#### **3.2. Adsorption of amino acids by clay minerals**

Clay minerals would be capable of adsorbing bio-organic molecules from the early ocean. The resultant clay-organic complexes would partly be deposited on the ocean floor.

Greenland et al. (1962, 1965) investigated the interactions of various amino acids with H-, Na-, and Ca-montmorillonites [19, 20]. Arginine, histidine, and lysine adsorbed to Na- and Ca- montmorillonites by cation exchange. Other amino acids (alanine, serine, leucine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, phenylalanine) adsorbed to H-montmorillonite by proton transfer. The adsorption of glycine and its oligo-peptides by Ca-montmorillonite and Caillite increased with the degree of oligomerization (molecular weight). Hedges and Hare (1987) suggested that the amino and carboxyl groups of the amino acids were involved in their adsorption to kaolinite [21], while Dashman and Stotzky (1982, 1984) reported that kaolinite adsorbed less amino acids and peptides than did montmorillonite [22, 23].

Serpentine is a clay mineral, formed by the weathering of olivine and pyroxene. As such, serpentine would be expected to occur on the surface of the early Earth. Serpentine, however, has a limited capacity for taking up amino acids (Hashizume, 2007) although it can adsorb measurable amounts of aspartic and glutamic acids [24]. On the other hand, allophane can take up appreciable amounts of alanine [25]. The adsorption isotherms showed three distinct regions as the (equilibrium) concentration (Ce) of alanine increased: a nearly linear rise at low Ce, a leveling off to a plateau at intermediate Ce, and a steep linear increase at high Ce. The oligomers of alanine were also adsorbed by allophane but the extent of adsorption did not vary greatly with solute molecular weight [26].

#### **3.3. Optical discrimination**

196 Clay Minerals in Nature – Their Characterization, Modification and Application

alanine, and aspartic acid as the main products.

 Adsorption of amino acids by clay minerals**

Lactic acid Iminoacetic-propionic acid

**Table 5.** Organic compounds dected in Miller's experiment [5,13]. Bold: bio-amino acid. Red; more of

Some components of the primitive atmosphere are soluble in water. Under hydrothermal conditions, as would pertain in a thermal vent, the dissolved components would react to form various amino acids (e.g., glycine, alanine, lysine, isoleucine) as Marshall (1994) has

The primitive atmosphere might not have been reducing, however. Further, bio-organic molecules are difficult to obtain under the conditions used by Miller (1953) [14]. In an attempt to make for favorable conditions, Kobayashi et al. (1990) used proton irradiation to produce a reducing atmosphere from an oxidizing one [17]. Nevertheless, the role of clay minerals in the formation of bio-molecules remains uncertain. Infrared spectroscopy suggests that the dust in the diffuse interstellar medium contains aliphatic hydrocarbons

Clay minerals would be capable of adsorbing bio-organic molecules from the early ocean.

Greenland et al. (1962, 1965) investigated the interactions of various amino acids with H-, Na-, and Ca-montmorillonites [19, 20]. Arginine, histidine, and lysine adsorbed to Na- and Ca- montmorillonites by cation exchange. Other amino acids (alanine, serine, leucine,

[18]. Again, it is uncertain whether clay minerals are involved in their formation.

The resultant clay-organic complexes would partly be deposited on the ocean floor.

Miller and Urey (1959) were able to synthesize bio-molecules from simple precursors (e.g., NH3, CH3, water) by circulating the mixture past an electric discharge ("spark"), simulating a lightning strike. Table 5 lists the compounds obtained abiotically under reducing atmospheric conditions. When montmorillonite was added to Miller's (1953) system, Shimoyama et al. (1978) found that the yield of amino acids with an alkylated side chain increased [13, 14] (Table 5). Subsequently, Yuasa (1989) conducted the sparking experiment using HCN and NH4(OH) in the presence of montmorillonite [15], obtaining glycine,

**3.1. Amino acids**

reported [16].

Amino acids can exist in two enantiomeric (chiral) types, namely, D (dextrorotatory) and L (levorotatory) (Figure 2). Both enantiomers would have formed, in equal amounts under abiotic conditions, giving a racemic mixture with a D/L molar ratio of 1/1. The amino acids in living organisms, however, are generally of the L-type. This finding is one of the problems associated with the origins of life.

**Figure 2.** D- and L-enantiomers ("mirror" images) of amino acids. R represents the side chain (Table 3).

The question arises whether clay minerals can discriminate between D- and L-amino acids when placed in contact with a racemic mixture. Using Na-montmorillonite and a racemic mixture of several amino acids, Friebele et al. (1981) did not observe any difference in adsorption between the D- and L-enantiomers [27]. This finding is not altogether surprising since clay minerals have no chirality in their bulk structures although the layer structure of kaolinite may be chiral due to the presence and positioning of vacancies (Figure 3). The edge surface of a montmorillonite layer may also be structurally chiral due to the presence of defects. These chiral structures, however, are not individually separable.

Role of Clay Minerals in Chemical Evolution and the Origins of Life 199

**3.5. Adsorption of nucleic acid bases by clay minerals**

the buffer used.

siloxane plane [40].

montmorillonite [41, 42].

**4. Polymerization of bio-polymers**

polymerizing such molecules on their surfaces.

**3.6. Sugar**

**4.1. Peptides**

retention capacity of allophane [38].

The adsorption of nucleic acid bases by montmorillonite has been widely investigated. Lawless et al. (1984) and Banin et al. (1984) reported that the adsorption of adenosine monophosphate (AMP) by montmorillonite, containing different exchangeable cations (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Ca, Co, Ni), generally increased as solution pH decreased [33, 34]. In the case of Zn-montmorillonite, adsorption of 5'-AMP reached a maximum at pH ~7. The extent of adsorption was primarily influenced by the acid dissociation constant of the nucleic acid base. Winter and Zubay (1995) investigated the relative ability of montmorillonite and hydroxylapatite in adsorbing adenine and adenine-related compounds [35]. They found that montmorillonite adsorbed more adenine than the other compounds (adenosine, 5'-AMP, 5'- ADP, 5'-ATP), while hydroxylapatite preferred adenosine phosphate to adenine and adenosine. The extent of adsorption depended on solution pH, and might also be affected by

More recently, Hashizume et al. (2010) investigated the adsorption of adenine, cytosine, uracil, ribose, and phosphate by Mg-montmorillonite [36]. At comparable concentrations in the equilibrium solution, adsorption decreased in the order adenine > cytosine > uracil, while ribose was hardly adsorbed. Hashizume and Theng (2007) found that allophane had a greater affinity for 5'-AMP than for adenine, adenosine, or ribose [37]. Again, very little ribose was adsorbed. The strong adsorption of 5'-AMP accords with the high phosphate-

The adsorption of nucleic acid bases to clay mineral surfaces has also been assessed by computer simulation. An *ab initio* study by Michalkova et al. (2011) suggests that uracil was adsorbed perpendicularly to the kaolinite surface [39]. With montmorillonite, on the other hand, nucleic acid bases tend to adsorb in a face-to-face orientation with respect to the basal

Sugars may be synthesized from formaldehyde through the Formose reaction. Clay and layered minerals (e.g., montmorillonite, brucite) can catalyze the self-condensation of formaldehyde. Further, the sugar oligomers formed are stabilized by adsorption to

Peptides are polymers of amino acids (Table 3; Figure 4). On the early earth, peptides may have formed at places where energy is produced, such as thermal vents on the sea floor. The primitive ocean may have contained small bio-molecules, including amino acids. As already mentioned, clay minerals would have played an important role in concentrating and

**Figure 3.** Overlap of Al atoms in stacked layers of kaolinite. Black circles indicate occupied Al site, and white circles indicate vacant Al sites [62].

On the other hand, quartz crystals are intrinsically chiral and, as such, can show stereospecific effects. Bonner et al. (1974), for example, found that L-quartz preferred L-alanine to its D-enantiomer, while D-quartz adsorbed more D- than L-alanine. The difference in preference was about 1%. Interestingly, Siffert and Naidja (1992) reported that montmorillonite showed stereo-selectivity in the adsorption and deamination of aspartic and glutamic acids. Likewise, Hashizume et al. (2002) reported that an allophane from New Zealand, extracted from a volcanic ash soil, showed a clear preference for L-alanyl-Lalanine over its D-enantiomer [30]. They suggested that the size, intramolecular charge separation, and surface orientation of L-alanyl-L-alanine zwitterions combined to confer 'structural chirality' to the allophane-amino acid complex. Although the allophane sample was purified before use, the presence of trace amounts of organic matter might have left a chiral 'imprint'.

#### **3.4. Nucleic acid bases**

Nucleic acids contain two purine bases (adenine, guanine), and three pyrimidine bases (cytosine, uracil, thymine) (Figure 1). Uracil and thymine are found in RNA and DNA, respectively.

Adenine could be prebiotically synthesized from hydrogen cyanide, and cytosine from cyanoacetylene, while uracil could arise from cyanoacetylene via malic acid. Chittenden and Schwartz (1976) reported that the addition of montmorillonite increased the rate of adenine formation [32].

No nucleic acid bases were found in the Miller experiment [6]. Adenine was formed, however, when a mixture of HCN and montmorillonite was added to the reaction vessel, and exposed to lightning [15]. Similarly, uracil could be synthesized from CO, N2 and H2O by proton irradiation [17].

