**Author details**

Juan José Muñoz1 and Agustín G. Zapata1,2\*

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
1 Center for Cytometry and Fluorescence Microscopy, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain

2 Department of Cell Biology, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain

#### **References**

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**Acknowledgements**

34 Histology

**Conflict of interest**

**Author details**

Juan José Muñoz1

Madrid, Spain

**References**

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Authors declare no competing or financial interests.

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
and Agustín G. Zapata1,2\*

This work was supported by grants BFU2013-41112-R from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and Cell Therapy Network (RD12/0019/0007) from the Spanish Ministry of Health and Consume and Avancell-CM (S2017/BMD-3692) from Community of Madrid.

1 Center for Cytometry and Fluorescence Microscopy, Complutense University of Madrid,

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44 Histology

12.013

**Chapter 3**

Provisional chapter

**Histology of Umbilical Cord in Mammals**

The histology is one of the most important disciplines for studying of organic tissues such as the placenta, umbilical cord and related structures which has been poorly studied in mammals, mainly in domestic animals. The umbilical cord, connection between fetus and mother, is one of the most important anatomical structures related to the development of the animal during their stage of formation due to its participation as responsible of the exchange of nutrients and protection of the structural vessels. There are several researches which have described anatomic, histological, immunohistochemical characteristics of the main constituents of the umbilical cord in wild and domestic animals due to its importance in the maintaining of the fetus during their development. The present chapter recompiles and describes the majority of researches about histological characteristics of the constituents of the umbilical cord included images and graphics that improve the understanding about the histological main differences found among mammals and also, this review aims to be a great helpful for the pathologist, surgeons and staff dedicated to reproduction and research about stem cells, this last considered one of the fields of special

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.80766

Keywords: allantoic duct, histology, umbilical artery, umbilical cord, umbilical vein,

When an animal is born, it is necessary that several changes in the fetal circulation appear such as fast closure of some anatomical communication channels by coordinated mechanisms which arrows to autonomic life. The umbilical orifice permits the passage of the umbilical

The majority of mammals have an umbilical cord and eventually an umbilicus, but sea shell-

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Histology of Umbilical Cord in Mammals

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

interest since some years ago in veterinary medicine.

cord, being this characteristic a natural defect [1].

fish, the whole animals, looks like an umbilicus [1].

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80766

Luis Manuel Barrios Arpi

Luis Manuel Barrios Arpi

Abstract

mammals

1. Introduction

#### **Histology of Umbilical Cord in Mammals** Histology of Umbilical Cord in Mammals

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.80766

#### Luis Manuel Barrios Arpi Luis Manuel Barrios Arpi

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80766

#### Abstract

The histology is one of the most important disciplines for studying of organic tissues such as the placenta, umbilical cord and related structures which has been poorly studied in mammals, mainly in domestic animals. The umbilical cord, connection between fetus and mother, is one of the most important anatomical structures related to the development of the animal during their stage of formation due to its participation as responsible of the exchange of nutrients and protection of the structural vessels. There are several researches which have described anatomic, histological, immunohistochemical characteristics of the main constituents of the umbilical cord in wild and domestic animals due to its importance in the maintaining of the fetus during their development. The present chapter recompiles and describes the majority of researches about histological characteristics of the constituents of the umbilical cord included images and graphics that improve the understanding about the histological main differences found among mammals and also, this review aims to be a great helpful for the pathologist, surgeons and staff dedicated to reproduction and research about stem cells, this last considered one of the fields of special interest since some years ago in veterinary medicine.

Keywords: allantoic duct, histology, umbilical artery, umbilical cord, umbilical vein, mammals


*2.6. Membrane Reactor Procedure*

In the membrane reactor, 857 μL IPA (100 mM) and 596 mg HEPES buffer (25 mM) were added to 100 mL water and the pH was adjusted to 7.5. This solution was divided equally into both chambers of the reactor. After the addition of 2.85 g donor salt (100 mM) and 566 mg product salt (26 mg for saturation and 540 mg as seed crystals) to the salt chamber, the reactor was stirred until the dissolved salts were homogeneously distributed in both chambers. To start the reaction, 124 mg pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) (5 mM) and 1.37 mL substrate 3 -methoxyacetophenone (3MAP) (100 mM) were added to the salt chamber and 1.56 g amine transaminase (ATA) (6 U/mL) to the biocatalyst chamber. During the reaction the formed product (*S*)-1-(3-methoxyphenyl)ethylamine (3MPEA) can diffuse through the membrane and result in crystal growth with 3DPPA on the product salt seed crystals, while the cells containing the ATA are retained by the membrane. Every 24 h samples were taken from both chambers of the reactor and measured by gas chromatography.


**2. Antioxidants and free radicals**

Antioxidants can exist in either water-soluble or water-insoluble forms. Vitamin C, the prototypical representative of water-soluble antioxidant, can be found in cellular fluids. Vitamin E, which comprise the tocopherols and tocotrienols, is the typical water-insoluble antioxidant and can mostly be found in cellular membranes [1, 2]. Antioxidants can further be classified as enzymatic or non-enzymatic entities. Interaction between antioxidants and free radicals will result in the inactivation of free radicals damaging effects on our bodies. The human body defence mechanism against the actions of free radicals would usually involve the enzymatic actions of antioxidants which would result in the reduction of lipid peroxidation levels [25].

Free radicals are molecules with one or more unpaired electrons. Free radicals cause damage when they react with other molecules to find electrons to pair with their unpaired electrons. The other molecules then lost their electrons, causing them to become free radicals themselves, thus creating a chemical chain reaction of free radical production [26]. Oxidative and chemical stress in the body due to pollutants, xenobiotics and certain foods can expedite the formation of free radicals [22, 27, 28]. The free radical chain reaction may cause damage to cellular homeostasis due to its potential in causing alterations in the lipid, protein and DNA structure [27]. The damaged molecules may initiate mutation and growth of tumours. Several studies throughout the last few decades have suggested that oxidative stress plays a role in the development of many conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders and inflammatory diseases such as arthritis [29].

The mitochondria is the chief target of free radical damage due to its preponderance to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). The metabolic processes occurring within the mitochondria e.g., the electron transport chain may cause leakage of electrons. These electrons may in turn react with water to form ROS such as the superoxide radical, or via an indirect route the hydroxyl radical. These radicals then damage the mitochondria's DNA and proteins, and these damaged components in turn are more liable to produce ROS by-products. Thus a positive feedback loop of oxidative stress is established that, over time, can lead to the deterioration of cells and later organs and the entire body [30].

The most highly reactive free radical species are the hydroxyl radical (OH), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide anion radical (O2-), and peroxynitrite radical (ONOO-) [31–33]. The hydroxyl (OH) radical is the most active oxygen species amongst the others, whereby it could potentially cause serious biological perturbations and peroxidation of lipid-based cellular membranes. Superoxide radical (O2-) inflicts severe damage after interaction with various biological cellular components [34]. H2O2 toxicity is due to the oxidation of proteins, membrane lipids and DNA by the peroxide ions [35]. Peroxynitrite radical is an oxidant and nitrating agent. Because of its oxidizing properties, peroxynitrite inflicts damage to various cellular components e.g. DNA and proteins. Peroxynitrite formation in the body has been attributed to the reaction of the superoxide free radicals with the nitric oxide free radicals [36, 37].

