**Impact of Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Soil-Plant Health**

Rajinder Singh Antil

*Department of Soil Science, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India*

#### **1. Introduction**

52 Industrial Waste

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Effluent irrigation has been practiced for centuries throughout the world (Shuval *et al.,* 1986; Tripathi *et al*., 2011). It provides farmers with a nutrient enriched water supply and society with a reliable and inexpensive system for wastewater treatment and disposal (Feigin *et al.,* 1991). In India also being a cheap source of irrigation farmers are applying this water to their fields. Rapid industrialization, population explosion and more urbanization in India have created enormous problems of environmental pollution in terms of generating the variable quantity and quality of solid and liquid wastes. In developing countries, there has not been much emphasis on the installation of sewage treatment plants and all the industrial effluents are generally discharged in to the sewage system. The sewage waters are used as potential source irrigation for raising vegetables and fodder crops around the sewage disposal sites which are directly or indirectly consumed by human beings. Soil contamination by sewage and industrial effluents has affected adversely both soil health and crop productivity. Sewage and industrial effluents are the rich sources of both beneficial as well as harmful elements. Since some of these effluents are a rich source of plant nutrients, therefore soil provides the logical sink for their disposal. But many untreated and contaminated sewage and industrial effluents may have high concentration of several heavy metals such Cd, Ni, Pb and Cr (Arora *et al*., 1985; Narwal *et al.,* 1993). Their continuous disposal on agricultural soils has resulted in soil sickness (Narwal *et al.,* 1988**)** and accumulation of some of the toxic metals in soil (Adhikari *et al.,* 1993; Antil & Narwal, 2005, 2008; Antil *et al.,* 2004, 2007; Gupta *et al.,* 1986, 1994, 1998; Kharche *et al.,* 2011; Narwal *et. al.,* 1993) which may pose serious human and animal health. Ground water in Punjab has been contaminated by Hg and Pb to such an extent that it is causing DNA of the people, who drink it, to mutate (Bajwa, 2008). The present chapter, therefore, discusses the composition of sewage and industrial effluents in India and their possible effect on soil-plant health.

#### **2. Sewage water**

Raw sewage water available from cities is a mixture of domestic, commercial and industrial activities. Currently more than 450 cities in India generate more than 17 million cubic meters of raw sewage water per day (Bijay-Singh, 2002). Since the raw sewage water is rich in organic matter and essential nutrients, sewage farming is quite common in all urban areas.

Impact of Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Soil-Plant Health 55

Haryana Faridabad 7.5 3.8 180 10.0 35 20 110 Gurgaon 7.4 3.8 480 10.1 50 35 275 Bahadurgarh 7.2 3.6 90 4.6 8 53 388 Hisar 7.4 2.1 105 10.4 106 25 294 Panipat 8.2 1.6 15 0.8 61 18 2500 Sonepat 7.7 2.6 30 0.9 71 17 2125 Punjab Abohar 8.3 1.4 200 ND 29 4.2 46 Bhatinda 7.8 3.0 59 ND 17 5.6 60 Jalandhar 7.9 1.1 117 ND 38 7.6 35 Amritsar 7.2 1.7 108 ND 34 8.4 42 West Bengal Calcutta 8.0 2.0 ND 2.9 ND 7.0 20 Dhapa 7.8 1.2 ND 2.9 ND ND 19

Location Zn Mn Fe Cu Pb Cd Ni Haryana Faridabad 4.2 1.6 5.6 1.0 3.0 0.48 2.0 Gurgaon 2.8 3.2 25 0.6 2.5 0.15 1.0 Bahadurgarh 5.0 5.6 34 0.8 1.5 0.15 1.0 Hisar 10.0 15.0 145 1.9 38.0 5.80 2.8 Panipat 11.0 14.0 205 1.7 38.0 5.60 3.4 Sonepat 10.0 14.0 66 1.7 40.0 5.60 6.4 Punjab Abohar 0.14 0.10 1.6 0.09 0.03 0.01 ND Bhatinda 0.20 0.14 2.9 0.35 0.04 0.01 ND Jalandhar 0.38 0.23 5.3 0.37 0.09 0.02 ND Amritsar 0.31 0.30 4.1 0.18 0.06 0.01 ND West Bengal Calcutta 0.30 0.66 656 0.07 2.9 1.3 58 Dhapalock ND 2.3 ND 3.35 18.0 3.8 ND

Source (Adhikari *et al.,* 1997; Gupta & Mitra, 2002; Gupta *et al,.* 1986; Narwal *et al.,* 1993; Singh & Kansal,

Table 2. Heavy metal content (mg L-1) in sewage water of some cities of India.

SAR (m mol- ½L-½)

N (mg L-1) P (mg L-1) K (mg L-1)

(mgL-1)

Source (Adhikari *et al.,* 1997; Narwal *et al.,* 1993, 2002; Singh & Kansal, 1985a) Table 1. Chemical composition of sewage water of some cities of India.

Location pH EC(dSm-1) Organic C

ND – Not determined

ND – Not determined

1985a).

In the country as a whole, about 200 sewage farms, covering as area of about 50,000 ha, are utilizing sewage waters to supplement the nutrients and water supply. Some city sewage waters where industrial effluent is discharged in to sewer system may contain toxic metals in high amounts. Thus the composition of domestic sewage may be changed with the type of industries discharging their effluents.

#### **2.1 Composition of sewage water**

The composition of sewage water is quite variable depending upon the contributing source, mode of collection and treatment provided. Although a large proportions of these sewage waters is organic in nature and contains essential plant nutrients but sometimes toxic metals are also present in appreciable amounts. The sewage water generated in India contains more than 90% water. The solid portion contains 40-50% organics, 30-40% inert materials, 10-15% bio-resistant organics and 5-8% miscellaneous substances on oven dry weight basis (Antil & Narwal, 2008).

The chemical composition of sewage waters varied from site to site which was in accordance with the type of industries discharging their effluents. Some city sewage waters where industrial effluent is discharged in to sewage system may contain toxic metals in high amounts. Many investigations have found variations in pH, electrical conductivity (EC), suspended solids, organic C, CO3, HCO3, Ca++, Mg++ and other essential and toxic elements in the sewage water from Indian cities. The pH of the sewage water of different cities ranged from 7.2 to 8.3 (Table 1) and it was within normal range and irrigation with these waters in not going to cause any significant change in the soil pH due to high buffering capacity of the soils. The EC of sewage waters collected from different cities varied from 1.1 to 3.8 dS m-1 and their continuous use in the agricultural fields may cause increase in salinity of the soils and ultimately restricting the plant growth. Organic C content of sewage waters of different cities ranged from 59 to 480 mg L-1 being lowest in sewage water from Bhatinda and highest in sewage water of Gurgaon. Since organic C has a direct relationship with biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), their harmful effects may be due to high BOD values. The sodium absorption ratio (SAR) ranged from 0.8 to 10.4 m mol-½L-½ and some of these waters are not suitable for irrigation. Apart from these properties, the sewage waters contained appreciable amount of N, P and K. However, their content in sewage water varied from city to city. The amounts of N, P and K in sewage waters ranged from 8 to 106, 4.2 to 53 and 19 to 2500 mg L-1, respectively.

Sewage waters of many cities also contained appreciable amounts of micro-nutrients and toxic metals. In general the content of heavy metals was higher in cities of Haryana and West Bengal than cities of Punjab (Adhikari *et al*., 1997; Gupta & Mitra 2002; Gupta *et al*., 1986; Narwal *et al,.* 1993; Singh & Kansal, 1985a). The Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu, Pb, Cd and Ni of different cities of Haryana varied from 2.8 to 11.0, 1.6 to 15.0, 5.6 to 205, 0.6 to 1.9, 1.5 to 40, 0.15 to 5.80 and 1.0 to 6.4 mg L-1, respectively (Table 2). The wide variation in metal content of sewage water of different cities is a reflection of variability of sources of metals entering in the sewage system. Arora *et al.* (1985) and Tiwana *et al.* (1987) also reported wide variation in the concentration of heavy metals in sewage water collected from different outlets of Ludhiana city. The concentration of Cr in sewage water of Ludhiana city was found one thousand times higher than that of New York City.

ND – Not determined

54 Industrial Waste

In the country as a whole, about 200 sewage farms, covering as area of about 50,000 ha, are utilizing sewage waters to supplement the nutrients and water supply. Some city sewage waters where industrial effluent is discharged in to sewer system may contain toxic metals in high amounts. Thus the composition of domestic sewage may be changed with the type

The composition of sewage water is quite variable depending upon the contributing source, mode of collection and treatment provided. Although a large proportions of these sewage waters is organic in nature and contains essential plant nutrients but sometimes toxic metals are also present in appreciable amounts. The sewage water generated in India contains more than 90% water. The solid portion contains 40-50% organics, 30-40% inert materials, 10-15% bio-resistant organics and 5-8% miscellaneous substances on oven dry weight basis (Antil &

The chemical composition of sewage waters varied from site to site which was in accordance with the type of industries discharging their effluents. Some city sewage waters where industrial effluent is discharged in to sewage system may contain toxic metals in high amounts. Many investigations have found variations in pH, electrical conductivity (EC), suspended solids, organic C, CO3, HCO3, Ca++, Mg++ and other essential and toxic elements in the sewage water from Indian cities. The pH of the sewage water of different cities ranged from 7.2 to 8.3 (Table 1) and it was within normal range and irrigation with these waters in not going to cause any significant change in the soil pH due to high buffering capacity of the soils. The EC of sewage waters collected from different cities varied from 1.1 to 3.8 dS m-1 and their continuous use in the agricultural fields may cause increase in salinity of the soils and ultimately restricting the plant growth. Organic C content of sewage waters of different cities ranged from 59 to 480 mg L-1 being lowest in sewage water from Bhatinda and highest in sewage water of Gurgaon. Since organic C has a direct relationship with biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), their harmful effects may be due to high BOD values. The sodium absorption ratio (SAR) ranged from 0.8 to 10.4 m mol-½L-½ and some of these waters are not suitable for irrigation. Apart from these properties, the sewage waters contained appreciable amount of N, P and K. However, their content in sewage water varied from city to city. The amounts of N, P and K in sewage waters ranged from 8 to 106, 4.2 to 53 and 19 to 2500 mg L-1,

Sewage waters of many cities also contained appreciable amounts of micro-nutrients and toxic metals. In general the content of heavy metals was higher in cities of Haryana and West Bengal than cities of Punjab (Adhikari *et al*., 1997; Gupta & Mitra 2002; Gupta *et al*., 1986; Narwal *et al,.* 1993; Singh & Kansal, 1985a). The Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu, Pb, Cd and Ni of different cities of Haryana varied from 2.8 to 11.0, 1.6 to 15.0, 5.6 to 205, 0.6 to 1.9, 1.5 to 40, 0.15 to 5.80 and 1.0 to 6.4 mg L-1, respectively (Table 2). The wide variation in metal content of sewage water of different cities is a reflection of variability of sources of metals entering in the sewage system. Arora *et al.* (1985) and Tiwana *et al.* (1987) also reported wide variation in the concentration of heavy metals in sewage water collected from different outlets of Ludhiana city. The concentration of Cr in sewage water of Ludhiana city was

found one thousand times higher than that of New York City.

of industries discharging their effluents.

