**2.7 Assessment of plant growth promotion induced by antagonistic bacterial and fungal isolates**

Rice seeds (cv.IR24) were surface sterilized and dried. Then the sterilized rice seeds were treated with formulated bacterial and fungal antagonists (10 g/kg seeds) and the treated seeds were left for 1 h under shade. The rice seeds were then sown in the plastic pots previously filled with sterile soils. Fifty seeds were sown in each pot and three replications were maintained. Then the germination of seeds were recorded at 7DAS. The seedlings were uprooted at 7 DAS, 14 DAS and 28 DAS to measure the root length, shoot length and to calculate the vigor index [= (root length + shoot length) germination percentage] were measured.

### *2.7.1 Seed priming, raising of seedlings and transplanting*

Seeds of IR24 were treated with 32 selected formulated PGP antagonistic bacterial isolates. The treated sees were left for 1 hr. for adherence of the bacterial and fungal isolates with the treated seed surface. The treated seeds were then sown in the plastic pots filled with sterilized soils. One month old seedlings were then transplanted in the plastic pots filled with puddle soils.


In our research, we started from sociological neo-institutionalism and enhanced the argument with a stronger focus on global cultural diversity. Max Weber already noticed the spread of Western rational culture and bureaucratic institutions around the globe, and he was interested in how diferent cultures related to rationalization (Weber 1972). Tese cultures developed along the lines of diferent religious views of the world and the afterworld. According to Weber, Protestant sects in Europe and North America and their specifc theological approach to the problem of the theodicy initiated the cultural development toward rationalization, which is why Weber used the term "occidental rationalism". Te occidental culture took a very specifc developmental path. Modern Western individualism, capitalism, and means–ends rationality was not necessarily appreciated in other cultural traditions. As studies in anthropology on trade and exchange (Mauss 1967; Fiske 1991, chp. 14) and recent interpretations of the history of economic thinking suggest, regarding "markets as morality-free zones" (Bowles 2017, 25) is rather inappropriate to human nature (Turner 2021, 110, 183). Yet, this is exactly what happens in today's highly dynamic markets, particularly in fnancial markets and stock exchanges. Another example of the diference between culture as a legitimizing foundation of bureaucratic authority and both the legal state as well as societies based on lineages as the fundamental units of social organization is the response toward rectifcation of transgressions. Modern institutions operate *sine ira et studio*, without particular social obligations and emotions (Weber 1972, 129). In contrast, in societies based upon kinship there is a much lower tendency to accept a punishment executed by a nonmember of one's kin group: "Punishment by a nonmember of a member's misbehavior may itself be considered a transgression requiring rectifcation or inviting retaliation" (Bowles 2017, 141). Social order based on extended kinship groups was historically the norm rather than the exception, also in the northern countries, for example, Scotland and Ireland (Weiner 2013), and are comparatively important even today in some cultures (Haidt 2012; Inglehart 2018, 81–82). After the occidental rationalism became unleashed in the West, however, capitalism and institutionalized bureaucracies emerged in an astonishingly short historical period. Positive aspects of this development are enlightenment, progress in science and technology as well as civil rights and liberties at an unprecedented scale (Pinker 2018), at least for citizens in Western democracies. Te fipside of the coin implies bureaucratically organized atrocities (Bauman 1989), mass exploitation, and environmental deterioration. Consequently, anthropologists recently described the highly individualistic European and North American culture as WEIRD (western, educated, industrialized, resourceful, democratic) (Schulz et al. 2019; Henrich 2020). Specifc moral orientations come along with this WEIRD culture. Moral emotions are triggered by the evaluation of actions in six dimensions of what Haidt calls the "moral matrix", and the relative weight of each dimension of this matrix considerably difers across cultures. Te WEIRD "liberal moral matrix" puts substantial weight on the dimensions of care–harm, liberty–oppression, and fairness–cheating. In contrast, loyalty–betrayal, authority–subversion, and sanctity–degradation, which are quite important, for example, in India (Haidt 2012, 121–22), are not valued high, if not even rejected (Haidt 2012, 351).

Given these considerable average diferences in cultural orientations between the WEIRD culture and other cultures (Henrich 2020, chap. 6), why should there be an undamped difusion of Western institutions? If the legitimacy of such institutions requires specifc cultural conditions, it will be likely that diferent cultures moderate the speed of the difusion process, even if the process itself is hard to impede. Tis might hold especially in the institutional feld of education because of its crucial role in the intergenerational reproduction of culture.

We developed our concept of 'cultural spheres' based on existing cultural typologies that suggest a wide-ranging set of characteristics for a country's culture. In our standardized analyses, our methodological approach was to recode cultural characteristics into binary variables and to generate a two-mode network of cultural proximity. In so doing, we extracted fuzzy-set clusters of global cultures from the data. Moreover, analyzing documents on educational issues and programs published by IOs, we combined standardized and nonstandardized methods of text analysis. In addition to the macro-quantitative approach, which included most countries in the world, our qualitative research design is based on a 2 × 2 table. One dimension was 'derivative vs. dedicated' IOs; the second dimension was whether these organizations were open to any state or restricted by specifc criteria, such as geographical position or religion (Windzio and Martens 2021).

We analyzed whether the valued network of cultural proximity had an infuence on the difusion of compulsory education, whether there are diferent trajectories of adjusting the length of compulsory education and whether globalization afects the performance of secondary education systems. Moreover, we investigated regional clusters in the OECD discourse on education, which difer according to similarity in economic and cultural conditions. Using qualitative methods, we checked similarities and diferences in ideational framing of the education purpose in four selected IOs, what kind of ideational framing the SEAMEO and the ICESCO apply, both of which are not universalistic organizations, and whether we fnd diferent frames when we analyze these documents using standardized methods of text analysis.

# **Summarizing Empirical Results in the Light of the Theory**

Te chapters collected in our volume focus on various issues but are integrated by our theoretical framework outlined in Chap. 1. Each of the nine empirical chapters presents empirical results related to our theoretical framework.

Chapter 2 investigates difusion of compulsory education from 1789 to 2010 and shows that there are strong and consistent efects of similarity in the cultural spheres network, whereas there is no efect of ties in the network of colonial legacies. Moreover, the cultural clusters 'WEIRD' and 'Catholic, Spanish-speaking', but also 'Eastern Europe' show much higher adoption rates than 'dominantly Muslim' countries, or countries that are 'not dominantly Muslim African/East Asian'. Since GDP per capita and levels of democratization have been controlled in this analysis, results indicate that cultural similarity does matter in the difusion process. Te fve cultural spheres we extracted from the data by using twomode network analysis do indeed show considerably diferent inclinations to adopt compulsory education. State organized compulsory education originated in Europe and Western countries, then quickly spread among 'Catholic, Spanish-speaking', and 'Eastern European' countries. Te cultural spheres of 'dominantly Muslim' and 'not dominantly Muslim African/East Asian' countries lagged behind in this process. And this is what we expected according to our theory. Transferring important tasks to the state and public institutions and thereby exposing your children to a more or less standardized curriculum and giving them access to literacy and mass communication might accelerate the process of individualization and thereby could support the 'Westernization' of culture and society. Moreover, the role of the state in the Islamic tradition could be diferent from the Western tradition. Certainly, imposing *shari'a* law on the society or regarding the state as a caliphate where the leader's government should work on the realization of a divine law and order is close to the ideology of Islamism rather than Islam (Tibi 1994, 2012). However, it " is likely that many mainstream Muslims would theoretically welcome a renewal of the caliphate, but feel that it is not for them to bring this about" (Silverstein 2010, 75). Silverstein's speculation can prove false, but one reason why states in Muslim countries were comparatively weak in history, although at the same time often authoritarian, could be that interpretations of Qur'an and the Sunna by Muslim scholars did indeed suggest a kind of divine order (Tibi 1994). Tere are plenty of Surahs in the Qur'an related to educational goals and practices (Antes 1991, 70–71). If religious education in Qur'anic schools provided basic literacy, the religious tradition was perhaps a good alternative and to some degree a substitute for state-regulated compulsory education.