Lipid peroxidation is the oxidative damage caused by free radicals when they attack the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) of the cell membranes. Lipid peroxides or lipid oxidation products are the results of this oxidation process. These fatty acid radicals are unstable molecules that react immediately with molecular oxygen, thus creating a peroxyl-fatty acid radical. This radical is also an unstable species and reacts towards other free fatty acids to produce more lipid peroxides, or cyclic peroxides if they reacted with each other. This cycle can linger on continuously as the new fatty acid radical reacts in the same way. Reactive aldehydes such as malondialdehyde (MDA) and 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) would be the end products of lipid peroxidation, which are potentially mutagenic and carcinogenic. For example, MDA reacts with DNA to create DNA adducts [38–40].

When a free radical reacts with an inert molecule, a new radical molecule is formed, which is why the process is called a "chain reaction mechanism". The free radical reaction terminates when two radicals react and produce a non-radical species. Certain molecules within the cells can accelerate the termination of lipid peroxidation by neutralizing free radicals, thus protecting the cellular membrane from being damaged. Such molecules are known as antioxidants, of which the vitamin E tocotrienols are important examples [41].


**3.4 Autowave diffraction on an obstacle**

Autowave is a special kind of wave that does not have standard wave properties. Autowaves do not interfere and do not transfer energy. For autowaves, the principle of superposition is not valid; they mutually destroy each other in a collision (a wave with a smaller period "destroys" a slower wave). The only common property of autowaves with conservative waves is diffraction or rounding of the obstacle. The bending of autowave near the obstacle in a cell with magnetic fluid is shown in **Figure 8**.


**Vasiliki Skiada 1,\*, Panagiotis Tsarouhas 2 and Theodoros Varzakas 1,\***

Received: 4 November 2019; Accepted: 19 November 2019; Published: 23 November 2019 -

**Abstract:** While there has been considerable research related to Koroneiki cultivar in different areas in Greece, no systematic work has been carried out on olive oil analysis from one of the most important olive-growing regions in Greece, located southwest of Peloponnese, Messinia. This work is the first systematic attempt to study the profile of Messinian olive oils and evaluate to what extent they comply with the recent EU regulations in order to be classified as "Kalamata Protected Designation of Origin (PDO)"-certified products. Quality indices were measured and detailed analyses of sterols, triterpenic dialcohols, fatty acid composition and wax content were conducted in a total of 71 samples. Messinian olive oils revealed a high-quality profile but, at the same time, results demonstrated major fluctuations from the established EU regulatory limits on their chemical parameters. Results showed low concentrations of total sterols, with 66.7% of the examined samples below the regulated set limits for Kalamata PDO status; high concentrations of campesterol, with a total of 21.7%, exceeding the legal maximum of 4.0%; and a slight tendency of high total erythrodiol content. Fatty acid composition and wax content were within the normal range expected for the extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) category. However, the narrower established PDO limits in specific fatty acids showed some fluctuations in a few cases.

**Keywords:** EVOO; Kalamata PDO; Koroneiki cultivar; Greece; Messinia region; EU regulations; quality and chemical parameters; sterols


**8. CAL suspicion**

The signs of CAL presence and the speed of installation are variable. The CAL manifestations range from exuberant to subtle. In situations not evident, the suspicion frequently is based on the presence of many factors already mentioned of CAL risk, associated with several clinical, analytical, and imaging CAL manifestations. Therefore, nomograms of CAL risk quantifications and scores of CAL presence probability can be utilized to make decisions on CAL diagnosis and treatment.


*4.1. Stakeholder's Perspective*

A city's Pain Points, defined from the citizens' point of view, lead to new ideas for solutions. The goal of Campus City is to activate the Smart City ecosystem, where the private sector, the government and academia interact to solve contemporary needs. The Challenge Living Lab enables the students to better comprehend and participate in this interaction by playing an active role in developing innovative solutions to those Pain Points. In the Smart Mobility Challenge, the stakeholder shared a first approximation of energy requirement computation as well as a driving cycle from a local urban zone. The main contributions of the industrial stakeholder were: (a) their experience and coaching on vehicle dynamics, (b) their approach to projects in an industrial context, where the focus is on economically sustainable results, and (c) their openness to create new trusted relationships with our university based on these challenges, and to explore new projects based on these results.

In each challenge, the participation of an external mentor (their point of view, experience, and innovation focus), the students (their need to learn how to apply theoretical knowledge to solve real-life challenges) and the professor (their guidance, tutoring and accompaniment) creates an ecosystem of interaction, leadership, application of knowledge and follow up.

The different stakeholders had three main roles during the challenges presented: (1) to provide problems and aid in the selection process; (2) to co-design the challenge; (3) to mentor the students while providing information/data/experience to enrich the students´ learning experience. The stakeholder plays an important educational role, acting as a link between the students' theoretical and academic environment and the arena of practical and real-world experience. Thus, the stakeholder acts as both mentor and client.

For instance, the maintenance/physical plant department, specifically the HVAC team, was the main stakeholder and co-designer in the Smart Energy Challenge. Initially, the challenge was developed by the academic advisor (professor) and then presented to the HVAC team for their inputs and suggestions. This was a crucial step since the HVAC team provided the students with critical information on the current ventilation and air conditioning system. The students constantly reported their advances to their academic mentor and to the HVAC team to receive feedback, adjusting their calculations and models to meet necessary international regulations and standards (ASHRAE 62 and 62.1, ASTM D6245-12). The results obtained, reinforced by the students-stakeholder interaction, led to the conclusion that the currently operation HVAC system does not meet the values required by the international standards. Consequently, the maintenance/physical plant department designed a strategy that avoids internal air circulation in the classroom while installing specialized air filters in the HVAC system.

For the Smart Water Challenge, an international academic stakeholder contributed to the co-design of the challenge. Their main contribution during the screening of the Pain Points and challenge design was to focus the study on emerging water pollutants, such as the per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Moreover, the following challenge objectives were developed between the academic advisor and stakeholder:

Similar to the Smart Energy Challenge, the Smart Water Challenge stakeholder was actively involved with the students, providing guidance and mentorship throughout the challenge; this included an introductory lecture on the history of civil and environmental engineering. The Smart Mobility Challenge stakeholder's contribution to the academic environment was the context of actual practice in automotive engineering and the executive focus on generating technically sound solutions in record time.

The Challenge Living Lab framework contributed to building trust between stakeholders, the creation of academia-industry relationship, and the exploration of future projects (sponsored research). After the end of the course, the external partners (government, private sector and/or citizens) mentioned new ideas for future challenges in the next academic periods, thus beginning the virtuous-loop of the Challenge Living Lab and opening the possibility for further applied research projects.


*2.4.3 MoS2*

Molybdenum disulphide are transition-metal dichalcogenides like Tungsten disulphide (WS2) work on the mechanism of interlamellar shear between covalently bonded hexagonal basal planes like that of graphite. Their performance is affected by moisture content [16].

