**6. Role of legumes in improving soil quality**

Legumes have long been recognized and valued as "soil building" crops. Growing legumes improves soil quality through their beneficial effects on soil biological, chemical and physical conditions. When properly managed, legumes will:

These improvement factors depend on legume type, remaining plant residue left over in soil along with environmental conditions.

The legumes crops that are capable of fixing large amounts of nitrogen under good moisture conditions, can significantly improve the nitrogen supply for succeeding crops when grown annually. Annual grain legumes are normally grown for grain production along with green manure crops. The selection of legume type and variety mainly depends on minimum support price of the crop, including the climatic adaptability to that particular area (e.g., few varieties of chickpea and lentil are more drought-tolerant than faba bean and pea), adaphic factors, disease tolerance, etc. The effect of perennial forage legumes on soil quality is generally to greater extent and for longer duration than of annual pulse crops. The root structure and growth habit generally determines the amounts of nitrogen fixed by grain legumes and the shallow roots of pulses with short growth cycle become a limitation for their influence on soil physical conditions. However, during the growth of grain legumes, considerable amounts of nitrogen are leaked from roots into the soil. Also, the residues from these crops have a higher nitrogen content than cereal straw and they break down more readily, releasing nitrogen into the soil. Thus, cereal crops that follow grain legumes require less N fertilizer.

Biennial forage legumes e.g., sweet clover, yellow-flowered type is preferred by farmers. It is more drought-tolerant, shorter, and finer stemmed and leaved. These characteristics make it a more palatable livestock feed and easier to incorporate as green manure. Sweet clover is one of the most suitable crops for use as a green

**105**

*Sustainable Production of Pulses under Saline Lands in India*

manure. This helps in recovery of soil moisture reserves and residue decomposition during the partial fallow period. Sweet clover is very well suitable on moderately saline soils or soils that have poor structure due to very low levels of organic matter. An experiment on wheat with sweet clover green manure in rotation for 3 years at Indian thin black soils yielded significantly more than with crop rotations with fertilized crops or fellow lands [21, 22]. Although unfertilized green manure-wheat-

Perennial forage legumes also add humus and soil nutrients in addition to fixing nitrogen. Again, the selection of perennial legume depends mostly on the useful-

Alfalfa is a well-known legume tolerant to drought, moderate salinity, winter hardy along with high yields which is widely grown over diverse range of adaphic conditions. Neutral to slightly alkaline soils favor the production and persistence of alfalfa but acidic soils (pH less than 6.0) limit the production severely. The drought tolerance of alfalfa is due to deep root system and hence it grows best on welldrained soils. It cannot grow well on soils with poor drainage and hence is flooding

Red clover, a perennial legume, has growth cycle shorter than alfalfa and therefore included in short duration intercropping system. Since, it is well adapted to diverse soil types, it is grown mostly for seed and feed in the moist areas. Red clover is sensitive towards salinity or drought but tolerance level to acidic soils is more than

Forage legumes have deep root system and longer growth period thus have greater capacity for nitrogen fixation and hence improve soil quality more effectively. Biennial and perennial forage legumes add more nitrogen and organic matter in second year after under seeding in cereals in wet areas. Regular green manuring with forage legumes on degraded soils with typically low organic matter contents, adds more nitrogen and organic matter to the soil. It was found that yield of 12 successive wheat crops increased significantly than a non-legume system on a Gray soil in Northern Alberta. The reason may be addition of nutrients and nitrogen to soil from the deep-rooted legume improved soil quality. The benefit of using forage legumes as green manure enriched soil organic matter with nitrogen and readily decomposable plant residue. This also enhances the production of soil microbes and thus, fastens the nutrients availability. It was found [23] that deep-rooted perennial legumes take up phosphorus from the subsoil although available phosphorus is mostly found in the 0–6 inch depth and not below than 2-foot depth. Thus, green manuring with these legumes increases availability of

In an experiment at Saskatchewan, it was observed that tillage was easier with lower power requirements on soils following a perennial legume crop than after cereal grains. The reason may be improved soil structure with more porosity due to readily decomposable soil organic matter leftover by legumes. As a result, the water holding capacity of soil is increased and it becomes more friable and less erosive

Forage legumes also have the tendency to reduce salinity problems. Alfalfa uses excessive water through its deep roots and thus deep penetration of roots improves the internal soil drainage. A study at Outlook with irrigated alfalfa plowed-down in late fall or early spring indicated that the following cereal crop required little nitrogen fertilizer, while the second cereal required two-thirds of its usual amount

In view of above facts, key insights and findings from the literature and case studies across the three pillars of sustainability, environmental, social and economic

wheat rotation also yielded highest during the initial years of this study.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91870*

ness of crop and soil type.

intolerant.

alfalfa.

soil nutrients.

and easier to till.

(Henry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon).

impacts of pulses are summarized below.

#### *Sustainable Production of Pulses under Saline Lands in India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91870*

*Legume Crops - Prospects, Production and Uses*

wheat up to 34%.

the entire cropping system.

in pulses is minimal in comparison to other crops.