Tere are also huge intra-cultural diferences in the sequences on the durations of compulsory schooling, as presented in Chap. 3. Interestingly, the cluster 'Catholic, Spanish-speaking' has comparatively long durations, but it is due to an overall trend to introduce compulsory preprimary education. In contrast, WEIRD countries tend to hold back from implementing such policies, even though these policies are propagated by the UNESCO. Clustering according to the sequences of length of compulsory education reveals that cluster 2 'stagnant short' (N = 28) consists of mainly Arabic and African countries, but there is no clear distinction with respect to cultural spheres when the clustering is based on the sequences. However, there is a correspondence between cluster membership and gender rights: in the cluster 'Long and extending', where the duration of compulsory education is comparatively long, but nevertheless still extending, the mean value of the gender rights scale are highest, whereas it is lowest in the cluster 'Late and stagnant'. Hence, there might be a correspondence between culture and duration of compulsory education, since gender rights or the tendency toward their absence, is an important aspect of the so-called honor cultures, which include segmentary lineages or patriarchal clans (Nisbett and Cohen 1996; Basáñez 2016; Henrich 2020, 283).

A further question was whether globalization has an impact on the performance of secondary education systems. Te infuence of IOs on domestic education policies has been clearly shown in previous studies (Martens et al. 2014), but it is not yet clear whether the actual performance is afected by globalization. In our study, we used global trade, global migration, and global student mobility as indicators of globalization. We measured each of these dimensions as networks and thereby captured recent ideas about globalization in a rather direct manner. In Chap. 4, we applied a model for network evolution that is able to separate the efects of *selection* into a particular network tie from the *infuence* these ties have on actor attributes, in our case, on the performance of a country's secondary education system. Nonetheless, our empirical results did not illustrate a signifcant selection of network ties according to similarity in PISA scores or rankings, nor any efect from social infuence. Tis is an interesting result when considering the background of the responsiveness of some countries to the results of the PISA study (Martens et al. 2014). Rankings published by the OECD had considerable efects and triggered intensive debates in some countries. Surely, the top-down infuence by 'naming and shaming' and by benchmarking the performance of education systems is a diferent mechanism than horizontal interdependencies via networks of trade, migration, and student mobility. Nevertheless, this is what we would expect according to the theories of globalization: the stronger the interconnectedness of countries, the stronger are the lateral infuences in the world system. If this argument is still correct, then our results indicate that it depends on the respective dimension of the network in which countries are tied to each other. At least we can conclude that the three network dimensions investigated in our study do not infuence educational performance, despite the policy changes triggered by global actors, such as the OECD. Perhaps our results also indicate that the implementation of policy reforms is at times rather a performative act (Steiner-Khamsi 2012) and 'myth and ceremony' (Meyer and Rowan 1977).

Chapter 5 focused on the four major IOs, the World Bank, OECD, UNESCO, ILO, and their ideational framing of education. Te World Bank now acknowledges the limits of a liberal market model but its traditional economic paradigm is still present. Te OECD follows a twofold education leitmotif, namely, the individual beneft and a better quality of life due to education, but also better employability and higher wages. However, the states are supposed to also beneft from the overall increase in education due to economic prosperity. Te UNESCO does not neglect the economic consequences of education, but addresses the improvement of people's living conditions, a better inclusion of marginalized groups, reducing poverty, and improving social justice and social cohesion. Te leitmotifs of the ILO became more diverse over time as well. Originally, the ILO managed labor markets and employability, but now also covers equal opportunities and social cohesion, even though the improvement for individual workers' conditions is still considered highly important. Te most important result of this comparative analysis is the tendency toward *integrative* ideas. Whereas these organizations formerly dealt with diferent issues—World Bank and OECD with economic growth; UNESCO and ILO with quality of employment, social issues, quality of life, and social cohesion—these issues seem now to converge toward more integrative concepts. In our view, if there is some commonsense about the importance of particular issues, in this case, social justice and the improvement of life, they become institutionalized expectations in the social environment of the organizations so that it becomes almost impossible to ignore these issues. Proponents of new institutionalism may not be surprised by this result.

Chapter 6 investigates the references in OECD publications. References to European countries seem to be more prevalent compared with references to non-European countries. Certainly, this has to do with the fact that most OECD countries are European. However, references occur quite often within regional clusters, even though European countries, mainly Finland and Germany, receive most references. So, the "Westernization of education is just as much a Finlandization, a Europeanization, or even a 'localization' of education policy" (Chap. 6 in this volume). It has been shown in previous research that Finland, as the best performer in the PISA 2000, did set the mark for many countries, whose representatives tried to learn about Finland's education system (Martens et al. 2014). Once a particular Finnish strategy has been identifed as efective for success and entered public discourse, for instance, the inclusion of anybody (Herrmann 2020), it is hardly possible not to consider its adoption.

Chapters 7 and 8 analyze the educational leitmotifs of the SEAMEO and the ICESCO as regional or cultural specifc IOs. Te Islamic IO on education, ICESCO, and its partner organizations ALESCO and ABEGS, are aware of the fact that high-quality education is of crucial importance in international relations and for global economic and political competition. Nevertheless, the ICESCO puts particular emphasis on the preservation of the cultural and spiritual roots of its member countries, almost all of which are dominantly Muslim, and these issues rank much higher than in other regional organizations. Islamic educational IOs perform the balancing act of acknowledging their embeddedness into global markets, on the one hand, and considering "Westernized" education an impediment to the spread and proliferation of Islamic cultural roots, on the other hand. Te infuence of the Islamic tradition and philosophy is obvious in many documents. Tese IOs have their own distinct ideas on education and follow their own educational leitmotifs, without neglecting, however, the requirements of inclusion into global markets and the world system. Accordingly, these results are in line with the idea of 'cultural spheres' that moderate the difusion of Western institutions, rationality and culture, even though there is no serious alternative to the adoption of institutionalized education in general and in the long run. In a similar way, the SEAMEO emphasizes traditional norms and cultural values of the particular regional context of their member states and is at the same time interested in economic and developmental benefts of global markets and the integration into the world system. Te two studies in Chaps. 7 and 8 reveal the tension between the worldwide institutionalization of Western culture and rationality, which dominates global markets and many important and powerful IOs, on the one hand, and the countries' own particular local or religious cultural orientations, on the other hand. To some degree, our results even indicate resistance of some cultures in the world against the expansion of the WEIRD cultural model.