Apart from the advantages mentioned earlier, solid lubricants also have a few disadvantages. They have less ability to carry away heat and contaminants away from the contact. They have poor self-healing properties, and they are not easily entrained into tribological contacts.


**4. Solar panel thermal model**

What said above clearly highlights the need of a thermal model of the solar panel taking into consideration the heat exchange on both sides of it in case of a deployable one; or usually considering the rear side as adiabatic in case of the panel is body mounted. The panel is considered as rigid, with honeycomb structure on which the solar cells are applied; the following table reports the components recognizable in solar panel cross-section:

Table 1. Solar panel composition

The panel temperature is computed taking into account the direct sun radiation, the albedo radiation, the irradiation to deep space, and irradiation between the earth surface and the panel itself. The sun illumination is variable during the year and considering only missions around the earth it may range between 1315.0 (summer solstice) and 1426 W/m2 (winter solstice), while the albedo of the earth surface is about 30% of the incident sun illumination. The panel exchanges heat with the deep space and this is seen as a black body at 3°K, as well as the earth irradiates as a black body at 250°K. The following simplifying assumptions can been made; a deployed solar panel does not exchange heat with the outer surfaces of the satellite body, a body mounted solar panel is adiabatically isolated from the rest of the satellite body and finally the panel surface temperature is considered as uniform. The conduction across the panel also plays an important role, and it has to be taken into account in case of a deployed solar panel. At a first glance, the in-plane conductivity may be neglected, this because under the hypothesis of uniform temperature over the panel, the heat exchange between adjacent cells is basically zero.

The thermal equilibrium is computed by solving the differential equation which takes into account the different heat exchange modalities.

$$\mathbf{C} \cdot \frac{dT}{dt} = Q\_{Rad} + Q\_{Alb} + Q\_{Earth} + Q\_{Space} + Q\_{cond} \tag{5}$$

Where:

$$Q\_{Rad} = \alpha \left(1 - \eta\right) \cos \theta \cdot f \tag{6}$$

What said above clearly highlights the need of a thermal model of the solar panel taking into consideration the heat exchange on both sides of it in case of a deployable one; or usually considering the rear side as adiabatic in case of the panel is body mounted. The panel is considered as rigid, with honeycomb structure on which the solar cells are applied; the

> Coverglass 150 - 500 Coverglass adhesive 50 - 100 Solar cell 100 - 200 Cell adhesive 100 Kapton insulation 50 Face skin (Carbon fibre) - Adhesive 100 Honeycomb (Aluminium) Up to 4 cm Adhesive 100 Face skin (Carbon fibre) - Black paint 50

The panel temperature is computed taking into account the direct sun radiation, the albedo radiation, the irradiation to deep space, and irradiation between the earth surface and the panel itself. The sun illumination is variable during the year and considering only missions around the earth it may range between 1315.0 (summer solstice) and 1426 W/m2 (winter solstice), while the albedo of the earth surface is about 30% of the incident sun illumination. The panel exchanges heat with the deep space and this is seen as a black body at 3°K, as well as the earth irradiates as a black body at 250°K. The following simplifying assumptions can been made; a deployed solar panel does not exchange heat with the outer surfaces of the satellite body, a body mounted solar panel is adiabatically isolated from the rest of the satellite body and finally the panel surface temperature is considered as uniform. The conduction across the panel also plays an important role, and it has to be taken into account in case of a deployed solar panel. At a first glance, the in-plane conductivity may be neglected, this because under the hypothesis of uniform temperature over the panel, the

The thermal equilibrium is computed by solving the differential equation which takes into

*dT C QQQ Q Q dt*

*Q J Rad*

 1 cos

*Rad Alb Earth Space cond*

(5)

(6)

Thickness, μm

following table reports the components recognizable in solar panel cross-section:

Components from front to rear side

**4. Solar panel thermal model**

Table 1. Solar panel composition

heat exchange between adjacent cells is basically zero.

account the different heat exchange modalities.

Where:

It is the contribution of the direct sun radiation J that is not converted into electrical power by the photovoltaic cell;

$$Q\_{\rm alb} = \alpha \left(1 - \eta \right) \cdot F \cdot A \boldsymbol{l} \cdot F\_{1-2} \cdot \boldsymbol{l} \tag{7}$$

It is the contribution of the albedo radiation;

$$Q\_{Earth} = \sigma \cdot \varepsilon \cdot F\_{12} \cdot \left(T\_E^4 - T^4\right) \tag{8}$$

It is the heat exchanged with the Earth surface.

$$Q\_{\text{Space}} = \sigma \cdot \varepsilon \cdot \left(1 - F\_{12}\right) \cdot T^4 \tag{9}$$

It is the heat released to the deep space.

$$Q\_{cond} = \frac{\left(T\_{front} - T\_{rear}\right)}{\Delta \mathbf{x}} \cdot k \tag{10}$$

Is the heat transmitted by conduction between the front and rear faces of the panel at Tfront and Trear temperature respectively.

The parameters appearing in these equations have the following meanings:

C = thermal capacitance of the panel per unit area, main contribution is provided the honeycomb structure;

= solar cell absorptivity;

= solar cell emissivity;

Al = albedo coefficient, about 0.3 for earth;

F = albedo visibility factor;

F12 = View factor between radiating surface and planet

= Stephan-Boltzmann, constant: 5.67210-8 W/(m2°K4);

TE = Black body equivalent temperature of the earth;

 = incidence angle of the sunlight on the panel;

k = panel transverse thermal conductivity;

Δx =panel thickness;

The radiating view factor of a flat surface with respect to the Earth surface is function of the altitude h, earth radium R and the angle λ between the nadir and the normal to the panel. The albedo view factor is computed according to the following formulas:

$$F\_{alb} = \left[1 - \cos\left(\beta\_{app}\right)\right] \cdot \cos\left(\beta\right) \tag{11}$$

Where β is the angle between the nadir and the earth-sun direction:

$$\mathcal{B}\_{\text{app}} = \arcsin\left(\frac{R\_{\oplus}}{h + R\_{\oplus}}\right) \tag{12}$$

The integration in the time domain of the equation (5) gives the actual temperature of the panel along the propagation of the orbit in eclipse and sunlight, taking into account the orientation of the panel itself with respect to the earth and the sun. The thermal model

Architectural Design Criteria for Spacecraft Solar Arrays 169

solids which are of interest to the solar array designer are ionisation and atomic

Ionisation occurs when orbital electrons are removed from an atom or molecule in gases, liquids, or solids. The measure of the intensity of ionising radiation is the roentgen. The measure of the absorbed dose in any material of interest is usually defined in terms of absorbed energy per unit mass. The accepted unit of absorbed dose is the rad (100 erg/g or 0.01 J/kg). For electrons, the absorbed dose may be computed from the incident fluence *Φ* (in cm-2) as: Dose (rad) = 1.6x10-8 *dE*/*dx Φ*, where *dE*/*dx* (in MeV cm2 g-1) is the electron stopping power in the material of interest. In this manner, the effects of an exposure to fluxes of trapped electrons of various energies in space can be reduced to an absorbed dose. By the concept of absorbed dose, various radiation exposures can be reduced to absorbed dose units which reflect the degree of ionisation damage in the material of interest. This concept can be applied to electron, gamma, and X-ray radiation of all energies. Several ionisation related effects may degrade the solar cell assemblies. The reduction of

transmittance in solar cell cover glasses is an important effect of ionising radiation.

irradiation can be described as shown for *I*sc in the following case:

which are in some way related to the minority carrier diffusion length.

