**Abstract**

In this chapter, we describe the possible link between gut microbiota, melatonin, and breast cancer disease. It is widely described that changes in melatonin production due to circadian disruption is one of the causes of breast cancer. In addition, recently it is described that dysbiosis caused by changes in the gut microbiota composition could be as well constitute an important factor to induce breast cancer. The dysbiosis process, in turn, induces the stimulation of kynurenine pathway, leading to reduced circulating melatonin levels. Therefore, in this chapter we deep into the relationship between circadian disruption, dysbiosis, and breast cancer disease. This constitutes an important step in the therapeutic approach and prevention of this pathology.

**Keywords:** melatonin, breast cancer, gut microbiota, circadian disruption, dysbiosis, estrogens, estrobolome, anticancer therapies


**13. Final conclusion**

As we mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, having a child for a couple who wishes to have one and has difficulty in doing so, turning to assisted reproduction, is certainly an objective good, which has contributed to the wide social acceptance of such techniques.

Nevertheless, this good should be balanced by the bioethical difficulties these techniques present, and that we have analysed in depth in this chapter.

We therefore believe that it should be an important bioethical objective that in assisted reproduction clinics, prospective clients are informed of the risks and adverse effects of ARTs, as well as providing reasonable accurate data on the chances of success of the techniques we have analysed here. Thus, having been well informed, they can make a well-founded, well-informed personal or couple's decision, because ultimately, personal freedom is what should decide the option taken. Respect for the bioethical principle of patient autonomy requires it and counselling needs to be informative and nondirective.


**6. Effect of the mixture of sheep and goat's milk on yogurt characteristics**

 The results shown in **Table 3** reveal that the moisture value of goat yogurt is higher than the one observed in sheep yogurt, since the addition of milk powder during yogurt production causes a decrease in available water which consequently generates lower water content in the product [18]. On the other hand, sheep milk has higher solids content, and its addition causes a decrease in the moisture value.

 The composition of the yogurt is identical to the composition of the milk that served as its raw material, although there are some differences arising from the bacterial lactose fermentation and the addition of milk powder usually used to increase milk solids and that consequently generates an increase in protein content [38]. Yogurts with goat milk have lower protein values than those produced using sheep milk. This value decreases as the proportion of goat milk in the product increases. [3, 5, 13] also found out that the protein values for goat milk presented values that are between 2.90 and 3.52% lower than those found for sheep milk whose values range between 5.23 and 6.20%. Evidence also showed that the 9.59% protein content obtained for sheep yogurt was lower than that presented in similar studies carried out by other researchers [39–41]. Those studies presented values of 5.05, 6.34 and 4.55% of protein content for sheep yogurt, respectively.

The highest percentage of fat content in sheep's yogurt can reach 80%. Lower percentages of fat content are observed and could be related with several factors such as the animals' diet, the climate, their breed and their lactation stage. Curiously the goat milk yogurt presents contents of approximately 7% of fat, when the expected values are around 5% [6]. This difference may be explained by the breed of the animals.

 As it was the case with the fat and the protein values, the highest value of dry extract is found in sheep milk yogurt (24.95%), while 21.17% is the value found in goat milk yogurt. These findings are in accordance with the content of the raw material, since the dry extract content found in sheep milk can reach 19.06%, while in goat milk dry extract may be up to 12.73%. Besides, the ash content is indicative of the amount of minerals present. The results found for goat and sheep yogurt are higher than the values reported by other authors [34]. The addition of powdered milk may be the source of these particularly high values. The maximum acidity value was found in sheep milk yogurt (18.9 ml/100 g) and tends to decrease as the quantity of goat milk increases. These acidity values are not in accordance with the Portuguese standard NP-694. This standard requires a maximum acidity of 13 cm3 /100 g, although this value is reported to cow milk yogurt.

**Table 4** shows an increase in the values of mineral contents probably due to the addition of milk powder. The addition of sheep milk caused an increase in phosphorus, calcium and magnesium contents, since this type of milk contains a higher amount of these minerals [5]. These results are in accordance with those obtained by other authors [34].