Our mixed-methods approach to the analysis of ideational framings and leitmotifs of education enabled us to enhance the political view and to contrast the results of the qualitative studies with results from standardized text analysis. Analyzing more than 1,600 documents published by six IOs, namely, the ILO, World Bank, OECD, UNESCO, ICESCO, and SEAMEO, Chap. 9 shows that these various IOs focus on diferent topics in the feld of education. IOs restricted in membership tend to focus on their particular topics, which is Islam for the ICESCO and issues concerning the Southeast Asian world region for SEAMEO. In contrast, the OECD focuses more on universal issues related to education, higher education, and the economy. Moreover, also the heterogeneity of topics difers enormously between these IOs. Why the most prevalent three topics of the respective organization cover between a fourth and a half of their overall topics, the SEAMEO devotes a major part of its communication (78.6%) just to one topic, namely, "development, SE Asia". Te same holds for the ICESCO, but to a lesser degree: the ICESCO concentrates 54.7% of its overall communication covered by our 70 topics on "Islam, culture and the state". Tese results ft quite well to the qualitative document analyses in Chaps. 7 and 8. We also found that the UNESCO communicates around 7% of its overall communication (covered by our 70 topics) to the issue "Islam, culture and the state". At frst sight, this seems to be surprising since the UNESCO is a universalistic IO, dedicated to education and has no restrictions in membership. Maybe, this result refects an attempt of the UNESCO to cover particular interests of its member states and in so doing, the UNESCO has to acknowledge global cultural diversity. Indeed, culture is one of the major felds in which this IO is highly active.

Overall, our results are in line with our theoretical assumptions. First, institutionalized education is considered highly important by IOs who focus their activities on cultural or regional contexts. Education is essential for countries to compete on global markets and to participate in global trade. Te more the postindustrial modes of production and consumption are globalized, the more important education becomes on a global scale. Surely, globalization entails competition between states in the feld of education (Wallerstein 2004). If competition was the major stimulus of why countries institutionalize education, however, it would be difcult to explain why countries sometimes adopt these institutions just at the 'front stage' (Gofman 1959), as a 'myth and ceremony' (Meyer and Rowan 1977), or a 'performative act' (Steiner-Khamsi 2012). Moreover, why would the regional or cultural specifc IOs put such a strong emphasis on the preservation of their regional or religious traditions? Instead, neo-institutionalism argues that once a practice is institutionalized as taken-for-granted, it becomes increasingly difcult for countries to refuse to adopt it, even though they adopt it at the 'front stage' in order to gain legitimacy. In this regard, neo-institutionalism is certainly correct at the global scale, where there is a considerable *pull* toward adopting educational institutions.

But, if the global spread of educational institutions is also fostered by universalistic and dedicated IOs, why then do regional and culturally specifc IOs exist at all? IOs, such as the SEAMEO and the ICESCO, make particularistic claims and develop particularistic programs. In their view, their missions seem to not be covered by universalistic IOs, e.g. by the World Bank or the UNESCO. Teir particularism indicates the existence of forces working against Western-dominated isomorphism in the feld of education. Since education is strongly linked to the intergenerational reproduction of culture, it is not surprising that forces working against global difusion and isomorphism reside in what we have called 'cultural spheres'. Tis conclusion fts well to recent studies highlighting the increasing importance of identity—ethnic, religious, cultural or political—during the last decades (Tibi 2012; Fukuyama 2018). Empirical fndings pointing to the 'performative act' of adoption (Steiner-Khamsi 2012) are of particular interest because they integrate both perspectives: on the one hand, countries must somehow become active and address institutional innovation propagated by infuential IOs. Otherwise, they do not acquire legitimacy, neither at the level of the global state system organized within the IOs nor in their domestic population and electorate. On the other hand, they do not fully acquire these institutions and keep operating in their traditional way on the 'back stage'. Tis argument highlights that the two theoretical perspectives outlined in the introduction of this volume—isomorphism and cultural spheres—do not contradict but rather complement each other.

We are well aware that a systematic inclusion of the concept of culture in international comparative education studies is far from being trivial (Anderson-Levitt 2012). It is indeed like "nailing the pudding to the wall", as the German political scientist Max Kaase argued with reference to the concept of political culture (Kaase 1983). However, disciplines such as cultural psychology, anthropology (Henrich et al. 2010), and cultural comparative sociology (Inglehart 2018; Norris and Inglehart 2011) have recently improved their theoretical concepts and empirical measurements of culture (Mohr et al. 2019). Analytically, therefore, we should not hesitate to systematically include culture in our studies—we should simply accept the challenge and account more systematically for one of the core concepts in sociology and anthropology.

In addition, we are also aware that integrating culture in the social science studies can cause quite a stir from a normative and political-activist perspective. It is important to note that analyzing cultural diferences does not necessarily imply a negative valuation of other cultures. Tis is an important lesson to be learned from cultural psychology (Shweder 2003). Certainly, the editors of this volume are born and socialized in post-1968 Germany, so part of our identity is shaped by the WEIRD culture. Both of us do highly appreciate civil liberties, personal freedom, equality, egalitarian gender roles, democracy, social security, and a wellfunctioning legal state—we are even in the comfortable situation of being able to take all this for granted. If persons adhere to liberal-democratic values, they would like to see these values realized for other people in the world, if they desire these values as well. So do we.

But being shaped by a particular culture and adhering to particular values should not come along with imposing this culture and values to others. As Haidt argues, if actors observe moral transgressions they respond with emotions generated by neuronal processes. Which kind of transgression triggers such a response is to a considerable part 'hardwired'. All mentally healthy people are empathic and generate negative emotions when they see people sufering (Haidt 2012, 72–75). Another part of our responses toward moral transgression, however, results from cultural factors and cognitive judgments (Shweder 2003, 36–37). Maybe, it will never be possible "to draw a sharp line between, on the one hand, emotions whose manifestation is organized by the generative templates in the human brain and, on the other, emotions whose arousal by neurological and body systems is regulated by socially constructed rules" (Turner 2000, 131), but this distinction is nevertheless important. For many people from secular WEIRD cultures, the moral dimension 'sanctity-degradation' is not important, whereas not respecting sanctity is regarded as a serious transgression by many people, for example, in India (Haidt 2012, 121–122, 173). Who are we to say that the emotional response of moral disgust is inappropriate when observing such a transgression? Not respecting or even denying Indians' moral emotions would be Eurocentric. Cultural moral psychology has shown that to some degree the moral matrix in other cultures difers from ours. It is defnitely a virtue, not only for scientists, to recognize this diference and to put our own moral matrix into perspective. In a global view, we are rather WEIRD than the norm. Tis does not mean relativism if we adhere to liberaldemocratic and egalitarian values and argue in favor of them. Yet, given the historical evolution of the WEIRD culture, it is not surprising that other cultures difer from us. And these diferences are an interesting subject to scientifc inquiry.

# **Outlook for Future Research**

In this volume, we analyzed diferent "Global Pathways to Education" and focused on cultural spheres, networks, and international organizations as explanatory variables. We started from a combination of theoretical insights that originate from sociological neo-institutionalism and the comparative analysis of global cultures. We assume that our approach is innovative and could contribute to the further development of neo-institutionalism.

Moreover, the research methods applied in this volume are innovative. Our methods range from qualitative document analysis, macroquantitative longitudinal analysis, social network analysis, sequence analysis, and standardized text analysis. Future research could further elaborate on our theory-driven multi-methods perspective. Tereby, the set of IOs analyzed in this volume could be enhanced as well. Currently, we have identifed 30 active IOs in the feld of education. Of course, such a considerable extension of the number of IOs is a challenge, particularly for qualitative analyses. But also, the standardized methods of text analysis require an accountable selection and collection of documents and their preparation (adaption of formats, deletion of stop words, word stemming) comes with a considerable workload. Nevertheless, the classifcation of IOs in the dimensions of dedicated versus derivative and open versus restricted seems to be fruitful. Tus, it is worth to put even more efort into the analysis of regional or culturally specifc IOs compared with universalistic IOs, such as the World Bank, ILO, or the UNESCO.