And for the maximum power;

The basis for solar cells damage is the displacement of semiconductor atoms from their lattice sites by fast particles in the crystalline absorber. The displaced atoms and their associated vacancies after various processes form stable defects producing changes in the equilibrium of carrier concentrations and in the minority carrier lifetime. Such displacements require a certain minimum energy similar to that of other atomic movements. Seitz and Koehler [1956] estimated the displacement energy is roughly four times the sublimation energy. Electron threshold energies up to 145 keV have been reported. Particles below this threshold energy cannot produce displacement damage, therefore the space environment energy spectra are cut off below this value. The basic solar cell equations (1) may be used to describe the changes which occur during irradiation. This method would require data regarding the changes in the light generated current, series resistance, shunt resistance, but most investigations have not reported enough data to determine the variations in the above parameters. The usual practice is then to reduce the experimental data in terms of changes in the cell short circuit current (*I*sc), open circuit voltage (*V*oc), and maximum power (*P*max). The variation of common solar cell output parameters during

 *I*sc = *I*sc0 - *C* log (1 + *Φ* / *Φ*x) (13) Where *Φ*x represents the radiation fluence at which *I*sc starts to change to a linear function of the logarithm of the fluence. The constant *C* represents the decrease in *I*sc per decade in radiation fluence in the logarithmic region. In a similar way, for the Voc it can be written;

 *V*oc = *V*oc0 - *C'* log (1 + *Φ* / *Φ*x). (14)

 *P*max = *P*max0 - *C*'' log (1 + *Φ*/*Φ*x). (15) In the space environment a wide range of electron and proton energies is present; therefore some method for describing the effects of various types of radiation is needed in order to get a radiation environment which can be reproduced in laboratory. It is possible to determine an equivalent damage due to irradiation based upon the changes in solar cell parameters

displacement.

exposed so far is sufficient for the design of a solar array for space application at system level.

Fig. 7. View Factors F12 as function of H=h/R, parameter:

Fig. 8. Albedo Visibility factor F as function of h for different β value


**2. Existing satellite systems, related interfaces and standards**

**Figure 2** describes an overview of existing satellite systems, consisting of a satellite Bus, a mission PL and a typical set of interfaces between the Bus and PL using a standard data Bus. A typical set of interfaces between the satellite Bus and a mission PL includes seven interface types, namely: (i) Physical & Mechanical Interface, (ii) Electrical/Power/Cable Interface, (iii) Grounding Interface, (iv) Software & Data Interface, (v) Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)/ Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)/Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) and Electro Static Discharge (ESD) Interface, (vi) Thermal Interface, and (vii) Frequency & Timing (F&T) Interface. This section focuses on satellite Bus and mission PL architectures and the data interfaces between them. Subsections 2.1 and 2.2 describe existing satellite Bus and mission PL architectures along with related interfaces and industry standards, respectively. Subsection 2.3 discusses existing standard 1553 data Bus and the pushes from space industry moving toward military standard 1553-B data Bus (MIL-STD-1553-B) and high-data-rate SpaceWire data Bus.

#### **2.1 Existing satellite bus, related interfaces and standards**

As described in Section 1, existing satellite Bus architecture includes typical 10 modular components, namely, BAS, BComRFS, BC&DHS, BTT&CS, BEPS, BTCS, BADCS, BPS, BCOMSEC and BS&MS. A functional description for each of these modular Bus components is also described in Section 1. **Figure 3** illustrates a notional block diagram for existing modular satellite Bus architecture. The figure

## *Future Satellite System Architectures and Practical Design Issues: An Overview DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92308*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Overview of existing satellite Systems using standard 1553 data bus.*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Existing notional modular satellite bus architecture.*

shows that space industry has used the modular design concept to architect the satellite Bus, where common functions are group together and then isolate or separate from the other group of functions. As an example, BAS consists of a group of antenna components and control functions (e.g., antenna pointing, beamforming, etc.), which is separated and isolated from BComRFS. It is important to note that the figure also shows how these satellite Bus components are connected together, i.e., the lines with arrows connecting them. These lines represent the interfaces among the Bus components, where the interface can be any of the seven interface types described above. Below is a list of some of the existing interfaces and associated standards for existing satellite Bus based on National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA), U.S. DOD and international Consultative Committee for Space Data System (CCSDS) standards [19–26]:

	- Satellite Bus shall protect its own electrical power system via overcurrent protection devices on its side of the interface.
	- Satellite Bus shall deliver a maximum transient current on any Power Feed Bus of 100% (that is, two times the steady state current) of the maximum steady-state current for no longer than 50 ms.
	- Bus Survival Heaters, which are elements of the Bus thermal subsystem, shall be required to have power to heat certain satellite Bus components during off-nominal scenarios when the BEPS power is not fully energized.
	- Power line conducted emissions for satellite Bus equipment shall meet the EMC interface specification specified in SMC Standard Handbook, SMC-S-008, Section 6, 6.01, 6.02, 6,03, 6.04, 6.05, 6.06, 6.07, and 6.08.
	- Power line conducted susceptibility for satellite Bus equipment shall meet the EMC interface specification specified in SMC Standard Handbook, SMC-S-008, Sections 6, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16, 6.17, 6.18 and 6.19.
	- ESD susceptibility for satellite Bus equipment shall meet the EMC interface specification specified in SMC Standard Handbook, SMC-S-008, Section 6, 6.43.
	- EMP susceptibility for satellite Bus equipment shall meet the EMC interface specification specified in SMC Standard Handbook, SMC-S-008, Section 6, 6.45.
	- Satellite Bus EPS should ground in a way that reduces introducing stray currents or ground loop currents into the satellite Bus components.
	- Satellite Bus ground interface shall follow NASA single-point ground or multiple-point ground architecture.
	- A conductive heat transfer of 15 W/m2 or 4 W shall be considered small enough to meet the intent of being thermally isolated.
	- Satellite Bus command and telemetry data formats shall be NASA Unified S-Band (USB)/CCSDS standards or U.S. DOD Space-Ground Link Subsystem (SGLS) standards. Note that (i) most of NASA and ESA standards are CCSDS compliance for interoperability purpose, and (ii) some military systems have both USB and SGLS capabilities.

*Future Satellite System Architectures and Practical Design Issues: An Overview DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92308*

For military applications, majority of satellite Busses are usually designed using contractor's custom designed interfaces and very tightly couple together to reduce weight, size and power. It is for this reason, current military satellite BTT&CS component also include the COMSEC component. For commercial applications, satellite developers are also concerned with weight, size and power reduction, but they are also concerned with component refresh and upgrade without redesigning the satellite Bus, hence commercial satellites tend to use modular Bus components and widely accepted interface standards to connect the internal Bus components. Industry views on the "open" and "close" interfaces will be addressed in Section 4.


