**1. Introduction**

112 Fuzzy Inference System – Theory and Applications

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Conventional car suspensions systems are usually passive, i.e have limitation in suspension control due to their fixed damping force. Semi-active suspension system which is a modification of active and passive suspension system has been found to be more reliable and robust but yet easier and cheaper than the active suspension system.

#### **1.1 Vehicle primary suspensions**

*Primary suspension* is the term used for suspension components connecting the wheel assemblies of a vehicle to the frame of the vehicle (Fig.1). This is in contrast to the suspension components connecting the frame and body of the vehicle, or those components located directly at the vehicle's seat, commonly called the secondary suspension. Usually a vehicle contains both primary and secondary suspension system but primary suspension is chosen for control. There are two basic types of elements in conventional suspension systems. These elements are springs and dampers. The role of the spring in a vehicle's suspension system is to support the static weight of the vehicle. The role of the damper is to dissipate vibrational energy and control the input from the road that is transmitted to the vehicle. Primary suspensions are divided into passive, active and semi active systems [Miller 1990], as will be discussed next, within the context of this study.

Fig. 1. Primary suspension system

Fuzzy Logic Controller for Mechatronics and Automation 115

In Fig 3, the model for one-quarter of a car is represented. The mass of this portion of the vehicle body (sprung mass) and one tire (unsprung mass) is defined respectively by *m*1 and *m*2 , with their corresponding displacements defined by *Y* and *X*. The suspension spring, 1 *k* , and damper, 1 *b* , are attached between the vehicle body and tire, and the stiffness of the tire is represented by 2 *k* . The relative velocity across the suspension damper of this model

Before modeling an automatic suspension system, a quarter car model (i.e. model for one of the four wheels) is used to simplify the problem to a one-dimensional (only vertical displacement of the car is considered) spring-damper system. The reason for choosing the quarter car model is to analyze and control the suspension for each wheel separately and

Body mass (*m1*)

Unsprung mass (*m2*)

accurately. The schematic diagram of a quarter car system is shown in Figure 4

*k1*

*rel v y x* (1)

Actuator with force MV

Parameters Amount

*b1*

is defined by

**1.5 Modeling of quarter car model**

*y*

*x*

*w*

Fig. 4. Modeling of quarter-car suspension system

Table 1. Parameters of the active suspension system

The parameters used for the system are shown in Table 1.

*m1* (Body Mass or sprung mass) 315 kg *m2* (Suspension Mass or unsprung mass) 45 kg *k2* (Tyre Stiffness) 190000N/m *k1* (Suspension spring constant) 40000N/m *b1* (Damping Constant of Suspension) 290N/m

*k2*

### **1.2 Passive damping**

A passive suspension system is one in which the characteristics of the components (springs and dampers) are fixed. A passive control system does not require an external power source. Passive control devices impart forces that are developed in response to the motion of the wheel hop.


*Edited by Padmini Sudarshana, Madhugiri Nageswara-Rao and Jaya R. Soneji*

Tropical forests occupy only one-tenth of the world's land area but are home to more than half of the world's flora and fauna. They comprise extremely complex labyrinth of ecological interactions. The astounding richness and biodiversity of tropical forests are rapidly dwindling. There is a fear that the burgeoning human population and industrialization, where a majority of these tropical forests are found, may lead to the clearing or modification or may be a complete disappearance of the remaining tropical forests within few decades. This has severely altered the vital biogeochemical cycles of carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, and so on and has led to the change in global climate and pristine natural ecosystems. Hence, there is an urgent need to protect, restore, conserve, and improve the forest resources before they are irrevocably lost. In this second edition of the book *Tropical Forests*, the chapters share the above issues and help in understanding, educating, and creating awareness on the role of "tropical forests" for the very survival of mankind, climate change, and the diversity of biota across the globe. This book will be of great use and could be useful to students, scientists, ecologists, population and conservation biologists, and forest managers across the globe.

