*Article* **Structure and Properties of Ca and Zr Containing Heat Resistant Wire Aluminum Alloy Manufactured by Electromagnetic Casting**

**Nikolay Belov 1,\*, Torgom Akopyan 1, Natalia Korotkova 1, Maxim Murashkin 2,3, Victor Timofeev 4 and Anastasiya Fortuna 5**

**Abstract:** Experimental aluminum alloy containing 0.8% Ca, 0.5% Zr, 0.5% Fe and 0.25% Si (wt.%), in the form of a long-length rod 12 mm in diameter was manufactured using an electromagnetic casting (EMC) technique. The extremely high cooling rate during alloy solidification (≈104 K/s) caused the formation of a favorable microstructure in the ingot characterized by a small size of the dendritic cells, fine eutectic particles of Ca-containing phases and full dissolution of Zr in Al the solid solution. Due to the microstructure obtained the ingots possess high manufacturability during cold forming (both drawing and rolling). Analysis of the electrical conductivity (EC) and microhardness of the cold rolled strip and cold drawn wire revealed that their temperature dependences are very close. The best combination of hardness and EC in the cold rolled strip was reached after annealing at 450 ◦C. TEM study of structure evolution revealed that the annealing mode used leads to the formation of L12 type Al3Zr phase precipitates with an average diameter of 10 nm and a high number density. Experimental wire alloy has the best combination of ultimate tensile strength (UTS), electrical conductivity (EC) (200 MPa and 54.8% IACS, respectively) and thermal stability (up to 450 ◦C) as compared with alloys based on the Al–Zr and Al– rare-earth metal (REM) systems. In addition, it is shown that the presence of calcium in the model alloy increases the electrical conductivity after cold forming operations (both drawing and rolling).

**Keywords:** aluminum–zirconium wire alloys; electromagnetic casting (EMC); drawing; electrical conductivity (EC); phase composition; nanoparticles


**10.  Respiratory diseases seen at the emergency room of the Federal Medical Centre Ido-Ekiti, south western,

Source: Olufemi et al. [35].

Source: Akanbi et al., 2009.

102 Housing

**Table 3.** Classification of respiratory disease.

Nigeria, from November 2004 to December 2010.

Numerous studies have shown that people who live in poor housing are at increased risk of exposure to the determinants of respiratory diseases [39]. A substandard housing may increase exposures to biological (e.g., moulds, mites, roaches), chemical (e.g., lead, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds), and physical (e.g., extreme temperature, fine particles, radon) hazards leading to a wide range of adverse health outcomes, especially respiratory diseases [40–43]. Adequate housing therefore remains critical to human health, comfort and general well-being [43]. Thus, understanding the link between housing and respiratory health condition is of importance in designing effective strategies to improve quality of life. Crowding, poor air quality within homes as a result of inadequate ventilation, and the presence of mould and smoke contribute to poor respiratory health in general and have been implicated in the spread and/or outcome of tuberculosis (TB) [44–46]. Therefore, housing risk factors for respiratory conditions can be broadly classified into three namely; structural, biological and chemical factors. Specific aspects of these risk factors are described below:

disease transmission, including tuberculosis, as well as the accumulation of indoor pollutants and dampness, which are factors in the development of allergies and asthma [49]. Room ventilation is usually expressed in terms of air changes per hour [45, 50]. Studies in hospitals and health care facilities have shown that poor ventilation design or construction have contributed to the transmission of infection, particularly among clinical personnel in patient rooms with fewer than two air changes per hour [51]. Poor ventilation have been associated with failing respiratory health [40, 52]. In the same wise, Livebuga et al. also found that the

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105

Moisture damages on walls, roofs, floors, leaking pipes, cracked walls, broken window seals are all platforms for occurrence of house hazards and for the growth of visible moulds and mildews leading to poor housing quality. About 60% of households suffer roof leakage, cracked walls and broken floors with increased risk of pneumonia due to mould and damp development [54]. Dampness has been repeatedly linked to a number of health outcomes, including respiratory symptoms, nausea and vomiting and general ill health. Fakunle et al. [17] in a study reported that housing quality and conditions among cases were major contributory factors to ARI when compared with the controls (**Table 6**). The study reported that more cases than controls reside in houses with poor housing quality (OR = 2.5; CI = 1.3–5.1, p < 0.05). In a large proportion of houses of cases than controls, there were presence of damp walls (OR = 2.9; 95% CI = 1.1–8.1). Children under five living in houses with presence of old/deteriorated furniture were found to be thrice more likely to develop ARIs than children residing in houses without such furniture. More houses among cases than controls were built using muds (OR = 4.6; 95% C.1 = 1.6–12.8) [17]. This study suggests that a link exists between housing quality and the prevalence of respiratory conditions among children under 5 years.