**2.1 Composition of sewage water**

Narwal, 2008).

respectively.

Source (Adhikari *et al.,* 1997; Narwal *et al.,* 1993, 2002; Singh & Kansal, 1985a)

Table 1. Chemical composition of sewage water of some cities of India.

ND – Not determined

Source (Adhikari *et al.,* 1997; Gupta & Mitra, 2002; Gupta *et al,.* 1986; Narwal *et al.,* 1993; Singh & Kansal, 1985a).

Table 2. Heavy metal content (mg L-1) in sewage water of some cities of India.

Impact of Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Soil-Plant Health 57

contents of Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb varied from 1.5 to 8.3, 17.3 to 176.2, 11.7 to 191.5 and 14.3 to

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) formulated a Ganga project in 1984 to clean the water of Ganga river. This project aimed at the installation of sewage treatment plants at various sites along Ganga river in the important cities and towns. Cities selected for the installation of sewage treatment plants include 26 cities in Uttar Pradesh, 15 in Bihar and 59 in West Bengal have been identified as the worst polluting cities because they contribute 84% of the total pollutants of the Ganga. Similarly under Yamuna Action Plan, sewage treatment plants have been installed at Yamunanagar, Karnal, Panipat, Gurgaon and Faridabad in Haryana. The chemical composition of sewage sludge indicates that that it contains appreciable amount of useful plant nutrients but at the same time also contain toxic metals (Table 5). So that the continuous use of sewage sludge may result in accumulation of toxic metals in the soils. Thus, it should be used carefully and soil must be monitored

Name of city Cd Cr Ni Pb

Allahabad 3.5 60.4 32.3 76.8 Delhi 1.5 82.0 191.5 41.7 Nagpur 1.5 49.2 14.8 24.3 Madras 8.3 38.5 60.5 16.5 Kanpur 0.6 17.3 11.7 14.3 Jaipur 7.3 176.2 37.5 66.0 Pagladanga 4.0 101.0 ND 200.0 Topsia 2.0 101.3 ND 185.0

Table 4. Heavy metal (mg kg-1) content of sewage sludge of some cities in India.

Table 5. Composition of sewage sludge from various locations in Haryana (n=8).

Source (Adhikari *et al.,* 1993; Jurwarkar *et al*., 1991).

Source (Antil & Narwal, 2005)

200 mg L-1, respectively (Table 4).

The composition of sewage waters is not constant and changes within the year due to several factors. The extent of the contaminants will be least during the rainy seasons. During the same year, the pH of the sewage water of one location of Hisar varied from 7.3 to 8.7 and EC from 0.52 to 1.55 dSm-1 (Antil & Narwal, 2008). The variation in the composition of sewage water within season has also been reported by Singh & Kansal (1985b) for different cities of Punjab. The concentration of metals in sewage water is season specific (Adhikari *et al.,* 1994). For example, Pb content varied from 8.1 to 30 mg L-1 during monsoon and 11.0 to 41.3 mg L-1 during summer. Similarly, Cd ranged from 4.0 to 22.0 mg L-1 in summer season while it was not detected during monsoon and Cr content in raw sewage during summer was 7.2 mg L-1 while in monsoon it was 1.6 mg L-1.

Kharche *et al*. (2011) found that the pH of sewage waters of Ahmednagar city of Maharashtra was neutral to slightly alkaline (7.4 to 8.4) which was within safe limits of 6.0 to 8.5 as suggested by United States Salinity Laboratory staff (USSL) (1954). The EC (0.97 to 1.77 dS m-1), BOD (100-210 mg L-1), chemical oxygen demand (COD) (700-940 mg L-1), total dissolved solids (400-1200 mg L-1) values of effluents were higher than the recommended limits prescribed by FAO (1985). The concentration of Fe (4.81-7.26 mg L-1), Mn (0.45-1.17 mg L-1), Zn (0.63-2.00 mg L-1), Cu (0.024-1.18 mg L-1) and B (2.11-5.75 mg L-1) was higher in sewage effluents indicating that they are good source of plant micronutrients which may help in mitigating emerging problems of their deficiency that are otherwise overcome by application of costly chemical fertilizers (Kharache *et al*., 2011). However, their concentrations in sewage effluents was higher than the recommended maximum concentration suggested by Indian Standards (1982) and FAO (1985) (Table 3) indicating that they can lead to contamination of soil and may be potentially toxic for plants, human and animal health.

Source (\*FAO, 1985; Indian Standards, 1982)

Table 3. Recommended maximum concentration (mg L-1) of heavy metals for use of effluents in agriculture.

#### **2.2 Composition of sewage sludge**

The agricultural use of sewage sludge has been a common practice in waste disposal in the recent decades. Since it contains plant nutrients and organic matter, sewage sludge may be beneficial to soils and their productivity. However, depending on its source, sewage sludge often contains considerable amount of toxic metals and organic toxicants. The presence of toxic metals in sewage sludges collected from different treatment plants of some cities of India has also been reported by Adhikari *et al.* (1993) and Jurwarkar *et al*. (1991). The

The composition of sewage waters is not constant and changes within the year due to several factors. The extent of the contaminants will be least during the rainy seasons. During the same year, the pH of the sewage water of one location of Hisar varied from 7.3 to 8.7 and EC from 0.52 to 1.55 dSm-1 (Antil & Narwal, 2008). The variation in the composition of sewage water within season has also been reported by Singh & Kansal (1985b) for different cities of Punjab. The concentration of metals in sewage water is season specific (Adhikari *et al.,* 1994). For example, Pb content varied from 8.1 to 30 mg L-1 during monsoon and 11.0 to 41.3 mg L-1 during summer. Similarly, Cd ranged from 4.0 to 22.0 mg L-1 in summer season while it was not detected during monsoon and Cr content in raw sewage during summer

Kharche *et al*. (2011) found that the pH of sewage waters of Ahmednagar city of Maharashtra was neutral to slightly alkaline (7.4 to 8.4) which was within safe limits of 6.0 to 8.5 as suggested by United States Salinity Laboratory staff (USSL) (1954). The EC (0.97 to 1.77 dS m-1), BOD (100-210 mg L-1), chemical oxygen demand (COD) (700-940 mg L-1), total dissolved solids (400-1200 mg L-1) values of effluents were higher than the recommended limits prescribed by FAO (1985). The concentration of Fe (4.81-7.26 mg L-1), Mn (0.45-1.17 mg L-1), Zn (0.63-2.00 mg L-1), Cu (0.024-1.18 mg L-1) and B (2.11-5.75 mg L-1) was higher in sewage effluents indicating that they are good source of plant micronutrients which may help in mitigating emerging problems of their deficiency that are otherwise overcome by application of costly chemical fertilizers (Kharache *et al*., 2011). However, their concentrations in sewage effluents was higher than the recommended maximum concentration suggested by Indian Standards (1982) and FAO (1985) (Table 3) indicating that they can lead to contamination of soil and may be potentially toxic for plants, human and

Heavy metal \*Recommended maximum concentration

Table 3. Recommended maximum concentration (mg L-1) of heavy metals for use of effluents

The agricultural use of sewage sludge has been a common practice in waste disposal in the recent decades. Since it contains plant nutrients and organic matter, sewage sludge may be beneficial to soils and their productivity. However, depending on its source, sewage sludge often contains considerable amount of toxic metals and organic toxicants. The presence of toxic metals in sewage sludges collected from different treatment plants of some cities of India has also been reported by Adhikari *et al.* (1993) and Jurwarkar *et al*. (1991). The

Fe 5.0 Mn 0.2 Zn 2.0 Cu 0.2 B 2.0 Cd 0.01 Cr 0.1 Ni 1.2

was 7.2 mg L-1 while in monsoon it was 1.6 mg L-1.

animal health.

in agriculture.

Source (\*FAO, 1985; Indian Standards, 1982)

**2.2 Composition of sewage sludge**

contents of Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb varied from 1.5 to 8.3, 17.3 to 176.2, 11.7 to 191.5 and 14.3 to 200 mg L-1, respectively (Table 4).

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) formulated a Ganga project in 1984 to clean the water of Ganga river. This project aimed at the installation of sewage treatment plants at various sites along Ganga river in the important cities and towns. Cities selected for the installation of sewage treatment plants include 26 cities in Uttar Pradesh, 15 in Bihar and 59 in West Bengal have been identified as the worst polluting cities because they contribute 84% of the total pollutants of the Ganga. Similarly under Yamuna Action Plan, sewage treatment plants have been installed at Yamunanagar, Karnal, Panipat, Gurgaon and Faridabad in Haryana. The chemical composition of sewage sludge indicates that that it contains appreciable amount of useful plant nutrients but at the same time also contain toxic metals (Table 5). So that the continuous use of sewage sludge may result in accumulation of toxic metals in the soils. Thus, it should be used carefully and soil must be monitored continuously to prevent the entry of toxic metals in food chain.