ISBN 978-1-78923-562-3

Tropical Forests - New Edition

Published in London, UK © 2018 IntechOpen © justincobb1 / pixabay


**Author details**

Carlos Martín Enríquez-Castro1 \*, Manuel Pérez-Nafarrate2 and Jesús Enrique Gerardo Rodríguez3

1 Superior Tecnological Institute Zacatecas Norte, Río Grande, Zacatecas, México

2 TRIO3 Food Technologies, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México

3 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Robert M. Kerr Food and Agricultural Products Center, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**85**

*Innovation in Food Products Using Ozone Technology: Impact on Quality Assurance*

B.C., and Gangwara, B. A review on application of ozone in the food processing and packaging. 2014. Journal of Food Product Development and

[9] Varga, L., ad Szigeti, J. Use of ozone in the dairy industry: A review. 2016. International Journal of Dairy

[10] Ghernaout, D., Alshammari Y., Alghamdi, A., Aichouini, M., Touahmia, M., and Ait Messaoudene, N. Water reuse: Extenuating membrane fouling in membrane processes. 2018. International Journal of Environmental

Packaging. **1**, 07-21

Technology. **69**, 157-168

Chemistry. **2**, 1-12

2009. 877, 55-68

2018. **6**, 16-18

[11] Saltveit, M. E. Respiratory

[12] Martinelli, F., Scalenghe, R.,

metabolism. In: Postharvest physiology and biochemistry of fruits and vegetables. Woodhead Publishing, 2019. pp. 73-91

Davino, S., Panno, S., Scuderi, G., Ruisi, P., Villa, P., Stroppiana, D., Boschetti, M., Goulart, L.R. and Davis, C. E. Advanced methods of plant disease detection: a review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 2015. **35**, 1-25

[13] Streif, J., Kittemann, D., Neuwald, D. A, McCormick, R. &Xuan, H. Pre and postharvest management of fruit quality, ripening and senescence. In VI International Postharvest Symposium.

[14] Ramjan, M. and Ansari, M.T. Factors affecting of fruits, vegetables and its quality. Journal of Medicinal Plants.

[15] Paciuli, M., Ganino, T., Pellegrini, N., Rinaldi, M., Zaupa, M., Fabbri, A., and Chiavaro, E. Impact of the industrial freezing process on selected vegetables-Part I. Structure, texture and antioxidant capacity. 2015. Food Research International. **74**, 329-337

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96681*

[1] Oner, ME, & Demirci A. Ozone for food decontamination: Theory and applications. In Handbook of hygiene control in the food industry. Woodhead

Publishing. 2016. pp. 491-501

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*Innovation in Food Products Using Ozone Technology: Impact on Quality Assurance DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96681*


*2.1. Spectrometer Development*

Figure 1 shows the schematic and prototype of the spectrometer designed in this study, which includes a collimator, an optical fiber, a connector, a reflective diffraction grating, a focusing mirror, and a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) linear sensor. The optical fiber, through which the light enters, is connected to the collimator with an SMA (SubMiniature version A) connector. Since the round-to-linear fiber optic bundle (model No.: BFL200HS02, Thorlabs Inc., Newton, MA, USA) is used as the optical fiber, there is no need to add a separate slit as an entrance aperture. This indicates that the output terminal of the fiber optic bundle, i.e., the linear bundle, acts as the slit. The collimator (model No.: PAF2S-7A, Thorlabs Inc., Newton, MA, USA) is used to collimate the light, coming from the fiber optic bundle, and then send a collimated beam towards the grating. The reflective diffraction grating (model No.: GR13-0605, Thorlabs Inc., Newton, MA, USA) splits the photons coming from the collimator, depending on the wavelength, and then spreads the light across the focusing mirror (concave). The focusing mirror directs the light, at each wavelength, onto the CMOS linear image sensor. The line camera (model: USB line camera 8M, Coptonix GmbH, Berlin, German) which consists of a main circuit board, and the CMOS linear image sensor (model No.: S11637-1024Q, Hamamatsu, Hamamatsu City, Japan) is used as the detector. Each pixel of the CMOS linear image represents a portion of the spectrum that is translated into a measurable value, by a spectroscopy software. A dedicated software was also developed to operate the spectrometer, display the measured data, and store measurement results. The spectral response range of the developed spectrometer was 225–975 nm, and its sampling frequency was 5 kHz.