*Edited by Qian Lu*

This book discusses the technologies and models of salmon aquaculture. It examines the use of probiotics, the application of recirculation systems, and the addition of highstrength materials in salmon aquaculture. It also discusses the problems hindering the development of salmon aquaculture and proposes potential solutions.

ISBN 978-1-83969-617-6

Salmon Aquaculture

Published in London, UK © 2022 IntechOpen © GANNAMARTYSHEVA / iStock


**Chapter 7**

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*Quality Control - Intelligent Manufacturing, Robust Design and Charts*

[29] Barsoum, N., & Vasant, P. Transaction in controllers and energy simplified solar tracking prototype.

[30] Kassem, A., & Hamad, M. A microcontroller-based multi-function solar tracking system. 2011 IEEE International Systems Conference, SysCon 2011 - Proceedings.

comparison of a double-axis sun tracking versus fixed PV system. Solar

[31] Eke, R., & Senturk, A. Performance

[32] Anusha, K., & Chandra, M. R. S. (2013). Design and development of real time clock based efficient solar tracking

Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA). 2013; 3(1), pp. 1219-1223.

[33] Kuo, K., Wang, J., Su, Y., Chou, J., & Jiang, J. A novel power benefit prediction approach for two-axis suntracking type photovoltaic systems based on semiconductor theory.

Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and

[34] Ceyda A T and Cenk Y. Comparison of Solar Trackers and Application of a Sensor less Dual Axis Solar Tracker, Journal of Energy and Power

Engineering. 2015. 10.17265/1934-8975/

[35] Ray, S., & Tripathi, A. Design and development of tilted single axis and azimuth-altitude dual axis solar tracking

[36] Akbar, H., ISiddiq, A., & Aziz, M. (2017). Microcontroller based dual axis sun tracking system for maximum solar energy generation. American Journal of Energy Research, 5(1), (pp. 23-27).

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[20] Fanney, A. H., & Dougherty, B. P. A. hunter fanney building integrated photovoltaic test facility. 2001.

[21] Yousif, C. Comparison study between the performance of tracking and stationary solar photovoltaic

[22] Vilela, O. C., Fraidenraich, N., & Tiba, C. Photovoltaic pumping systems

[23] Abdallah, S., & Nijmeh, S. Two axes sun tracking system with PLC control. Energy Conversion and Management.

[24] Piao, Z., Park, J., Kim, J., Cho, G., &

Baek, H. A study on the tracking photovoltaic system by program type. 2005 International Conference on Electrical Machines and Systems.

[25] Mamlook, R., Nijmeh, S., & Abdallah, S. A programmable logic controller to control two axis sun tracking system. Information Technology Journal. 2006.

[26] Rubio, F., Ortega, M., Gordillo, F., & López-Martínez, M. Application of new control strategy for sun tracking. Energy Conversion and Management.

[27] Chun-Sheng, W., Yi-Bo, W., Si-Yang, L., Yan-Chang, P., & Hong-Hou, X. Study on automatic sun-tracking technology in PV generation. 2008.

[28] Sungur, C. (2009). Multi-axes suntracking system with PLC control for photovoltaic panels in Turkey. Renewable Energy. 2009.

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**110**

Nanjing, China.


**1. Introduction**

In the operation of internal combustion engines, the rod, crankshaft, and piston play crucial roles as they are considered the heart of engines. However, these components always operate in critical operating conditions, such as under very high thermal and mechanical stresses [1–5]. However, defining these loads is difficult due to complications in the constructive and operating characteristics of these above-mentioned parts. Consequently, classical methods have been used. In most cases, a highly simplified representation of geometric shape and load are used for analysis. As a result, the operating characteristics of the internal combustion engines cannot be correctly obtained. The finite element method (FEA) is a good solution to solve these problems. The biggest advantage of the FEA is the simplicity of its basic concepts. Users must learn and correctly understand these concepts, since they include certain hypotheses, simplifications, and generalizations [6,7]. To calculate objects, users have to model objects so that they align with real subjects. A model includes lines, planes, or curved surfaces and volumes created in a three-dimensional (3D) computer-aided design (CAD) environment. In this stage of development, the model is continuous with an infinite number of points, as the real pieces are analyzed. The main goal of the finite element method is to obtain the finite element mesh, transforming the continuous structure into a discrete model with a finite number of points. Using the finite element method (FEM), users can combine design, simulation, element mesh, and structure analysis. Therefore, users can easily and quickly apply this tool [8,9].

For example, Webster et al. [10] conducted a 3D analysis based on the FEA method to calculate the mechanical stress of a diesel engine connecting rod. They conducted an experiment to measure the maximum compressive load and the load distribution on the piston and crankshaft. However, the connecting rod caps and bolt pretension were modelled based on the FEM method and multi-point constraint equations. In another study [11], the 3D model of a passenger car's crankshaft was built using CATIA V5 software (Dassault Systèmes, Vélizy-Villacoublay, France) and transferred to ANSYS software (ANSYS, Inc., Cecil Township, PA, USA) for stress analysis to provide a conceptual method for optimizing the design using weight reduction. However, this research did not fully mention the net force on the piston, such as the friction forces or the role of gravity. In addition, this study only analyzed a single crankpin and ignored the interaction between other components. Lucjan et al. also performed a failure analysis of the crankshaft of a diesel engine in the experiment by observing the fatigue failure and determined the operational stress of the crankshaft at maximum engine power. They stated that the maximum tensile stress value reached 112.44 MPa around the fillet area of the crankpin at a crankshaft position of 10◦ at top dead center (TDC). However, this critical region stress only accounts for about 25% of the yield stress of the crankshaft material [12].

Normally, the maximum stresses on the components are designed to be significantly smaller than the yield stress; however, in real operation, some critical conditions occur, such as the overload of the engine or the failure of the lubricant system resulting in the destruction of engine parts. Notably, some engines may be modified from the original design to adapt to operation demands. For instance, in a previous study [13], an old model diesel engine was modified by retrofitting a turbocharger to enhance its performance. However, as mentioned in prior studies [13,14], the thermal and mechanical stresses of engines after turbocharging dramatically increased. Thus, evaluating the stress increase is necessary to find a solution for the stable and longtime operation of these engines.

In this research, we present a method to calculate the mechanical stress on some major components of the test engine based on the modeling of the test engine combining the FEM method with experimental data. The main objective of this study was to determine the stress state in the crankshaft, rod, and piston during operation. Furthermore, we aimed to explain the reasons for the failure of these components to determine a solution to extend their operating lifetime.

### **2. Experimental Procedure to Measure In-Cylinder Pressure**

The test engine was a four-cylinder diesel engine with a maximum power of 110 kW after turbocharging. The engine characteristics are described in our previous paper [13]. The testing equipment used for measuring the in-cylinder pressure included a chassis dynamometer, a fuel-consumption measurement device, and a pressure measurement system. All these devices were connected to a server computer using dedicated software. In this research, the in-cylinder pressure was measured at the maximum power conditions. This means that the test engine was controlled to reach maximum power, and thus the in-cylinder was recorded by a pressure sensor installed in the head cylinder. The chassis dynamometer contained an absorption unit to measure the torque and rotational speed. The engine power and engine speed could be varied and measured in the range of 0 to 220 kW and 0 to 4500 rpm, respectively. The dynamometer was controlled using an installed PUMA computer (AVL, Graz, Austria) that receives signals from sensors equipped on the dynamometer and the test engine. In addition, to ensure the accuracy of the experimental test, we used other equipment, such as an external cooling system, named AVL 533 (AVL, Graz, Austria) that permits continuous temperature control. The quantity of fuel consumed by the engine was measured by fuel-consumption measurement equipment, called Fuel Balance AVL 733S (AVL, Graz, Austria), using the gravimetrical method. The AVL Fuel Balance system allows for high-precision fuel-consumption measurement even at low consumption and for a short measurement period. The recommended measuring range of the equipment is up to 150 kg/h with an accuracy of 0.12%. Figure 1 shows the test engine installed in the test room for the experimental process.