Source (Adhikari *et al.,* 1993; Jurwarkar *et al*., 1991).

Table 4. Heavy metal (mg kg-1) content of sewage sludge of some cities in India.

Source (Antil & Narwal, 2005)

Table 5. Composition of sewage sludge from various locations in Haryana (n=8).

Impact of Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Soil-Plant Health 59

irrigate their fields too often with sewage water especially during summer season. Several studies conducted in India revealed that irrigation with sewage water had a profound effect on chemical properties of soils (Table 7). The pH of the soil decreased with sewage irrigation at all the locations. The decrease of about one unit in pH with sewage water irrigation was observed in soils of Haryana (Narwal *et al.,* 1993), but such large decrease in pH of the soils in Punjab was not seen. Higher reduction in pH of Haryana soils was due to the low pH of sewage water applied. The EC of the soils increased at all the locations because of high EC of sewage waters. The EC of Bahadurgarh (9.74 dSm-1) and Faridabad (4.26 dSm-1) were higher than the soils of other cities and it may be due to presence of high salt content of sewage water of these cities. This indicated that long-term use of sewage waters may develop the salinity problem and ultimately will render the soils unproductive due to high amounts of

The organic C of the soil increased with sewage irrigation owing to the presence of C in sewage waters at all the location. However, highest increase in C content of soil was observed at Faridabad. Loehr *et al.,* (1979) and Narwal *et al.* (1988) reported that the longterm application of sewage water or dairy effluents of high organic matter resulted in soil sickness due to poor aeration and higher BOD. These results indicated that unwise use of sewage waters may deteriorate the soil physical environment due to accumulation of salts and poor soil aeration. The concentrations of heavy metals at all the locations increased with the sewage water irrigation. Gupta *et al.* (1986) and Narwal *et al. (*1993) found that the application of sewage water on agricultural land for long period increased the total content of Zn, Mn, Cu, Pb, Ni and Cd in soils of Haryana (Table 8). The extent of increase in metal content was higher in Sonipat soil which received sewage irrigation for 15 years. The results indicate that amounts of Cd increased four times and that of Ni three times in sewage irrigated soils. This increase was mainly due to mixing of Cycles industry effluent in the

Location pH EC (dS m-1) Organic C(%) TW SW TW SW TW SW Haryana Faridabad 8.22 7.20 0.46 4.26 0.57 2.52 Gurgaon 8.10 6.95 0.33 3.04 0.42 0.53 Bahadurgarh 8.10 7.35 2.21 9.74 0.30 0.36 Hisar 8.26 8.37 0.19 0.23 1.02 1.50 Panipat 8.45 8.55 0.19 0.32 0.38 0.87 Sonepat 8.70 7.94 0.06 0.65 0.18 0.39 Punjab Abohar 8.47 8.19 0.66 0.78 0.37 0.72 Bhatinda 8.38 8.45 0.57 0.66 0.23 0.60 Jalandhar 8.35 7.59 0.19 0.31 0.31 1.09 Amritsar 8.24 7.94 0.23 0.97 0.45 1.16

TW – Tube well-irrigated soil, SW – Sewage-irrigated soil

Source (Brar *et al.,* 2000; Narwal *et al.,* 1993, 2002; Singh & Kansal, 1985b)

Table 7. Effect of sewage irrigation on chemical characteristics of soils.

salt accumulation.

sewage system.

#### **2.3 Effect on soil properties**

In India, land around the cities receiving sewage waters containing both the domestic and the industrial wastes. These wastes are suitable for crop production provided the content of major plant nutrients is high and that of toxic elements is low. Its long-term application would affect the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils (Antil *et al.,* 2007).

#### **2.3.1 Physical properties**

The bulk density of soils irrigated with sewage water was low (1.2 to 1.39 Mg m-3) as compared to those for the well-irrigated soils (Table 6). The hydraulic conductivity was also higher (1.10 to 1.33 cm h-1) for sewage irrigated soils.

Source (Kharche *et al.,* 2011**)**

Table 6. Mean values of physical properties of sewage- and well- irrigated soils.

Mathan (1994) recorded significantly lower bulk density and increased hydraulic conductivity in sewage farm soils with sewage irrigation for 15 years. This can be attributed to improvement in total porosity and aggregate stability in the sewage-irrigated soils due to addition of organic matter which plays an important role in improving soil physical environment. Otis (1984), however, reported that the application of sewage reduced the hydraulic conductivity of soils due to pore clogging by suspended solids. This can be justified as the organic suspended solids may impede water transmission initially by temporarily plugging soil surface and by clogging of pores; however, the effect of organic matter addition through sewage on aggregation improves soil structure and enhances water transmission. The soil moisture retention of sewage-irrigated soils was also slightly higher as compared to that of sewage–free soils which can be ascribed to addition of organic matter through sewage. Rattan *et al.* (2001) observed enhanced available water content in the soils due to continuous application of sewage waters.

#### **2.3.2 Chemical properties**

With the continuous long-term application of sewage water to field crops some of the heavy metals may get accumulated in the soil profile and may limit plant growth. Even domestic sewage water from household and dairy effluents application for longer times drastically reduced the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, increased the pH, EC, DTPA extractable and total Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu, Cd, Ni and Pb (Narwal *et al.,* 1988). Singh & Kansal (1985b**)** also postulated the problems like sickness, salinity and alkalinity in Punjab where farmers

In India, land around the cities receiving sewage waters containing both the domestic and the industrial wastes. These wastes are suitable for crop production provided the content of major plant nutrients is high and that of toxic elements is low. Its long-term application would affect the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils (Antil *et al.,* 2007).

The bulk density of soils irrigated with sewage water was low (1.2 to 1.39 Mg m-3) as compared to those for the well-irrigated soils (Table 6). The hydraulic conductivity was also

0-30 1.28 (1.20-1.36) 1.22 (1.12-1.33) 43.2 (40.0-46.4) 15.4 (13.2-17.2) 30-60 1.30 (1.22-1.39) 1.19 (1.10-1.28) 45.5 (42.0-49.4) 18.5 (17.3-19.8)

0-30 1.40 (1.39-1.41) 1.12 (1.10-1.15) 38.0 (38.0-38.0) 13.4 (12.8-14.0) 30-60 1.38 (1.34-1.41) 0.94 (0.90-0.98 42.6 (40.8-44.4) 15.7 (14.6-16.8)

Mathan (1994) recorded significantly lower bulk density and increased hydraulic conductivity in sewage farm soils with sewage irrigation for 15 years. This can be attributed to improvement in total porosity and aggregate stability in the sewage-irrigated soils due to addition of organic matter which plays an important role in improving soil physical environment. Otis (1984), however, reported that the application of sewage reduced the hydraulic conductivity of soils due to pore clogging by suspended solids. This can be justified as the organic suspended solids may impede water transmission initially by temporarily plugging soil surface and by clogging of pores; however, the effect of organic matter addition through sewage on aggregation improves soil structure and enhances water transmission. The soil moisture retention of sewage-irrigated soils was also slightly higher as compared to that of sewage–free soils which can be ascribed to addition of organic matter through sewage. Rattan *et al.* (2001) observed enhanced available water content in the soils

With the continuous long-term application of sewage water to field crops some of the heavy metals may get accumulated in the soil profile and may limit plant growth. Even domestic sewage water from household and dairy effluents application for longer times drastically reduced the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, increased the pH, EC, DTPA extractable and total Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu, Cd, Ni and Pb (Narwal *et al.,* 1988). Singh & Kansal (1985b**)** also postulated the problems like sickness, salinity and alkalinity in Punjab where farmers

Hydraulic conductivity (cm hr-1)

Table 6. Mean values of physical properties of sewage- and well- irrigated soils.

Soil physical property

Water retention (%) 33 kPa 1500 kPa

**2.3 Effect on soil properties**

**2.3.1 Physical properties**

Source (Kharche *et al.,* 2011**)**

**2.3.2 Chemical properties**

Soil depth (cm)

higher (1.10 to 1.33 cm h-1) for sewage irrigated soils.

Sewage-irrigated soils

Well-irrigated soils

Bulk density (Mg m-3)

due to continuous application of sewage waters.

irrigate their fields too often with sewage water especially during summer season. Several studies conducted in India revealed that irrigation with sewage water had a profound effect on chemical properties of soils (Table 7). The pH of the soil decreased with sewage irrigation at all the locations. The decrease of about one unit in pH with sewage water irrigation was observed in soils of Haryana (Narwal *et al.,* 1993), but such large decrease in pH of the soils in Punjab was not seen. Higher reduction in pH of Haryana soils was due to the low pH of sewage water applied. The EC of the soils increased at all the locations because of high EC of sewage waters. The EC of Bahadurgarh (9.74 dSm-1) and Faridabad (4.26 dSm-1) were higher than the soils of other cities and it may be due to presence of high salt content of sewage water of these cities. This indicated that long-term use of sewage waters may develop the salinity problem and ultimately will render the soils unproductive due to high amounts of salt accumulation.

The organic C of the soil increased with sewage irrigation owing to the presence of C in sewage waters at all the location. However, highest increase in C content of soil was observed at Faridabad. Loehr *et al.,* (1979) and Narwal *et al.* (1988) reported that the longterm application of sewage water or dairy effluents of high organic matter resulted in soil sickness due to poor aeration and higher BOD. These results indicated that unwise use of sewage waters may deteriorate the soil physical environment due to accumulation of salts and poor soil aeration. The concentrations of heavy metals at all the locations increased with the sewage water irrigation. Gupta *et al.* (1986) and Narwal *et al. (*1993) found that the application of sewage water on agricultural land for long period increased the total content of Zn, Mn, Cu, Pb, Ni and Cd in soils of Haryana (Table 8). The extent of increase in metal content was higher in Sonipat soil which received sewage irrigation for 15 years. The results indicate that amounts of Cd increased four times and that of Ni three times in sewage irrigated soils. This increase was mainly due to mixing of Cycles industry effluent in the sewage system.