## **3.5. Adsorption of nucleic acid bases by clay minerals**

The adsorption of nucleic acid bases by montmorillonite has been widely investigated. Lawless et al. (1984) and Banin et al. (1984) reported that the adsorption of adenosine monophosphate (AMP) by montmorillonite, containing different exchangeable cations (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Ca, Co, Ni), generally increased as solution pH decreased [33, 34]. In the case of Zn-montmorillonite, adsorption of 5'-AMP reached a maximum at pH ~7. The extent of adsorption was primarily influenced by the acid dissociation constant of the nucleic acid base. Winter and Zubay (1995) investigated the relative ability of montmorillonite and hydroxylapatite in adsorbing adenine and adenine-related compounds [35]. They found that montmorillonite adsorbed more adenine than the other compounds (adenosine, 5'-AMP, 5'- ADP, 5'-ATP), while hydroxylapatite preferred adenosine phosphate to adenine and adenosine. The extent of adsorption depended on solution pH, and might also be affected by the buffer used.

More recently, Hashizume et al. (2010) investigated the adsorption of adenine, cytosine, uracil, ribose, and phosphate by Mg-montmorillonite [36]. At comparable concentrations in the equilibrium solution, adsorption decreased in the order adenine > cytosine > uracil, while ribose was hardly adsorbed. Hashizume and Theng (2007) found that allophane had a greater affinity for 5'-AMP than for adenine, adenosine, or ribose [37]. Again, very little ribose was adsorbed. The strong adsorption of 5'-AMP accords with the high phosphateretention capacity of allophane [38].

The adsorption of nucleic acid bases to clay mineral surfaces has also been assessed by computer simulation. An *ab initio* study by Michalkova et al. (2011) suggests that uracil was adsorbed perpendicularly to the kaolinite surface [39]. With montmorillonite, on the other hand, nucleic acid bases tend to adsorb in a face-to-face orientation with respect to the basal siloxane plane [40].

#### **3.6. Sugar**

198 Clay Minerals in Nature – Their Characterization, Modification and Application

white circles indicate vacant Al sites [62].

chiral 'imprint'.

respectively.

formation [32].

**3.4. Nucleic acid bases**

by proton irradiation [17].

**Figure 3.** Overlap of Al atoms in stacked layers of kaolinite. Black circles indicate occupied Al site, and

mirror

On the other hand, quartz crystals are intrinsically chiral and, as such, can show stereospecific effects. Bonner et al. (1974), for example, found that L-quartz preferred L-alanine to its D-enantiomer, while D-quartz adsorbed more D- than L-alanine. The difference in preference was about 1%. Interestingly, Siffert and Naidja (1992) reported that montmorillonite showed stereo-selectivity in the adsorption and deamination of aspartic and glutamic acids. Likewise, Hashizume et al. (2002) reported that an allophane from New Zealand, extracted from a volcanic ash soil, showed a clear preference for L-alanyl-Lalanine over its D-enantiomer [30]. They suggested that the size, intramolecular charge separation, and surface orientation of L-alanyl-L-alanine zwitterions combined to confer 'structural chirality' to the allophane-amino acid complex. Although the allophane sample was purified before use, the presence of trace amounts of organic matter might have left a

Nucleic acids contain two purine bases (adenine, guanine), and three pyrimidine bases (cytosine, uracil, thymine) (Figure 1). Uracil and thymine are found in RNA and DNA,

Adenine could be prebiotically synthesized from hydrogen cyanide, and cytosine from cyanoacetylene, while uracil could arise from cyanoacetylene via malic acid. Chittenden and Schwartz (1976) reported that the addition of montmorillonite increased the rate of adenine

No nucleic acid bases were found in the Miller experiment [6]. Adenine was formed, however, when a mixture of HCN and montmorillonite was added to the reaction vessel, and exposed to lightning [15]. Similarly, uracil could be synthesized from CO, N2 and H2O Sugars may be synthesized from formaldehyde through the Formose reaction. Clay and layered minerals (e.g., montmorillonite, brucite) can catalyze the self-condensation of formaldehyde. Further, the sugar oligomers formed are stabilized by adsorption to montmorillonite [41, 42].

## **4. Polymerization of bio-polymers**

## **4.1. Peptides**

Peptides are polymers of amino acids (Table 3; Figure 4). On the early earth, peptides may have formed at places where energy is produced, such as thermal vents on the sea floor. The primitive ocean may have contained small bio-molecules, including amino acids. As already mentioned, clay minerals would have played an important role in concentrating and polymerizing such molecules on their surfaces.

$$\begin{array}{cccc} \text{O} & \text{R}^{1} & \text{O} & \text{R}^{2} \\ \text{HO} \text{ - C} \text{ - C} \text{ - NH2} & + & \text{HO} \text{ - C} \text{ - C} \text{ - NH2} \\ & \text{H} & & \text{H} \\ & \text{O} & \text{R} \text{ :} & \text{O} & \text{R}^{2} \\ \text{H} \text{ - C} \text{ - C} \text{ - N} \text{ - C} \text{ - C} \text{ - NH2} & + & \text{H} \text{2O} \\ & \text{H} & \text{H} & \text{H} & \end{array}$$

Role of Clay Minerals in Chemical Evolution and the Origins of Life 201

Cycles Net heating Yields (nmol/mg clay)

11 33.7 2.27 0.45

No. period (days) Dimer Trimer Tetramer Pentamer Kaolinite

21 55.0 1.99 0.79 0.29 trace 27 67.4 2.25 1.01 0.33 trace 33 77.3 2.21 0.83 0.32 trace 27 67.4 0.97 0.38 0.10 trace 27 67.4 1.31 0.55 0.15 trace 27 67.4 3.50 1.58 0.60 trace

Bentonite

11 32.8 6.37 0.20 n.d. n.d. 21 55.0 7.99 0.60 n.d. n.d. 27 67.4 4.92 0.61 trace n.d. 27 67.4 2.92 0.20 n.d. n.d.

11 57.0 40.1 7.9 1.2 0.8

**Table 6.** Yields of glycine oligomers in the presence of kaolinite and bentonite, subjected to wetting and

One hypothesis concerning the origins of life involves the 'RNA world' in which RNA molecules acted as both enzyme-like catalysts and genetic materials [52]. The four nucleic acid bases in RNA have a complementary function. Thus. RNA would be able behave like DNA, although uracil (U) and ribose were used in RNA instead of thymine (T) and deoxyribose in DNA [53]. The molecule of RNA is composed of a nucleic acid base, ribose and phosphate. Combination of a nucleic acid base with 1'-ribose gives rise to a nucleoside, and the addition of phosphate at the 3'- and 5'- positions of ribose yields a nucleotide

27 67.4 12.7 1.90 trace n.d. 11 57.0 36.7 8.2 2.5

5 25.4 26.9 1.9 n.d.

1 10.6 11.9 trace n.d.

drying cycles [49]. n.d. = not detected

**4.2. Nucleotide polymers (RNA world)**

(Figure 1). RNA is therefore a polynucleotide.

**Figure 4.** Polymerization of amino acids. Red indicates peptide bonding. R1 and R2 represent amino acid side chains (Table 3).

According to the thermal vent model, organic molecules sink to the sea floor around a thermal vent, and polymerize under conditions of high pressure and temperature [43]. The polymers formed would then move away from the thermal vent. Imai et al. (1997) have attempted to synthesize oligopeptides in a flow reactor, simulating a submarine hydrothermal system [44]. Details of the instrumentation have been given by Matsuno (1997) [45]. With glycine as the monomer, both di- and tri-glycine were formed. The effect of metal cations on amino acid oligomerization was also investigated but that of clay minerals has not been assessed.

The temperature of seawater on the early Earth is expected to be appreciably higher than that at present, a condition that would favor organic molecule polymerization. The thermal copolymerization of various amino acids (aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, alanine, leucine) has been reported by Fox and Harada (1958). Indeed, they were able to synthesize a protenoid microsphere [46].

Plate tectonics would have been operative in the early Earth. When organic-rich sediments moved into a trench where the temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the water in the sediments would be depleted. As a result, the concentration of organic molecules would increase, promoting their polymerization [47]. The synthesis of glycine peptides with montmorillonite under trench-like hydrothermal conditions (5−100 MPa pressure; 150 C temperature) has been reported by Ohara et al. (2007) who obtained up to 10-mers of glycine [48].

Clay mineral particles on the beach undergo repeated drying and wetting, being dried at low tide, and wetted at high tide. This condition would favor polymerization of the clayassociated organic molecules. Using kaolinite and bentonite as the clay minerals, and glycine as the organic species, Lahav et al. (1978) obtained measurable amounts of glycine oligomers up to the 5-mer [49], as shown in Table 6. Ferris et al. (1996) obtained about 50 mers of glutamic acid [50] by incubating (activated) glutamic acid with illite.

In a "shock" experiment, simulating collision of meteorite and asteroids with Earth, by Blank et al. (2001) amino acids were polymerized into oligo-peptides (mostly dimers and trimmers) [51].

**Table 6.** Yields of glycine oligomers in the presence of kaolinite and bentonite, subjected to wetting and drying cycles [49]. n.d. = not detected

#### **4.2. Nucleotide polymers (RNA world)**

200 Clay Minerals in Nature – Their Characterization, Modification and Application

 HO - C - C - NH =

O R1

H

 HO - C - C - N - =

O R1

H

acid side chains (Table 3).

has not been assessed.

protenoid microsphere [46].

10-mers of glycine [48].

trimmers) [51].