**Table 3.**

*Physical-chemical characteristics.*

*Goat and Sheep Milk as Raw Material for Yogurt DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85084*

**Table 4.**

*Mineral contents.*


**3.3 Knowledge**

Market development and standardized measurement methods require knowledge construction at all stages of the chain. The building can still be designed in a circular shape, but it is also not circular when the subcontractor seals the gaps with foam. To achieve this level of knowledge, courses must be upgraded at all levels, from university to pre-vocational secondary education. In addition, special reinforcement courses should be offered.


**1. Introduction**

Nowadays, it is difficult to imagine functioning without polymers. Polymers are used in various industries, such as construction [1], electrical engineering [2], and medicine [3]. In recent years, more and more researchers from around the world have become interested in the characteristics of nano- and microplastic. Submicron polymer particles are defined as molecules of plastic smaller than 5 mm in diameter [4]. They are separated into two types: (1) Primary plastics, which enter the environment in their micro- and nanoscopic state, and (2) secondary plastics, which are the result of continuous environmental impacts on plastic litter and yield progressively smaller polymer fragments. Polystyrene (PS) is one of the most commonly used polymers in the production of plastic materials, together with polyethylene and polypropylene [5]. Its use is found mainly in food packaging, which, due to COVID-19, became a very busy branch of industry. Synthetic polymers have become a serious concern for the life and health safety of living organisms, as it is becoming clearer just how omnipresent plastic is in the ecosystem. Human activity is the main cause of contamination of the environment with polymers. Additionally, plastic production is continually increasing. It is estimated to reach 33 billion tons in 2050 [6]. The consequences of polymer particle debris for wildlife are becoming better and better documented.

Factors affecting the breakdown of polymers into smaller structures include UV radiation [7] or the influence of microorganisms [8–10]. The presence of polymers has already

**Citation:** Zaj ˛ac, M.; Koty ´nska, J.; Worobiczuk, M.; Breczko, J.; Naumowicz, M. The Effect of Submicron Polystyrene on the Electrokinetic Potential of Cell Membranes of Red Blood Cells and Platelets. *Membranes* **2022**, *12*, 366. https://doi.org/10.3390/ membranes12040366

Academic Editor: Francisco Monroy

Received: 1 March 2022 Accepted: 22 March 2022 Published: 26 March 2022

**Publisher's Note:** MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

**Copyright:** © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).

been evidenced in soil [11], freshwater [12], oceans [13], plants [14], animal organisms [15], and food products [16]. Mass production of plastic articles in society poses great risks, as these items should be properly disposed of or recycled. If these processes do not take place, polymers will certainly end up in the environment. Given plastic's ubiquitous nature and small dimensions, its ingestion and subsequent impact on living organisms is a growing cause for concern. At cellular and molecular levels, alterations of immunological responses, neurotoxic effects, and the onset of genotoxicity have been observed in water-dwelling organisms exposed to polystyrene particles [17,18].

Domestic pigs (*Sus domestica*) are particularly useful in biomedical research for several reasons. This species is characterized by high fertility and occurs in many genotypes and phenotypes, which is important for the selection of appropriate genetic material for medicinal studies [19–22]. The usage of biological material from pigs raises less opposition in laboratory tests than tests on dogs or cats. *Sus domestica* is very important in medical sciences such as surgery [23,24] and pharmacy [25,26] because of correlations between their bodies and humans. Pigs are not only comparable in size, but also have analogies to humans in the structure of their digestive, nervous, circulatory, and urinary systems. These similarities in the anatomy and physiology of *Sus domestica* and *Homo sapiens* are one reason biological material from pigs can be used for reliable modeling of cellular processes of human bodies.

Soil is also believed to be a pathway for micropolymers to enter living organisms. As it was found out, plastic particles can enter plants grown in heavily polluted areas [27]. This could lead to the consumption of polymers while eating contaminated vegetables by humans or animals. Other studies have shown that digesting processes do not break down plastic, and synthetic polymers can be a component of manure [28]. Scientists discovered polymers in the muscle tissue of marine animals, such as turtles [29] or fish [30]. It is indicated that plastic particles can also cross the blood–brain barrier. The consequence of this is the accumulation of polymers in the microglia cells, worsening their ability to multiply and leading to their death [31]. This information sheds a different light on the effects of polymers on human cells, including cell membranes.