**Figure 1.** Schematic of the experimental procedure.

### **3. Kinetics and Dynamics of the Test Engine**

A simple model of an internal combustion engine consisting of a piston located in a cylinder that is connected to the crankshaft via the rod and simplified to move in a plane is shown in Figure 2, with symbols *AB* = *l* (rod length), *AR* = *jl* (centre gravity of connecting rod from crankpin center), *OA* = *r* (crankshaft length), and *OC* = *h* (crankshaft mass centre from main bearing centre).

**Figure 2.** The simple model of piston, crankshaft, and transmission rod.

The pressure *p* exerts a force on the piston *m*1 to create movement along the axis of the transmission cylinder to the transfer bar *m*2 of the parallel plane, causing the crankshaft *m*3 to rotate around the center *O*. *m*1 is the mass of the piston, *m*2 is the mass of the rod, *m*3 is the mass of the crankshaft, *l*2 is the length of the rod, *l*3 is the crankshaft length, *p* is the pressure on the piston surface, *θ* is the angle between the crankshaft and the vertical axis, and *φ* is the angle between the rod and the vertical axis (Figure 2).

### *3.1. In-Cylinder Pressure and Friction Force Calculation*

During the operation of internal combustion engines, combustion is an irreversible process that uses the reactions of fuel with an oxidizer to convert chemical energy into sensible energy, which also works to form products. In practice, carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen, and water are the main products of the combustion process. However, other species, including nitric oxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, and particulate matter, are also common products. The liquid state determination at each point in the process requires a detailed understanding of the intermediate reactions that change the original mixture into the final combustion products. However, in all cases, we can use the first law of thermodynamics to determine the correlation between the beginning and end of a combustion process.

The application of this law does not require users to know the development of the intermediate stages of the process. The first law of thermodynamics expresses the relationship between the variation of the internal energy (or enthalpy) and that of heat and work. When applying this law to a system where the chemical composition changes, we need to determine the zero state of the internal energy or enthalpy of all the substances in the system.

In specific cases, the calculation of combustion in internal combustion engines is based on the equation of the first law of thermodynamics:

$$\frac{d(m\_c\mu)}{da} = -p\_c\frac{dV}{da} + \frac{dQ\_F}{da} - \sum \frac{dQ\_w}{da} - h\_{BB}\frac{dm\_{BB}}{da},\tag{1}$$

where *d*(*mcu*) *dα* is the change in internal energy inside the cylinder, −*pc dV dα* is the work cycle, *dQF dα* is the heat input, ∑ *dQw dα* is the heat loss through the wall, *hBB dmBB dα* is the enthalpy loss due to gas leakage, *mc* is the volume of the liquid inside the cylinder, *u* is the internal energy, *pc* is the pressure inside the cylinder, *V* is the cylinder volume, *QF* is the heat of the fuel supply, *Q W* is the heat loss to the wall, *α* is the angle of the crankshaft rotation, *hBB* is the enthalpy value, and *dmBB dα* is the variation in volumetric flow rate.

Equation (1) applies to both internal and external composite engines. However, the changes in the composition of the two cases are different. In the case of the formation of a mixture inside a cylinder, if we assume that the fuel in the cylinder is burned immediately, the combustion mixture is immediately blended with the residual gas in the cylinder. The air-fuel ratio (A/F) decreases continuously from a high value at the starting point to a low value at the end of the combustion. After the transformation, Equation (1) becomes:

$$\begin{array}{lcl}\frac{dT\_c}{da} = \frac{1}{m\_c \cdot \left(\frac{\partial u}{\partial T} + \frac{\partial u}{\partial p}, \frac{\partial c}{T\_c}\right)} \left[\frac{dQ\_F}{da}\left(1 - \frac{u\_c + \frac{\partial u}{\partial p} p\_c}{H\_u}\right) - \frac{dQ\_{\text{nr}}}{da} - \frac{dm\_{BB}}{da} \\\ . \left(h\_{BB} - u\_c - p\_c \frac{\partial u}{\partial p}\right) - m\_c \frac{\partial u}{\partial \lambda} \frac{\partial \lambda}{\partial \mathbf{x}} - p\_c \frac{dV\_c}{da} \left(1 - \frac{\partial u}{\partial p} \frac{m\_c}{V\_c}\right)\right] \end{array} \tag{2}$$

where *Tc* is the cylinder temperature, *mc* is the volume of the fluid in the cylinder, *pc* is the pressure in the cylinder, *uc* is the specific internal energy of the volume of liquid inside the cylinder, *Hc* is the low calorific value, *λ* is the air residue ratio (1/ Φ), α is the equivalent ratio, and *Vc* is the cylinder volume.

The solution of the above equation depends on the combustion model, the laws of exothermic reactions, and the heat transfer through the cylinder wall, as well as the pressure, temperature, and composition of the gas mixture together with the equation of the state:

$$p\_{\mathfrak{c}} = \frac{1}{V} m\_{\mathfrak{c}} R\_{\mathfrak{c}} T\_{\mathfrak{c}} \tag{3}$$

Establishing the relationship between pressure, temperature, and density from Equation (3), we used the Runge–Kutta method to determine the temperature of the cylinder. The pressure will then be determined by the state equation. Figure 3 shows the in-cylinder pressure profile using the

experimental and numerical methods. The in-cylinder pressure always changes according to the crankshaft angle. The in-cylinder pressure is nominal at the intake and exhaust strokes; however, it increases dramatically during the compression and power strokes. It reaches a very high value at the position near the top dead center. From there, we determined the force *PT* = *pcA* caused by the pressure applied to the top of the piston.

**Figure 3.** The in-cylinder pressure profile using the experimental and numerical methods.

In addition, the crankcase pressure generated by oil pressure on the underside is normally determined in the experiment. This force is very small compared to the total force exerted on the top of the piston. Consequently, it was ignored in this research. Furthermore, the friction force (*Ffr*) exerted on the piston needed to be determined in this calculated case. *Ffr* includes the piston-ring friction (*Fr*) and the friction from the piston surface and cylinder (*μpS*). The total friction force can be calculated according to Equation (4) [15,16].

$$F\_{fr} = \mu\_p \mathcal{S} + F\_r = \mu\_p \mathcal{S} + \mu\_r 2\pi \text{D}\_3 r \text{E} \left( 1 - \frac{D\_3 - d\_4}{4r} \right) \sqrt{1 - \frac{\left(D\_3 - d\_4\right)^2}{16r^2}} \tag{4}$$

where *μr* is the friction coefficient of the contact surface between the ring and cylinder, *D*3 is the diameter of the cylinder, *d*4 is the diameter of the ram, *r* is the width of the cross-section of the cylinder element, *E* is the elastic coefficient of the spring materials, *S* is the force resulting from the contact between the piston and the cylinder, and *μp* is the corresponding friction coefficient.