**Figure 4.** Polymerization of amino acids. Red indicates peptide bonding. R1 and R2 represent amino

According to the thermal vent model, organic molecules sink to the sea floor around a thermal vent, and polymerize under conditions of high pressure and temperature [43]. The polymers formed would then move away from the thermal vent. Imai et al. (1997) have attempted to synthesize oligopeptides in a flow reactor, simulating a submarine hydrothermal system [44]. Details of the instrumentation have been given by Matsuno (1997) [45]. With glycine as the monomer, both di- and tri-glycine were formed. The effect of metal cations on amino acid oligomerization was also investigated but that of clay minerals

=

O R2

+ HO - C - C - NH =

2 2

H

H

C - C - NH + H O

2

2

O R2

The temperature of seawater on the early Earth is expected to be appreciably higher than that at present, a condition that would favor organic molecule polymerization. The thermal copolymerization of various amino acids (aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, alanine, leucine) has been reported by Fox and Harada (1958). Indeed, they were able to synthesize a

Plate tectonics would have been operative in the early Earth. When organic-rich sediments moved into a trench where the temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the water in the sediments would be depleted. As a result, the concentration of organic molecules would increase, promoting their polymerization [47]. The synthesis of glycine peptides with montmorillonite under trench-like hydrothermal conditions (5−100 MPa pressure; 150 C temperature) has been reported by Ohara et al. (2007) who obtained up to

Clay mineral particles on the beach undergo repeated drying and wetting, being dried at low tide, and wetted at high tide. This condition would favor polymerization of the clayassociated organic molecules. Using kaolinite and bentonite as the clay minerals, and glycine as the organic species, Lahav et al. (1978) obtained measurable amounts of glycine oligomers up to the 5-mer [49], as shown in Table 6. Ferris et al. (1996) obtained about 50-

In a "shock" experiment, simulating collision of meteorite and asteroids with Earth, by Blank et al. (2001) amino acids were polymerized into oligo-peptides (mostly dimers and

mers of glutamic acid [50] by incubating (activated) glutamic acid with illite.

One hypothesis concerning the origins of life involves the 'RNA world' in which RNA molecules acted as both enzyme-like catalysts and genetic materials [52]. The four nucleic acid bases in RNA have a complementary function. Thus. RNA would be able behave like DNA, although uracil (U) and ribose were used in RNA instead of thymine (T) and deoxyribose in DNA [53]. The molecule of RNA is composed of a nucleic acid base, ribose and phosphate. Combination of a nucleic acid base with 1'-ribose gives rise to a nucleoside, and the addition of phosphate at the 3'- and 5'- positions of ribose yields a nucleotide (Figure 1). RNA is therefore a polynucleotide.

The clay-catalyzed synthesis of polynucleotides has been investigated by Ferris and coworkers. Using the 5-phosphorimidazolide of adenine (ImpA) as the activated RNA monomer, Ferris and Ertem (1993) were able to obtain oligomers containing 6−14 monomer units in the presence of montmorillonite [54]. The formation of RNA oligomers, however, is but the first step towards preparing RNA with more than 40 monomers that are theoretically required for the initiation of the RNA world. Long-chain (elongated) RNA can be obtained using the "feeding" procedure; that is, by daily addition of ImpA to the decanucleotide (10-mer primer) adsorbed to Na-montmorillonite. Polynucleotides containing more than 50-mers are formed after 14 feedings although the principal products contain 20–40 monomer units [55]. Using activated adenosine-, uridine-, guanosine- or cytosine-5'-phospho-1-methyladenine, Joshi et al. (2009) obtained the corresponding 40 to 50-mers [56].

Role of Clay Minerals in Chemical Evolution and the Origins of Life 203

Water

Water

**Figure 6.** Schematic figure of the room (green) to function like the cell. Clay mineral layers were

Deposition Drying

Clay mineral

dispersed in water and then dry water but small rooms play the role like the cell [4].

**Figure 7.** Schematic figure of a bubble shape sheet clay mineral micelle [57].

Unlike surfactants, lipids are difficult to synthesize. Surfactants may transform into lipids. Apatite has been reported to be capable of catalyzing the formation of a proto-lipid [58].

Dry

Bublle Clay mineral

## **5. Cell origin**

Lipids make up part of the living cell (Table 4). In water lipids form a micelle structure where that the outer hydrophilic part is in contact with water, and the hydrophobic part is turned inside (Figure 5). The cell wall has a trans-membrane protein through which nutrients enter the cell.

**Figure 5.** Micelle structure. Hydrophilic group: phospate group, choline group, phosphocholine group etc. Hydrophobic group: stearate, oleate, linoleiate etc.

Clay minerals might function as a primordial cell [4]. When clay minerals are deposited on the ocean floor (or dried), the particles form a pile, enclosing small spaces (Figure 6). It is conceivable that the small spaces behave like cells. Further, when clay minerals are dispersed in water, bubbles form in water or the surface of water, while the clay particles gather at the boundary between water and air, as shown in Figure 7 [57]. In such a case, clay minerals make a cell-like spherule.

Role of Clay Minerals in Chemical Evolution and the Origins of Life 203

202 Clay Minerals in Nature – Their Characterization, Modification and Application

50-mers [56].

**5. Cell origin**

nutrients enter the cell.

The clay-catalyzed synthesis of polynucleotides has been investigated by Ferris and coworkers. Using the 5-phosphorimidazolide of adenine (ImpA) as the activated RNA monomer, Ferris and Ertem (1993) were able to obtain oligomers containing 6−14 monomer units in the presence of montmorillonite [54]. The formation of RNA oligomers, however, is but the first step towards preparing RNA with more than 40 monomers that are theoretically required for the initiation of the RNA world. Long-chain (elongated) RNA can be obtained using the "feeding" procedure; that is, by daily addition of ImpA to the decanucleotide (10-mer primer) adsorbed to Na-montmorillonite. Polynucleotides containing more than 50-mers are formed after 14 feedings although the principal products contain 20–40 monomer units [55]. Using activated adenosine-, uridine-, guanosine- or cytosine-5'-phospho-1-methyladenine, Joshi et al. (2009) obtained the corresponding 40 to

Lipids make up part of the living cell (Table 4). In water lipids form a micelle structure where that the outer hydrophilic part is in contact with water, and the hydrophobic part is turned inside (Figure 5). The cell wall has a trans-membrane protein through which

**Figure 5.** Micelle structure. Hydrophilic group: phospate group, choline group, phosphocholine group

Hydrophobic group

Hydrophilic group

Clay minerals might function as a primordial cell [4]. When clay minerals are deposited on the ocean floor (or dried), the particles form a pile, enclosing small spaces (Figure 6). It is conceivable that the small spaces behave like cells. Further, when clay minerals are dispersed in water, bubbles form in water or the surface of water, while the clay particles gather at the boundary between water and air, as shown in Figure 7 [57]. In such a case, clay

etc. Hydrophobic group: stearate, oleate, linoleiate etc.

minerals make a cell-like spherule.

**Figure 6.** Schematic figure of the room (green) to function like the cell. Clay mineral layers were dispersed in water and then dry water but small rooms play the role like the cell [4].

**Figure 7.** Schematic figure of a bubble shape sheet clay mineral micelle [57].

Unlike surfactants, lipids are difficult to synthesize. Surfactants may transform into lipids. Apatite has been reported to be capable of catalyzing the formation of a proto-lipid [58].

## **6. Conclusions**

This article describes the role of clay minerals in chemical evolution although various other materials in the early Earth would have participated in the formation of life-like structures. Most experiments related to the origins of life on Earth use specific clay minerals, such as montmorillonite and kaolinite. Volcanic rocks from the magma ocean would be enriched in Mg2+ ions. On this basis, we have investigated the interactions of Mg-rich clay minerals (e.g., talc, serpentine) with organic molecules, including bio-organic compounds. It is further suggested that the atmosphere of the early Earth contained little oxygen. This condition would be conducive to the formation of Fe2+-rich clay minerals which, therefore, might have played an important part in the synthesis of simple bioorganic molecules.

Role of Clay Minerals in Chemical Evolution and the Origins of Life 205

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Besides being able to concentrate organic molecules, clay minerals can also control the surface arrangement of adsorbed nucleic acid bases or amino acids. By using a mixture of different clay mineral species, it may be possible to select a given bio-molecule over another for adsorption and polymerization. Although there is an element of trial and error in investigating the role of clay minerals in chemical evolution and the origins of life, we may yet be surprised by the outcome.

## **Author details**

Hideo Hashizume *National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Japan*

## **Acknowledgement**

We thank the editor Dr. M. Valaskova and the co-editor Dr. G. S. Martynkova for a chance to write this review. We also thank Dr. B. K. G. Theng (Landcare Research, New Zealand) for useful discussions and polishing English.

## **7. References**

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204 Clay Minerals in Nature – Their Characterization, Modification and Application

This article describes the role of clay minerals in chemical evolution although various other materials in the early Earth would have participated in the formation of life-like structures. Most experiments related to the origins of life on Earth use specific clay minerals, such as montmorillonite and kaolinite. Volcanic rocks from the magma ocean would be enriched in Mg2+ ions. On this basis, we have investigated the interactions of Mg-rich clay minerals (e.g., talc, serpentine) with organic molecules, including bio-organic compounds. It is further suggested that the atmosphere of the early Earth contained little oxygen. This condition would be conducive to the formation of Fe2+-rich clay minerals which, therefore, might have played an important part in the synthesis of simple bio-

Besides being able to concentrate organic molecules, clay minerals can also control the surface arrangement of adsorbed nucleic acid bases or amino acids. By using a mixture of different clay mineral species, it may be possible to select a given bio-molecule over another for adsorption and polymerization. Although there is an element of trial and error in investigating the role of clay minerals in chemical evolution and the origins of life, we may

We thank the editor Dr. M. Valaskova and the co-editor Dr. G. S. Martynkova for a chance to write this review. We also thank Dr. B. K. G. Theng (Landcare Research, New Zealand) for

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**Chapter 11**

© 2012 Valášková and Martynková, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 Valášková and Martynková, licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

properly cited.

sheet´ is composed of the edge-sharing octahedra.