Thus, food consumption can be a direct path of entry to the human body for micropolymers. Scientists believe that polymer molecules can move up the food chain thanks to their presence in the bloodstream of animals [32]. Thus, any type of meat could be a potential route for micro- and nanopolymers to enter the human system. This could have very serious consequences for health and wellness. Many tests have to be carried out to assess the toxicity and transport pathway of micropolymers from livestock, e.g., pigs, to the human body.

Experimental studies of the electrical properties of natural cell membranes can contribute to our knowledge of their properties, function, and structure. The zeta potential (otherwise known as the electrokinetic potential, *ζ*) of membranes is an extremely important electrical parameter that depends on the composition of the cytoplasmic membrane. This parameter defines the stability of a system and allows one to determine whether modifications of the natural system with polymers affect changes in the structure of the natural membrane. The zeta potential varies according to many parameters, such as temperature, pH, conductivity (ionic strength), and solvent (viscosity). Thus, small modifications to any of these parameters may have a significant influence on the zeta potential values [33]. One technique used to estimate zeta potential is electrophoretic light scattering (ELS), a technique based on dynamic light scattering (DLS), in which the shift in the frequency or oscillation phase of the laser beam depends on the mobility of particles/cells in an alternating electric field [34].

The purpose of the research presented in this article is to assess the influence of PS particles on the zeta potential of *Sus domestica* blood components—red blood cells (RBCs), also referred to as erythrocytes and platelets (thrombocytes). We chose polystyrene as it does not generate reactive oxygen species in the presence of cells, and membrane damage by oxidative stress is unlikely [35]. Two sizes of two types of polystyrene were

used: 100 nm plain polystyrene (PS-100) and 200 nm plain polystyrene (PS-200), as well as 100 nm polystyrene with amino groups (PS-NH2-100) and 200 nm polystyrene with amino groups (PS-NH2-200). In addition, different particle concentrations and exposure times to the polymer were applied. Based on the knowledge of the authors, such a thorough analysis has never been performed before.


**Meet the editor**

Dr. Mariko Tomita, molecular oncologist, graduated from Medical School, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan in 1992. She worked for Kyushu University Hospital as an intern in 1992/1993. She earned a Ph.D. in molecular oncology from Kyushu University in 1998. She spent 3 years at IGBMC (Strasbourg, France) and Free University (Amsterdam, The Netherlands) and performed

post-doctoral research. Then, she moved to the University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan and started the research in viral oncology. She is presently an Associate Professor at the Department of Pathology and Oncology.

Contents

**Preface VII**

**Lymphoma 33**

Sung Chuang

**Transformation 67**

Tahir Latif and John C. Morris

Chapter 3 **T- and NK/T-Cell Leukemia in East Asia 53**

Kendle Pryor and Susan J. Marriott

**Adult T-Cell Leukemia 105**

**Type 1-Infected T-Cells 119**

Mariko Tomita

**High Resolution Lectin Microarrays 89** Hidekatsu Iha and Masao Yamada

Chapter 1 **Molecular Morphogenesis of T-Cell Acute Leukemia 1**

Chapter 2 **Monoclonal Antibody Therapy of T-Cell Leukemia and**

Chapter 4 **Pleiotropic Functions of HTLV-1 Tax Contribute to Cellular**

Chapter 5 **Glycan Profiling of Adult T-Cell Leukemia (ATL) Cells with the**

Chapter 6 **Prevention of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Infection and**

Chapter 7 **The Roles of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase-Related Kinase 5 as**

Makoto Yoshimitsu, Tomohiro Kozako and Naomichi Arima

**a Novel Therapeutic Target of Human T-Cell Leukaemia Virus**

Michael Litt, Bhavita Patel, Ying Li, Yi Qiu and Suming Huang

Tsung-Hsien Lin, Yen-Chuan Hsieh, Sheng-Tsung Chang and Shih-


**3. Statistical results analysis and the model properties**

Regression model and test for coefficients significance on individual model achieved using ANOVA method. **Table 2** show summary statistics of the model, values of "Adjusted and Predicted R2 " are higher for quadratic model which is suggested for the present analysis; experimental data analysis was performed to identify statistical significance of the aim's parameters. The dry unit weight, degree of saturation, water content, plasticity index, preconsolidation pressure and the swelling index on the measured response swelling pressure Ps. The model was developed for 95% confidence level with R2 = 0.9155, and the results are summarized in **Table 2**.