**Figure 1.** Configuration of the developed spectrometer: (**a**) schematic; (**b**) designed prototype.


**6. Multipotent and pluripotent stem cells for the treatment of MDs**

Satellite cells are quiescent mononucleated myogenic cells, located between the sarcolemma and basement membrane of terminally-differentiated muscle fibres [36]. For a long time, adult muscle was considered as a static tissue. Furthermore, due to its histological nature, it was considered formed by spatially-oriented post-mitotic multinucleated muscle fibres. Since 1961, the discovery of satellite cells by Katz and Mauro, together with vast studies about their biological role, revealed the existence of plasticity potential in adult skeletal muscle tissue. Their name derived from the distinctive location, wedged between the basal lamina and sarcolemma of myofibres, in a separate place from the fibre. With an estimated number between 1×1010 to 2×1010 satellite cells per person, these cells represent the main source of muscle progenitors within the adult skeletal muscle tissue [36]. Indeed, they are unipotent stem cells that, in the case of acute muscle damage and during muscle regeneration/degener‐ ation, are able to re-enter the cell cycle and contribute to muscle repair by offering new myogenic progenitors capable to fuse and form new fibres. Pax7 (a paired box transcription factor) was the first identified marker required for myogenic specification of satellite cells. However, in the last decade, several surface markers were identified within the pool of satellite cells. These include CD34, M-cadherin, syndecan-3/4, c-met and the chemokine receptor CXCR4, as well as α7β1-integrin (a transmembrane domain protein), Pax3, barx2, myocyte nuclear factor (MNF) (the latter three are known transcription factors) and caveolin-1 (a scaffolding protein within caveolar membrane) (Table 1). Since these markers are all expressed by satellite cells and not by post-mitotic myonuclei of fibres, their identification within the muscle microenvironment outside the fibres has been relatively easy. These markers were investigated both *in vitro* and *in vivo* for the marked regenerative ability potential of satellite cells [13]. Pre-clinical studies of DMD in the mdx mouse model, which recapitulates the pathophysiological features of human DMD such as the absence of dystrophin (Figure 1), contributed to the increase in knowledge of the therapeutic potential of satellite cells. It was demonstrated that the satellite cells derived from a single fibre of a healthy donor and transplanted into a muscle of mdx mouse can actively contribute to the repopulation of the satellite cell pool of dystrophic muscle, as well as to the regeneration of new dystrophin expressed fibres. Several combinations of markers have been used to identify donor satellite cells and their myogenic contribution in dystrophic mice, including Pax7/CD34 [37] and CD34/ integrin-α [38]. In 2004, a distinct subpopulation of satellite cells, named skeletal myogenic precursors (SMPS), positive for Cxcr4 and β1 integrin and negative for CD45 and Sca1 (a known maker of hematopoietic progenitor cells), were discovered, highlighting the heterogenic nature of satellite cells [39] (Table 1). SMPS showed a robust regenerating ability, as well as a strong capability of repopulating the satellite cell poll when injected in the muscles of mdx mice. Additionally, their potential role in counteracting muscle wasting was confirmed by a strong improvement of muscular contractile properties such as contractile force, observed in treated dystrophic muscles compared to the healthy controls [7].