The sliding friction is dramatically reduced by adding a lubricant between the contact surfaces. In addition, in the operation of an internal combustion engine, the piston ring operates from the hydrodynamic lubrication to the boundary lubrication depending on the crankshaft angle, viscosity, and load. This phenomenon can be described by Stribeck's equation [17]. In this research, the friction coefficient *μr* was determined using Stribeck's equation as described in Equation (5):

$$
\mu\_{\mathcal{T}} = \mathfrak{c} \left( \frac{\eta v}{pw} \right)^{\mathcal{X}} \tag{5}
$$

where *c* is constant, *h* is the dynamic viscosity, *v* is the piston speed, *p* is the pressure exerted on the piston ring, *w* is the width of the ring, and *x* is the exponent varying from 0.33 to 0.66. Therefore, we calculated the total friction force based on the number and parameter characteristics of the test engine. The inertia force caused by the movement of the piston and rod was also dramatically affected by the piston; it will be described in the following sections.

### *3.2. Kinetics and Dynamics of the Piston Mechanism*

According to [18], assuming the displacement of the piston in the horizontal direction is trivial, applying the sine theorem in the OAB triangle (Figure 2), we have:

$$\frac{l\_2}{\sin \theta} = \frac{r}{\sin \phi} \Rightarrow \sin \phi = \frac{r}{l} \sin \theta. \tag{6}$$

If we derive the above expression, we have:

$$-\dot{\phi}\cos\phi = -\frac{r}{l\_2}\dot{\theta}\cos\theta \Rightarrow \dot{\phi} = \frac{r\dot{\theta}\cos\theta}{l\_2\cos\phi}.\tag{7}$$

The *z* displacement of the piston in the vertical direction is defined by:

$$z = r\cos\theta + l\_2\cos\phi.\tag{8}$$

We can infer that the velocity of the piston in the vertical direction is determined by Equation (8) and the acceleration of the piston in the vertical direction can be calculated with Equation (9).

$$\dot{z} = -r\theta\sin\theta - l\_2\dot{\phi}\sin\phi\_{\prime} \tag{9}$$

$$\ddot{z} = -\left(r\ddot{\theta}\sin\theta + r\dot{\theta}^2\cos\theta\right) - \left(l\_2\ddot{\phi}\sin\phi + l\_2\dot{\phi}^2\cos\phi\right),\tag{10}$$

The piston moves only along the cylinder, and thus the acceleration in the horizontal and vertical directions across the piston are determined in Equations (10) and (11), respectively.

$$a\_{PX} = 0,\tag{11}$$

$$a\_{PY} = \ddot{z} = \dot{\theta} \left( \frac{(r\cos\theta)^2}{l\cos^3\phi} - r\cos\theta - r\sin\theta\tan\phi \right) + \ddot{\theta}(r\cos\theta\tan\phi - r\sin\theta), \tag{12}$$

The cylinder has actually become elliptical due to the rotation of the piston about the wrist pin when the piston moves toward the bottom dead center. In addition, the high temperature during the operation process also affects the deformation of the piston and cylinder. Consequently, the forces exerted on the piston are not symmetric in the x direction. However, in this research, we assumed that the forces exerted on the piston were symmetric in the x direction. Therefore, the forces acting on the piston include *Q(t)*, the total external force acting on the piston, *mP.g*, the force of gravity, and *FBX, FBY*, the link reaction forces in the *x* and *y* directions, respectively [17,19], as described in Figure 4.

**Figure 4.** The modelled forces on the piston.

Since the piston does not move in the *x* direction, the total force acting on *x* is zero, inferring that:

$$
\sum F\_X = F\_{BX} - S = 0 \Rightarrow F\_{BX} = S.\tag{13}
$$

The total force acting in the *y* direction is:

$$
\sum F\_Y = F\_{BY} - m\_P \mathcal{g} - \mathcal{Q}(t) = m\_P a\_{PY} \tag{14}
$$

where *Q(t)* is the total external force acting on the piston, including the force acting on the piston (*PT*), the friction caused by the impacts on the cylinder wall (*Fr*), friction from the piston surface and cylinder (*μpS*), the force caused by pressure acting on the piston bottom ( *PB* is crankcase pressure), and the inertia force *mPaPY*.

From Equation (13), we infer that the reaction force on the piston in the y direction is:

$$F\_{BY} = m\_P \mathcal{g} + Q(t) + m\_P a\_{PY} \tag{15}$$

in which:

$$Q(t) = P\_T + F\_r \pm \mu\_p S + P\_B. \tag{16}$$

Note that the sign of *μpS* depends on the direction of piston movements. Thus, we obtained a graph illustrating the total force on the pistons of the test engine, as shown in Figure 5.

**Figure 5.** The total forces on the pistons in the test engine.

### *3.3. Kinetics and Dynamics of the Rod Mechanism*

The acceleration of the transmission rod at the center is determined by the acceleration of the head of the rod connected to the piston. In the horizontal and vertical direction, we have:

$$a\_{RX} = \dot{\theta}^2 (1 - j) r \sin \theta - \ddot{\theta} (1 - j) r \cos \theta,\tag{17}$$

$$a\_{\mathbb{R}\mathbf{Y}} = \dot{\theta}^2 \left[ j \frac{\left(r\cos\theta\right)^2}{l\_2 \cos^3\phi} - r\cos\theta - jr\sin\theta\tan\phi \right] + \ddot{\theta} (jr\cos\theta\tan\phi - r\sin\theta). \tag{18}$$

The total forces on the rod are as follows: *Appl. Sci.* **2018**, *8*, 761

The forces acting on the rod include the gravity force at the center of the rod and the link reaction forces at the two ends of the rod as described in Figure 6. From this, we can identify the following.

**Figure 6.** The model of forces on the rod.

(1) Total force in the *x* direction:

$$
\sum F\_X = F\_{AX} - F\_{BX} = m\_R a\_{RX} \tag{19}
$$

(2) Total force in the *y* direction:

$$
\sum F\_Y = F\_{AY} - F\_{BY} - m\_R \mathcal{g} = m\_R a\_{RY} \tag{20}
$$

(3) Total torque on the axis passing through the center *R*:

$$
\sum M\_{R} = I\_{R}\ddot{\Phi}\_{R'} \tag{21}
$$

$$-F\_{\rm BX}(1-j)l\cos\phi - F\_{\rm BY}(1-j)l\sin\phi - F\_{\rm AX}jl\cos\phi - F\_{\rm AY}jl\sin\phi = I\_R\bar{\phi}\_R. \tag{22}$$

### *3.4. Kinetics and Dynamics of the Crankshaft*

The crankshaft converts the up and down movements of the pistons into rotary motion and drives the external drive. The crankshaft is connected to the pistons via the transmission rods.