Obviously, the cultural clusters resulting from our two-mode social network analysis depend on the respective cultural characteristics we included in the analysis. Also, extending or changing this set of characteristics would change the results. Terefore, we should think about collecting more data on global cultures. Moreover, future research should systematically account for the consequences of education policy in diferent cultural spheres and their populations. Individual level data, as provided, for example, by the World Value Survey, can be used to refne our typology of cultures (Basáñez 2016; Inglehart 2018). Moreover, this data also includes information on respondents' education, labor market integration, but also on, for example, gender role orientations and the inclusion of females into education. Tis information should be used in future studies in order to assess the actual, micro-level consequences of education policies in diferent cultural spheres.

Finally, in addition to the collection of more data on the introduction of particular policies, the network difusion analysis should be systematically extended to continuous variables. Tese variables could be, for example, the share of female students in primary, secondary, and higher education, or the share of migrants and minorities relative to the overall population, by defning thresholds and the discrete event of adoption by crossing the respective threshold (Meyer et al. 1992).

#### **References**

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# **Index1**

**A**

ABEGS, *see* Arab Bureau of Education for the Gulf States ADB, *see* Asian Development Bank Adopter-types, 50 early adopters, 25, 50 early majority, 50, 51 laggards, 50 late majority, 51 Africa Maghreb region, 204, 207 North Africa, 89 sub-Saharan Africa, 50, 89 Albania, 180n8, 182 ALECSO, *see* Arab League Cultural, Educational and Scientifc Organization Americanization, 171 Americas, the

North America, 21, 287, 288 South America, 51, 89 Ancient Greece, 37 Arab Bureau of Education for the Gulf States (ABEGS), 192, 193, 195, 196, 208–212, 231, 294 Arab League, 207 Arab League Cultural, Educational and Scientifc Organization (ALECSO), 192, 193, 195, 196, 204–208, 210–212, 221, 231 Arab World Arab identity, 207 Arab people, 207 Arab societies, 206 *See also* Pan-Arabism Argentina, 85, 180n6

1Note: Page numbers followed by 'n' refer to notes.

© Te Author(s) 2022 **303**

K. Martens, M. Windzio (eds.), *Global Pathways to Education*, Global Dynamics of Social Policy, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78885-8

Aruba, 83 ASEAN, *see* Association of Southeast Asian Nations Asia East Asia, 17 South Asia, 51 Southeast Asia, 27, 217, 218, 221, 224, 225, 228–232, 234, 255 Western Asia, 181, 182, 184 Asian Development Bank (ADB), 224 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 222 Australia, 50, 107n2, 175, 176, 178, 180n5 Western Ofshoots, 176 Azerbaijan, 86, 180n7

#### **B**

Bahrain, 208 Bank, the, 4, 77, 110, 112, 130, 132–139, 143, 144, 146, 149, 153–155, 201, 224, 230, 243, 253–255, 274, 280, 292, 293, 296, 299 *See also* World Bank (WB) Belgium, 89, 107n2, 180n5 Belize, 84 Bhutan, 54, 66 Bismarck, 8 Bolivia, 180n6 *Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario*, 68 Bologna Process, 18, 86 Bosnia and Herzegovina, 84 Brazil, 84, 107n2

Buddhism, 89 Bureaucracies, 9, 13, 43, 44, 128, 142, 286–288 bureaucratic institutions, 286, 287

#### **C**

Cabo Verde, 86 Cameroon, 87, 180n9 Canada, 75, 88, 107n2, 176, 178, 180n5 Western Ofshoots, 176 Capitalism, 70, 100, 101, 287, 288 Chad, 180n8, 203 Chile, 60, 84, 107n2, 174, 178 China, 21, 50, 51, 54, 55, 167, 168, 172, 180n7 Christianity Catholicism, 44 Christendom, 270 Citizenship, 26, 43, 46, 130, 132, 142, 148, 149, 151, 152, 154, 206, 208, 274, 275 CLS, *see* Core Labour Standards Clusters, *see* Cultural clusters; Trajectory clusters Coherence, 246, 279 semantic coherence, 245–247 Cold War, the, 2, 45, 141, 145, 150 Colombia, 106, 107n2, 180n6 Colonization colonial domination, 278 colonial empires, 280 colonial history, 56, 59, 105 colonial legacies, 39, 290 colonial relations, 48 colonial system, 279 colonial ties, 48

post-colonialism, 49, 278 Competition, 3, 17, 26, 44, 99, 102, 103, 119, 129, 146, 154, 205, 211, 242, 294, 295 Compulsory education compulsory education laws, 57, 66, 72, 73, 80, 81, 86, 87, 91 compulsory education policy, 39, 66, 68–69, 71, 73, 74, 76, 83, 89 compulsory primary education, 65, 163 *See also* Compulsory schooling; Trajectories Compulsory schooling, 8, 18, 19, 37–60, 68, 69, 76, 77, 79, 80, 85–87, 291 *See also* Compulsory education; Trajectories Conficts, 9, 10, 38, 40, 44, 45, 49, 147, 193, 194, 202, 211, 212, 279 Cooperation, 10, 11, 26, 128–130, 139, 146, 149, 203, 207, 208, 210–211, 219, 221–234, 240 Core Labour Standards (CLS), 150 *See also* International Labour Organization (ILO) Costa Rica, 84, 180n6 CPE, *see* Cultural Political Economy Croatia, 84, 107n2 Cultural clusters Catholic, Spanish-speaking countries, 52, 78 Eastern European and Asian countries, 52

not predominantly Muslim African and East Asian countries, 52 predominantly Muslim countries, 53, 55, 57, 59 WEIRD/Western countries, 55 Cultural Political Economy (CPE), 69, 70 Cultural roots cultural heritage, 15, 209, 229, 253 cultural uniqueness, 21, 230 cultural values, 26, 218, 234, 294 spiritual roots, 194, 294 Cultural spheres cultural characteristics, 7, 13, 14, 24–25, 39, 51, 170, 299 cultural network, 3, 7–8, 57, 171 global cultural clusters, 24 *See also* Cultural clusters Culture cultural development, 213, 272, 280, 287 cultural diferences, 10–13, 15, 20, 39, 47, 212, 286, 297 cultural diversity, 13, 45, 204, 286, 287, 295 cultural similarity, 26, 38, 46, 47, 57, 71, 290 global culture, 13, 40, 44, 47, 55, 146, 212, 280, 286, 289, 298, 299 national culture, 43, 279 regional culture, 225, 255 *See also* Cultural roots

#### **D**

Dakar Framework for Action, 65 *See also* Education for All Dedicated education IOs, 240 dedicated IO, 22, 27, 240, 243, 252, 254, 255, 289, 295, 296 Democratization, 16, 20, 39, 49, 56, 79, 85, 290 Derivative education IOs, 243 derivative IO, 23, 27, 254 Difusion difusion of education systems, 4, 13, 15–17, 39–47, 58, 99, 101, 127, 280 difusion process, 8, 15, 17, 19–21, 24, 25, 38, 39, 46, 48, 50, 51, 55–59, 70, 99, 286, 289, 290 global difusion, 2, 4, 5, 7, 13, 17, 37–60, 120, 280, 281, 286, 296 policy difusion, 38, 40, 98, 103, 164, 166, 169, 184 *See also* Expansion Dominican Republic, 84 Dropout, 46, 71