A study carried out by Ana et al. [55] showed that the genera of fungi isolated in the indoor environment of day care centers included *Aspergillus, and Penicillum* spp., which have been related to asthma and other allergic respiratory diseases. Some of these species, such as *Penicillium* and *Aspergillus* can also induce type III allergy (IgG mediated), while at high concentrations, may also initiate combined type III and IV reaction manifested as hypersensitivity

**Building condition Cases Control OR (95% CI) p-Value** Presence of damp roof Yes 15 (22.7%) 6 (9.1%) 2.9 (1.1–8.1) 0.03

Presence of algal growth on walls Yes 19 (28.8%) 4 (6.1%) 6.3(2.0–19.6) 0.001

**Table 6.** Condition of houses visited among children under-five with and without ARI.

No 51 (77.3%) 60 (90.0%)

No 47 (71.2%) 62 (93.9%)

presence of mould proved to increase the risk of Asthma and Bronchitis [53].

*10.1.3. Housing quality and dampness*

**10.2. Biological factors**

*10.2.1. Bioaerosols*

Source: Fakunle et al. [17].

#### **10.1. Structural factors**

#### *10.1.1. Overcrowding*

Limited air movement in an enclosed place have been known to be a contributory housing risk factor to respiratory challenges in developing countries as shown in **Plate 2**. Udoh and Uyanga reported that the major predictor for bronchitis and cough in a study carried out in Akwa Ibom Nigeria was overcrowding [15]. Lienhardt reported that overcrowding is a risk factor for respiratory infection and for increased risk of disease after infection [47].

Studies in developing countries have found that the average area of habitable space per person is well below the WHO recommendation of 12 m2 [48]. As reported by Ana and Umar, the mean number of occupancy among children under the age of 5 admitted in a tertiary health facility for ARIs was 6.0 ± 1.5 as compared to 4.0 ± 1.0 among controls [55]. A positive association was found between the level of occupancy and indoor total bacterial count. This suggests that the number of persons in the household is directly proportional to the level of bacteria build-up in the indoor environment.

#### *10.1.2. Inadequate ventilation*

Transmission of *respiratory condition* to a non-infected person is more likely if there is poor ventilation. Inadequate ventilation is associated with a higher risk of airborne infectious

**Plate 2.** (A) Overcrowding condition in a typical community in Nigeria. (B) Overcrowding condition in a typical school setting in Nigeria.

disease transmission, including tuberculosis, as well as the accumulation of indoor pollutants and dampness, which are factors in the development of allergies and asthma [49]. Room ventilation is usually expressed in terms of air changes per hour [45, 50]. Studies in hospitals and health care facilities have shown that poor ventilation design or construction have contributed to the transmission of infection, particularly among clinical personnel in patient rooms with fewer than two air changes per hour [51]. Poor ventilation have been associated with failing respiratory health [40, 52]. In the same wise, Livebuga et al. also found that the presence of mould proved to increase the risk of Asthma and Bronchitis [53].

#### *10.1.3. Housing quality and dampness*

housing therefore remains critical to human health, comfort and general well-being [43]. Thus, understanding the link between housing and respiratory health condition is of importance in designing effective strategies to improve quality of life. Crowding, poor air quality within homes as a result of inadequate ventilation, and the presence of mould and smoke contribute to poor respiratory health in general and have been implicated in the spread and/or outcome of tuberculosis (TB) [44–46]. Therefore, housing risk factors for respiratory conditions can be broadly classified into three namely; structural, biological and chemical factors. Specific aspects of these risk

Limited air movement in an enclosed place have been known to be a contributory housing risk factor to respiratory challenges in developing countries as shown in **Plate 2**. Udoh and Uyanga reported that the major predictor for bronchitis and cough in a study carried out in Akwa Ibom Nigeria was overcrowding [15]. Lienhardt reported that overcrowding is a risk

Studies in developing countries have found that the average area of habitable space per per-

mean number of occupancy among children under the age of 5 admitted in a tertiary health facility for ARIs was 6.0 ± 1.5 as compared to 4.0 ± 1.0 among controls [55]. A positive association was found between the level of occupancy and indoor total bacterial count. This suggests that the number of persons in the household is directly proportional to the level of bacteria

Transmission of *respiratory condition* to a non-infected person is more likely if there is poor ventilation. Inadequate ventilation is associated with a higher risk of airborne infectious

**Plate 2.** (A) Overcrowding condition in a typical community in Nigeria. (B) Overcrowding condition in a typical school

[48]. As reported by Ana and Umar, the

factor for respiratory infection and for increased risk of disease after infection [47].

son is well below the WHO recommendation of 12 m2

build-up in the indoor environment.