In **Table 2** the value of 0.2 between **Predicted and Adjusted R2** indicate the reasonable agreement.

**Adeq Precision** is the SNR, greater than 4 is desirable, so the obtained model can be used to delineate a design space.

#### **Table 2.**

*Model summary fit statistics.*

#### **Table 3.**

*Sequential model sum of squares [type I].*

*Factor coding is Coded.*

*Sum of squares is Type III - Partial.*

*F-value of 37.74 indicates a significant model. Only a 0.01% chance that F-value could occur due to noise. P-values < 0.0500 implies significant terms model. A, E, F, AE, EF are the chosen terms. Values >0.1000 implies a not significant model term. The other terms may be used to reduce the improved model require to support hierarchy Table 4.*

#### **Table 4.**

*ANOVA response surface quadratic model, analysis of variance table [Partial sum of squares - Type III].*

*Swelling Clay Parameters Investigation Using Design of Experiments (A Case Study) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95443*

Select the highest order polynomial where the additional terms are significant and the model is not aliased.

The F-Value of 90.65−5.80 indicates a significant model with P- value <0.0001 that provide the suggested one 2FI vs. linear with 5.80 F-value, out of the cited condition the models are aliased (**Table 3)**. In this case A, B, C, BC are significant model terms where P- Values >0.10 as mentioned in **Table 4**.

Normal plot of residuals, shown in **Figures 3**–**8**, should be in a straight line, in the residuals the errors distribution is normal regards the strait line form. Whereas the nonlinear patterns such as S-curve form implies a non-normality of the error term and can be corrected by a transformation. Residuals versus predicted response should be randomly scattered without pattern as shown in **Figure 8**. Other analysis can be provided in other cases.

#### **Figure 3.**

*Residual plots for the swelling pressure of the study soil case***.**

#### **Figure 4.**

*All factors contribution and effects on the response output for the swelling pressure of the study soil case.*

**Figure 5.** *Normal probability plot of residuals for swelling pressure.*

**Figure 6.** *Residuals versus predicted response for swelling pressure.*

**Figure 7.** *Residuals versus run for swelling pressure.*

*Swelling Clay Parameters Investigation Using Design of Experiments (A Case Study) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95443*

**Figure 8.** *Predicted response versus actual for swelling pressure.*


**2. Radio-over-Fibre systems**

Radio-over-Fibre (RoF) technology [Seeds] offers a perspective solution to the demand for wireless connection to the costumer ("last or first mile problem"). It entails the use of optical fibre links to distribute RF signals from a central location to Remote Antenna Units (RAUs). It combines the properties of the microwave and photonics approaches. In narrowband communication systems and WLANs (wireless local area networks), RF signal processing functions such as frequency up-conversion, carrier modulation, and multiplexing, are performed at the radio base station. RoF makes possible to centralise the RF signal processing functions in one shared location, and then to use optical fibre, which offers low

Multi-Functional SOAs in Microwave Photonic Systems 87

The Point-to-point topology is the simplest method; it is a permanent link between two endpoints. In a star topology, each RAU is connected to a central unit with a point-to-point connection. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. Adding additional nodes is simple, but the central unit represents a single point of failure. Fig. 2. represents the star topology of RoF system. Bi-directional data transmission can be achieved over duplex optical fibre. On the other hand the uplink and downlink can be separated by optical circulator. Anyhow, the RAU consist optical source for electrical-to-

RAU

Optical fiber

λ2 CW

**Laser Source1**

mm wave oscillator

**Laser Source2**

**Detector** Data output

CW

λ1 mod

**Modulator** mod Data input

Central Station

mod

Fig. 3. Point-to-point topology RoF system applying SOA transceiver and centralised laser

RAU

Fig. 2. Star topology, RoF system with traditional Electrical-to-Optical (E/O) and Optical-to-