#### **E**

Economic growth, 19, 42, 118, 133, 136, 138, 140, 141, 143, 150, 152, 153, 194, 201, 202, 220, 223, 225, 228, 269, 274, 275, 293 economic development, 8, 23, 25, 27, 39, 41, 49, 91, 105, 135–138, 147, 149, 152, 154,

198, 199, 201–203, 209, 221, 228, 241, 243, 272, 280 economic productivity, 9, 274 economic prosperity, 27 *See also* Economic utilitarianism leitmotif; Growth; Wealth of nations Economic paradigm, 129, 137, 138, 145, 154, 292 *See also* Economic utilitarianism leitmotif; Wealth of nations Economic utilitarianism leitmotif, 22 *See also* Economic paradigm; Skill formation; Wealth of nations Ecuador, 84 Education education policy, 2–6, 8, 9, 13, 15–19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 39, 47, 55, 58, 60, 66–74, 76, 83, 89–92, 99, 101, 127–130, 133, 134, 136, 137, 140, 142, 143, 148, 164, 165, 169, 171, 172, 183–185, 191–205, 207–213, 217–235, 239–241, 255, 291, 293, 299 higher education, 104, 107, 112, 139, 152, 173, 205, 269, 270, 273–275, 279, 287, 295, 299 mass education, 18, 270, 271, 274–276, 279 *See also* Difusion; Education system; Expansion; Holistic education; Performance; Privatization; Standardization Education for All (EFA), 65, 66, 88, 91, 136, 146, 150, 205, 225, 275, 277

Education for All Conference, 136 *See also* Dakar Framework for Action Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), 224 *See also* United Nations Educational, Scientifc and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Education system characteristics of education systems, 18 national education system, 4, 16, 18, 24, 90, 137–139, 142, 154 state education system, 1, 3, 5, 6, 45, 65, 66, 71 *See also* Difusion; Performance Egypt, 182 England, 68, 176, 176n4, 274 *See also* Great Britain; United Kingdom Enlightenment, the, 37, 276 post-Enlightenment, 269 ERGM, *see* Exponential Random Graph Model Europe Central Europe, 5, 50, 101 Eastern Europe, 52, 53, 57, 59, 89, 171, 176, 177, 180–182, 290 European, 8, 21, 42, 46, 55, 58, 72, 89, 129, 168, 172, 177, 178, 181, 183, 184, 288, 293 Europeanization, 183, 293 Northern Europe, 50 Southern Europe, 89 Western Europe, 72, 129, 166, 176, 177, 183, 184, 231

Exclusivity, 245–247 Expansion educational expansion, 267, 268, 272 expansion of education, 16, 73, 267–269, 276 patterns of expansion, 268 *See also* Difusion Exponential Random Graph Model (ERGM), 165, 175, 178–180

#### **F**

Finland, 107n2, 172, 173, 175–177, 180n5, 183, 184, 293 fnlandization, 183, 293 FMI, *see* Fowlkes-Mallows Index Foucault, M., 276 Friedenberg, Edgar, 276 Froebel, Friedrich, 20, 21 kindergarten, 20, 21 Fowlkes-Mallows Index (FMI), 248, 249 Fukuyama, Francis, 10, 13, 45, 47, 296 Fuzzy sets fuzzy boundaries, 15, 25, 51, 59, 170, 212 fuzzy set clusters, 10, 40, 289 fuzzy set typology, 8, 14

#### **G**

GDP, *see* Gross Domestic Product Gender gender rights, 88, 291 gender roles, 7, 13, 47, 55, 59, 170, 278, 297, 299

German Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 224 Germanic countries, 277 Germany, 107n2, 175–178, 180n5, 183, 241, 293, 297 Ghana, 68, 180n9 Global Action Programme (GAP), 224 *See also* United Nations Educational, Scientifc and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Global Forum on Education, 142 Globalization, 1, 3, 6–8, 46, 97–121, 141, 150, 152, 194, 202, 205, 212, 228, 234, 235, 287, 289, 291, 292, 295 *See also* Globalization indicators/ networks Globalization indicators/networks, 100, 102–106, 109, 115–117, 120, 121, 292 *See also* Migration; Student mobility; Trade Global North, 169 Global South, 23, 27, 145, 148, 241 Gravity theory, 105 gravity model, 104, 111 Great Britain British parliament, 167 former British colonies, 89 *See also* England; United Kingdom Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 19, 49, 56, 107, 111, 114, 117, 272, 273, 290

Growth, 136, 138, 140, 143, 150, 152, 153, 194, 201, 202, 220, 223, 225, 274, 275, 293 *See also* Economic growth Guatemala, 75, 89, 180n6 Gulf region, 194, 208–210

#### **H**

Haiti, 53, 180n7 Hegemony, 50, 101, 103, 105, 268, 269, 281 Held-out likelihood, 246 Hinduism, 89 Holistic education, 154, 224 Hong Kong, 107n2, 167, 168, 172 Horizontal interdependencies, 6, 15, 18, 60, 98, 99, 119–121, 292 *See also* Migration; Student mobility; Trade Human capital, 17, 22, 23, 132, 134–136, 138, 141, 142, 144, 151, 153, 194, 201, 206, 220, 228, 242 *See also* Economic utilitarianism leitmotif; Skill formation Humanistic liberal citizenship leitmotif, 22 *See also* Self-fulfllment; Social right and duty Human right, 22, 42, 46, 68, 100, 101, 137, 138, 143–147, 149–151, 153, 154, 169, 204–206, 275–278 human rights movement, 277 *See also* Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Huntington, Samuel, 5, 10, 11, 13, 39, 45, 170, 212 "Clash of Civilizations," 212

#### **I**

ICESCO, *see* Islamic World Education, Science and Culture Organization Ideas, 2, 6, 12, 13, 17, 18, 20–22, 27, 41, 59, 66, 118, 128–155, 167, 169, 184, 192, 193, 195, 199–203, 205–207, 209–212, 217–235, 240, 242, 244, 245, 255, 270, 276, 287, 292, 294 integrative ideas, 153–155, 293 *See also* Leitmotifs Identity cultural identity, 194 regional identity, 27, 207 *See also* Cultural roots ILO, *see* International Labour Organization ILSAs, *see* International Large-Scale Assessments Income group high-income, 77–79 lower middle-income, 77 low-income, 4, 77, 88 middle-income, 77 upper middle-income, 77, 79 India, 68, 89, 180n5, 289, 297 Indonesia, 81, 107n2, 180n8, 197, 228 Industrial revolution, 274 Institutionalization institutionalization of Western culture and rationality, 294