**Table 1.** Cell markers identifying adult stem cells currently used in cell therapy.

Although satellite cells are the main source of myogenic renewal in adult skeletal muscle tissue, in recent years, other adult stem cells have been discovered. A subpopulation of muscle precursors associated with skeletal muscle tissue, named muscle side population (SP) cells, is a rare source of multipotent stem cells that contribute to muscle regeneration, upon trans‐ plantation. SP cells are characterized by a complete permeability to the Hoechst 33342 dyes, derived from their high expression level of Abcg2 transporter (Table 1). The myogenic potential ability of SP cells has been tested by *in vitro* co-culture with myoblast cells. In these conditions, SP cells were able to fuse with myoblast to form mature myotubes. At the same time, *in vivo* experiments confirmed their involvement in myogenic differentiation (see below). Interestingly, as observed in satellite cells, SP cells also show certain heterogeneity inside their population. Analysis of the expression pattern of specific markers revealed that 80% of SPs are positive for the vascular endothelial marker CD31, while 2-10% of total muscle SPs are bloodderived and positive for the immune marker CD45. In the case of muscle damage and during the followed early phase of regeneration, a fraction of SP cells have been identified as highly positive for CD45, Abcg2 and CD31 (the latter two suggested a possible intervention in modulation of both vascularization and immune system) [40]. Furthermore, a third fraction of SP cells, representing 5% of total population, were recently identified. These cells are charac‐ terized by the absence of both CD45 and CD31 expression, while they may express Pax7, Sca1 and Syndecan4 [40-42] (Table 1). Interestingly, although in physiological conditions this subpopulation of muscle resident SP cells represents the smallest fraction within the rest of population, if engrafted in a regenerating muscle (pre-treated with cardiotoxin to induce acute tissue damage), they showed the highest myogenic differentiation potential [13].

demonstrated that the satellite cells derived from a single fibre of a healthy donor and transplanted into a muscle of mdx mouse can actively contribute to the repopulation of the satellite cell pool of dystrophic muscle, as well as to the regeneration of new dystrophin expressed fibres. Several combinations of markers have been used to identify donor satellite cells and their myogenic contribution in dystrophic mice, including Pax7/CD34 [37] and CD34/ integrin-α [38]. In 2004, a distinct subpopulation of satellite cells, named skeletal myogenic precursors (SMPS), positive for Cxcr4 and β1 integrin and negative for CD45 and Sca1 (a known maker of hematopoietic progenitor cells), were discovered, highlighting the heterogenic nature of satellite cells [39] (Table 1). SMPS showed a robust regenerating ability, as well as a strong capability of repopulating the satellite cell poll when injected in the muscles of mdx mice. Additionally, their potential role in counteracting muscle wasting was confirmed by a strong improvement of muscular contractile properties such as contractile force, observed in treated

dystrophic muscles compared to the healthy controls [7].

402 Muscle Cell and Tissue

**Table 1.** Cell markers identifying adult stem cells currently used in cell therapy.

Although satellite cells are the main source of myogenic renewal in adult skeletal muscle tissue, in recent years, other adult stem cells have been discovered. A subpopulation of muscle precursors associated with skeletal muscle tissue, named muscle side population (SP) cells, is a rare source of multipotent stem cells that contribute to muscle regeneration, upon trans‐ plantation. SP cells are characterized by a complete permeability to the Hoechst 33342 dyes, derived from their high expression level of Abcg2 transporter (Table 1). The myogenic potential ability of SP cells has been tested by *in vitro* co-culture with myoblast cells. In these conditions, SP cells were able to fuse with myoblast to form mature myotubes. At the same time, *in vivo* experiments confirmed their involvement in myogenic differentiation (see below). Interestingly, as observed in satellite cells, SP cells also show certain heterogeneity inside their population. Analysis of the expression pattern of specific markers revealed that 80% of SPs are positive for the vascular endothelial marker CD31, while 2-10% of total muscle SPs are bloodIn 2010, a new population of muscle interstitial stem cells were identified. These are charac‐ terized by their ability to undertake both fibrogenic and adipogenic differentiation [43, 44]. These mesenchymal fibro-adipogenic precursors (FAPs) show an intriguingly functional crosstalk with satellite cells. The nature of this relationship is mutually exclusive within the homeostatic processes of skeletal muscle and, indeed, the presence of FAPs during muscle regeneration enhances the myogenic potential of satellite cells. At the same time, the presence of satellite cells derived from new myofibres inhibits the adipogenic differentiation of FAPs [45]. FAPs were also investigated in the pre-clinical models of MDs. In particular, the treatment of FAPs with histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) increased their *in vitro* myogenic differentiation (Figure 2), while, if transplanted in advanced dystrophic muscle (old mdx mouse), FAP cells can enhance the regenerative potential of resident satellite cells [46].