*10.1.2. Inadequate ventilation*

setting in Nigeria.

factors are described below:

**10.1. Structural factors**

*10.1.1. Overcrowding*

104 Housing

Moisture damages on walls, roofs, floors, leaking pipes, cracked walls, broken window seals are all platforms for occurrence of house hazards and for the growth of visible moulds and mildews leading to poor housing quality. About 60% of households suffer roof leakage, cracked walls and broken floors with increased risk of pneumonia due to mould and damp development [54]. Dampness has been repeatedly linked to a number of health outcomes, including respiratory symptoms, nausea and vomiting and general ill health. Fakunle et al. [17] in a study reported that housing quality and conditions among cases were major contributory factors to ARI when compared with the controls (**Table 6**). The study reported that more cases than controls reside in houses with poor housing quality (OR = 2.5; CI = 1.3–5.1, p < 0.05). In a large proportion of houses of cases than controls, there were presence of damp walls (OR = 2.9; 95% CI = 1.1–8.1). Children under five living in houses with presence of old/deteriorated furniture were found to be thrice more likely to develop ARIs than children residing in houses without such furniture. More houses among cases than controls were built using muds (OR = 4.6; 95% C.1 = 1.6–12.8) [17]. This study suggests that a link exists between housing quality and the prevalence of respiratory conditions among children under 5 years.

## **10.2. Biological factors**

#### *10.2.1. Bioaerosols*

A study carried out by Ana et al. [55] showed that the genera of fungi isolated in the indoor environment of day care centers included *Aspergillus, and Penicillum* spp., which have been related to asthma and other allergic respiratory diseases. Some of these species, such as *Penicillium* and *Aspergillus* can also induce type III allergy (IgG mediated), while at high concentrations, may also initiate combined type III and IV reaction manifested as hypersensitivity

**Table 6.** Condition of houses visited among children under-five with and without ARI.

pneumonitis [56]. Airborne fungi may be harmful to human health, but may also destroy the building itself (**Plate 3**), particularly wooden parts, such as roofs and walls. Inadequate ventilation is one of multiple factors that contribute to the development of mould in a home [57]. Household humidity and encumbered space may also contribute to mould growth in a house. However, mould have been implicated in increased susceptibility to respiratory infection, asthma and allergies among children [58]. Dales et al. found an association between exposure to indoor fungal contamination and altered T-cell differentiation in children [59].

A recent study by Ana et al. [60] designed to determine the burden of airborne microbes in houses that predispose children under the age of 5 years to acute respiratory infections revealed that the indoor airborne bacterial load in houses of children under-5 years with ARI (9.6 × 102 cfu/m3 ) was higher than the acceptable limit (≤5.0 × 102 cfu/m3 ) proposed by the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) for residential locations compared to houses of children under-five without ARI (3.5 × 102 cfu/m3 ) (**Figure 4)**.

#### **10.3. Chemical factors**

#### *10.3.1. Tobacco smoke among parents*

It has been postulated that cigarette smoke may impair the pulmonary defense mechanism, resulting in airways that are more susceptible to infection; however, there are no published studies to support this hypothesis [61]. A study carried out by Adegoke et al. [62] investigated the effect of tobacco smoking on lung function indices among male undergraduate students. They revealed that smokers had significantly reduced FVC (3.42 ± 0.42 vs. 3.87 ± 0.4 liters; p = 0.03), FEV1 (2.39 ± 0.37 vs. 3.22 ± 0.38 liters; p = 0.001) and FER (%) (70.7 ± 7.58 vs. 82.3 ± 4.05; p = 0.01). Among the smokers, a relationship was observed between years and numbers of cigarettes smoked and lung function. The proportion of participants with FER below the age-matched reference was significantly higher among smokers than non-smokers

(40.4 vs. 6.7%) p = 0.021. [25] in their study reported parental smoking or any other smoker in the house as a risk factor for ARIs in children under the age of 5 (OR = 4.7; CI = 0.9–2.17, p < 0.05). This could be due to the accumulation of emissions from cigarette smoking in the indoor environment as a result of inadequate ventilation [63]. Furthermore, indoor air pollution, arising from tobacco smoking in the home showed significant effects on respiratory symptoms (Cough, Wheezing, Pneumonia, Bronchitis and Asthma) among children [64, 65].