International Bureau of Education, 75, 86 International Labour Organization (ILO), 15, 23, 26, 28, 44, 130, 132–134, 141, 143, 148–154, 243, 250, 253, 255, 292–294, 299 Decent Work Agenda, 151 Decent Work Initiative, 150, 151 *Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its Follow-Ups*, 150 Declaration of Philadelphia, 149 Jobs for Peace and Resilience, 152 *See also* Core Labour Standards (CLS); International Labour Organization (ILO) International Large-Scale Assessments (ILSAs), 103, 164, 167 International organizations (IOs) economic IOs, 133, 144, 153 education IOs, 2, 19, 22, 23, 26, 27, 129, 130, 133, 139, 153, 154, 191–212, 220, 221, 224, 227, 230, 231, 234, 240, 294 globally operating IOs, 130, 133 regional IOs, 17, 133 supranational organizations, 7, 44 universalistic IOs, 254, 255, 296, 299 *See also* Muslim education IOs IOs, *see* International organizations Iran, 180n8, 212 Iraq, 180n8, 205 Ireland, 107n2, 180n5, 288

ISESCO, *see* Islamic Educational, Scientifc and Cultural Organization, 192 Islam Islamic civilization, 201, 211, 255 Islamic countries, 194, 198, 201 Islamic culture, 194, 201 Islamic identity, 202 Islamic philosophy, 27, 193, 209, 212 Islamic values, 200, 204 Islamic world, 26, 191–213, 255, 278 Koran schools (maktabs), 16 Qur'an, 291 Sharia law, 201 Sunna, 291 Islamic Educational, Scientifc and Cultural Organization (ISESCO), 192, 192n2, 197–204, 210, 255 Islamic World Education, Science and Culture Organization (ICESCO), 22, 23, 27, 28, 192–208, 192n2, 210–212, 221, 224, 240, 243, 251–255, 289, 293–296 Isomorphism, 1–28, 37–60, 69, 90, 92, 106, 120, 166, 170, 285–299 global isomorphism, 9, 15, 70, 78, 101 *See also* Standardization

#### **J**

Japan, 21, 50, 53, 54, 107n2, 108, 167, 176, 180n5 Jerusalem, 203

**K**

Kazakhstan, 176, 180n7 Kenya, 85, 180n9 Keynesianism, 140 Kinship, 12, 288 Kuwait, 180n8, 208

#### **L**

Latin America, 17, 181, 184 Lebanon, 86, 180n8 Legitimacy legitimization, 42, 44, 103 legitimizing instruments, 103 Leitmotifs education leitmotifs, 22, 27, 132, 134, 135, 143, 144, 147, 155, 192–196, 201, 219–221, 292 education policy leitmotifs, 22 *See also* Economic utilitarianism leitmotif; Humanistic liberal citizenship leitmotif; Ideas Levels collective level, 132, 133, 195, 199, 203, 220 individual level, 9, 22, 103, 220, 225, 226, 299 national level, 22, 25, 128, 164, 225, 267 personal level, 226 Liberalism liberal-democratic values, 297 liberal dominance, 274 liberal state, 41, 42 liberal world order, 268 Liechtenstein, 109 Lifelong learning, 150, 151, 225, 227 Louvain clustering algorithm, 51

**M** Macedonia, 56 Maghreb region, 204, 207 *See also* Africa Malawi, 84, 180n9 Malaysia, 86, 180n8, 223, 252 madrasah schools, 72 Mali, 87 Marshall, T. H., 3 Marxist theory, 40 Marxists, 40 MDGs, *see* Millennium Development Goals Membership criteria open membership, 240, 243 restrictive membership, 240, 243 Mexico, 81, 107n2, 180n6 Meyer, John W., 2, 4, 5, 7–9, 12, 13, 25, 28, 41–44, 50, 69, 71, 98, 101–103, 119, 120, 128, 163, 164, 167, 169, 184, 269, 270, 272, 274, 286, 287, 292, 295, 299 Middle East, 197, 204, 207 Migration, 99 global migration, 98, 99, 105, 106, 117, 292 international migration, 101, 104 migration fows, 100, 102, 104, 110 migration network, 106, 110, 111, 117, 118 migration patterns, 25, 26, 100, 102, 105, 118, 121 migration stock data, 107, 110 *See also* Globalization indicators/ networks

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 66, 129 Modernity contemporary society, 269 modernization, 24, 39 modern rational institutions, 286 modern society, 43, 132, 268, 273, 275, 277, 278 Moral matrix, 288, 298 "liberal moral matrix," 288 moral emotions, 288, 298 moral orientations, 288 Muslim Muslim citizens, 192, 197 Muslim community ("Ummah"), 72, 197–204 Muslim countries, 53, 55, 57, 59, 78, 194, 255, 290, 291 Muslim identity, 202 Muslim world, 27, 55, 192, 194, 200, 201 *See also* Muslim education IOs Muslim education IOs Islamic education IOs, 192, 211, 221, 294 Islamic IOs, 194, 293 Muslim international organizations, 193, 212 *See also* Arab Bureau of Education for the *G*ulf States (ABEGS); Arab League Cultural, Educational and Scientifc Organization (ALECSO); Islamic World Education, Science and Culture Organization (ICESCO); Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)

**N**

Narratives, 12, 13, 15, 73 Neo-institutionalism, 5, 7, 12, 13, 20, 43, 58, 119, 286, 287, 295, 296, 298 Neoliberalism neoliberal ideas, 145 neoliberal paradigm, 136 neoliberal policies, 136 neoliberal views, 145 neoliberal zeitgeist, 150 Netherlands, 107n2, 174, 180n5 Network analysis network patterns, 101, 281 network topologies, 5, 20 social network analysis, 10, 24, 39, 40, 112, 286, 298, 299 two-mode network analysis, 14, 290 *See also* Globalization indicators/ networks NGOs, *see* Non-governmental organizations Niche theory niche competition argument, 242 niche diferentiation, 242 niches, 10, 142, 241, 242, 252, 255 Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 5, 203 Nordic countries, 173 Norms global norms, 38, 71 social norms, 11, 150 North Korea, 89 Norway, 107n2, 176, 180n5

#### **O**

Occident, the occidental culture, 43, 287 occidental rationalism, 7, 40, 287, 288 OECD, *see* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OIC, *see* Organization of Islamic Cooperation Oman, 11, 66, 208 Optimal Matching (OM) algorithm, 67, 80 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 5, 16, 18, 23, 26, 28, 99, 102, 108, 114, 130, 132–134, 133n2, 138–144, 146, 148, 149, 153, 154, 163–185, 191, 194, 201, 224, 230, 240, 241, 243, 250, 252–254, 289, 292–295 2030 learning compass, 143 Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI), 140 Directorate for Education, 142 Education Committee, 140 Global Forum on Education, 142 Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), 192, 194, 197, 204, 210, 211 Ottoman Empire, 68

#### **P**

Pakistan, 60, 106 Palestine, 146n6, 205 Panama, 81

Pan-Arabism, 207 Paraguay, 85 Partitioning around medoids (PAM) algorithm, 81 Performance educational performance, 97–121, 241, 292 performance of education systems, 4, 292 PISA performance, 115–116 secondary education performance, 114 Peru, 86 Philippines, 50, 83 PISA, *see* Programme for International Student Assessment Privatization, 70, 71, 136 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) PISA rankings, 100, 102, 104, 105, 114, 118, 120 PISA results, 102, 104, 118, 168, 173 PISA scores, 25, 26, 100–103, 107, 108, 114, 117–119, 168, 172, 292 *See also* Performance Protestantism Protestant Reformation, 38, 44 Prussia, 68, 274 Purpose of education, 22, 129–132, 134, 136–138, 143, 144, 147–149, 151–153, 196, 206, 225, 280 *See also* Ideas; Leitmotifs