**Vermiculite:**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51237

**1. Introduction**

interchangeably [2,3].

layers.

a plane of basal oxygen atoms).

**Structural Properties and Examples of the Use**

The effort to clarify the meanings of the terms 'clay', 'clays', and 'clay minerals' was the subject of the joint nomenclature committees (JNCs) of the Association Internationale pour l'Etude des Argiles (AIPEA) and the Clay Minerals Society (CMS). The JNCs have proposed the term a class of hydrated phyllosilicates forming the fine-grained fraction of rocks, sediments, and soils and have defined 'clay' as ''a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained minerals, which is generally plastic at appropriate water contents and will harden when dried or fired'' [1]. According to this definition synthetic clays and clay-like materials are not regarded as clay even though they may be fine grained, and

For phyllosilicates, the terms ''planes'', ''sheet'' and ''layer'' refer to specific parts of the structure, with atomic arrangements that increase in thickness and they cannot be used

A '*plane*' can occur consisting of one or more types of atoms (e.g. a plane of Si and Al atoms,

A '*tetrahedral sheet*' is composed of continuous corner-sharing tetrahedra like ´octahedral

*Interlayer material'* separates the layers and generally may consist of cations, hydrated cations, organic materials, and/or hydroxide octahedral sheets. In certain cases (e.g. talc, pyrophyllite) there is no interlayer material, and thus an empty interlayer separates the

display the attributes of plasticity and hardening on drying and firing.

A '*layer*' contains one or more tetrahedral sheets and an octahedral sheet.

Marta Valášková and Gražyna Simha Martynková

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

[62] The Clay Science Society of Japan (2009) Handbook of Clays and Clay Minerals, 3rd edition. Tokyo:Gihodo. pp. 28−35 (in Japanese).


**Parameterized Design and Dynamic Analysis of a Reusable Launch Vehicle Landing System with Semi-Active Control**

#### **Chen Wang 1,\* , Jinbao Chen 1 , Shan Jia 1 and Heng Chen 2**

Received: 17 August 2020; Accepted: 17 September 2020; Published: 22 September 2020

**Abstract:** Reusable launch vehicles (RLVs) are a solution for effective and economic transportation in future aerospace exploration. However, RLVs are limited to being used under simple landing conditions (small landing velocity and angle) due to their poor adaptability and the high rocket acceleration of current landing systems. In this paper, an adaptive RLV landing system with semi-active control is proposed. The proposed landing system can adjust the damping forces of primary strut dampers through semi-actively controlled currents in accordance with practical landing conditions. A landing dynamic model of the proposed landing system is built. According to the dynamic model, an light and effective RLV landing system is parametrically designed based on the response surface methodology. Dynamic simulations validate the proposed landing system under landing conditions including the highest rocket acceleration and the greatest damper compressions. The simulation results show that the proposed landing system with semi-active control has better landing performance than current landing systems that use passive liquid or liquid–honeycomb dampers. Additionally, the flexibility and friction of the structure are discussed in the simulations. Compared to rigid models, flexible models decrease rocket acceleration by 51% and 54% at the touch down moments under these two landing conditions, respectively. The friction increases rocket acceleration by less than 1%. However, both flexibility and friction have little influence on the distance between the rocket and ground, or the compression strokes of the dampers.

**Keywords:** reusable launch vehicles; soft landing; magnetorheological fluid; numerical simulation; multibody systems with flexible elements

### **1. Introduction**

As one of the most important technologies for aerospace exploration, advances in launch vehicles have greatly promoted aerospace developments [1]. Reusable launch vehicles (RLVs) can achieve fast and cheap launches by dividing the launch costs into several launch missions. Since the 1950s, many countries have focused on developing RLVs. From American X-series spacecraft to the Falcon-series rockets of SpaceX, RLVs have always been a hot topic in aerospace technology [2].

The landing system is a critical subsystem of RLVs, the malfunction of which can cause recycle failure [3]. The design of RLV landing systems is quite difficult, because it requires high reusability, effective impact absorption, reliability, and heat resistance [4]. The Delta Clipper proposed by the McDonnell-Douglas Corporation was the first RLV to use a vertical soft-landing system. The Delta Clipper was to be a single-stage-to-orbit vehicle that took off vertically and landed vertically [5]. However, the project was aborted due to lack of funding, and it has not been used in practical engineering. The New Shepard proposed by the Blue Origin Corporation completed a sub-orbital experiment and landed vertically via retractable landing legs. However, it was only just able to reach the Kármán Line (100 km a.s.l.) [6]. The Falcon-series rockets proposed by SpaceX were the first to realize the application of vertical landing in aerospace missions. The landing gears of the Falcon-series rockets use four sets of landing gears with liquid dampers that include primary struts, auxiliary struts, and locking mechanisms [7–9]. The Ariane Group, the French Space Agency, and the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt have also proposed a new low-cost reusable rocket project called Callisto. Callisto uses four landing legs to absorb the impact energy, which is similar to the Falcon-series rocket [10,11]. However, it is still in the design stage. Yue [12–15] and Lei [16] proposed a vertical landing system with novel oleo–honeycomb dampers and conducted many landing experiments. The oleo–honeycomb dampers were able to improve the landing performance of the RLV under dangerous conditions. However, it was necessary to replace the aluminum honeycomb after every landing. In summary, the current landing systems employed by RLVs use passive liquid or liquid–honeycomb dampers to absorb impact energy. These two kinds of passive dampers have complex structures, as well as greater mass and rocket accelerations. Additionally, they are not able to adjust damping forces in order to meet practical landing conditions, which require a low landing velocity and angle, making the recycling of rockets more difficult. There is limited research on controllable landing systems in RLVs.

In this paper, an RLV landing system with semi-active control is proposed. Its dynamic landing model, control approach, and parameterized design are introduced. Furthermore, the proposed landing system is validated by means of multiple rigid bodies and multiple coupled flexible–rigid dynamic simulations. The influence of structural flexibility and friction during the RLV landings is also discussed in the dynamic simulations. Section 2 introduces the overall scheme, working principles, and control approach of the proposed RLV landing system. Section 3 introduces the landing dynamic model and parameterized design of the RLV landing system. Section 4 validates the proposed landing system and discusses the influence of structural flexibility and friction on the RLV landing performance with reference to the simulations.

#### **2. Working Principles of the RLV Landing System**

#### *2.1. Overall Scheme of the RLV Landing System with MRF Dampers*

Figure 1 shows the overall scheme of the RLV landing system with magnetorheological fluid (MRF) dampers, which consists of a rocket and four sets of landing gears. Each set of landing gear includes a primary strut (including a damper and deployment), an auxiliary strut, and a pad. The primary strut damper is full of MRF, whose profile is shown in Figure 2. The primary strut damper includes a master cylinder (the inner diameter is *D*), a piston (compose of a magnetic core and a group of coils, the length is *L*), a piston rod (the diameter is *d*), a nitrogen accumulator, and a gap between the piston and cylinder (the width is *h*). The magnetic properties of the primary strut materials are shown in Table 1. The MRF-132DG produced by the Lord Company is used as an example in this paper. Its main specifications are shown in Table 2.

Ampere circuit rule,

Ampere circuit rule,

*Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20

**Figure 1.** The overall scheme of the RLV landing system with MRF dampers. **Figure 1.** The overall scheme of the RLV landing system with MRF dampers.

**Figure 2.** The cross-section diagram of the primary strut damper. **Figure 2.** The cross-section diagram of the primary strut damper.

**Figure 2.** The cross-section diagram of the primary strut damper. **Table 1.** The magnetic properties of primary strut materials.

Gas in the accumulator Nitrogen 1 0 1 **Table 2.** Main specifications of MRF-132DG.

Gas in the accumulator Nitrogen 1 0 1

Coils Copper 1 5.998E7 0.9999935542

Operating Temperature −40∼+130 °C There are N turns coils on the magnetic core of the piston. The length of the magnetic flux density lines along the coils is *L*1, the length of the magnetic flux density lines in the gap is *h*, and the length There are N turns coils on the magnetic core of the piston. The length of the magnetic flux density lines along the coils is *L*1, the length of the magnetic flux density lines in the gap is *h*, and the length

of the arched magnetic flux density lines out the cylinder is *L*2. Based on the Maxwell equation and

Operating Temperature −40∼+130 °C

There are N turns coils on the magnetic core of the piston. The length of the magnetic flux density lines along the coils is *L*1, the length of the magnetic flux density lines in the gap is *h*, and the length of the arched magnetic flux density lines out the cylinder is *L*2. Based on the Maxwell equation and

Maximum Yield Stress 48 kPa

of the arched magnetic flux density lines out the cylinder is *L*2. Based on the Maxwell equation and Ampere circuit rule,

$$\int\_{L\_1} B\_1 \cdot dl + \int\_{2h} B\_2 \cdot dl + \int\_{L\_2} B\_3 \cdot dl = \mu\_\text{mNI} \tag{1}$$

where *B*1 is the magnetic flux density in the magnetic core area, *B*2 is the magnetic flux density in the gap, *B*3 is the magnetic flux density out the cylinder, and µm is the magnetic constant. The magnetic flux density *B* is in T, the magnetic field intensity *H* is in A/m, the electric current *I* is in A. Due to the magnetic field intensity in the magnetic core area and gap is much larger than that out the cylinder, the magnetic field intensity in the gap is

$$H\_2 = \frac{B\_2}{\mu\_{\rm m}} = \frac{NI - H\_1 L\_1}{2h} \tag{2}$$

The relationship between yield stress and magnetic field intensity of MRF-132DG [17,18] is

$$
\pi = 2.717 \times 10^5 \times 0.32^{1.529} \tanh(6.33 \times 10^{-3} \cdot H\_2) \tag{3}
$$

During the landing, the viscosity and plasticity of the MRF change quickly under the magnetic fields produced by energized coils. When the piston moves and pushes the MRF to flow through the gap between the cylinder and piston, the coils energize and produce magnetic fields. The MRF becomes semi-solid from the liquid in milliseconds, and its yield stress is controlled by different magnetic fields to absorb the impact energy. After landing, MRF will return to the liquid state without the magnetic fields [19].