Housing Quality and Risk Factors Associated with Respiratory Health Conditions in Nigeria

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107

**Figure 4.** Mean indoor TBC among cases and controls as compared to AIHA Guideline. Source: Ana et al. [60].

impair phagocyte functioning of the lower respiratory system and thus reduce immunity. A systematic review of 33 papers indicated that passive smoking (second hand smoking) and smoking were associated with an increased risk of tuberculosis. The review further revealed that compared to non-smokers, smokers had an increased risk of having active tuberculosis

About 3 billion people in developing countries including Nigeria rely on firewood or charcoal for their daily cooking purposes [67]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), smoke-induced diseases are responsible for the death of 4.3 million people every year, making it one of the most lethal environmental health risks worldwide [68]. The largest burden of mortality due to biomass fuel is borne by women and young children (**Figure 3**).  Young children are particularly vulnerable for two reasons: First, they are usually with their mothers during the cooking process and thus inhale large loads of particulate emission. In a recent systematic review, it was

) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2

) which

Tobacco and cigarette smoking emits sulfur dioxide (SO2

*10.3.2. Exposure to Biomass fuel used for cooking and heating*

and testing positive on tuberculin skin test [66].

**Plate 3.** (A) Damped roof in a building in Bere Area of Ibadan, and (B) mould growth on wall and ceiling of a typical house in Ibadan.

Housing Quality and Risk Factors Associated with Respiratory Health Conditions in Nigeria http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78543 107

**Figure 4.** Mean indoor TBC among cases and controls as compared to AIHA Guideline. Source: Ana et al. [60].

(40.4 vs. 6.7%) p = 0.021. [25] in their study reported parental smoking or any other smoker in the house as a risk factor for ARIs in children under the age of 5 (OR = 4.7; CI = 0.9–2.17, p < 0.05). This could be due to the accumulation of emissions from cigarette smoking in the indoor environment as a result of inadequate ventilation [63]. Furthermore, indoor air pollution, arising from tobacco smoking in the home showed significant effects on respiratory symptoms (Cough, Wheezing, Pneumonia, Bronchitis and Asthma) among children [64, 65]. Tobacco and cigarette smoking emits sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) which impair phagocyte functioning of the lower respiratory system and thus reduce immunity. A systematic review of 33 papers indicated that passive smoking (second hand smoking) and smoking were associated with an increased risk of tuberculosis. The review further revealed that compared to non-smokers, smokers had an increased risk of having active tuberculosis and testing positive on tuberculin skin test [66].

#### *10.3.2. Exposure to Biomass fuel used for cooking and heating*

pneumonitis [56]. Airborne fungi may be harmful to human health, but may also destroy the building itself (**Plate 3**), particularly wooden parts, such as roofs and walls. Inadequate ventilation is one of multiple factors that contribute to the development of mould in a home [57]. Household humidity and encumbered space may also contribute to mould growth in a house. However, mould have been implicated in increased susceptibility to respiratory infection, asthma and allergies among children [58]. Dales et al. found an association between exposure

A recent study by Ana et al. [60] designed to determine the burden of airborne microbes in houses that predispose children under the age of 5 years to acute respiratory infections revealed that the indoor airborne bacterial load in houses of children under-5 years with

the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) for residential locations compared to

It has been postulated that cigarette smoke may impair the pulmonary defense mechanism, resulting in airways that are more susceptible to infection; however, there are no published studies to support this hypothesis [61]. A study carried out by Adegoke et al. [62] investigated the effect of tobacco smoking on lung function indices among male undergraduate students. They revealed that smokers had significantly reduced FVC (3.42 ± 0.42 vs. 3.87 ± 0.4 liters; p = 0.03), FEV1 (2.39 ± 0.37 vs. 3.22 ± 0.38 liters; p = 0.001) and FER (%) (70.7 ± 7.58 vs. 82.3 ± 4.05; p = 0.01). Among the smokers, a relationship was observed between years and numbers of cigarettes smoked and lung function. The proportion of participants with FER below the age-matched reference was significantly higher among smokers than non-smokers

**Plate 3.** (A) Damped roof in a building in Bere Area of Ibadan, and (B) mould growth on wall and ceiling of a typical

) was higher than the acceptable limit (≤5.0 × 102 cfu/m3

) (**Figure 4)**.