**6. Role of legumes in improving soil quality**

• Increase soil aeration with reduced soil erosion

• Improve water-holding capacity of soil

over in soil along with environmental conditions.

that follow grain legumes require less N fertilizer.

from the air directly and fix at their own, hence, application of nitrogen as fertilizer

The nitrogen fixation property of pulses reduces the footprint of other crops in the soil adding to the food production cycle. In a study on durum wheat, it was found that carbon footprint was reduced by 17% in durum wheat when preceded by chickpeas or lentils, nitrogen-fixing crops, than preceded by a cereal crops. The impact of pulse-pulse intercropping with wheat system was much stronger than traditional cereal-cereal-durum rotation by reducing the carbon footprint of durum

The water requirement of pulses is also very less i.e., 1/2 to 1/10 of water in comparison to other protein rich crops [20]. Few pulses are well adapted to dry climates and hence can be produced better under dry/drought conditions, e.g., peas and lentils roots absorb less water from a lower depth. The water available in deep soil is, in this way, used by next crop, thereby increasing the water use efficiency of

Legumes have long been recognized and valued as "soil building" crops. Growing legumes improves soil quality through their beneficial effects on soil biological, chemical and physical conditions. When properly managed, legumes will:

These improvement factors depend on legume type, remaining plant residue left

The legumes crops that are capable of fixing large amounts of nitrogen under good moisture conditions, can significantly improve the nitrogen supply for succeeding crops when grown annually. Annual grain legumes are normally grown for grain production along with green manure crops. The selection of legume type and variety mainly depends on minimum support price of the crop, including the climatic adaptability to that particular area (e.g., few varieties of chickpea and lentil are more drought-tolerant than faba bean and pea), adaphic factors, disease tolerance, etc. The effect of perennial forage legumes on soil quality is generally to greater extent and for longer duration than of annual pulse crops. The root structure and growth habit generally determines the amounts of nitrogen fixed by grain legumes and the shallow roots of pulses with short growth cycle become a limitation for their influence on soil physical conditions. However, during the growth of grain legumes, considerable amounts of nitrogen are leaked from roots into the soil. Also, the residues from these crops have a higher nitrogen content than cereal straw and they break down more readily, releasing nitrogen into the soil. Thus, cereal crops

Biennial forage legumes e.g., sweet clover, yellow-flowered type is preferred by farmers. It is more drought-tolerant, shorter, and finer stemmed and leaved. These characteristics make it a more palatable livestock feed and easier to incorporate as green manure. Sweet clover is one of the most suitable crops for use as a green

• Enrich the soil N power with increased reserved organic matter

• Enhance soil biological activity with improved soil structure

**104**

manure. This helps in recovery of soil moisture reserves and residue decomposition during the partial fallow period. Sweet clover is very well suitable on moderately saline soils or soils that have poor structure due to very low levels of organic matter. An experiment on wheat with sweet clover green manure in rotation for 3 years at Indian thin black soils yielded significantly more than with crop rotations with fertilized crops or fellow lands [21, 22]. Although unfertilized green manure-wheatwheat rotation also yielded highest during the initial years of this study.

Perennial forage legumes also add humus and soil nutrients in addition to fixing nitrogen. Again, the selection of perennial legume depends mostly on the usefulness of crop and soil type.

Alfalfa is a well-known legume tolerant to drought, moderate salinity, winter hardy along with high yields which is widely grown over diverse range of adaphic conditions. Neutral to slightly alkaline soils favor the production and persistence of alfalfa but acidic soils (pH less than 6.0) limit the production severely. The drought tolerance of alfalfa is due to deep root system and hence it grows best on welldrained soils. It cannot grow well on soils with poor drainage and hence is flooding intolerant.

Red clover, a perennial legume, has growth cycle shorter than alfalfa and therefore included in short duration intercropping system. Since, it is well adapted to diverse soil types, it is grown mostly for seed and feed in the moist areas. Red clover is sensitive towards salinity or drought but tolerance level to acidic soils is more than alfalfa.

Forage legumes have deep root system and longer growth period thus have greater capacity for nitrogen fixation and hence improve soil quality more effectively. Biennial and perennial forage legumes add more nitrogen and organic matter in second year after under seeding in cereals in wet areas. Regular green manuring with forage legumes on degraded soils with typically low organic matter contents, adds more nitrogen and organic matter to the soil. It was found that yield of 12 successive wheat crops increased significantly than a non-legume system on a Gray soil in Northern Alberta. The reason may be addition of nutrients and nitrogen to soil from the deep-rooted legume improved soil quality. The benefit of using forage legumes as green manure enriched soil organic matter with nitrogen and readily decomposable plant residue. This also enhances the production of soil microbes and thus, fastens the nutrients availability. It was found [23] that deep-rooted perennial legumes take up phosphorus from the subsoil although available phosphorus is mostly found in the 0–6 inch depth and not below than 2-foot depth. Thus, green manuring with these legumes increases availability of soil nutrients.