#### *2.2. Working Principles of the RLV Landing System*

When the rocket approaches the recycle-platform, four sets of landing gears deploy simultaneously and prepare for the landing impact. After the sensors of pads touch the recycle-platform and the RLV entries landing state, four primary strut dampers absorb the impact energy by their compressions and extensions. Their damping forces of primary strut dampers consist of the controllable parts and uncontrollable parts. The uncontrollable parts are determined by the viscosity and velocity of the MRF, and the air-spring forces of accumulators. The controllable parts are related to the yield stress of MRF, which are controlled according to the acceleration, jerk, pitch angle, and roll angle of the rocket [20].

#### *2.3. Control Approach of the RLV Landing System*

Due to the landing process is quite short, which requires a fast and robust control approach. Fuzzy control is suitable for complex systems and can decrease the response time significantly. Furthermore, the nonlinear characteristics of fuzzy control can increase the system robustness [21–24].

During the landing, the acceleration, jerk, pitch angle, and roll angle of the rocket are set as inputs. These four inputs are from rocket sensors to the control system of damping forces. Meanwhile, the yield stresses of four primary struts controlled by currents are set as outputs. The currents can control the damping forces of every primary strut, respectively. These four outputs are from the control system of damping forces and act on four primary strut dampers.

The highest acceleration of the RLV should be smaller than 2 g to protect the precise electronic instruments.  The pitch angle and roll angle are set as [–3, 3], due to landing angles of the current RLVs are from −3 ◦ to 3◦ [2]. The output yield stresses of MRF in four primary strut dampers are set as [0, 100% Maximum] to adapt to different landing conditions. Considering the control accuracy and efficiency, the acceleration *a* is divided into four equal fuzzy sets (Z, S, M, B). The jerk *da* is divided into two equal fuzzy sets (Z, B). Both the pitch angle *alpha* and roll angle *beta* are divided into three equal fuzzy sets (N, Z, P). The output yield stresses are divided into seven equal fuzzy sets (Z, S, SM, M, SB, MB, B). The membership affiliations between physical

parameters and fuzzy sets for the inputs are shown in Figure 3. The membership affiliations between physical parameters and fuzzy sets for the outputs are shown in Figure 4. *Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20 *Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20

**Figure 3.** Membership Affiliations of inputs: (**a**) Membership affiliation of *a*; (**b**) Membership affiliation of *da*; (**c**) Membership affiliations of *alpha* and *beta.* **Figure 3.** Membership Affiliations of inputs: (**a**) Membership affiliation of *a*; (**b**) Membership affiliation of *da*; (**c**) Membership affiliations of *alpha* and *beta.* **Figure 3.** Membership Affiliations of inputs: (**a**) Membership affiliation of *a*; (**b**) Membership affiliation of *da*; (**c**) Membership affiliations of *alpha* and *beta.*

**Figure 4.** Membership Affiliations of outputs. **Figure 4.** Membership Affiliations of outputs. **Figure 4.** Membership Affiliations of outputs.

The control principles are (a) While the acceleration is increasing and less than the setting value, controllable damping forces are small. (b) While the acceleration is increasing and larger than the setting value, controllable damping forces are zero. (c) While the acceleration is decreasing and larger than the setting value, controllable damping forces are zero. (d) While the acceleration is decreasing and less than the setting value, controllable damping forces are big. Moreover, the output damping forces are also determined by the pitch angle and roll angle of the rocket. Detailed fuzzy control rules The control principles are (a) While the acceleration is increasing and less than the setting value, controllable damping forces are small. (b) While the acceleration is increasing and larger than the setting value, controllable damping forces are zero. (c) While the acceleration is decreasing and larger than the setting value, controllable damping forces are zero. (d) While the acceleration is decreasing and less than the setting value, controllable damping forces are big. Moreover, the output damping forces are also determined by the pitch angle and roll angle of the rocket. Detailed fuzzy control rules for inputs and outputs are shown in the Appendix A. The control principles are (a) While the acceleration is increasing and less than the setting value, controllable damping forces are small. (b) While the acceleration is increasing and larger than the setting value, controllable damping forces are zero. (c) While the acceleration is decreasing and larger than the setting value, controllable damping forces are zero. (d) While the acceleration is decreasing and less than the setting value, controllable damping forces are big. Moreover, the output damping forces are also determined by the pitch angle and roll angle of the rocket. Detailed fuzzy control rules for inputs and outputs are shown in the Appendix A.

for inputs and outputs are shown in the Appendix A.

*3.1. Landing Dynamic Analysis of the RLV Landing System*

*3.1. Landing Dynamic Analysis of the RLV Landing System*

**3. Landing Dynamic Analysis and Parameterized Design of RLV Landing System**

**3. Landing Dynamic Analysis and Parameterized Design of RLV Landing System**

### **3. Landing Dynamic Analysis and Parameterized Design of RLV Landing System**

#### *3.1. Landing Dynamic Analysis of the RLV Landing System*

Based on the working principles and control approach of the proposed RLV landing system, its landing dynamic model is required to design the detailed structures. The RLV is composed of an elastic part and four non-elastic parts, as shown in Figure 5. The elastic part includes the rocket, four primary strut deployments, and cylinders of four primary strut dampers. The non-elastic parts include piston rods of four primary strut dampers, four auxiliary struts, and four pads [25]. Due to the RLV being symmetric, a quarter landing dynamic model of the RLV is built, as shown in Figure 6. *Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20 part and four non-elastic parts, as shown in Figure 5. The elastic part includes the rocket, four primary strut deployments, and cylinders of four primary strut dampers. The non-elastic parts include piston rods of four primary strut dampers, four auxiliary struts, and four pads [25]. Due to the RLV being symmetric, a quarter landing dynamic model of the RLV is built, as shown in Figure 6. *Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20 part and four non-elastic parts, as shown in Figure 5. The elastic part includes the rocket, four primary strut deployments, and cylinders of four primary strut dampers. The non-elastic parts include piston rods of four primary strut dampers, four auxiliary struts, and four pads [25]. Due to the RLV being symmetric, a quarter landing dynamic model of the RLV is built, as shown in Figure 6.

**Figure 5.** Elastic and non-elastic parts of the RLV. **Figure 5.** Elastic and non-elastic parts of the RLV. **Figure 5.** Elastic and non-elastic parts of the RLV.

**Figure 6.** Quarter landing dynamic model of the RLV landing system. **Figure 6.** Quarter landing dynamic model of the RLV landing system.

**Figure 6.** Quarter landing dynamic model of the RLV landing system. The coordinate system is at the center of the bottom surface of the rocket. The revolute joint between the primary strut and rocket is A (xA, yA). The sphere joint between the primary strut and auxiliary strut is B (xB, yB). The projection of the revolute joint between the auxiliary strut and rocket is C (xC, yC). The horizontal distance xC between the origin and C is *R*. The angle between the primary strut and ground is *α*. The angle between the auxiliary strut and ground is *θ*. The vertical distance yA The coordinate system is at the center of the bottom surface of the rocket. The revolute joint between the primary strut and rocket is A (xA, yA). The sphere joint between the primary strut and auxiliary strut is B (xB, yB). The projection of the revolute joint between the auxiliary strut and rocket is C (xC, yC). The horizontal distance xC between the origin and C is *R*. The angle between the primary strut and ground is *α*. The angle between the auxiliary strut and ground is *θ*. The vertical distance yA between the origin and A is *H*1. The mass center of the elastic part is P1 (0, *H*1 + *H*2). Due to auxiliary The coordinate system is at the center of the bottom surface of the rocket. The revolute joint between the primary strut and rocket is A (xA, yA). The sphere joint between the primary strut and auxiliary strut is B (xB, yB). The projection of the revolute joint between the auxiliary strut and rocket is C (xC, yC). The horizontal distance xC between the origin and C is *R*. The angle between the primary strut and ground is α. The angle between the auxiliary strut and ground is θ. The vertical distance yA between the origin and A is *H*1. The mass center of the elastic part is P1 (0, *H*1 + *H*2). Due to auxiliary

(4)