TW – Tube well-irrigated soil, SW – Sewage-irrigated soil

Source (Brar *et al.,* 2000; Narwal *et al.,* 1993, 2002; Singh & Kansal, 1985b)

Table 7. Effect of sewage irrigation on chemical characteristics of soils.

Impact of Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Soil-Plant Health 61

Abohar 0.95 3.69 0.40 1.53 0.35 0.76 0.05 0.06 Bhantinda 0.98 2.75 0.40 1.67 0.20 0.69 0.02 0.04 Jalandhar 1.82 5.66 0.90 1.98 0.85 0.89 0.05 0.17 Amritsar 0.95 7.30 0.95 5.49 0.50 1.69 0.05 0.17 Ludhiana 2.13 4.13 0.62 3.44 0.41 2.57 0.06 0.20

Table 9. Effect of sewage irrigation on DTPA extractable metals (mg kg-1) in soils of Punjab.

by continuous use of sewage (Table 10). In addition, if rather strict criteria of Ontario Canada (Seto & Deangelis, 1978) are considered for categorization soils in polluted category, most of the soils fall under contaminated category with respect to these heavy metals.

Cd 3-8 3 3 Ni 100 110 22 Cu 60-125 200 100 Mn 1500-3000 - 1500 Zn 70-400 450 216 Cr - 400 - Table 10. Suggested critical soil concentration values (mg kg-1) for phyto-toxicity of heavy

The microbial count in sewage-irrigated soils was higher for bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes which was about 1.34, 1.52 and 1.18 times (for 0-30 cm) higher as compared to that in normal soils, respectively (Table 11). This may be due to the suspended organic material added to soil through sewage which serves as a source of energy for microbial

> Fungi (105 x g -1)

0-30 20.8 (15-26) 10.7 (8-12) 5.33 (4-6) 30-60 19.2 (13-24) 9.3 (7-11) 4.0 (3-6)

0-30 15.5 (15-16) 7.0 (6-8) 4.5 (4-5) 30-60 11.5 (11-12) 6.0 (5-7) 3.5 (3-4)

Department of Environment (1989) Ontario Canada by Seto and Deangelis (1978)

Actinimycetes (104 x g -1)

TW SW TW SW TW SW TW SW

Location Zn Cu Pb Cd

TW – Tube well-irrigated soil, SW – Sewage-irrigated soil

Element Kabata and Pendias

(1992)

population (Joshi & Yadav, 2005; Seeker & Sopper, 1988).

Soil depth (cm) Soil microbial count Bacteria (106 x g -1)

Sewage-irrigated soils

Well-irrigated soils

Table 11. Mean soil microbial counts of sewage- and well-irrigated soils.

Source (Singh & Kansal, 1983)

metals.

**2.3.3 Biological properties**

Source (Kharche *et al.,* 2011)

Source (Gupta *et al.,* 1986, 1998; Narwal *et al*., 1993)

Table 8. Effect of sewage effluent irrigation on total metal content (mg kg-1) in soils of Haryana.

Build up of heavy metals in sewage water irrigated soils at other cities has also been reported. Mitra & Gupta (1997) has reported 143 times more accumulation of Cd in sewage effluent irrigated soils around Calcutta over non-sewage irrigated soils, followed by Zn (47 times), Pb (18.5 times), Cr (5.6 times), Co (3.9 times), Cu (3.6 times), Fe (2.4 times) and Ni (2.3 times). In soils of cultivated fields of Durgapur Industrial Belt (DIB) of West Bengal (comprising of steel plants, chemical factories, pharmaceuticals, fertilizer factory and hundreds of auxiliary factories) total Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb contents varied from 200 to 570, 24 to 69, 3 to 9 and 53 to 324 mg kg-1, respectively (Antil & Narwal, 2008). In agricultural lands around Ludhiana city, increase in total Cd, Ni and Co contents of sewage effluent irrigated soils was 36, 86 and 46% over tube well irrigated soils (Azad *et al.,* 1986).

The effect of long-term irrigation with sewage effluents on available metal status of agricultural soils has also been reported at various places. Singh & Kansal (1983) reported that the use of sewage water for irrigation substantially increases the accumulation of DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd in soils of different cities of Punjab. The accumulation was higher in soils receiving sewage water of industrial cities (Table 9).

Under Keshopur effluent irrigation system of Delhi, the DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Ni has increased by 253, 202, 237 and 153%, respectively in effluent irrigated soils as compared to that of tube well irrigated soils in two decades (Rattan *et al*., 2001). Kharche *et al.* (2011) found that the total content of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr and Ni in the soils irrigated with sewage water for more than three decades was 1.05, 1.24, 3.98, 1.51, 2.10, 1.62, and 1.24 times higher as compared to their content in the well-irrigated soils. Although, the concentration of heavy metals in the sewage-irrigated soils is below the maximum permissible limits as given by Department of Environment (1989) and Kabata & Pendias (1992), but it can be observed that these soils expected to approach these critical concentration in few years from now and may become toxic on accumulation of these metals

 Zn Mn Cu Pb Ni Cd Faridabad 0 85 350 25 37 33 1.9 10 158 370 68 50 34 1.9 Gurgaon 0 83 340 25 25 42 1.9 10 83 340 25 25 42 1.9 Bahadurgarh 0 65 310 16 25 33 1.9 15 75 325 25 38 50 1.9 Hisar 0 8.26 8.37 0.19 0.23 1.02 1.50 20 205 609 71 51 54 2.9 Panipat 0 140 656 37 40 48 3.4 10 175 656 51 48 46 2.4 Sonepat 0 91 281 14 20 26 0.8 15 183 406 52 32 72 3.2

Table 8. Effect of sewage effluent irrigation on total metal content (mg kg-1) in soils of Haryana.

Build up of heavy metals in sewage water irrigated soils at other cities has also been reported. Mitra & Gupta (1997) has reported 143 times more accumulation of Cd in sewage effluent irrigated soils around Calcutta over non-sewage irrigated soils, followed by Zn (47 times), Pb (18.5 times), Cr (5.6 times), Co (3.9 times), Cu (3.6 times), Fe (2.4 times) and Ni (2.3 times). In soils of cultivated fields of Durgapur Industrial Belt (DIB) of West Bengal (comprising of steel plants, chemical factories, pharmaceuticals, fertilizer factory and hundreds of auxiliary factories) total Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb contents varied from 200 to 570, 24 to 69, 3 to 9 and 53 to 324 mg kg-1, respectively (Antil & Narwal, 2008). In agricultural lands around Ludhiana city, increase in total Cd, Ni and Co contents of sewage effluent irrigated

The effect of long-term irrigation with sewage effluents on available metal status of agricultural soils has also been reported at various places. Singh & Kansal (1983) reported that the use of sewage water for irrigation substantially increases the accumulation of DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd in soils of different cities of Punjab. The accumulation was

Under Keshopur effluent irrigation system of Delhi, the DTPA extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Ni has increased by 253, 202, 237 and 153%, respectively in effluent irrigated soils as compared to that of tube well irrigated soils in two decades (Rattan *et al*., 2001). Kharche *et al.* (2011) found that the total content of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr and Ni in the soils irrigated with sewage water for more than three decades was 1.05, 1.24, 3.98, 1.51, 2.10, 1.62, and 1.24 times higher as compared to their content in the well-irrigated soils. Although, the concentration of heavy metals in the sewage-irrigated soils is below the maximum permissible limits as given by Department of Environment (1989) and Kabata & Pendias (1992), but it can be observed that these soils expected to approach these critical concentration in few years from now and may become toxic on accumulation of these metals

soils was 36, 86 and 46% over tube well irrigated soils (Azad *et al.,* 1986).

higher in soils receiving sewage water of industrial cities (Table 9).

Micronutrients Toxic metals

Location Duration of sewage

irrigation (year)

Source (Gupta *et al.,* 1986, 1998; Narwal *et al*., 1993)

TW – Tube well-irrigated soil, SW – Sewage-irrigated soil Source (Singh & Kansal, 1983)

Table 9. Effect of sewage irrigation on DTPA extractable metals (mg kg-1) in soils of Punjab.

by continuous use of sewage (Table 10). In addition, if rather strict criteria of Ontario Canada (Seto & Deangelis, 1978) are considered for categorization soils in polluted category, most of the soils fall under contaminated category with respect to these heavy metals.

Table 10. Suggested critical soil concentration values (mg kg-1) for phyto-toxicity of heavy metals.

#### **2.3.3 Biological properties**

The microbial count in sewage-irrigated soils was higher for bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes which was about 1.34, 1.52 and 1.18 times (for 0-30 cm) higher as compared to that in normal soils, respectively (Table 11). This may be due to the suspended organic material added to soil through sewage which serves as a source of energy for microbial population (Joshi & Yadav, 2005; Seeker & Sopper, 1988).

Source (Kharche *et al.,* 2011)

Table 11. Mean soil microbial counts of sewage- and well-irrigated soils.