In an experiment at Saskatchewan, it was observed that tillage was easier with lower power requirements on soils following a perennial legume crop than after cereal grains. The reason may be improved soil structure with more porosity due to readily decomposable soil organic matter leftover by legumes. As a result, the water holding capacity of soil is increased and it becomes more friable and less erosive and easier to till.

Forage legumes also have the tendency to reduce salinity problems. Alfalfa uses excessive water through its deep roots and thus deep penetration of roots improves the internal soil drainage. A study at Outlook with irrigated alfalfa plowed-down in late fall or early spring indicated that the following cereal crop required little nitrogen fertilizer, while the second cereal required two-thirds of its usual amount (Henry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon).

In view of above facts, key insights and findings from the literature and case studies across the three pillars of sustainability, environmental, social and economic impacts of pulses are summarized below.


*3.8. DP4 Analysis*

Conformational searches were performed using MacroModel software (Version 9.9, Schrödinger LLC, New York, NY, USA) interfaced in Maestro (Version 9.9, Schrödinger LLC) with a mixed torsional/low-mode sampling method. Conformers within 10 kJ/mol found in the MMFF force field were regarded and the geometry of the conformers was optimized at the B3-LYP/6-31G++ level in the gas phase. Ground state geometry optimization of each conformer was carried out by density functional theory (DFT) modeling with TurbomoleX 4.3.2 software. The basis set for the calculation was def-SVP for all atoms, and the level of theory was B3-LYP at the functional level in the gas phase. The calculated chemical shift values were averaged by the Boltzmann populations and utilized for DP4 analysis.


*4.8. PRLR*

Prolactin is a gonadotropic hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary [136], but inhibited by dopamine from the hypothalamus (Table 1; [137]). It can cross the blood-brain barrier via a receptor-mediated transport mechanism in the choroid plexus [138], entering the cerebrospinal fluid, and exerting a direct influence in the brain (Table 1; [136,137]). Circulating prolactin increases before parturition in some paternal species [139], and might be critical for organizing neural substrates associated with paternal care behaviors [140].

*PRLR* is an imprinted gene that is expressed at low levels in the OB, and mediates paternal-offspring recognition via olfactory neurogenesis (Table 1; [86]). Mak and Weiss [141] found that neurogenesis under the influence of prolactin signaling increased in in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and dentate gyrus of male house mice (*Mus domesticus*) following interactions with pups (Table 1). Similarly, prolactin receptor mRNA transcript levels increased in the choroid plexus of male Djungarian hamsters (*Phodopus campbelli*) during the early postnatal period [142]. Some of the cells in the mouse SVZ and dentate gyrus matured into olfactory interneurons, and responded preferentially to offspring odors compared to other odor types, indicating a central role of *PRLR* in offspring recognition (Table 1; [141]).


**Abstract**

Cost saving and timely performance are of utmost importance to all stakeholders who are involved in a construction project that is owner, contractor, consultant and subcontractor. The prime causes of risks in construction projects involve delay and failure to complete the work at specified cost and within the agreed time frame. Unexpected delays in construction projects are caused by internal and external environments embedding several risk factors which may occur concurrently. The cost overrun and schedule overrun not only influence the construction industry's completion of a project but can also have profound effect on the economy of a country. Even though the failure of the construction projects to get completed within the budgeted cost and time has received attention by researchers, lot more need to be researched as to what can be done to have tight leash on construction projects so that they can be brought on track. In order to meet the stiff deadlines involving complexity of construction projects, the scheduling of projects should be flexible enough to accommodate changes without negatively affecting the overall project cost and duration. This chapter deals with **Perspectives on Risk Assessment and Management Paradigms** as applicable to any project in general and construction industry in particular.

**Keywords:** risk management, risk assessment, risk mitigation


**1. Introduction**

The management of patients with swallowing disorders must involve a team of specialists whose work is aimed at preventing complications, ensuring a proper hydration and nutrition; as well as the the best quality of life to the patient [1]. This is an axiom that has guided our clinical activity for over 25 years. The goals of the team [2], in fact, can be summarized as follows:

The first three goals require an instrumental assessment. In other words the definition of the bio-mechanical events that are responsible of the deglutition disorder, have to be assessed with one or more instrumental tools, able to define the altered or mistimed movements, or muscular patterns, that compromise the passage of the bolus through the oral and pharyngeal cavities [3].

Simplifying such an approach, the evaluation of the clinical severity of a swallowing disorder remains a crucial aspect to determine, when managing patients with diseases or co-morbidities that may predispose them to respiratory or nutritional complications. The evaluation of the risk of complications, as just mentioned earlier, is a value that synthesizes data regarding the

patient in his/her totality, in relation to physical parameters (age, sex, race), the main pathology or other co-morbidities, the possibilities of an ecological management of the deglutition disorders (ie the possibility to effect behavioral strategies), also considering the wish of the patient and of the family [1].

The systematic method of the FEES (fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing) evalua‐ tion is reported elsewhere in this book.

In this chapter the utility of endoscopy in the evaluation of dysphagic patients, new ways to conceive endoscopy and the correlations of endoscopy with a whole clinical context in the attempt to determine severity, will be discussed.