Another important source of muscle progenitors associated with vasculature, named mesoan‐ gioblasts (MABs), were investigated for their therapeutic potential in the treatment of muscu‐ lar dystrophies (Figure 2). Mesoangioblasts were originally isolated from embryonic aorta of a quail and mouse and, later on, in the adult skeletal muscle of a mouse, dog and human. MABs are multipotent stem cells positive for CD34, SMA, Pdgfrα, Pdgfrβ, Ng2, AP and, accordingly withsuchexpressionpattern,canundertakeseveraldifferentiationfates (Table1).Theseinclude myogenic, osteogenic, chondrogenic and adipogenic. Studies of *Scga*-null mice (a limb-girdle muscular dystrophy mouse model) and GRMD (golden retriever muscular dystrophy) dogs showedthatintra-veininjectionofMABs canrestoreboththehistological structureandfunction of large areas of dystrophic muscles [11, 12]. These promising results provided important knowledge regarding the therapeutic use of MABs for the treatment of muscular dystrophies. Recently, these efforts were finalized in a phase I/II clinical trial of donor mesoangioblasts transplantation from HLA-identical donors in five DMD patients, nearing completion (Eu‐ draCT Number: 2011- 000176-33). This clinical trial will provide useful information regarding the safety for the systemic delivery of stem cells in dystrophic patients, as well as the assess‐ ment of the ability of MABs to increase the dystrophin expression (Figure 2).

The scaling up of the research on pluripotent stem cells of the last decades has offered the interesting prospective to adopt this new precious source of stem cell in the treatment of MDs.

Embryonic stem (ES) cells are pluripotent stem cells, originally isolated from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst in a mouse in 1981 and from human in 1998. Their efficient pluripo‐ tency arises from the ability of ES cells to differentiate in all three germ layers - meso‐

derm, ectoderm and endoderm. It was demonstrated in the early 1990s that, if cultured *in vitro*, murine ES cells can develop aggregates of cells (embryoid bodies) and differentiate in skeletal muscle cells expressing myogenic markers in the same muscle-specific determina‐ tion genes order observed during embrional development: myf5, myogenin, myoD and myf6 [47]. Later on, both *in vitro* and *in vivo* studies confirmed their myogenic differentiation potential [13]. Nonetheless, the possibility of a therapeutic adoption of ES cells met the criticisms of both civil and scientific communities (see below). In 2006, Yamanaka publish‐ ed a revolutionary, paradigm-shift study. For the first time, a fate conversion of somatic cells (fibroblasts) into pluripotency was demonstrated [48]. As a result of this study, Yamanaka won the Nobel Prize in 2012 and began a new era for pluripotent stem cells-based therapeu‐ tic approach of chronic illness. So far, the myogenic potential of the induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, either from mouse or human origin, have been provided to counteract muscle degeneration in MDs [13] (Figure 2). In particular, *in vitro* and *in vivo* analyses showed that myogenic precursors generated from iPS cells could produce chimeric myotubes if cocultured with C2C12 myogenic cell line. Furthermore, if transplanted in dystrophic mus‐ cles, their contractile properties could also be improved [49].


**Acknowledgements**

This work was partly supported by the Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (no. 24500548 and 17 K17925), and by endowments from MSD and Takeda Pharmaceutical Company.

#### **Conflict of interest**

Keiji Uchida holds a patent on the quantitative tactile examination device. The other authors declare that they have no competing interests.

### **Author details**

Junichi Danjo1 \*, Sonoko Danjo1 , Hideyuki Sawada2 , Keiji Uchida3 and Yu Nakamura1