Impact of Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Soil-Plant Health 63

26 37

25 38

11 15

24 35

31 48

25 35

27 29

15 24

Table 13. Heavy metal contents (mg kg-1) of various crops grown on tube well and sewage

Kharche *et al.* (2011) reported higher concentration of heavy metals in the cabbage plant grown on the sewage-irrigated soils (Table 14). The mean concentration of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr and Ni in cabbage grown on sewage-irrigated soils was about 1.11, 7.51, 1.72, 7.66, 4.36, 1.26 and 1.91 times than their content in well-irrigated soils, respectively. The concentration of heavy metals in cabbage is higher as compared to the suggested permissible tolerance levels (Table 17) as suggested by Council for Agricultural Science and

Heavy metal Concentration (mg kg-1) Suggested tolrent

Fe 821.7 (524-1361) 736.5 (702-771) 750 Mn 220.3 (186-263) 29.3 (28.2-30.5) 300 Zn 124.9 (101-159) 72.4 (70.2-74.7) 300 Cu 127.3 (118-138) 16.6 (15.7-17.5) 150 Cd 2.75 (2.25-3.25) 0.63 (0.50-0.75) 3 Cr 2.09 (1.62-2.47) 1.65 (1.55-1.75) 2 Ni 134.7 (123-142) 70.5 (65-76) 50

Table 14. Mean heavy metal contents in cabbage plant grown on sewage and well irrigated

level \* (mg kg-1 Sewage-irrigated Well-irrigated )

Zn Mn Fe Cu Cd Pb

8 12

9 15

> 3 7

> 4 7

10 15

12 17

8 14

8 10 0.85 1.74

0.69 1.67

0.48 1.80

0.80 2.24

0.50 2.59

0.64 1.25

0.85 1.64

0.45 .82

1.98 3.82

1.93 4.48

1.27 1.60

2.69 5.23

3.29 6.08

ND ND

ND ND

ND ND

128 170

293 356

80 117

91 170

270 332

> 29 71

> 47 64

> 10 46

Crop Source of

Maize TW

Berseem TW

Spinach TW

Fenugreek TW

Coriander TW

Wheat TW

Source (Kansal *et al*., 1996)

Source (Kharche *et al.,* 2011)

soils

water irrigated soils.

Cauliflower heads

Cauliflower leaves

irrigation

SW

SW

TW SW

TW SW

SW

SW

SW

SW

38 53

25 46

22 43

22 33

28 44

40 48

37 62

34 43

TW – Tube well water, SW – Sewage water, ND – Not determined

Technology (1976); Melsted (1973) and Naidu *et al.* (1996).

#### **2.4 Effect on plants**

Several investigators have reported positive effect of sewage irrigation on crop yield. Mahida (1981) obtained higher yields of vegetable crops irrigated with untreated sewage water compared to irrigation with canal water (Table 12). Experiments conducted at National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur revealed that the continuous use of untreated sewage for irrigation significantly reduced the yield of wheat, cotton and paddy. However, the use of primary treated sewage proved to be beneficial for both wheat and cotton (Juwarker *et al*., 1991). Application of sewage water resulted remarkable increase on the mean plant height (3.4%), number of tiller/plant (31.8%), length of ear (18.8%) in wheat crop. As a result, straw as well as grain yields also were increased significantly by 43.1 and 34.3%, respectively due to application of sewage water (ISSS Annual Report, 2006-07).

Source (Mahida, 1981)

Table 12. Effect of sewage irrigation on yield (t ha-1) of vegetable crops.

The accumulation of some of the usually prevalent heavy metals (Ni, Cd, Cr, Pb etc.) in sewage irrigated soils in different plant parts have been reported. Mitra & Gupta (1999) has reported that the contents of heavy metals in sewage irrigated radish, gourd, spinach and cauliflower around Calcutta were comparatively 2 to 40 times higher than the non-sewage irrigated vegetables. Brar *et al*. (2000) also reported higher accumulation of metals in leaves and tubers of potato grown on sewage irrigated soils as compared with ground water irrigated soils. Leafy vegetables and root crops are known to accumulate higher amounts of heavy metals than grain crops. Other factors like the composition, duration and rate of sewage irrigation, soil types, soil reaction and interaction among metals also affect their uptake. Kansal *et. al.* (1996) collected the plant samples of different crops from sewage irrigated soils and found that these plants contained higher amount of Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu, Cd and Pb than plants from tube well irrigated soils (Table 13). The leafy crops accumulated higher amounts of heavy metals than other crops. The maximum concentration of Mn Cu, Cd and Pb was found in spinach followed by berseem and least was absorbed by wheat. This indicate that selection of a crop which absorbed the lowest amount of heavy metals may prevent the entry of toxic metals from contaminated soils into food chain.

Several investigators have reported positive effect of sewage irrigation on crop yield. Mahida (1981) obtained higher yields of vegetable crops irrigated with untreated sewage water compared to irrigation with canal water (Table 12). Experiments conducted at National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur revealed that the continuous use of untreated sewage for irrigation significantly reduced the yield of wheat, cotton and paddy. However, the use of primary treated sewage proved to be beneficial for both wheat and cotton (Juwarker *et al*., 1991). Application of sewage water resulted remarkable increase on the mean plant height (3.4%), number of tiller/plant (31.8%), length of ear (18.8%) in wheat crop. As a result, straw as well as grain yields also were increased significantly by 43.1 and 34.3%,

respectively due to application of sewage water (ISSS Annual Report, 2006-07).

Table 12. Effect of sewage irrigation on yield (t ha-1) of vegetable crops.

may prevent the entry of toxic metals from contaminated soils into food chain.

Crop Source of irrigation

Beet root 8.75 16.27 Carrot 9.71 11.75 Radish 7.26 8.33 Potato 6.12 9.33 Ginger 6.04 9.80 Knolkhol 9.70 16.57 Cabbage 9.27 12.13 Cauliflower 6.96 9.09 French beans 6.63 8.06 Tomato 10.01 13.38 Tobacco 1.12 1.25 Groundnut 2.88 2.90

The accumulation of some of the usually prevalent heavy metals (Ni, Cd, Cr, Pb etc.) in sewage irrigated soils in different plant parts have been reported. Mitra & Gupta (1999) has reported that the contents of heavy metals in sewage irrigated radish, gourd, spinach and cauliflower around Calcutta were comparatively 2 to 40 times higher than the non-sewage irrigated vegetables. Brar *et al*. (2000) also reported higher accumulation of metals in leaves and tubers of potato grown on sewage irrigated soils as compared with ground water irrigated soils. Leafy vegetables and root crops are known to accumulate higher amounts of heavy metals than grain crops. Other factors like the composition, duration and rate of sewage irrigation, soil types, soil reaction and interaction among metals also affect their uptake. Kansal *et. al.* (1996) collected the plant samples of different crops from sewage irrigated soils and found that these plants contained higher amount of Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu, Cd and Pb than plants from tube well irrigated soils (Table 13). The leafy crops accumulated higher amounts of heavy metals than other crops. The maximum concentration of Mn Cu, Cd and Pb was found in spinach followed by berseem and least was absorbed by wheat. This indicate that selection of a crop which absorbed the lowest amount of heavy metals

Canal water Sewage water

**2.4 Effect on plants**

Source (Mahida, 1981)

TW – Tube well water, SW – Sewage water, ND – Not determined Source (Kansal *et al*., 1996)

Table 13. Heavy metal contents (mg kg-1) of various crops grown on tube well and sewage water irrigated soils.

Kharche *et al.* (2011) reported higher concentration of heavy metals in the cabbage plant grown on the sewage-irrigated soils (Table 14). The mean concentration of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr and Ni in cabbage grown on sewage-irrigated soils was about 1.11, 7.51, 1.72, 7.66, 4.36, 1.26 and 1.91 times than their content in well-irrigated soils, respectively. The concentration of heavy metals in cabbage is higher as compared to the suggested permissible tolerance levels (Table 17) as suggested by Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (1976); Melsted (1973) and Naidu *et al.* (1996).

Source (Kharche *et al.,* 2011)

Table 14. Mean heavy metal contents in cabbage plant grown on sewage and well irrigated soils

Impact of Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Soil-Plant Health 65

Effluents of Zn smelter near Udaipur, Rajasthan, contained the high amount of Zn (13 mg L-1) than the permissible limit (Totawat, 1993). Leather tanning contaminates the soil with Cr, As and B. In Punjab, tannery effluents contained as high as 9.2-13.8 mg L-1 of hexavalent Cr. The tannery water in Tamil Nadu had deteriorated the quality of surface and ground water making it unfit for drinking and agriculture. Effluents of electroplating units in Punjab are highly acidic (pH 2.1) and contain high amounts of pollutants like Ni (2.4 to 52 mg L-1), cyanides (0.4 to 4.4 mg L-1). Zalawadia *et al.* (1997) surveyed several industries effluents of Gujarat and also found higher amounts of heavy metals. The release of such effluents on agricultural lands will adversely affect the quality of crops grown on these soils, making

Industrial effluents when released in the open or on agricultural land contaminate the soil with heavy metals and organic pollutants. The total Pb, Ni, Cd and Cr were higher in soils irrigated with lead battery and distillery industries effluent compared to soils irrigated either with canal or tube well water (Table 16). In case of distillery effluent irrigated soil, about 14 times increase in organic C was observed. It may be because of presence of higher C amounts in distillery effluent samples (Antil *et. al.,* 1999). Lead content was almost 11.5 times more in lead battery effluent irrigated soils as compared to canal or tube well irrigated soils (Mahata & Antil, 2004). The EC, organic C and toxic metal content (Pb, Ni and Cd) of soil increased due to irrigation with cycle industrial effluent (Antil *et al.,* 2004) as compared to tube well irrigated soils (Table 17). Excessive use of cycle industry effluent had converted the productive land to unproductive land and soil became rust colored and fluffy. In this

unfit for consumption for animals and human beings.

soil, very high amounts of toxic metals were accumulated.