) proposed by

to indoor fungal contamination and altered T-cell differentiation in children [59].

houses of children under-five without ARI (3.5 × 102 cfu/m3

ARI (9.6 × 102 cfu/m3

106 Housing

**10.3. Chemical factors**

house in Ibadan.

*10.3.1. Tobacco smoke among parents*

About 3 billion people in developing countries including Nigeria rely on firewood or charcoal for their daily cooking purposes [67]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), smoke-induced diseases are responsible for the death of 4.3 million people every year, making it one of the most lethal environmental health risks worldwide [68]. The largest burden of mortality due to biomass fuel is borne by women and young children (**Figure 3**).  Young children are particularly vulnerable for two reasons: First, they are usually with their mothers during the cooking process and thus inhale large loads of particulate emission. In a recent systematic review, it was

been implicated in the prevalence of respiratory conditions and morbidity among humans, especially children under the age of 5 years in Nigeria. Therefore, against the backdrop of these effects of poor housing quality, it is imperative that measures such as health policy changes regarding construction of homes, better ventilation of kitchens and homes, and use of environmentally friendly, low-emission and energy-efficient cooking stoves should be put in place, if the prevalence of respiratory conditions among Nigerian children must be mitigated. Also, more should be done in the aspect of strengthening community health program, raising housing awareness, encouraging good self-help environmental sanitation among households, and the development of good and effective master/development plan for

Housing Quality and Risk Factors Associated with Respiratory Health Conditions in Nigeria

, Linda Olayinka-Alli3

, Olamide Omigbile6

3 Environmental Health Tutor's Department, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria 4 Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

[1] Bornehag CG, Sundell BJ, Bonini S, Custovic A, Malmberg P, Skerfving S, Sigsqaard T, Verhoeff A. Dampness in buildings as a risk factor for health effects, EUROEXPO: A multidisciplinary review of the literature on dampness and mite exposure in buildings

[2] Breysse P, Farr N, Galke W, Lanphear B, Morley R, Bergofsky L. The relationship between housing and health children at risk. Environmental Health Perspectives.

[3] Federal Ministry of works and Housing (FMNandH). Report on the launching of Global Campaign for Good Urban Governance in Nigeria, Abuja. Nigeria: Urban and Regional

[4] Kuroshi PA, Bala K. Development of housing finance in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of

Planning Department, Federal Ministry of Works and Housing; 2002

Construction Technology and Management. 2005;**6**(1):7-18

1 SIREN, Department of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

6 Blue Gate Public Health Promotion Initiative, Ibadan, Nigeria

and health effects. Indoor Air. 2004;**14**:243-257

2004;**112**(15):1583-1588

2 Department of Clinical Nursing, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria

5 Department of Community Medicine, Osun State University, Osun State, Nigeria

, Mayowa Aridegbe4

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78543

109

and Ibiwunmi Saliu6

,

physical planning.

**Author details**

Temilade Bello5

**References**

Adekunle Fakunle1,6\*, Johnson Ogundare2

, Opeyemi Elujulo6

\*Address all correspondence to<EMAIL_ADDRESS>
**Plate 4.** Mother and child exposed to biomass emissions.

found that children's particulate emission exposure is similar to their mothers' [69]. Second, in comparison to adults, the still growing bodies of young children are more susceptible to ARI, leading to a high death rate in this age group [70].

In a study on the concentration of indoor air pollutants due to the use of firewood for cooking and its effects on the lung function of women living in the selected homes in Nigeria, Ana et al. [71] reported that the concentration of PM10 and gaseous emissions such as CO and NO2 significantly exceeded the WHO limits by several folds. Chronic exposure to such high levels of indoor air pollutants particularly the respirable particulate matter as shown in **Plate 4** could possibly compromise the lung function status of women [71]. Olufunmilayo and Chi [72] reported that there is increased likelihood of ARI symptoms associated with children aged 1–2 years old in communities where indoor-biomass is used by households in North-Western and South Southern Nigeria Communities. A majority of households burn biomass fuels in open fireplaces, consisting of simple arrangements as three rocks, a U-shaped hole in a block of clay, a pit in the ground or in poorly functioning earth or metal stoves. However, the process of combustion in most of these stoves is incomplete, resulting in substantial emissions, which in the presence of poor ventilation produce very high levels of indoor pollution [73]. A case-control study carried out by Fakunle et al. [74] in Ibadan revealed that Children underfive carried by their mothers while cooking were 3.2 times more likely to develop ARIs.