For more simplified RAU structure, the laser source of uplink optical carrier can be moved to the central unit and the continuous wave (CW) optical signal is transmitted over the optical fibre to the RAU. So, there are no injection of light is added at the RAU for the uplink transmission. The optical carrier is attenuated; hence some amplification should be required, in order to arrive to the maximum number of users and larger distances. Bidirectional amplification is possible by EDFAs (erbium doped fiber amplifiers) but the price is high and an additional high pump power is required. In this way, SOAs are suitable to be positioned at the simplified RAU. They not only carry out the modulation and detection but also offer

O/E

Transmitter

Receiver

E/O

Downlink optical fiber

Downlink

Uplink optical fiber

λ2 mod

**SOA Transceiver**  uplink

downlink

λ2 CW λ1

Uplink Radio Access Unit

**2.1 Point-to-point and star topology**

Central Unit

optical conversion.

Electrical (O/E) converters

an additional optical gain.

mm wave oscillator

**LPF**

sources

signal loss (0.3 dB/km for 1550 nm, and 0.5 dB/km for 1310 nm wavelengths) to distribute the RF signals to the RAUs. This way the RAUs are simplified significantly, as they only need to perform optoelectronic conversion and amplification functions. For broadband services the frequencies are in the millimetre wave range (like 60 GHz fibre radio link). Such a concept is based upon an optical link between the central station and the RAU in a picocellular structure [Ng'oma]. Some of the advantages and benefits of the RoF technology compared with electronic signal distribution are the following: low attenuation loss, large bandwidth, immunity to radio frequency interference, easy installation and maintenance, multi-operator and multi-service operation, and dynamic resource allocation. These benefits can translate into major system installation and operational savings, especially in widecoverage broadband wireless communication systems, where a high density of RAUs is necessary.

The SOA is a potential candidate for an electro-optic transceiver (transmitter and receiver) in a RoF network. The SOA operates as a modulator to add a new channel, as a detector to drop the needed channel and as an in-line amplifier to amplify the other channels, simultaneously. It realizes a compact, small size and cost-effective radio repeater for signal distribution. Fig.1. shows a simplified system setup representing the SOA based RAU. The output power of the laser source is modulated with the 1st information channel applying a SOA-modulator. The SOA transceiver detects the 1st channel and adds the 2nd channel in the 1st stage. In the 2nd stage the SOA transceiver adds the 3rd channel, but it can detect the 1st or 2nd channel selecting by tuneable filter. Finally the receiver side every information channels can be extracted. The information channels and the bias of the SOA are separated by bias tee circuit. The separation of add and drop channels can be achieved in the electrical regime by an electrical branching filter (1st stage) or an electrical circulator with bandpass filter (2nd stage). In the first case the realisation of a reconfigurable add/drop multiplexer is difficult, in the second case an electrical filter is needed also. In the drop branch a high power RF amplifier provides the suitable power at the antenna output, and a low noise amplifier is necessary in the add branch.

Other advanced devices like electro-absorption transceiver for signal remodulation or polarization rotation remodulator have been designed though only modulation is executed, whilst with semiconductor amplifiers it's possible to perform amplification, modulation and detection with the same optical device. The signal distribution of RoF systems can be realised by point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, bus, ring and open loop topologies.

Fig. 1. Simplified system setup with SOA transceivers


Current Issues in Molecular Virology

Viral Genetics and Biotechnological Applications

*Edited by Victor Romanowski*

#### **Current Issues in Molecular Virology - Viral Genetics and Biotechnological Applications**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50089 Edited by Victor Romanowski

#### **Contributors**

Marcelo Berretta, Alessandra Tenório Costa, Rodrigo Kazuo Makiyama, Alessandra Vasconcellos Nunes, Juliana Pereira Bravo, Ivan De Godoy Maia, Ewan P Plant, Saiz, Martin Bisaillon, Victor Romanowski, Santiago Haase, Maria Leticia Ferrelli, Matias Luis Pidre, Hongxuan He, Amauri Alcindo Alfieri, Michele Lunardi, Alice F. Alfieri, Rodrigo Otonel, Maria R. Albiach-Marti, Claudia Herenu, Andrea Soledad Pereyra

#### **© The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2013**

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#### **Notice**

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