Source (Antil & Narwal, 2008; Mahata & Antil, 2004).

battery cell and distillery effluents

**3.3 Effect on plants**

Characteristic Source of irrigation

pH (1:2 soil:water) 8.5 (8.3) 8.0 (7.2) EC (1:2) dS m-1 0.31 (0.34) 0.9 (1.1) Organic C (%) 0.45 (0.40) 0.2 (2.8) Total Pb, mg kg-1 52.1 (589.9) 0.5\* (3.2) Total Cd, mg kg-1 1.0 (5.0) 0.4\* (1.2) Total Ni, mg kg-1 41.9 (48.3) 0.6\* (0.9) Total Cr, mg kg-1 1.1 (4.4) ND Values in parentheses denote the effluents irrigated soils; \* - DTPA extractable toxic metals

Table 16. Soil characteristics and toxic metal content (mg kg-1) in soils irrigated with lead

During the survey of sewage and industrial effluents composition, we found a site at Sonipat which had turned barren due to excessive irrigation with cycle industry effluent. Crops grown on this soil indicated the high accumulation of toxic metal. The health hazard problems due to Ni absorption by crops grown on metal polluted soil was more in carrot

Lead battery cell effluent Distillery effluent

**3.2 Effect on soil properties**

#### **3. Industrial effluents**

With the industrialization of the country a large volume of liquid and solid wastes are generated daily. The quality of these wastes depends upon the nature of the industry and type of treatments given to these waters before their release from factory premises. The use of agricultural for the disposal of industrial effluents is becoming a widespread practice. Such materials may contain various toxic metals that could accumulate in excessive quantities in soils. Also, soil pollution by heavy metals is one of the major environmental problems associated with the application of effluents from industries involved in metal processing (Antil & Narwal, 2008).

#### **3.1 Composition**

In India, seventeen categories of heavily polluting industries have been identified by CPCB. They are cement, thermal power plant, distilleries, sugar, fertilizer, integrated iron and steel, oil refineries, pulp and paper, petrochemicals, pesticides, tanneries, basic drugs and pharmaceuticals, dye and dye intermediates, caustic soda, zinc smelter, copper smelter and aluminum smelter. Generally, these industries discharge their effluents into city sewage system, nearby water bodies or adjoining agricultural lands which cause environmental problem. The composition of some of the effluents from different type of industries is quite variable (Table 15). Effluents of Zn smelter and paper mills are acidic in nature having pH 3.5 and 4.8, respectively. The effluents of oil refinery, paper mill, distillery and sugar mill are rich in organic C ranging from 820 to 28350 mg L-1. When such effluents of high BOD are disposed on soils they may develop anaerobic conditions and the soil becomes sick. Highest amount of toxic metals were observed in case of cycle industry effluents compared to the other industrial effluents. Thus, the composition of the industrial effluents varied according to the nature of process for manufacturing and the raw material used. Narwal *et al.,* (1992) found that effluents from cycle industry at Sonipat, Haryana, had high amounts of metals particularly Cu (64 mg L-1) and Ni (30 mg L-1).

ND – not determined

Source (Antil *et al.,* 2004; Gupta *et. al.,* 1994; Narwal et al. , 1992; Totawat, 1993; Zalawadia *et al.* 1997)

Table 15. Composition of some industrial effluents

Effluents of Zn smelter near Udaipur, Rajasthan, contained the high amount of Zn (13 mg L-1) than the permissible limit (Totawat, 1993). Leather tanning contaminates the soil with Cr, As and B. In Punjab, tannery effluents contained as high as 9.2-13.8 mg L-1 of hexavalent Cr. The tannery water in Tamil Nadu had deteriorated the quality of surface and ground water making it unfit for drinking and agriculture. Effluents of electroplating units in Punjab are highly acidic (pH 2.1) and contain high amounts of pollutants like Ni (2.4 to 52 mg L-1), cyanides (0.4 to 4.4 mg L-1). Zalawadia *et al.* (1997) surveyed several industries effluents of Gujarat and also found higher amounts of heavy metals. The release of such effluents on agricultural lands will adversely affect the quality of crops grown on these soils, making unfit for consumption for animals and human beings.

#### **3.2 Effect on soil properties**

64 Industrial Waste

With the industrialization of the country a large volume of liquid and solid wastes are generated daily. The quality of these wastes depends upon the nature of the industry and type of treatments given to these waters before their release from factory premises. The use of agricultural for the disposal of industrial effluents is becoming a widespread practice. Such materials may contain various toxic metals that could accumulate in excessive quantities in soils. Also, soil pollution by heavy metals is one of the major environmental problems associated with the application of effluents from industries involved in metal

In India, seventeen categories of heavily polluting industries have been identified by CPCB. They are cement, thermal power plant, distilleries, sugar, fertilizer, integrated iron and steel, oil refineries, pulp and paper, petrochemicals, pesticides, tanneries, basic drugs and pharmaceuticals, dye and dye intermediates, caustic soda, zinc smelter, copper smelter and aluminum smelter. Generally, these industries discharge their effluents into city sewage system, nearby water bodies or adjoining agricultural lands which cause environmental problem. The composition of some of the effluents from different type of industries is quite variable (Table 15). Effluents of Zn smelter and paper mills are acidic in nature having pH 3.5 and 4.8, respectively. The effluents of oil refinery, paper mill, distillery and sugar mill are rich in organic C ranging from 820 to 28350 mg L-1. When such effluents of high BOD are disposed on soils they may develop anaerobic conditions and the soil becomes sick. Highest amount of toxic metals were observed in case of cycle industry effluents compared to the other industrial effluents. Thus, the composition of the industrial effluents varied according to the nature of process for manufacturing and the raw material used. Narwal *et al.,* (1992) found that effluents from cycle industry at Sonipat, Haryana, had high amounts of metals

**3. Industrial effluents**

processing (Antil & Narwal, 2008).

particularly Cu (64 mg L-1) and Ni (30 mg L-1).

Table 15. Composition of some industrial effluents

Characteristic Industrial effluent

Oil refinery Paper mill Distillery Cycle

pH 6.9 4.8 7.1 7.1 7.2 3.5 EC (dS m-1) 0.5 1.2 13.0 4.8 29.0 7.7 C (mg L-1) 820 1350 28350 23 2225 ND N (mg L-1) 140 168 42 84 1200 ND K (mg L-1) 0.1 0.5 1576 163 6681 ND Fe (mg L-1) 80 240 459 92 61 0.7 Mn (mg L-1) 7.8 16.4 37.9 15 4 ND Cu (mg L-1) 4.0 10.9 19.3 64.0 0.8 13.0 Zn (mg L-1) 30.0 6.4 37.9 2.4 1.2 ND Pb (mg L-1) 1.0 3.8 8.7 ND 0.7 ND Ni (mg L-1) 3.0 4.2 6.6 30.0 0.7 ND Cd (mg L-1) 0.1 0.2 0.3 5.4 0.06 0.02

Source (Antil *et al.,* 2004; Gupta *et. al.,* 1994; Narwal et al. , 1992; Totawat, 1993; Zalawadia *et al.* 1997)

industry

Spent wash Zn smelter

**3.1 Composition**

ND – not determined

Industrial effluents when released in the open or on agricultural land contaminate the soil with heavy metals and organic pollutants. The total Pb, Ni, Cd and Cr were higher in soils irrigated with lead battery and distillery industries effluent compared to soils irrigated either with canal or tube well water (Table 16). In case of distillery effluent irrigated soil, about 14 times increase in organic C was observed. It may be because of presence of higher C amounts in distillery effluent samples (Antil *et. al.,* 1999). Lead content was almost 11.5 times more in lead battery effluent irrigated soils as compared to canal or tube well irrigated soils (Mahata & Antil, 2004). The EC, organic C and toxic metal content (Pb, Ni and Cd) of soil increased due to irrigation with cycle industrial effluent (Antil *et al.,* 2004) as compared to tube well irrigated soils (Table 17). Excessive use of cycle industry effluent had converted the productive land to unproductive land and soil became rust colored and fluffy. In this soil, very high amounts of toxic metals were accumulated.

Values in parentheses denote the effluents irrigated soils; \* - DTPA extractable toxic metals Source (Antil & Narwal, 2008; Mahata & Antil, 2004).

Table 16. Soil characteristics and toxic metal content (mg kg-1) in soils irrigated with lead battery cell and distillery effluents

#### **3.3 Effect on plants**

During the survey of sewage and industrial effluents composition, we found a site at Sonipat which had turned barren due to excessive irrigation with cycle industry effluent. Crops grown on this soil indicated the high accumulation of toxic metal. The health hazard problems due to Ni absorption by crops grown on metal polluted soil was more in carrot

Impact of Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Soil-Plant Health 67

decreased in all the crop plants and inhibition of germination was significant. The high acidic nature of effluent might have decreased the germination. The morphometric analysis showed that the height of seedling and length of root was also reduced with the application of effluent. Thus, effluents must be diluted either with canal water or tube well water to

**4. Possible solutions of problems associated with the sewage and industrial**

To exploit the sewage waters as a potential source of irrigation and maintain environment, the sewage waters must be diluted either with canal or underground waters to avoid the excessive accumulation of soluble salts in the soils. It will help in maintaining the

Entry of heavy metals into food chain can be reduced by adopting soil and crop management practices, which immobilize these metals in soils and reduce their uptake by

Heavy phosphate application and also the application of kaolin/zeolite to soils can reduce

Application of organic manures can mitigate the adverse effect of the toxic metals on crops. Thus in the soils contaminated with high amount of toxic metals, application of organic manures is recommended to boost the yield potentials as well as decrease the metal

Raising hyper accumulator plants (mustard/trees) in toxic metals contaminated soils is

The sewage/industrial effluents, sludge and the soils must be monitored continuously to avoid the excessive accumulation of toxic metals in the soils and then transfer in the food

There should be strict Government legislation that only those sewage and industrial effluents be used in the fields which are cleaned through sewage and effluent treatment

Highest priorities should be given to proper disposal of solid and liquid effluents from

The major environmental concern is an urbanizing India relate to high levels of water pollution due to poor waste disposal, inadequate sewerage and drainage, and improper disposal of industrial effluents. The sewage and industrial effluents contain essential nutrients or possess properties which can easily be utilized for irrigating the field crops. But the sewage water of many cities where industrial effluent is mixed in the sewage system contained toxic metals. Continuous use of sewage and industrial effluents irrigation recorded improvement in water retention, hydraulic conductivity, organic C and build-up of available N, P, K and micronutrient status and soil microbial count. The EC although

recommended to avoid the entry of toxic metals in the food chain.

productivity of agricultural crops without any harmful effect on soil properties.

avoid their adverse effect on plant growth.

the availability of heavy metals.

industries for proper land management.

availability to plants.

