**2. Plant community ecology and soil symbiont interactions**

Plant ecology can be affected by global climate change in terms of above- and below-ground ecological diversity in a terrestrial ecosystem. The terrestrial plant community drives dynamic changes in the soil microbial ecology that may result in alterations in ecosystem function. The ecologist Dr. Peter Chesson postulated that stabilizing mechanisms are essential for maintenance of species diversity and coexistence [52]. Bever et al. have found evidence that microbially mediated positive and negative feedback might play a crucial role in the entire plant ecosystem and contribute to these mechanisms of plant-plant interactions [16]. Traditionally, competing plant species have been thought to have strong negative intraspecific interactions for the high overlap in resource usage [53]. However, success in finding a mechanism to explain the coexistence of competing plant species in maintaining local diversity [54]. Neglecting soil microbial community feedback might be one reason.

### **2.1. Soil resources and microbial interactions**

affected by complex interactions with plant-associated microbes. The roles of both plant-associated microbes and the host in ecosystem function have been recognized, but the detailed mechanisms are unclear. Since plants are immobile, they have coevolved with microbes and acquired a number of mechanisms that modulate the outcome of their interactions [2]. Roots can continuously synthesize, accumulate, and secrete a wide range of compounds into the soil [3], which are known as the root exudates. Root exudates contain enzymes, water, H<sup>+</sup> ions, mucilage, and carbon-containing primary and secondary compounds [4, 5]. Campbell and Greaves [6, 7] observed that the density of microbes in the rhizosphere was 100 times greater than that in the bulk soil. Recent studies have showed that plant root exudates shape the soil bacterial community [8, 9]. According to a study by Ciccazzo [10], a plant species selects a specific rhizosphere bacterial community. The change in the microbial composition generates feedback on the plant relative performance that defines the long-term effects of the soil microbes on their coexistence with that plant species [11, 12]. The feedback can be of two types; positive plant-soil microbial feedback reinforces the spatial separation of the microbial communities [13], while negative feedback results in plant replacement, which necessitates recolonization of locally specific roots [14–16]. Systematic methods such as genome-wide association studies have enabled us to explore the relationships of plant loci and symbiotic communities in detail [17, 18]. How does the microbiome diversity and function potentially affect host plant performance? The presence of microbial hubs in plant microbiome networks plays an important role between a plant and its microbial community [19]. Plant growth– promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) can produce a complex blend of volatile substances, which are distinct between bacterial species and other closely related species [20–22]. Some of these bacterial volatiles can stimulate plant growth [23, 24], suppress disease stimulating ISR [25],

94 Plant Ecology - Traditional Approaches to Recent Trends

or antagonize phytopathogens [26, 27], nematodes, or insects [28, 29].

Worldwide crop production is affected by biotic and abiotic stress factors [30–32], which cause millions of dollars in losses. The beginning of the industrial revolution in 1750 and the human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation have altered the global climate. An increase in carbon dioxide and temperature is speeding up the life cycle of grain and oilseed crops [33]. According to Lesk [34], extreme heat waves and droughts have reduced global harvests of cereals such as maize, wheat, and rice by 10% in a span of 50 years, which has become a grave concern of various governments. The impact of a warming climate on spring plant phenology is evident [35, 36]. A longer growing season may increase carbon uptake and potentially mitigate climate change [37, 38], leaf emergence [39], fruiting [40], and germination [41]. Abiotic stress factors include extreme temperature [42], drought, water logging, light, and salinity as major parameters that affect plant growth. Plant-associated microbes or PGPR were found to benefit plants by enhancing nutrient uptake, stimulating root, and shoot growth by producing indole acetic acid [43, 44], 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminases [45], solubilizing phosphate [46], and enhancing the uptake of nutrients from the environment [47, 48]. They also assist and enhance plant resistance to adverse environmental stresses such as drought, heavy metals, salts, and nutrient deficiency [49]. Biotic stress factors include interaction with other organisms and infection by pathogens or damage by insect pests, and some plant growth–promoting bacteria have been used as biocontrol agents against plant pathogens [50, 51]. This chapter explores the relationships between plant hosts and their Soil resources can govern the coexistence of plant species by resource partitioning and sharing. Studies have found root symbionts that increase the efficiency of nutrient uptake and allow the host to persist in a low nutrient environment, thereby directly contributing to the competitive exclusion of other plants [55]. Rhizosphere microbes can alter the availability of different forms of nitrogen or phosphorus in the soil and affect plant-plant interactions via the mediation of resource partitioning [56]. Soil resources can also be transferred by shared symbiotic fungi called common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs) [57]. In nature, different plant species commonly share the broadly specific mycorrhizal fungi. Simard and Durall demonstrated the direct transfer of resources from one plant to another via CMNs with labeled carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus [57]. Plant community dynamics are driven by the microbial mediation of soil resource partitioning and sharing.