Similar to the determination of the rod acceleration, we can determine the crankshaft acceleration at the center using the acceleration at the common point between the transmission rod and the crankshaft →*a C* = →*a A* + →*a C*/*A* and project it in the horizontal and vertical directions:

$$a\_{CX} = -\dot{\theta}^2 hr \sin \theta + \ddot{\theta} hr \cos \theta\_\prime \tag{23}$$

$$a\_{CY} = \dot{\theta}^2 hr \cos\theta + \ddot{\theta} lr \sin\theta. \tag{24}$$

The total force acting on the crankshaft is illustrated in Figure 7.

**Figure 7.** The forces acting on the crankshaft.

..

The total force in *x* direction is:

$$
\sum F\_X = F\_{OX} - F\_{AX} = m\_{\mathbb{C}} a\_{\mathbb{C}X\prime} \tag{25}
$$

The total force acting in the *y* direction is:

$$
\sum F\_Y = F\_{OY} - F\_{AY} - m\_\mathbb{C} \mathcal{g} = m\_\mathbb{C} a\_{CY} \tag{26}
$$

The total torque around crankshaft is:

$$
\sum M\_{\mathbb{C}} = I\_{\mathbb{C}} \bar{\theta}\_{\mathbb{C}'} \tag{27}
$$

$$T + F\_{AX}(1+h)r\cos\theta + F\_{AY}(1+h)r\sin\theta - F\_{OX}lrr\cos\theta - F\_{OY}lrr\sin\theta = I\_{\mathbb{C}}\ddot{\theta}\_{\mathbb{C}}.\tag{28}$$

Combining these above equations, we have:

$$\begin{cases} S = -r\ddot{\theta} \left[ \frac{l\_R \cos \theta}{(l \cos \phi)^2} + m\_P \tan \phi (\cos \theta \tan \phi - \sin \theta) + j m\_R \left( \frac{j \cos \theta}{\cos^2 \phi} - \sin \theta \tan \phi - \cos \theta \right) \right] - \\\ -r\dot{\theta}^2 \left[ \frac{l\_R}{(l \cos \phi)^2} \left( \frac{r \cos^2 \theta \tan \phi}{l \cos \phi} - \sin \theta \right) + m\_P \tan \phi \left( \frac{r \cos^2 \theta}{l \cos^3 \phi} - \sin \theta \tan \phi - \cos \theta \right) + \\\ + j m\_R \left( \frac{j r \cos^2 \theta \tan \phi}{l \cos^3 \phi} - \cos \theta \tan \phi + \sin \theta - \frac{j \sin \theta}{\cos^2 \phi} \right) - g \tan \phi (m\_P + j m\_R) - Q(t) \tan \phi \end{cases} \tag{29}$$

Substituting the known forces in Equation (8), we can obtain the torque acting on the crankshaft:

$$\begin{aligned} T &= I\_C \theta + m\_\mathbb{C} a\_{\mathbb{C}X} h r \cos \theta - m\_\mathbb{R} a\_{\mathbb{R}X} r \cos \theta + m\_\mathbb{C} a\_{\mathbb{C}Y} h r \sin \theta - m\_\mathbb{R} a\_{\mathbb{K}Y} r \sin \theta - m\_\mathbb{R} a\_{\mathbb{P}Y} r \sin \theta + \\\ &+ m\_\mathbb{C} h g r \sin \theta - m\_\mathbb{R} g r \sin \theta - m\_\mathbb{P} g r \sin \theta - Q(t) r \sin \theta - S r \cos \theta \end{aligned} \tag{30}$$

Substituting the known accelerations into the above equation, we have:

$$T = \ddot{\theta}I(\theta) + \frac{1}{2}\dot{\theta}^2 I'(\theta) + \mathcal{g}(\theta) + Q(t, \theta), \tag{31}$$

where *I(θ)* is the inertia function, defined by:

$$\begin{aligned} I(\theta) &= I\_{\mathbb{C}} + m\_{\mathbb{C}}h^2r^2 + I\_R \left(\frac{r\cos\theta}{l\cos\phi}\right)^2 + m\_{\mathbb{P}}r^2(\cos\theta\tan\phi - \sin\theta)^2 + \\ &+ m\_{\mathbb{R}}r^2\left[\left(1-j\right)^2\cos^2\theta + \left(j\cos\theta\tan\phi - \sin\theta\right)^2\right] \end{aligned} \tag{32}$$

where *I'(θ)* is the rate of the inertial variable based on the rotational angle *θ* of the crankshaft determined by:

$$\begin{split} I'(\theta) &= 2I\_{\mathbb{R}} \left( \frac{r \cos \theta}{l \cos \phi} \right)^{2} \left( \frac{r \cos \theta}{l \cos \phi} \tan \phi - \tan \theta \right) + \\ &+ 2m\_{P}r^{2} (\cos \theta \tan \phi - \sin \theta) \left( \frac{r \cos^{2} \theta}{l \cos^{2} \phi} - \cos \theta - \sin \theta \tan \phi \right) - \\ &- 2m\_{P}r^{2} (1 - j)^{2} \sin \theta \cos \theta + 2m\_{P}r^{2} (j \cos \theta \tan \phi - \sin \theta) \left( \frac{j r \cos^{2} \theta}{l \cos^{2} \phi} - \cos \theta - j \sin \theta \tan \phi \right) \end{split} \tag{33}$$

where *g(θ)* is the gravitational torque, determined by:

$$g(\theta) = \mathcal{g}r[m\_P(\cos\theta\tan\phi - \sin\theta) + m\_R(j\cos\theta\tan\phi - \sin\theta) + m\_\mathbb{C}h\sin\theta],\tag{34}$$

and *Q(t,θ)* is the momentum or torque determined by the general load *Q(t)* acting on the piston, determined by:

$$Q(t,\theta) = Q(t)r(\cos\theta\tan\phi - \sin\theta). \tag{35}$$

With the input pressure as mentioned in Figure 3 acting on the top of the piston, corresponding to the engine speed of 2200 rpm, and using a firing order of 1–3–4–2, we can determine the average load moment on the crankshaft over the entire cycle as follows:

$$T\_{tb} = \int\_{\theta=0}^{4\pi} T(\theta)d\theta =<PHONE_NUMBER> \quad (Nm). \tag{36}$$

Figure 8a shows the torque acting on the four crankpins of the crankshaft. The maximum torque on each crankpin occurs when the crankshaft is positioned in the range of 360◦ to 370◦, immediately after the top dead center. The main torque exerted on the crankpins is the in-cylinder pressure; however, the friction and inertia force also dramatically contribute to the total force varying according to the crankshaft angle. For instance, at the crankshaft angle of 363◦, the total torque exerted on crankpin 1 reaches a maximum value of 6203 Nm. Meanwhile, the inertia force and the friction force contribute to approximately 8.9% and 4.6% of the total torque, respectively. Figure 8b shows the torque acting on the main journals of the crankshaft. They also vary depending on the crankshaft angle. However, the torque of each main journal is dramatically different from one other since it is calculated based on the different torque directions acting on the adjacent crankpins.

**Figure 8.** The forces acting on the crankpins and the crank journal of the crankshaft. (**a**) the torque acting on the crankpins ; (**b**) the torque acting on the crank journal.