiol levels on the day of

[21] Kottur A, Rao K, Srinivas M, Gupta N, Shetty N, Narvekar S. The degree of serum

[22] Kyrou D, Popovic-Todorovic B, Fatemi HM, Bourgain C, Haentjens P, Van Landuyt. L

[23] Lass A, Weiser W, Munafo A, Loumaye E. Leukemia inhibitory factor in human

[24] Lessey BA, Castelbaum AJ, Sawin SW, Buck CA, Schinnar R, Bilker W *.* Aberrant

[25] Li Y, Pu D, Li Y. The expression of cyclooxygenase-2 in cervical cancers and Hela cells

[26] Lockwood CJ, Krikun G, Koo AB, Kadner S, Schatz F. Differential effects of thrombin

outcome. J Hum Reprod Sci. 2010 Jan-Apr; 3(1): 25–30.

reproduction. Fertil Steril 2001;76:1091-6.

Endocrinol Metab 1994;79:643-9.

FSH/GnRH antagonist? Human Reproduction 2009;24:2902-9.

Science and Technology -- Medical Sciences -- 2007;27:457-60.

metalloproteinases in ovarian function. Rev Reprod 1998;3:23-30.

1011.

63.

Reprod Update 2007;13:405-17.

Reproduction 2000;15:1903-8.

2009;174:829-41.

Reprod 2004;19:2446-53.

expressed by human female reproductive tract epithelia. Biol Reprod 1997;56:999-

lessons learned from gene expression profiling in rodents and human. Hum

their adhesion-modulating property. Trends in Biochemical Sciences 1992;17:359-

decline in serum oestradiol concentrations around the mid-luteal phase had no adverse effect on outcome in 763 assisted reproduction cycles. Human

Involved in the Up-Regulation of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 in Cholangiocarcinoma Induced by Tumor Necrosis Factor-{alpha}. Am J Pathol

hCG administration and pregnancy achievement in IVF: a systematic review. Hum

estradiol decline in early and midluteal phase had no adverse effect on IVF/ICSI

*.*Does the estradiol level on the day of human chorionic gonadotrophin administration have an impact on pregnancy rates in patients treated with rec-

integrin expression in the endometrium of women with endometriosis. J Clin

was regulated by estrogen/progestogen. Journal of Huazhong University of

and hypoxia on endometrial stromal and glandular epithelial cell vascular endothelial growth factor expression. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:4280-6. [27] McIntush EW, Smith MF. Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of

**18**

Hendi Hendarto

*Indonesia*

*Dept. of Obstetric & Gynecology Faculty of Medicine, University of Airlangga / Dr. Soetomo Hospital, Surabaya,*

**Pathomechanism of Infertility in Endometriosis**

Endometriosis is defined as the presence of endometrial-like tissue outside the uterus, which induces a chronic, inflammatory reaction (Kennedy *et al*., 2005). Infertility is one of clinical manifestation of endometriosis showed by the difference of fecundity. At our tertiary hosital pelvic endometriosis is frequently found in infertile women: 23,8 % (1987), 37,2 % (1993)

An association between endometriosis and infertility has repeatedly been reported in the literature, but an absolute cause-effect relationship has not yet been confirmed. The controversy regarding whether endometriosis is a cause of infertility or an incidental finding is ongoing (ASRM, 2006; Gupta *et al*., 2008). Many theories of endometriosis which may impair fertility have been suggested during the years, and new hypotheses and approaches to the problem have arisen with the application of assisted reproduction techniques (Garrido *et al*., 2002). Data on the impact of endometriosis on the results of in-vitro fertilization and embryo transfer (IVF-ET) treatment are not consistent. Several theories have been proposed to identify the pathomechanism of infertility in endometriosis. None of these theories can completely explain these association. Based on many reports the possible mechanisms that could cause infertility in endometriosis are pelvic adhesion and endometrioma and also excess production of inflammatory factors in micro environment that both play a role in alteration fertility function. Severe endometriosis is associated with pelvic adhesions leading to a possible mechanic or anatomic disturbance of fertility, in the other hand a mild stage may have a direct and indirect negative effect on folliculogenesis, oocyte development, sperm function, embryogenesis, and endometrium receptivity (Barnhart *et al*., 2002). Our aim in the present review is to describe an update on several approaches of the pathomechanism of infertility in endometriosis, based on its impact on a number of pathologic conditions, such as: pelvic adhesion and endometrioma, abnormal folliculogenesis and impaired oocyte function, altered sperm function, reduced embryo

The mechanisms by which endometriosis impairs fertility have not been completely determined but are likely varied. Ovarian involvement and adhesion that block tubal motility and pick-up of the egg could be a main causative of mechanical interference on

and 50 % (2002) cases of diagnostic laparoscopy (Samsulhadi, 2002).

quality, and impaired endometrium receptivity.

**2. Pelvic adhesion and endometrioma**

**1. Introduction**