(4)

non-elastic parts. It is 0.5(xB + xC,yB + yC), which is shown as

non-elastic parts. It is 0.5(xB + xC,yB + yC), which is shown as

The landing dynamic models of elastic parts are

The landing dynamic models of elastic parts are

P2

P2

between the origin and A is *H*1. The mass center of the elastic part is P1 (0, *H*1 + *H*2). Due to auxiliary struts occupy most mass of non-elastic parts, whose center can be simplified as the mass center of

struts occupy most mass of non-elastic parts, whose center can be simplified as the mass center of

struts occupy most mass of non-elastic parts, whose center can be simplified as the mass center of non-elastic parts. It is 0.5(xB + xC,yB + yC), which is shown as

$$\text{P2}\left(\frac{1}{2}\frac{H\_2}{\tan a - \tan \theta} + R, \frac{1}{2}\Big| 3H\_1 + H\_2 + R^2 \tan a + \frac{H\_2 R \tan a}{\tan a - \tan \theta} \right) \tag{4}$$

The landing dynamic models of elastic parts are

$$\begin{cases} \begin{array}{c} m\_{\text{P}\_1} \ddot{\mathbf{x}}\_{\text{P}\_1} = -F\_\text{P} \cos \alpha - F\_\text{a} \cos \theta\\ m\_{\text{P}\_1} \ddot{\mathbf{y}}\_{\text{P}\_1} = F\_\text{P} \sin \alpha + F\_\text{a} \sin \theta - m\_{\text{P}\_1} \mathbf{g} \end{array} \tag{5}$$

where *F*p is the damping force of the primary strut, *F*a is the damping force of the auxiliary strut. The landing dynamic models of non-elastic parts are

$$\begin{cases} \begin{array}{c} m\_{\text{P2}} \ddot{\mathbf{x}}\_{\text{P2}} = F\_{\text{P}} \cos \alpha + F\_{\text{a}} \cos \theta - \mu F\_{\text{n}} \\ m\_{\text{P2}} y\_{\text{P2}} = F\_{\text{n}} - F\_{\text{P}} \sin \alpha - F\_{\text{a}} \sin \theta - m\_{\text{P}2} g \end{array} \tag{6}$$

where µ is the friction coefficient. *F*n is the contact force between the pad and ground, shown as follows [26]

$$F\_{\mathbf{n}} = \begin{cases} 0, \ q > q\_0 \\ k(q\_0 - q)^{\varepsilon} - c\dot{q}\text{step}(q, q\_0 - d, 1, q\_0, 0), \ q \le q\_0 \end{cases} \tag{7}$$

where *q* is the distance criterion of the impact function, *q*0 is the trigger distance of the impact function. *k* is the stiffness, *e* is the contact force exponent, *c* is the contact damping, and *d* is the penetration depth.

According to the cross-section diagram of the primary strut damper in Figure 2, the damping force of the primary strut damper *F*p is

$$\begin{split} \mathbf{F\_{P}} &= F\_{\text{c}} + F\_{\text{u}} + F\_{\text{Ni}} \\ &= \frac{3\pi D^{2}L\tau}{4\hbar} + \frac{3\eta L[\pi(D^{2} - d^{2})]^{2}}{4\pi D\hbar^{3}}v + 0.5\rho K\_{\text{entropy}}\frac{A\_{\text{p}}{}^{4}}{A\_{\text{gap}}}v^{2} \\ &+ 0.5\rho K\_{\text{exit}}\frac{A\_{\text{p}}{}^{4}}{A\_{\text{gap}}}v^{2} + A\_{\text{n}}P\_{0}\left(\frac{V\_{\text{f}}}{V}\right)^{1.1} \end{split} \tag{8}$$

where *F*u is the uncontrollable damping force of the MRF damper. *F*c is the controllable damping force of the MRF damper. *F*Ni is the air-spring force caused by the accumulator [27–29]. *F*entry is local resistance caused by the abrupt enlargement, and *F*exit is local resistance caused by the abrupt contraction. ρ is the density of MRF. *K*entry is the local resistance coefficient of the entry, and *K*exit is the local resistance coefficient of the exit. *v* is the piston velocity. *A*p is the piston area. *A*gap is the gap area between the master cylinder and piston, and *A*n is the cross-section area of the master cylinder. *P*0 is the initial pressure of the accumulator. *V*0 is the initial volume of the accumulator, and *V* is the volume of the accumulator during the landing.

#### *3.2. Parameterized Design of the RLV Landing System*

According to the proposed landing dynamic model, *H*1, α, and θ determine the buffer effects of *F*a and *F*p, and the efficiency and performance of landing systems [30]. Hence, a parameterized design of the RLV landing system is proposed according to these three parameters to get an effective landing system. The lower and upper limits of these three parameters are given in Table 3. The rocket acceleration, compression strokes of dampers, and the distance between the rocket and ground are the most important indexes for the design of a landing system [31]. A large rocket acceleration will damage structures and instruments [32]. Large compressions of primary strut dampers will cause the rocket to incline or tip over. The distance between the rocket and the ground should be large enough for a safe landing [33]. The mass is also an important index for spacecraft, a lighter landing system means a lower launch cost. Hence, these four design targets of the landing system are selected as responses, as shown in Table 4. The parameterized design principle based on the response surface methodology (RSM) is shown as follows

$$\begin{cases} \text{Minimize} \langle D \rangle = \text{Mini} \left\{ \sqrt[4]{R\_1 R\_2 (R\_{\text{P}\_1} - R\_3) R\_4} \right\} \\ \text{s.t.} \begin{cases} 24 \le \theta \le 30 \\ 42 \le \alpha \le 53 \\ 1200 \le H\_1 \le 1800 \end{cases} \end{cases} \tag{9}$$

where *R*P1 is the initial distance between the mass center of the rocket and the ground.

**Table 3.** Lower and upper boundaries of parameters [34,35].

#### **Table 4.** Design target parameters.

{*D*} is the desirability function, which shows the desirable ranges for each response *R*i . The function combines these four responses in a non-dimensional way. Its design goal is the smallest rocket acceleration, compression stroke, the mass of a set of landing gear, and the largest distance between the rocket and ground.

The RSM builds an approximate model between the codes (design parameters) and responses (design targets) via function fitting. The RSM assumes every code is an n-dimensional vector *x*∈*E* n , which is the independent variable of its response function *y*. Their relationship is *y* = *f*(*x*). Based on lots of simulation data, an approximate function of the response e*y* is obtained by the undetermined coefficient method. Considering the efficiency and accuracy, a quadratic function with cross terms is used, which is shown as follows

$$\sqrt[n]{y} = a\_0 + \sum\_{j=1}^{n} a\_j \mathbf{x}\_j + \sum\_{i=1}^{n} \sum\_{j=1}^{n} a\_{ij} \mathbf{x}\_i \mathbf{x}\_j \tag{10}$$

where *a*0 is the undetermined coefficient of the constant term, *aj* is the undetermined coefficient of the one-degree term, and *aij* is the undetermined coefficient of the quadratic term. e*y* is close to *y* by keeping their sum of error squares smallest via the least square principle [36].

According to the ranges of the three parameters (factors) in Table 3, landing dynamic simulations are carried to get corresponding four design targets (responses) under different parameter combinations. Their results are the RSM sampling, as shown in the appendix. Based on the RSM sampling and fit function in Equation (10), accurately fitted functions between codes and responses are obtained by the undetermined coefficient method, as shown in Table 5. These code coefficients of functions show the influences of codes on responses [37]. The influences of three codes and their extended codes on *R*1 is C > B > A > BC > AB > A2 > C 2 > AC > B 2 . The influences of three codes and their extended codes on *R*2 is B2 > A2 > A > AC > C 2 > BC > C > B > AB. The influences of three codes and their extended codes on *R*3 is A > C > AC > C 2 > B 2 > A2> AB > BC > B. The influences of three codes and their extended codes on *R*4 is C > A > AC > A2 , B2 , C2 > BC > AB > B.

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**Table 5.** Fitted functions between codes and responses.

Based on these four functions, the predicted values versus actual values of four responses are shown in Figures 7–10. The points above or below the line indicate that they are over or under prediction. The data points of plots are randomly scattered along the 45◦ oblique line, which suggests that these four functions are accurate. These fitted functions can provide powerful support for the following parameterized design. Based on these four functions, the predicted values versus actual values of four responses are shown in Figures 7–10. The points above or below the line indicate that they are over or under prediction. The data points of plots are randomly scattered along the 45° oblique line, which suggests that these four functions are accurate. These fitted functions can provide powerful support for the following parameterized design. shown in Figures 7–10. The points above or below the line indicate that they are over or under prediction. The data points of plots are randomly scattered along the 45° oblique line, which suggests that these four functions are accurate. These fitted functions can provide powerful support for the following parameterized design.

Based on these four functions, the predicted values versus actual values of four responses are

**Figure 7.** Predicted versus actual values of the highest rocket acceleration. **Figure 7.** Predicted versus actual values of the highest rocket acceleration. **Figure 7.** Predicted versus actual values of the highest rocket acceleration.

**Figure 8.** Predicted versus actual values of damper greatest compression stroke. **Figure 8.** Predicted versus actual values of damper greatest compression stroke. **Figure 8.** Predicted versus actual values of damper greatest compression stroke.

Combining the design principle in Equation (10) and the fitted functions in Table 5, the final design result based on RSM is shown in Table 6.

*Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

**Figure 9.** Predicted versus actual values of the distance between rocket and ground. **Figure 9.** Predicted versus actual values of the distance between rocket and ground. **Figure 9.** Predicted versus actual values of the distance between rocket and ground.

**Figure 10.** Predicted versus actual values of mass. **Figure 10.** Predicted versus actual values of mass. **Figure 10.** Predicted versus actual values of mass.