**Q** Qatar, 87, 208

**R**

Rationalization rational culture, 287 Western rationalization, 7, 43 References policy reference, 167 reference category, 181, 182 reference patterns, 163–185 'reference-region,' 181 regional references, 165, 172, 176–178, 183 Reference societies, 168, 169, 172, 173, 183, 185 reference models, 165 *See also* References Reformation, the, 42 Religion, 6, 13, 14, 16, 39, 43, 47, 55, 59, 88, 89, 111, 114, 170, 193, 200, 201, 203, 206, 241, 243, 255, 271, 274, 279, 289 Republic of Guyana, 197 Republic of Indonesia, 197 Republic of Togo, 197 Russia, 11, 50 Rwanda, 83, 84

#### **S**

SAOMs, *see* Stochastic actorbased models Saudi Arabia, 208, 212 Scotland, 176n4, 180n5, 274, 288 SDGs, *see* Sustainable Development Goals SEAMEO, *see* Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization SEAMEO Council, 222, 223, 228, 231 *See also* Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) SEAMEO Regional Open Learning Centre (SEAMOLEC), 222 *See also* Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) SEAMEO Secretariat, 222, 234 *See also* Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) Secularization, 43, 270, 274, 275 Self-fulfllment personal development, 229 *See also* Humanistic liberal citizenship leitmotif Sequence analysis (SQA), 25, 67, 74, 80, 90 Serbia, 54, 56, 84, 180n7 "Service sector", the, 103, 106, 110, 117, 273 Shanghai shanghai ranking, 112, 114 *See also* China Singapore, 87, 145, 146n6, 176–178, 180n5, 223

Skill formation skills, 8, 138, 142, 144, 147, 148, 150–152, 154, 201, 204, 206, 220, 226, 228, 233, 250 *See also* Economic utilitarianism leitmotif; Human capital Social cohesion, 142, 143, 146, 148, 152–154, 195, 209, 225, 229, 293 Social policy, 3, 8–10, 15, 16, 38, 135, 141, 227, 255 Social right and duty equal opportunities, 152, 229, 293 social citizenship, 3, 142, 149 social participation, 22, 225, 226 *See also* Humanistic liberal citizenship leitmotif Soft governance, 129, 130, 139, 148 Solomon Islands, 66 South Africa, 89, 253 South America, 51, 79, 89 *See also* Americas, the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO), 22, 23, 27, 28, 217–235, 240, 243, 251, 252, 254, 255, 289, 293–296 *See also* SEAMEO Council; SEAMEO Regional Open Learning Centre (SEAMOLEC); SEAMEO Secretariat; Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA); Tropical Biology (BIOTROP)

Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), 222 South Korea, 54, 107n2, 167, 176, 180n8, 182 Soviet Union, 86, 89 former Union countries, 89 post-Soviet states, 168 *See also* USSR SQA, *see* Sequence analysis Sri Lanka, 87 Standardization global standardization, 137, 138, 281 standardization of education, 46, 171, 184 standardized schooling, 38 *See also* Isomorphism STM, *see* Structural Topic Modeling Stochastic actor-based models (SAOMs), 112, 113 Structural Topic Modeling (STM), 240, 243–247, 249 Student mobility, 99 global student mobility, 103, 104, 106, 292 student exchange, 25, 26, 100–102, 104, 105, 107, 110, 114, 117, 118, 120 student exchange network, 105, 110, 111, 116, 117 student exchange patterns, 104, 105, 107 *See also* Globalization indicators/ networks Sudan, 84

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 66, 91, 130, 146–148, 225, 277 post-2015 global sustainable development agenda, 218, 225 Sweden, 108n2, 176, 180n5 Switzerland, 107n2, 109, 180n5, 241 Syria, 81, 180n8

**T**

Tajikistan, 176 Tailand Jomtien, 91 National Education Plan of 1999, 85 Timor-Leste, 222 Topic models, 26, 243–245 *See also* Structural Topic Modeling (STM); Topics Topics, 3, 26–28, 127, 129, 134, 139, 140, 147, 148, 150, 153, 173, 203, 239–255, 294, 295 Trade, 99 global trade, 98, 103, 106, 115–116, 292, 295 service sector trade, 117, 118, 120 service sector trade fows, 100, 104, 107, 109 service trade, 104, 110, 114, 118 service trade networks, 109 trade network, 109–111, 117 *See also* Globalization indicators/ networks Trajectories, 25, 65–92, 165, 289 "pathways," 25 *See also* Trajectory clusters

Trajectory clusters Extending middle of the pack, 84, 87–89 From zero to long, 84–85, 87, 88 Late and stagnant, 87, 88 Long and extending, 86–89 Resilient latecomers, 83, 88, 89 Stagnant short, 83–84, 88, 89 Tropical Biology (BIOTROP), 222 *See also* Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) Tunisia, 135, 180n8 Turkey, 11, 85, 106, 108n2, 180n8, 182

#### **U**

Uganda, 53, 106, 180n9 UIS, *see* UNESCO Institute for Statistics UK, *see* United Kingdom UN, *see* United Nations UNESCO, *see* United Nations Educational, Scientifc and Cultural Organization UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), 74, 109 *See also* United Nations Educational, Scientifc and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) UNHCR, *see* United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF, *see* United Nations Children's Fund United Arab Emirates, 208

United Kingdom (UK), 89, 107n2, 145, 146n6, 274 *See also* England United Nations (UN), 21, 23, 65, 134, 143, 145, 193, 218, 224, 225 sustainable development agenda, 27, 218, 225 UN General Assembly, 65, 145 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 109 *See also* Universal Declaration of Human Rights United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 133, 136, 144, 146, 209, 224 United Nations Educational, Scientifc and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 20, 22, 23, 26, 28, 65, 74, 75, 78, 130, 132–134, 136, 143–150, 146n6, 153, 154, 194, 209, 218, 221, 224, 225, 230, 231, 241, 243, 251–255, 291–296, 299 World Conference on Education for All, 146 *See also* Education for Sustainable Development (ESD); Global Action Programme (GAP); UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 133, 209 United States of America (USA), 20, 68, 88, 108n2, 145, 146n6, 176, 180n5, 274

*See also* Americanization; Americas, the; United States of America; Western Ofshoots Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 145 *See also* United Nations (UN) University, 107, 112, 114, 116, 224, 250, 270, 271, 277, 279 USA, *see* United States of America USSR, 140, 168 *See also* Soviet Union

#### **V**

Vertical interdependencies, 2, 3, 6, 15–19, 24, 79, 98, 99, 120 *See also* Performance; PISA Vietnam, 53, 54, 180n7 Vulnerable communities vulnerable groups and local communities, 232

#### **W**

Wallerstein, Immanuel, 42, 70, 71, 98, 100–103, 120, 295 *See also* World Systems Teory Washington Consensus, 136 Post-Washington Consensus, 136 Wealth of nations, 230 *See also* Economic growth; Economic paradigm; Economic utilitarianism leitmotif Weber, Max, 7–9, 11, 13, 16, 40–43, 46, 49, 58, 276, 286–288

