*3.3.2 Array based proteomics*

Array-based techniques can be divided into targeted assays that measure a select number of molecules, and Nucleic Acid Programmable Protein Arrays (NAPPA) arrays (**Table 4**). Targeted array-based techniques such as Enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISA) and Luminex bead assays involve measurement of selected molecules based on the role of the molecule in a disease process and availability of the assay. These assays are limited by the number of protein markers that can be tested at once, yet a large number of samples can be tested. Array-based assays have been used to discover many candidate cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, and receptors that may play a role in the development of T1D and its complications.

In contrast, NAPPA arrays provide high throughput information on thousands of candidate proteins in a more limited number of samples. NAPPA arrays contain imprinted gene on glass slides and a wheat germ expression system that converts the DNA to RNA to protein. This protein array then detects circulating levels of antibodies against the proteins in the blood of T1D individuals [53]. Recent studies by Bian et al. utilized NAPPA and ELISA to analyze more than 50% of the human proteome in the serum of recent onset T1D patients. They discovered six novel T1D-associated autoantibodies and created a combined AAb panel that had a higher AUC and sensitivity in diagnosis compared to the conventional AAb ZnT8A (**Table 5**) [8, 61]. More studies are required to confirm the findings utilizing the NAPPA in T1D.


**13. Research design**

An exploratory and descriptive method technique was adopted. The empirical research aimed to determine:

The chapter's objectives were achieved; by designing a structured questionnaire that consisted of two sections. Section 1 included the profile of the company concerning positions and qualifications. Section 2 required the respondents to indicate to what extent they collaborated with external partners in adopting open innovation strategies during NPD, identified using a five-point Likert scale for each of these constructs. The constructs measured organisational support for innovation projects, collaboration with external partners and the use of external knowledge. The impact of the strategies was measured using a five-point Likert scale varying from 1 (impact to a lesser extent) to 5 (impact to a greater extent). Section 2 of the questionnaire required respondents to rate their agreement, from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree, that there were benefits from each of the four strategies, namely versatility, inventiveness, commercialisation and collaboration under study. A statistician checked the questionnaire prior to conducting the empirical research to ensure that the formulation of the questions was clear and understandable to the respondents.

## **14. Sampling**

The unit of analysis for the study was senior R and D practitioners within the South African automotive component manufacturers who are member companies of the AIDC, an association that represents the South African automotive industry. As the association represents the entire automotive industry in South Africa, it was decided to incorporate members of this association. Four ACMs from the three central automotive manufacturing provinces were included giving a fair geographical spread a total of 33 questionnaires were sent out to the research and development managers representing the ACMs—a census sample.