#### **11. Conclusions**

That a man requires good quality housing has become a fact that cannot be entirely invalidated if he must enjoy a healthy life and wellness. However, several studies have reported that as opposed to the intents of man, built environment does not usually protect their inhabitant from various physical, social, economic and mental hazards, especially housing with poor quality. This therefore suggests that the quality of housing plays a major role in the health status and overall well-being of its resident, even though everyone has the right to decent and good standard of living. Overcrowding, poor ventilation, use of biomass fuel, mould growth in houses, dampness and poor quality have been identified as major predictors that have been implicated in the prevalence of respiratory conditions and morbidity among humans, especially children under the age of 5 years in Nigeria. Therefore, against the backdrop of these effects of poor housing quality, it is imperative that measures such as health policy changes regarding construction of homes, better ventilation of kitchens and homes, and use of environmentally friendly, low-emission and energy-efficient cooking stoves should be put in place, if the prevalence of respiratory conditions among Nigerian children must be mitigated. Also, more should be done in the aspect of strengthening community health program, raising housing awareness, encouraging good self-help environmental sanitation among households, and the development of good and effective master/development plan for physical planning.


Diagnosis of a muscle injury is instrumental

costs.

#### **Therapeutic exercise**

**1.** Progression from phase 1 to phase 2 is allowed when the athlete showed a normal gait pattern, and can perform a pain-free isometric contraction against submaximal (60%-80%) resistance during prone knee flexion (90°) manual strength test.

### **PHASE 2 Goals: Start isotonic training Stretching training Cardiovascular training**

�**10' of low stationary biking with little resistance or 10' walking**

**ԲStanding hip flexion with knee extension stretch with slow side to side rotation. Standing**

**Բhamstring stretch sport position. 3 x 30 sec**

**ԲProne or standing position knee flexion . 3 – 4 x 12 – 15**

**ԲLight lunges in all planes ( foto 10) 5 x 15 sec**

**2.** progression from phase2 to phase 3 is allowed when the athlete can perform all activities without pain.

**8.** Treatment(Tw)

**10.** "Therapeutics"(Mesh)

**12.** "Treatment outcome"(Mesh)

**14.** "Recovery of function"(Mesh)

**15.** "Evidence based medicine"(Mesh))

tion"(Mesh) OR "Evidence based medicine"(Mesh))

**13.** "Muscle strength"(Mesh)

**Appendix 2**

*Included studies*

Syst Rev. 2012 Dec 12;12:CD004575.

**9.** "Physical therapy modalities"(Mesh)

**11.** "Rehabilitation"(Mesh) OR "Rehabilitation programs"(TW) OR Treatment(Tw) OR

Conservative Treatment of Muscle Injuries: From Scientific Evidence to Clinical Practice

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193

**16.** "Treatment outcome"(Mesh) OR "Muscle strength"(Mesh) OR "Recovery of func‐

**17.** "Athletic injuries"(Mesh) OR "Muscle, Skeletal/injuries"(Mesh) OR "Sprains and strains"(Mesh) OR Muscle injur\*(Tw) AND "Rehabilitation"(Mesh) OR "Rehabilitation programs"(TW) OR Treatment(Tw) OR "Physical therapy modalities"(Mesh) OR "Thera‐ peutics"(Mesh) AND "Treatment outcome"(Mesh) OR "Muscle strength"(Mesh) OR

**18.** "Athletic injuries"(Mesh) OR "Muscle, Skeletal/injuries"(Mesh) OR "Sprains and strains"(Mesh) OR Muscle injur\*(Tw) AND "Rehabilitation"(Mesh) OR "Rehabilitation programs"(TW) OR Treatment(Tw) OR "Physical therapy modalities"(Mesh) OR "Thera‐ peutics"(Mesh) AND "Treatment outcome"(Mesh) OR "Muscle strength"(Mesh) OR "Recovery of function"(Mesh) OR "Evidence based medicine"(Mesh))Filters: Randomized

**•** Mason DL, Dickens VA, Vail A. Rehabilitation for hamstring injuries. Cochrane Database

**•** Reurink G, Goudswaard GJ, Tol JL, Verhaar JA, Weir A, Moen MH. Therapeutic interven‐ tions for acute hamstring injuries: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2012 Feb;46(2):103-9.