Combining the design principle in Equation (10) and the fitted functions in Table 5, the final Combining the design principle in Equation (10) and the fitted functions in Table 5, the final **Table 6.** Final design parameters and targets.

Greatest compression stroke

Greatest compression stroke

Distance between rocket

Distance between rocket

and ground Mass

and ground Mass

#### A(*θ*) B (*α*) C (*H*1) Highest rocket acceleration A(*θ*) B (*α*) C (*H*1) acceleration **4. Landing Dynamic Simulations**

29.58° 52.42° 1800 mm 17.79 m/s2 47.31 mm 1286.82 mm 85.12 Kg **4. Landing Dynamic Simulations** Based on the design parameters in Section 3, a dynamic model of the RLV with semi-active control is built in MSC Adams to validate the proposed landing system, as shown in Figure 11. The rocket diameter is 2250 mm. The entire RLV weighs 5200 kg. Its center of mass is located at (0, 6017 29.58° 52.42° 1800 mm 17.79 m/s2 47.31 mm 1286.82 mm 85.12 Kg **4. Landing Dynamic Simulations** Based on the design parameters in Section 3, a dynamic model of the RLV with semi-active control is built in MSC Adams to validate the proposed landing system, as shown in Figure 11. The rocket diameter is 2250 mm. The entire RLV weighs 5200 kg. Its center of mass is located at (0, 6017 mm, 0). The coordinate system is at the center of the bottom surface of the rocket, as shown in Figure Based on the design parameters in Section 3, a dynamic model of the RLV with semi-active control is built in MSC Adams to validate the proposed landing system, as shown in Figure 11. The rocket diameter is 2250 mm. The entire RLV weighs 5200 kg. Its center of mass is located at (0, 6017 mm, 0). The coordinate system is at the center of the bottom surface of the rocket, as shown in Figure 6. The highest rocket acceleration and greatest damper compression conditions are selected as examples because they are two of the most important design parameters of landing gears. These two conditions are shown in Figure 12. Their motion parameters are shown in Table 7.

mm, 0). The coordinate system is at the center of the bottom surface of the rocket, as shown in Figure 6. The highest rocket acceleration and greatest damper compression conditions are selected as examples because they are two of the most important design parameters of landing gears. These two

6. The highest rocket acceleration and greatest damper compression conditions are selected as examples because they are two of the most important design parameters of landing gears. These two

Furthermore, the influences of structural flexibility and friction on landing performance are discussed in dynamic simulations. The end centers of the primary strut deployments and damper

Furthermore, the influences of structural flexibility and friction on landing performance are discussed in dynamic simulations. The end centers of the primary strut deployments and damper cylinders are fixed in their modal analysis. Their 20 order models are calculated in MSC Patran to

conditions are shown in Figure 12. Their motion parameters are shown in Table 7.

conditions are shown in Figure 12. Their motion parameters are shown in Table 7.

Highest rocket

system more accurately.

obtain flexible primary struts. The flexible structures are imported into MSC Adams to conduct multiple coupled flexible–rigid dynamic simulations. Structural flexibility and friction will influence rocket acceleration, energy absorption, and compression strokes [38]. Different combinations of rigid structures, flexible structures, and frictions are simulated to analyze the proposed RLV landing

obtain flexible primary struts. The flexible structures are imported into MSC Adams to conduct multiple coupled flexible–rigid dynamic simulations. Structural flexibility and friction will influence rocket acceleration, energy absorption, and compression strokes [38]. Different combinations of rigid structures, flexible structures, and frictions are simulated to analyze the proposed RLV landing

*Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20

**Figure 11.** Top view of the RLV. **Figure 11.** Top view of the RLV.

**Figure 12.** Two typical landing conditions of the RLV. **Figure 12.** Two typical landing conditions of the RLV.

**Figure 12.** Two typical landing conditions of the RLV. **Table 7.** Parameters of two typical landing conditions.

Greatest compression −2 m/s 1 m/s 3° *4.1. Highest rocket Acceleration Condition* Under the highest rocket acceleration condition, four sets of landing gears touch the ground at the same time. The accelerations and the distances between the rocket and the ground are shown in Figures 13 and 14, respectively. L1 is taken as an example, whose damping forces and damper compression strokes are shown in Figures 15 and 16, respectively. *4.1. Highest rocket Acceleration Condition* Under the highest rocket acceleration condition, four sets of landing gears touch the ground at the same time. The accelerations and the distances between the rocket and the ground are shown in Figures 13 and 14, respectively. L1 is taken as an example, whose damping forces and damper compression strokes are shown in Figures 15 and 16, respectively. Furthermore, the influences of structural flexibility and friction on landing performance are discussed in dynamic simulations. The end centers of the primary strut deployments and damper cylinders are fixed in their modal analysis. Their 20 order models are calculated in MSC Patran to obtain flexible primary struts. The flexible structures are imported into MSC Adams to conduct multiple coupled flexible–rigid dynamic simulations. Structural flexibility and friction will influence rocket acceleration, energy absorption, and compression strokes [38]. Different combinations of rigid structures, flexible structures, and frictions are simulated to analyze the proposed RLV landing system more accurately.

#### *4.1. Highest Rocket Acceleration Condition*

Under the highest rocket acceleration condition, four sets of landing gears touch the ground at the same time. The accelerations and the distances between the rocket and the ground are shown in Figures 13 and 14, respectively. L1 is taken as an example, whose damping forces and damper compression strokes are shown in Figures 15 and 16, respectively. *Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20 **Figure 13.** Rocket accelerations of the RLV under the highest acceleration landing condition.

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**Figure 13.** Rocket accelerations of the RLV under the highest acceleration landing condition. **Figure 13.** Rocket accelerations of the RLV under the highest acceleration landing condition.

, and the

, and the

damping forces of these four situations are close to each other. **Figure 14.** Distance between rocket and ground under the highest acceleration landing condition. **Figure 14.** Distance between rocket and ground under the highest acceleration landing condition.

The highest rocket acceleration of current landing systems with passive liquid dampers is 37.2 m/s2 under the highest acceleration landing condition [2,17]. Compared to this, the highest rocket acceleration of the proposed landing system with semi-active control decrease about 30.2%. By by controlling the damping forces of the four primary strut dampers, the RLV has much lower rocket accelerations and impact forces, which can protect the structures and instruments better during rocket recycle. As shown in Figures 14 and 16, the distance between the rocket and the ground and the compression strokes of L1 are close to each other in these four situations. In conclusion, friction

The highest rocket acceleration of current landing systems with passive liquid dampers is 37.2 m/s2 under the highest acceleration landing condition [2,17]. Compared to this, the highest rocket acceleration of the proposed landing system with semi-active control decrease about 30.2%. By by controlling the damping forces of the four primary strut dampers, the RLV has much lower rocket accelerations and impact forces, which can protect the structures and instruments better during rocket recycle. As shown in Figures 14 and 16, the distance between the rocket and the ground and

*Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20

the compression strokes of L1 are close to each other in these four situations. In conclusion, friction has little influence on landing performance. However, structural flexibility has a strong influence on

**Figure 15.** Damping forces of L1 of the RLV under the highest acceleration landing condition. **Figure 15.** Damping forces of L1 of the RLV under the highest acceleration landing condition.

**Figure 16.** Damper compression strokes of L1 of the RLV under the highest acceleration landing **Figure 16.** Damper compression strokes of L1 of the RLV under the highest acceleration landing condition.

**Figure 16.** Damper compression strokes of L1 of the RLV under the highest acceleration landing condition. *4.2. Greatest Damper Compressions Condition* Under the greatest damper compressions condition, L3 touches the ground first. Second, L2 and L4 touch the ground together. Finally, L1 touches the ground. In brief, it is a kind of 1–2–1 landing condition. The rocket accelerations and the distances between the rocket and the ground are shown in Figures 17 and 18. Because L3 touches the ground first, L3 is taken as an example. The damping forces and compression strokes of L3 are shown in Figures 19 and 20. condition. *4.2. Greatest Damper Compressions Condition* Under the greatest damper compressions condition, L3 touches the ground first. Second, L2 and L4 touch the ground together. Finally, L1 touches the ground. In brief, it is a kind of 1–2–1 landing condition. The rocket accelerations and the distances between the rocket and the ground are shown in Figures 17 and 18. Because L3 touches the ground first, L3 is taken as an example. The damping forces and compression strokes of L3 are shown in Figures 19 and 20. Figure 13 shows that all rocket accelerations of these four situations possess the same tendency. At about 0.003 s, four pads touch the ground, and peaks appear vertically. Subsequently, the rocket accelerations decrease vertically and remain at about 4 m/s 2 . During the landing, the controllable damping forces *F*c of four primary strut dampers belong to Z and S. Their uncontrollable damping forces *F*u slowly decrease versus time due to compression velocity decrease. The highest rocket acceleration of the entire rigid model is 25.95 m/s 2 . The highest rocket acceleration of the entire rigid model with friction is 27.57 m/s 2 , which is the largest in these four situations. The highest rocket acceleration of the model with flexible primary struts is 12.73 m/s 2 , which is the smallest in these four situations. Additionally, structural flexibility causes fluctuations in acceleration and damping force. Adding friction to the flexible model, the highest rocket acceleration increases to 13.13 m/s 2 , and the fluctuations of the rocket acceleration and damping force also increase. The highest rocket accelerations for these two flexible situations decrease by about 51% at the touch down moment. At the same time, the damping force peaks of L1 decrease by about 5%, because the flexible structures absorb parts of the impact energy. However, after the instantaneous contact, rocket accelerations and damping forces of these four situations are close to each other.