**effluents**

plants.

chain.

plants.

**5. Conclusion**

Source (Antil *et al*. , 2004; Narwal *et al.,* 1992)

Table 17. Soil characteristics and toxic metal content (mg kg-1) in soils irrigated with cycle industry effluent.

followed by spinach, fenugreek and wheat (Table 18). The accumulation of high amounts of heavy metal in plants may influence the consumer's health. The high intake of metals by human affects the body system and may deteriorate the health.

Source (Narwal *et al.,* 1992)

Table 18. Toxic metal content (mg kg-1) of different crops grown on polluted soil.

Application of agro-based industrial effluent (Jam and pickle industry) to agricultural lands adversely influenced the germination and growth of different crops (Verma & Kumar, 2004). A significant variation in percent germination of wheat, maize and mustard with respect to different concentration of effluents was observed (Table 19). The germination percentage

Source (Verma & Kumar 2004)

Table 19. Effect of agro-based industrial effluent on germination and development of wheat, maize and mustard crops.

Table 17. Soil characteristics and toxic metal content (mg kg-1) in soils irrigated with cycle

followed by spinach, fenugreek and wheat (Table 18). The accumulation of high amounts of heavy metal in plants may influence the consumer's health. The high intake of metals by

Toxic metal Shoot Grain

Table 18. Toxic metal content (mg kg-1) of different crops grown on polluted soil.

Germination (%) Average height of

0 (control) 100 92 100 27.8 55 20.7 12 25 9.5 25 89 80 90 27.6 49.5 17.4 12.8 20.5 8 50 84 68 69 26.0 47 16.8 10.5 20.1 7.7 75 52 28 38 20.6 45.0 15.0 8.3 19.4 6.8 100 24 23 27 21 40 14.2 4.3 18.9 6.3

Table 19. Effect of agro-based industrial effluent on germination and development of wheat,

Ni 434 167 300 65 Cd 13.4 5.5 4.5 4.7

Application of agro-based industrial effluent (Jam and pickle industry) to agricultural lands adversely influenced the germination and growth of different crops (Verma & Kumar, 2004). A significant variation in percent germination of wheat, maize and mustard with respect to different concentration of effluents was observed (Table 19). The germination percentage

Carrot Fenugreek Spinach Wheat

seedling (cm)

Wheat Maize Mustard Wheat Maize Mustard Wheat Maize Mustard

Average length of root (cm)

Tube-well / canal water Cycle industry effluent

Characteristic Source of irrigation

human affects the body system and may deteriorate the health.

Source (Antil *et al*. , 2004; Narwal *et al.,* 1992)

industry effluent.

Source (Narwal *et al.,* 1992)

Source (Verma & Kumar 2004)

maize and mustard crops.

Effluent concentration

(%)

pH 8.7 7.5 EC (dS m-1) 0.06 0.16 Organic C (%) 0.18 0.48 Zn 91 12188 Mn 281 281 Fe 15675 72600 Cu 14 1199 Pb 20 280 Cd 0.8 5.4 Ni 26 6000

decreased in all the crop plants and inhibition of germination was significant. The high acidic nature of effluent might have decreased the germination. The morphometric analysis showed that the height of seedling and length of root was also reduced with the application of effluent. Thus, effluents must be diluted either with canal water or tube well water to avoid their adverse effect on plant growth.

#### **4. Possible solutions of problems associated with the sewage and industrial effluents**

To exploit the sewage waters as a potential source of irrigation and maintain environment, the sewage waters must be diluted either with canal or underground waters to avoid the excessive accumulation of soluble salts in the soils. It will help in maintaining the productivity of agricultural crops without any harmful effect on soil properties.

Entry of heavy metals into food chain can be reduced by adopting soil and crop management practices, which immobilize these metals in soils and reduce their uptake by plants.

Heavy phosphate application and also the application of kaolin/zeolite to soils can reduce the availability of heavy metals.

Application of organic manures can mitigate the adverse effect of the toxic metals on crops. Thus in the soils contaminated with high amount of toxic metals, application of organic manures is recommended to boost the yield potentials as well as decrease the metal availability to plants.

Raising hyper accumulator plants (mustard/trees) in toxic metals contaminated soils is recommended to avoid the entry of toxic metals in the food chain.

The sewage/industrial effluents, sludge and the soils must be monitored continuously to avoid the excessive accumulation of toxic metals in the soils and then transfer in the food chain.

There should be strict Government legislation that only those sewage and industrial effluents be used in the fields which are cleaned through sewage and effluent treatment plants.

Highest priorities should be given to proper disposal of solid and liquid effluents from industries for proper land management.

#### **5. Conclusion**

The major environmental concern is an urbanizing India relate to high levels of water pollution due to poor waste disposal, inadequate sewerage and drainage, and improper disposal of industrial effluents. The sewage and industrial effluents contain essential nutrients or possess properties which can easily be utilized for irrigating the field crops. But the sewage water of many cities where industrial effluent is mixed in the sewage system contained toxic metals. Continuous use of sewage and industrial effluents irrigation recorded improvement in water retention, hydraulic conductivity, organic C and build-up of available N, P, K and micronutrient status and soil microbial count. The EC although

Impact of Sewage and Industrial Effluents on Soil-Plant Health 69

Antil, R.S.; Arora, U. & Kuhad, M.S. (1999). Leaching and transformation of urea in soils

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Bijay-Singh (2002). Soil pollution and its control. In: F*undamentals of Soil Science, Indian Society of Soil science, 499-514,* Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. Brar, M.S.; Mahli, S.S., Singh, A.P., Arora, C.L. & Gill, K.S. (2000). Sewage water irrigation

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INM. *Proceedings of ICAR sponsored Winter School on Integrated Nutrient Management*, pp 79-83, Department of Soil Science and Directorate of Human Resource Management, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India, Dec. 4-24, 2007. Antil, R.S.; Kumar, V., Kethpal, T.S., Narwal, R.P., Sharma, S.K., Mittal, S.B., Singh, J. &

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increased due to sewage irrigation, it was within the tolerance limit to cause any soil salinity hazard. The toxic metals like Cd, Cr and Ni were found to be accumulated in the soil and plant due to long-term use of sewage irrigation. Hence, Cd, Cr and Ni are more likely to be the elements that may become health hazards for consumers of the crops grown in sewageirrigated soils. The concentration of these metals was greater in leafy vegetables than in grain crops. This warrants the potential hazard to soil and plant health suggesting necessity of their safe use after pretreatment to safe guard soil health and reduces the risk of animal and human health hazard. To avoid or delay such problems, continuous monitoring of quality of sewage and industrial effluents available in the country and their impact on soilplant health is required in order to make use of sewage waters as a cheap potential alternative source of plant nutrients in agriculture. Based on these results the farmers around cities have been alerted about the adverse effects of unwise long-term application of sewage water to crops.

#### **6. Future research needs**

Research should be done to study the long-term effects of sewage and industrial effluents on salt and toxic metal accumulation in soils and their effect on soil biological health and crop productivity.

Effect of sewage/industrial effluents and heavy metal pollution in soils should be studied on fixed sites.

Bio-transpiration of the contaminates through farm forestry and the critical concentrations of toxic metals in soil and plants for better animal and human health needs to be initiated.

To develop eco-friendly technology for the use of sewage and industrial effluents to improve crop productivity and soil quality and to protect of quality of farm produce and environment from degradation.

#### **7. References**

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**1. Introduction**

**4**

**Recent Advances**

*1Insol Ltd, Postojna,*

*Slovenia*

Marko Likon1 and Polonca Trebše2

*2University of Nova Gorica, Nova Gorica,*

**in Paper Mill Sludge Management**

The management of wastes, in particular of industrial waste, in an economically and environmentally acceptable manner is one of the most critical issues facing modern industry, mainly due to the increased difficulties in properly locating disposal works and complying with even more stringent environmental quality requirements imposed by legislation. In addition, in recent years the need to achieve sustainable strategies has become of greater concern, also because some traditional disposal options, such as landfill, are progressively restricted, and in some cases banned, by legislation. Therefore, the development of innovative systems to maximize recovery of useful materials and/or energy in a sustainable way has become necessary. Industrial wastes are generated through different industrial processes or energy production utilities as additional materials. Industrial symbiosis theory defines non-deliberately produced material as by-products or valuable raw materials which can be exploited in other industrial avenues. Paper industry is a strategic industry in many countries but in the same time, the production of paper consumes high quantities of energy, chemicals and wood pulp. Consequently, the paper production industry produces high environmental emission levels mainly as CO2 due to energy consumption, or solid waste streams which include wastewater treatment sludges, lime mud, lime slaker grits, green liquor dregs, boiler and furnace ash, scrubber sludges and wood processing residuals. In terms of volume, most solids or liquids are those from the treatment of effluents, although waste from wood is also produced in large quantities.

In this chapter the different processes and technologies for conversion of paper mill sludge (PMS) into valuable products with the special emphasis on the technology for conversion of PMS into absorbent for oil spills sanitation, are discussed. The environmental impact of the

The pulp and paper industry produce over 304 million tons of paper per year. In 2005, soley in Europe, 99.3 million tons of paper was produced which generated 11 million tons of waste and represented 11 % residue in relationship to the total paper production. The production of recycled paper, during the same period, was 47.3 million tons, generating 7.7 million tons of solid waste which represented 16 % of the total production from this raw

latest is evaluated with Life Cycle Assesment (LCA).