Controlled Trial; Systematic Reviews; Guideline; published in the last 10 years

"Recovery of function"(Mesh) OR "Evidence based medicine"(Mesh))

"Physical therapy modalities"(Mesh) OR "Therapeutics"(Mesh)

**Key:** All the exercises must be performed without pain. In a first phase low intensity, a velocity of movement that is less than or near that of normal walking; in a second phase moderate intensity, a velocity of movement greater than normal walking but not as great as sport; in a third phase high intensity, a velocity of movement similar to sport activity.

#### **Appendix 1: Search strategies**

#### *Pubmed/Medline*

**8.** Treatment(Tw)

**2.** progression from phase2 to phase 3 is allowed when the athlete can perform all activities

**PHASE 3 Goals: Stretch training Isotonic training**

**lunges in all planes with return to start position with different velocity 5 x 30 sec**

third phase high intensity, a velocity of movement similar to sport activity.

**Key:** All the exercises must be performed without pain. In a first phase low intensity, a velocity of movement that is less than or near that of normal walking; in a second phase moderate intensity, a velocity of movement greater than normal walking but not as great as sport; in a

**5.** "Athletic injuries"(Mesh) OR "Muscle, Skeletal/injuries"(Mesh) OR "Sprains and

�**10' of low stationary biking with little resistance or 10' walking**

**ԲNon–weight-bearing ''foot catches'' 6 – 8 rep**

**ԲSingle leg deadlifts 5 x 8 – 10 rep ԲSingle leg standing 2 x 6 – 8 rep ԲNordic hamstring exercise 2 x 6 rep**

**Appendix 1: Search strategies**

**1.** "Athletic injuries"(Mesh)

**2.** "Muscle, Skeletal/injuries"(Mesh)

strains"(Mesh) OR Muscle injur\*(Tw)

**3.** "Sprains and strains"(Mesh)

**4.** Muscle injur\*(Tw)

**6.** "Rehabilitation"(Mesh)

**7.** "Rehabilitation programs"(TW)

*Pubmed/Medline*

without pain.

192 Muscle Injuries in Sport Medicine

#### **Appendix 2**

#### *Included studies*

**•** Copland ST, Tipton JS, Fields KB. Evidence-based treatment of hamstring tears. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2009 Nov-Dec;8(6):308-14.

**Author details**

, Massimo Bitocchi1

, Manuela Gervasi1

2 Department of Life, Health & Environmental Sciences, School of Medicine, University of

[2] Croisier J.L., Forthomme B., Namurois M.H., Vanderthommen M. and Crielaard J.M. (2002). Hamstring muscle strain recurrence and strength performance disorders. Am.

[3] Jarvinen TA, Jarvinen TL, KaariainenM, et al. Muscle injuries: biology and treatment.

[4] Verrall G.M., Slavotinek J.P., Barnes P.G., Fon G.T. and Spriggins A.J. (2001). Clinical risk factors for hamstring muscle strain injury: a prospective study with correlation of injury by magnetic resonance imaging. Br. J. Sports Med. 35, 435-439; discussion

[5] Orchard J. and Best T. (2002). The management of muscle strain injuries: an early re‐

[6] Volpi P, Melegati G, Tornese D, et al. Muscle strains in soccer: a five-year survey of an Italian major league team. Knee Surg Sports TraumatolArthrosc 2004;12:482–5.

[7] Huard J, Li Y, Fu FH. Muscle injuries and repair: current trends in research. J Bone

[8] Ekstrand J, Gillquist J. Soccer injuries and their mechanisms: a prospective study.

[9] Verrall G, Slavotinek J, Barnes P, et al. Diagnostic and prognostic value of clinical findings in 83 athletes with posterior thigh injury: comparison of clinical findings with magnetic resonance imaging documentation of hamstring muscle strain. Am J

[10] Brockett C, Morgan D, Proske U. Predicting hamstring strain injury in elite athletes.

turn versus the risk of recurrence. Clin. J. Sport Med. 12, 3-5.

1 Department of Physiotherapy, "Riabilita" Centre, Civitanova Marche (MC), Italy

[1] Garrett W.E. (1996). Muscle strain injuries. Am. J. Sports Med. 24, S2-S8.