### **2.2. Host response to microbes and soil community feedback**

The dynamic density and composition of the rhizospheric microbes can affect the coexistence of plant species via indirect feedback (i.e., the competition or inhibition of symbionts) in the plant population [58]. Ecologists have proposed three hypotheses to explain the mechanism that produces low diversity plant communities. The *empty niche* hypothesis suggests that novel symbionts inhabit the areas invaded by invasive plants [59]. These symbionts are more efficient at resource acquisition and preferentially associated with invasive plants than with other plants. The *degraded mutualist* hypothesis suggests that invasive plants and their symbionts inhibit the ability of the native symbiotic community to acquire resources, indirectly reducing the performance of native plants [60, 61] (**Figure 1**). Positive feedback might be exemplified by the enhanced growth and survival of exotic seedlings near native established symbionts [62, 63]. Plant monodominance, coexistence, and invasion ecology have high relation to symbiotic microbial interactions.

**Figure 1.** Plant soil community feedback in low diversity communities (modified after Bever et al. [16]).


**Author details**

teachers expressed their views on the need for organizing periodic meetings to increase collaboration with old generation teachers. These percentages show differences between the views of school directors and teachers. We can suggest that school directors should organize more periodic meetings to increase collaboration between old and new generation teachers and help them take responsibility together. 50% of school directors and 30% of teachers expressed their views on the theme regarding university lecturers coming and offering in-service courses to increase collaboration between old generation and new generation teachers. It can be said that there are differences in the views of school directors and teacher regarding this view. As for the reason of this difference in views, we can suggest more collaboration with new generation

teachers and taking courses from universities to reduce the gap between generations.

**4.4. Dimension: the contribution of efficient use of technology by school directors to**

school director not frequently using the Internet or the social networking sites.

School culture plays a great role to foster exchanging of information. In addition, exchanging of information is required for enhancing collaboration in order to establish a common sense in respect to strategic implications. Mutual understanding among working staff, paying attention to values and roles among working team provide a great insight to foster the realities of intergenerational collaboration. In this respect, tolerance education plays an important factor to diffuse school development. Integration of technology and apply the merits of technology for the school development is crucial to understand the nature of intergenerational collaboration and understand collegiality among teachers and directors. As this study sheds a light to use of internet and social networking and intergenerational collaboration, it also gives impor-

Participants were asked to express their views to help determine the contribution of efficient use of technology by school directors to intergenerational cooperation. 20% of rural area school directors and 66% of teachers expressed their views on the theme of getting old generation teachers closer to technology by cooperating with parent-teacher associations, MoE, universities and new generation; and reinforcing relations with young generations. These percentages show differences in the views of school directors and teachers. This difference shows that school directors are not able to make old generation teacher get closer to technology. In this regard, we can suggest rural area school directors to form collaborative relations with parent-teacher associations, MoE and universities to help old generation teachers get closer to technology. 30% of school directors and 22% of teachers expressed their views regarding the theme of video recording the events and sharing them on social networking sites via Internet to increase intergenerational collaboration and reduce problems experienced between generations. It can be said that the views of school directors differ from teachers' views within the scope of this theme. We can say that the reason for this difference can be not video recording and rarely sharing them on social networking sites all types of events organized in school and

**intergenerational cooperation**

70 Open and Equal Access for Learning in School Management

**5. Discussions**

tance to transformational leadership [30].

Umut Akcil1 \*, Zehra Altinay1 , Fahriye Altinay1 , Gokmen Dagli1 and Mehmet Altinay2

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
1 Near East University, Nicosia, Cyprus

2 University of Kyrenia, Kyrenia, Cyprus