WEIRD, *see* Western, educated, industrialized, resourceful, democratic Western Church, the, 12, 43 Western, educated, industrialized, resourceful, democratic (WEIRD), 11, 12, 14, 43, 44, 53, 55, 57–59, 78, 79, 171, 180, 180n5, 182, 184, 288–291, 294, 297, 298 WEIRD cultures, 12, 14, 43, 58, 288, 289, 297, 298 WEIRD people, 11 Westerners, 11, 12, 43 *See also* Western World Western Ofshoots, 176, 181, 182, 184 *See also* Australia; Canada; USA Western world "West, the," 91 western, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 43, 44, 50, 55, 145, 165, 167, 168, 171, 177, 183, 184, 194, 202, 205, 231, 232, 235, 269, 272, 276, 280, 286–288, 290 western countries, 45, 55, 59, 72, 79, 145, 165, 194, 290 western culture, 43, 171, 194, 294 western education system, 168, 171, 200 westernization, 171, 183, 212, 290, 293 western society, 167 western values, 45, 141 *See also* Western, educated, industrialized, resourceful, democratic (WEIRD)

World Bank (WB) James D. Wolfensohn (former president), 136 "Knowledge Bank," 134–138 Robert McNamara (former president), 135 "Solution Bank," 137 World Bank's Education Strategy 2020 (WBES 2020), 137 World Development Report, 154 *See also* Bank, the World Culture theory, 70 world culture, 8, 69, 73, 76, 221 World Education Forum, 146 World Society Teory, 101, 107, 120 world society, 13, 42, 107, 120, 128, 164, 166, 169–171, 184, 185, 270 World Systems Teory, 100, 120 world system, 69, 70, 73, 101, 240, 254, 292, 294

*See also* Wallerstein, Immanuel World Values Survey (WVS), 11 World Wars post-war period, 274 Second World War, 274 World War II, 2, 44, 70, 269 WW2, 140 WWII, 2

**Y**

Yearbook of International Organizations, 23, 221 Yemen, 87, 208 Yugoslavia, 56, 180n7

**Z**

Zambia, 83


**ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS**

Edited by **Ranjith N. Kumavath**

#### **Antibacterial Agents**

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/65630 Edited by Ranjith N. Kumavath

#### **Contributors**

Laurence Walsh, Patricia Wright, Marija Vukomanovic, Mario Kurtjak, Nemanja Anicic, Horea Vladi Matei, Mihaela Laura Vica, Costel Vasile Siserman, Jessica M. Rosenholm, Didem Sen Karaman, Suvi Manner, Adyary Fallarero, Monica Periolatto, Franco Ferrero, Claudia Vineis, Alessio Varesano, Giuseppe Gozzelino, Hamid Ullah, Saqib Ali

#### **© The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2017**

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*2.3. Lichen Sampling*

To assess epiphytic lichen diversity, on the three trees with a DBH >16 cm and bole inclination <30◦ closest to the center of each plot, the abundance of each lichen species was recorded on the bole, from 0 to 2 m. According to Tallent-Halsell [29], an abundance score was assigned to each species in relation to its frequency on the recording area: (1) rare = 1–3 thalli in the area; (2) uncommon = 4–10 thalli in the area; (3) common = >10 thalli in area but less than 50% of the considered substrate; and (4) abundant = more than 50% of the considered substrate. In total, 106 trees were sampled.

Nomenclature and author's abbreviations follow Species Fungorum (www.speciesfun gorum.org). Dominant reproductive strategy (sexual vs. vegetative) and status follow Nimis [30]. In particular, (1) the rarity of each taxon was obtained using commonness-rarity values calculated for two phytoclimatic units: montane and humid sub-Mediterranean Italy, and (2) threat assessment was performed according to Nascimbene et al. [31].


*3.3. Storage*

Cook–chill technologies rely on the containment of foods and would not be possible without materials that can withstand cooking and storage temperatures.

These items can be tubular bags with one end open and the other sealed with a heat seal. The bags consist of a multilayered co-extruded plastic film made of various inert polymers such as nylon, polyethylene, polyesters used alone or in various combinations between them [46–49].


2.5.4. Trend Analysis

The Mann Kendall (MK) test, which is a non-parametric test used to analyze monotonic trends of changes in hydro-meteorological data, was used to examine trends in seasonal and annual temperature and rainfall as well as temperature and rainfall extremes [35,36]. Positive and negative values of MK test results indicate increasing or decreasing monotonic trends, respectively. The magnitude of changes in the trends of rainfall and temperature data was determined using Theil-Sen's slope estimator. The MK test statistic, S, was calculated as:

$$s = \sum\_{i=1}^{n-1} \sum\_{j=i+1}^{n} s g n \left(X\_j - X\_i\right)$$

where *Xi* and *Xj* refer to the annual values of the climate variables in years *i* and *j*, respectively. For time-series data with significant autocorrelation, the modified MK test was used. In this procedure, bias-corrected prewhitening, involving transformation of an autocorrelated sequence into an uncorrelated one before trend testing, was used [37]. This technique enhances the effectiveness of prewhitening in trend analysis by eliminating under- or overestimation of the autocorrelation parameter within the limits of sampling variations [37].


*3.2. Official Controls (OC) in Terms of Both Hygiene Conditions and Nutritional Guidelines*

Hygienic–sanitary and nutritional OC were carried out in the same 22 school complexes and 26 classes where students were enrolled for goal 1. Of the 22 schools, in 8 (36.4%) school canteens, meals were prepared on site, while 14 (63.6%) were managed by a specialized private company, and meals came from an external cooking center. A general compliance with the minimum requirements in terms of food safety was verified; however, some non-conformities were found in eight facilities. Some inadequacies were found only regarding the wear-out of some work-tops, the presence of mosquito nets that were not properly maintained, and the absence of lockers divided into dirty and clean compartments. Moreover, workspace areas were quite small with respect to the requirements (given for by the regional guidelines for school catering). In such cases, the Competent Authority issued mandatory provisions to the FBOs (Table 3—Hygienic–sanitary section).

A general compliance with the minimum requirements in terms of nutritional features was also confirmed, but in 27% of the enrolled facilities, an in-depth documentary investigation concerning the nutritional requirements of the menus proposed for special and non-special diets was needed. Furthermore, in 9% of cases, inconsistencies were found between the meals scheduled on the day of the OC and the foods actually prepared, due to the difficulty in finding on market and from retail sources the ingredients needed by the menu. The sample investigated also showed that 86% of FBOs have a specific certification of attendance to training courses on special diets, with particular reference to the methods of preparing and administering meals for people affected by celiac disease (Table 4—Nutritional section).

In total, for the hygienic–sanitary section, the number of prescriptions issued were as follows: documentary 1 (5%), structural 5 (23%), management 2 (9%), and organizational 3 (14%).

For the nutritional section, the number of actions that were taken to ensure full compliance with the sector regulations were, in particular: documentary 4 (27%), managerial 3 (14%), and organizational 2 (9%).

With regard to both nutritional and hygienic evaluations, no differences were reported between schools having internal or external services.

#### *3.3. Implementation of All the Prescribed Improvement Actions*

To allow the verification of compliance with the given prescriptions, eight follow-up OC were carried out during the four months following the first round of OC, aiming at verifying the resolution of 20 inadequacies and minor non-conformities previously detected in 8 of 22 schools enrolled. Despite some difficulties for FBOs related to finding the economic resources to be allocated to extraordinary maintenance interventions—which made it necessary to grant some time extensions to complete the execution of the works that involved structures or to encourage the purchase of materials—full compliance with the requirements and the checklists were concluded favorably during the scholastic year under analysis.


**2. Methodology**

#### **2.1 Protocol**

An electronic narrative literature surveillance adopting the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) benchmarks was followed.

*Factors Contributing to the Academic Challenges Faced by South African Physiotherapy… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107491*