**2. Trends in paper mill sludge generation**

Zalawadia, N.M., Raman, S. & Patil, R.G. (1997). Influence of diluted spent wash of sugar industries on yield and nutrient uptake by sugarcane and changes in soil properties. *Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science,* 45:767-769.


Contents

**Preface XI**

Preface

• Minority patients

• Clinical trials.

• Medically compromised patients and

tional scientific and professional journals.

• Women

population.

The book Clinical Trials in Vulnerable Populations has 12 chapters divided in four sections:

More than 30 authors came from different countries of the world, from Serbia to Turkey. The editor of this book is Professor Milica Prostran MD, Ph.D. Professor Prostran is a phar‐ macologist as well as a clinical pharmacologist with a subspecialty in clinical pharmacology - pharmacotherapy. This editorial task was due to her vast experience with publishing in respected international journals. She has published more than 200 *in extenso* papers in inter‐ national journals indexed in CC/SCI, and over 50 chapters in international and national books. Professor Prostran serves as a member (and referee) of the Editorial Board of several highly respected international journals - *Frontiers in Ageing Neuroscience*, where she is an As‐ sociate Editor, *Frontiers in Pharmacology*, *Current Medicinal Chemistry*, as well as several na‐

"Vulnerable subject - a subject who is at risk (from trialist rather than from disease). Exam‐ ples include patients with very serious diseases and with high expectations of the benefits of a new product, subjects who have a working relationship with investigators (medical stu‐

Some authors make a distinction between a vulnerable population and a special research

A vulnerable population includes children and minors, pregnant women, fetuses and human *in vitro* fertilization. Also, cognitive impaired persons and prisoners are included in this group. On the other hand, a special population includes students, residents, employees, terminally

The potential reader is shown the modern approach to clinical trials in vulnerable popula‐ tions, from different points of view (Medič et al., 2016). The chapters deal at length and clari‐ ty with their topics. Finally, I believe that this book I edited and reviewed with dedication will capture the attention of many readers, from medical students to practicing doctors and pharmacists. All of them must consider this very important field of medicine: clinical trial in vulnerable patients. Also, I believe that the answers to their questions may be found in this

dents, nurses, employees of pharmaceutical companies, etc." (Day, 2007).

ill patients and minorities (Prostran et al., 2012, Prostran et al., 2016).

book and may make their practice at least more bearable.


**8. Meningiomas**

Meningiomas are predominantly benign tumours in adults arising from the meningotheli‐ um of the arachnoid mater. Consequently, they occur at the brain surface—over the cerebral convexity, parafalcine region or along the skull base. Rarely, they can occur in intraventricu‐ lar or intraosseous locations. Meningiomas account for 20–25% of all intracranial neoplasms, with women affected more commonly than men. They are commonly associated with loss of heterozygosity of the long arm of chromosome 22.

On CT and MRI, meningiomas typically appear as rounded or ovoid avidly enhancing masses with dural tails at the tumour margins, variable compressive effect on adjacent brain paren‐ chyma (mainly depending on tumour size) and occasional hyperostosis of the adjacent skull.

Molecular imaging of meningiomas can be accurately performed using somatostatin ana‐ logue radiotracers [54] (**Figure 11**).

**Figure 11.** *Row A*: Fusion PET/CT shows a Ga-68 DOTATATE-avid focus directly adjacent to the right anterior clinoid process of the sphenoid bone. *Rows B and C*: Multiplanar MRI sequences show characteristic features of an intracranial meningioma on non-enhanced (*arrows*) and gadolinium-enhanced (*arrowheads*) imaging.

#### **8.1. Somatostatin analogue radiotracers**

Currently, the primary indication for using gallium-68 (Ga-68)-labelled somatostatin ana‐ logue radiotracers is for PET imaging of carcinoid and other NETs which usually express a high density of somatostatin receptors to which these peptides bind with high affinity [55]. Some non-NETs are also known to express somatostatin receptors, including meningiomas [56–58] which express all of the five somatostatin receptor (SSTR) subtypes but predominant‐ ly SSTR1 and SSTR2.

Traditional scintigraphic imaging of meningiomas utilised indium-111-labelled octreotide and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). However, PET imaging with Ga-68 labelled somatostatin analogue radiotracers such as 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10 tetraacetic acid (DOTA)-Tyr3 -octreotate (TATE), DOTA-1-Nal3 -octreotide (NOC) and DOTA-Phe1 -Tyr3 -octreotide (TOC) offers superior count statistics and spatial resolution compared with SPECT. It also provides much higher target-to-background ratio of radiotracer uptake and more detailed tumour characterisation and has largely replaced octreotide SPECT imaging. This detailed spatial characterisation of meningiomas, when coupled with anatom‐ ical imaging by CT and MRI (in particular), allows for more accurate radiotherapy planning in patients with large, non-resectable tumours.

The demonstration of DOTATATE avidity in an intracranial lesion with only some features of meningioma on CT or MRI could permit differentiation of a meningioma from other tu‐ mours such as metastasis or craniopharyngioma, which can have a significant impact on clinical management.

There are also emerging data that DOTATATE uptake on PET improves diagnostic accuracy by delineating meningioma from tumour-free tissue [58] that can potentially enhance on CT and MRI especially in the setting of previous therapy.

FET PET in the late phase may be useful for the non-invasive grading of meningiomas [59].


*6.5. Liver Transplantation*

Several studies showed that LT improved survival in patients with ACLF [52,53]. In a recent multi-center European investigation, one-year post-LT survival was >than 80% independently from ACLF grade [54]. Despite these findings, prioritization for LT of patients with ACLF remains complicated. Commonly used scores for listing patients with cirrhosis were demonstrated not to be accurate enough to predict survival in patients with OFs. Mortality of patients with ACLF of grade 3 and a MELD score < 25 was shown to

be higher than in patients with a MELD score > 35 but without ACLF [52]. MELD-Na score underestimates mortality at 90-days in patients with ACLF, especially in those with MELD-Na < 30 [55]. Moreover, patients with ACLF grade 3 had a greater waitlist 14-day mortality than patients listed as status 1a, independent of MELD-Na score [56]. These findings emphasize the importance of early discussion for LT and consideration of priority for patients with ACLF, irrespective of traditional listing scores. Recently, a novel score which incorporates MELD score and ACLF grade demonstrably performs better than traditional scores by giving a higher impact to ACLF grade at lower MELD listing [57].

The Spanish Society of Liver Transplantation (SETH) proposed a consensus statement in which expedited organ allocation is recommended to allow ACLF patients to be transplanted [58]. SETH recommends the use of CLIF-C ACLF score instead of MELD to assess prognosis and suggests prioritisation of these patients because of their poor short-term prognosis [58]. NHS Blood and Transplant recently set the ACLF Liver Transplantation Tier (ACLFLTT) which gives a priority below that of super-urgent listed patients to those with cirrhosis and liver failure (as manifested by jaundice and coagulopathy) who stay on ICU for organ support and have risk of 28-day mortality of >50%. These patients usually fulfill EASL-CLIF criteria for ACLF of grade 2 or 3 [59].

An optimal selection of candidates for LT is equally important to avoid futile LT. Factors independently associated with poor post-LT survival were found to be lactate levels > 4 mmol/L, need for RRT at LT, older age of recipient, use of marginal organs and infections with MDROs while on the waiting list [52,54,60].

#### *6.6. Extracorporeal Liver Support*

Two large randomized clinical trials demonstrated no improvement in short-term survival in ACLF patients treated with albumin dialysis versus standard medical therapy [61,62]. Other two randomized trials are currently assessing plasma exchange (APACHE trial; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03702920) and albumin exchange with endotoxin removal (DIALIVE trial, NCT03065699).

#### *6.7. Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factor*

Two small single-center studies reported improved survival and reduced rate of bacterial infections in ACLF patients treated with Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factor (G-CSF) [63,64]. This result was not confirmed by the recent large multicenter randomized trial (GRAFT study), which failed to demonstrate the superiority of G-CSF over standard medical treatment and reported serious drug-related adverse events [65].

#### *6.8. Human Allogeneic Liver-Derived Progenitor Cells*

Low doses of human allogeneic liver-derived progenitor cells (HALPC) appeared to be safe in a clinical phase II study which involved 24 patients [66]. Further studies are needed to confirm safety and assess efficacy of this medicinal product.

#### **7. Conclusions**

ACLF is a distinct syndrome without a universally accepted definition and is characterized by high short-term mortality due to OFs. Patients with ACLF should access ICU without delay if necessary. LT has good outcomes and should be considered irrespective of traditionally used scores for waiting list allocation. Prioritization of ACLF for LT should be improved using proper scores for ACLF patients. Further studies are needed in order to better clarify the pathophysiology of the syndrome and to develop treatments other than supportive measures for OFs.

**Author Contributions:** Writing—original draft, C.G., S.P. and P.A.; Writing—review & editing, C.G., S.P. and P.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Conflicts of Interest:** C.G.: None; S.P.: Mallinckrodt advisory board; P.A.: None.


*4.3. DNA Extraction*

Based on a previous published work [22], we chose an extraction protocol offering highly satisfying performances in *C. parvum* DNA extraction from stool matrix. Accordingly, the observed PCR performances were exclusively due to amplification methods since extraction was standardized. Consequently, DNA extraction was performed using a QI-Aamp PowerFecal DNA kit (Qiagen, Courtaboeuf, France) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Briefly, it is a manual extraction kit combining thermal, mechanical, and chemical lysis. The starting volume for DNA extraction was 250 μL of sample. Obtained DNA extracts (100 μL) were stored at −20 ◦C until use. In addition, to control DNA extraction, we used Diacontrol DNA® for each sample according to the manufacturer's instructions. Ten microliters of viral DNA control was inoculated in each sample before extraction. Control DNA was subsequently detected using ready-to-use ProbePrimer mix (DICD-CY-L100) with the following PCR protocol: 50 ◦C for 2 min; 95 ◦C for 10 min; 95 ◦C for 15 s and 60 ◦C for 60 s, repeated 45 times.