The highest rocket acceleration of current landing systems with passive liquid dampers is 37.2 m/s 2 under the highest acceleration landing condition [2,17]. Compared to this, the highest

small vertical decrease.

small vertical decrease.

rocket acceleration of the proposed landing system with semi-active control decrease about 30.2%. By controlling the damping forces of the four primary strut dampers, the RLV has much lower rocket accelerations and impact forces, which can protect the structures and instruments better during rocket recycle. As shown in Figures 14 and 16, the distance between the rocket and the ground and the compression strokes of L1 are close to each other in these four situations. In conclusion, friction has little influence on landing performance. However, structural flexibility has a strong influence on rocket acceleration and the damping forces of primary struts.

#### *4.2. Greatest Damper Compressions Condition*

Under the greatest damper compressions condition, L3 touches the ground first. Second, L2 and L4 touch the ground together. Finally, L1 touches the ground. In brief, it is a kind of 1–2–1 landing condition. The rocket accelerations and the distances between the rocket and the ground are shown in Figures 17 and 18. Because L3 touches the ground first, L3 is taken as an example. The damping forces and compression strokes of L3 are shown in Figures 19 and 20. *Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20 *Symmetry* **2020**, *12*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20

**Figure 17.** Accelerations of RLV under the greatest compressions landing condition. **Figure 17.** Accelerations of RLV under the greatest compressions landing condition. **Figure 17.** Accelerations of RLV under the greatest compressions landing condition.

**Figure 18.** Distance between rocket and ground under the greatest compressions landing condition. **Figure 18.** Distance between rocket and ground under the greatest compressions landing condition.

**Figure 18.** Distance between rocket and ground under the greatest compressions landing condition.

At about 0.005 s, L3 touches the ground, and rocket accelerations and damping forces increase vertically. At about 0.085 s, L2 and L4 touch the ground at the same time. The rocket accelerations increase vertically again. At about 0.167 s, L1 touches the ground, and the rocket accelerations increase

At about 0.005 s, L3 touches the ground, and rocket accelerations and damping forces increase vertically. At about 0.085 s, L2 and L4 touch the ground at the same time. The rocket accelerations increase vertically again. At about 0.167 s, L1 touches the ground, and the rocket accelerations increase vertically for a third time. From 0.167 s to 0.310 s, the controllable damping force *F*c of L1 belongs to

forces *F*u decrease versus time slowly due to the decrease of compression velocities. The air-spring forces *F*Ni increase because damper compressions increase. Hence, their resultant forces remain basically stable. Additionally, the pitch angle gradually decreases to 0 due to the horizontal velocity and control of the damping forces. The rocket accelerations increase slightly during this time. After 0.310 s, four controllable damping forces *F*c belong to Z together, and the rocket accelerations have a

basically stable. Additionally, the pitch angle gradually decreases to 0 due to the horizontal velocity and control of the damping forces. The rocket accelerations increase slightly during this time. After 0.310 s, four controllable damping forces *F*c belong to Z together, and the rocket accelerations have a

of RLV landing systems.

of RLV landing systems.

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**Figure 19.** Force of primary strut 1 of RLV under the greatest compressions landing condition. **Figure 19.** Force of primary strut 1 of RLV under the greatest compressions landing condition.

**Figure 20.** Strokes of primary strut 1 of RLV under the greatest compressions landing condition.

**Figure 20.** Strokes of primary strut 1 of RLV under the greatest compressions landing condition. Under the greatest damper compressions condition, the compression strokes of the proposed landing system with semi-active control are close to those of current landing systems. However, the highest rocket acceleration of current landing systems with passive liquid dampers is about 22.5 m/s2 [2]. The highest rocket acceleration of the proposed landing system with a rigid model is 5.37 m/s2 which is a decrease of about 76.1%. Additionally, the highest rocket accelerations also decrease by about 54% at the three touch down moments in these two flexible situations. At the same time, damping forces decrease by about 11% in these two flexible situations. Except for the three touch **Figure 20.** Strokes of primary strut 1 of RLV under the greatest compressions landing condition. Under the greatest damper compressions condition, the compression strokes of the proposed landing system with semi-active control are close to those of current landing systems. However, the highest rocket acceleration of current landing systems with passive liquid dampers is about 22.5 m/s2 [2]. The highest rocket acceleration of the proposed landing system with a rigid model is 5.37 m/s2 which is a decrease of about 76.1%. Additionally, the highest rocket accelerations also decrease by about 54% at the three touch down moments in these two flexible situations. At the same time, damping forces decrease by about 11% in these two flexible situations. Except for the three touch down moments, the rocket accelerations and damping forces of flexible situations are a little higher At about 0.005 s, L3 touches the ground, and rocket accelerations and damping forces increase vertically. At about 0.085 s, L2 and L4 touch the ground at the same time. The rocket accelerations increase vertically again. At about 0.167 s, L1 touches the ground, and the rocket accelerations increase vertically for a third time. From 0.167 s to 0.310 s, the controllable damping force *F*c of L1 belongs to Z, and the controllable damping forces *F*c of L2, L3, and L4 belong to S. Their uncontrollable damping forces *F*u decrease versus time slowly due to the decrease of compression velocities. The air-spring forces *F*Ni increase because damper compressions increase. Hence, their resultant forces remain basically stable. Additionally, the pitch angle gradually decreases to 0 due to the horizontal velocity and control of the damping forces. The rocket accelerations increase slightly during this time. After 0.310 s, four controllable damping forces *F*c belong to Z together, and the rocket accelerations have a small vertical decrease.

,

,

better landing performance than current landing systems with passive liquid or liquid–honeycomb dampers. On one hand, structural flexibility decreases rocket acceleration and damping force. On the other hand, friction increases rocket acceleration and damping force a little. Both flexibility and friction have little influence on the compression strokes of the primary strut dampers and the distances between the rocket and the ground. Structural flexibility should be considered in the design

better landing performance than current landing systems with passive liquid or liquid–honeycomb dampers. On one hand, structural flexibility decreases rocket acceleration and damping force. On the other hand, friction increases rocket acceleration and damping force a little. Both flexibility and friction have little influence on the compression strokes of the primary strut dampers and the distances between the rocket and the ground. Structural flexibility should be considered in the design

In conclusion, these two typical landing conditions prove that the proposed landing system has

dampers and distances between the rocket and ground are also close in these four situations.

down moments, the rocket accelerations and damping forces of flexible situations are a little higher

than those of rigid situations. Structural flexibility also causes an approximately 0.005 s delay, and fluctuations of rocket accelerations and damping forces. The compression strokes of primary strut

Under the greatest damper compressions condition, the compression strokes of the proposed landing system with semi-active control are close to those of current landing systems. However, the highest rocket acceleration of current landing systems with passive liquid dampers is about 22.5 m/s 2 [2]. The highest rocket acceleration of the proposed landing system with a rigid model is 5.37 m/s 2 , which is a decrease of about 76.1%. Additionally, the highest rocket accelerations also decrease by about 54% at the three touch down moments in these two flexible situations. At the same time, damping forces decrease by about 11% in these two flexible situations. Except for the three touch down moments, the rocket accelerations and damping forces of flexible situations are a little higher than those of rigid situations. Structural flexibility also causes an approximately 0.005 s delay, and fluctuations of rocket accelerations and damping forces. The compression strokes of primary strut dampers and distances between the rocket and ground are also close in these four situations.

In conclusion, these two typical landing conditions prove that the proposed landing system has better landing performance than current landing systems with passive liquid or liquid–honeycomb dampers. On one hand, structural flexibility decreases rocket acceleration and damping force. On the other hand, friction increases rocket acceleration and damping force a little. Both flexibility and friction have little influence on the compression strokes of the primary strut dampers and the distances between the rocket and the ground. Structural flexibility should be considered in the design of RLV landing systems.

#### **5. Conclusions**

A landing system for reusable launch vehicles with semi-active control was proposed in this paper. Its control approach and landing dynamic model were built. According to the dynamic model, an effective and light landing system was parametrically designed based on the response surface methodology. The parameterized design achieved the best-desired design targets under limited ranges of design parameters, guiding the design by fitted functions between design parameters and targets. The parameterized design provided a fast and high-efficiency approach to designing a landing system. Dynamic landing simulations validated the proposed landing system under landing conditions with the highest rocket acceleration and greatest damper compressions. The simulation results proved that the proposed landing system with semi-active control has better landing performance than currently available landing systems that use passive liquid or liquid–honeycomb dampers. Additionally, the simulation results show that structure flexibilities decrease rocket accelerations by about 50% at the touch down moments. At the same time, they also decrease the damping forces of the primary strut dampers by 5% and 11% at the touch down moments under two typical conditions. However, the friction has little influence on landing performance.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, C.W. and J.C.; Methodology, C.W. and S.J.; Data curation, C.W. and H.C.; Software, C.W.; Validation, C.W.; Formal analysis, C.W.; Investigation, C.W. and J.C.; Resources, C.W. and J.C.; Writing—original draft preparation, C.W.; Writing—review and editing, H.C.; Supervision, J.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was funded by [National Natural Science Foundation of China] grant number [51675264], [National Natural Science Foundation of China] grant number [52075242], [National Natural Science Foundation of China] grant number ]11902157], [Basic Research Program (Natural Science Foundation) of Jiangsu Province] grant number [BK20180417], and [Talents Startup Foundation of Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics] grant number [1011-YAH20114]. And The APC was funded by [National Natural Science Foundation of China] grant number [51675264].

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

### **Notation**