, Gianni Secchiari1

Conservative Treatment of Muscle Injuries: From Scientific Evidence to Clinical Practice

and

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/56550

195

Andrea Foglia1

**References**

440.

Angelo Cacchio2

L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy

J. Sports Med. 30, 199-203.

Am J Sports Med 2005;33:745–64.

Joint Surg Am. 2002 May;84-A(5):822-32.

Med Sci Sports Exerc 1983;15:267-270.

Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36:379-387.

Sports Med. 2003;31:969-973.

#### *Excluded studies*


**3.1 Importation**

Importation of natural enemies, is also called as *classical biological control*. It refers to the planned introduction of an exotic biological control agent for permanent establishment and long-term pest control to an area that is invaded by pest. Its

**Figure 1.** *Three general approaches to biological control.*

#### *Biological Control of Agricultural Insect Pests DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104464*

target is to restore the balance between pest and natural enemy populations in the area invaded by pest without its natural enemies [1].

The import of pests either accidentally, or in some cases, intentionally in any countries where they are not native is continuous. However, due to a lack of natural enemies to suppress their populations, these introduced organisms of exotic origin may become pests, In these cases, importation of natural enemies can be highly effective [19]. Following the identification of the country of origin of the imported pest, a search may be conducted to explore a promising natural enemy. If the natural enemies are identified, their potential impact on the pest in the native country may be evaluated and imported into the new country for further study. Natural enemies are imported into the country under permit by the concerned authorities. The introduced natural enemies are first placed in quarantine for one or more generations to ensure the accidental importation of undesirable species (diseases, hyperparasitoids etc.). Further permits are required from concerned authorities for shipping to different states and field release.

The alfalfa weevil, *Hypera postica* (Gyllenhall) is a native of Europe. The species was introduced and detected in several countries. The first introduction was detected in the US in Utah in 1904. Biological control of this pest is best example of a successful program using importation of natural enemies [20].

### **3.2 Augmentation**

Manipulation of natural enemies for enhancing the effectiveness of biological control is termed as augmentation. This can be adopted by one, or both, of the two general methods as given below:

1.mass production and periodic colonization; or.

2.Genetic enhancement of natural enemies

The first one mass production and periodic colonization is most commonly used. The natural enemies are produced in insectaries, and thereafter, released either inoculatively or inundatively. Augmentation is used where populations of a natural enemy are not present or cannot respond quickly enough to the pest population. This approach, therefore, does not provide permanent solution for the suppression of pests, as the outbreak of pest may occur with importation or conservation methods.

The use of the parasitoid wasp, *Encarsia formosa* Gahan, to suppress populations of the whitefly, *Trialeurodes vaporariorum* is one of the best example of the inoculative release method [21, 22]. The whiteflies are a global pest of vegetable and floriculture crops that is very difficult to manage with pesticides. Immediate release of *E. Formosa* following detection of the first whitefly on the crop effectively prevent the populations from developing to damaging levels. The releases should be made in context of an integrated crop management program taking into account the low tolerance of the parasitoids to pesticides.

#### **3.3 Conservation**

When we are to introduce any biological control attempt, conservation of natural enemies is key element for successful effectiveness. The factors which may limit the effectiveness of natural enemy must be identified, further modifying them to enhance the effectiveness.

This approach may be adapted by two ways as follows:

1. reduce the factors which interfere with natural enemies or

2.provide the resources that natural enemies need in their environment

Several factors are responsible for reducing the effectiveness of a natural enemy. Pesticide applications may directly kill natural enemies or have indirect effects through crop reduction in the numbers or availability of hosts. Cultural practices such as tillage or burning of crop debris may be detrimental for natural enemies by killing them or reducing their population by destroying the habitat. In orchards, frequent tillage may generate dust deposits on leaves, killing small predators and parasites and further, increasing certain insect and mite pests.

A study revealing the biological control of California red scale, *Aonidiella aurantii* natural (Maskell), suggests that the control may be achieved through periodic washing of citrus tree foliage that increases the parasitoids efficiency [23]. Some host plant effects such as chemical defenses which are harmful to natural enemies but the pest on the host plant is best adapted to it, also reduces the effectiveness of biological control. There are some pests that are able to sequester toxic components of their host, and use them as defense against their own enemies. In such cases also the effectiveness of biological control is reduced. Some cases like physical characteristics of the host plant such as leaf hairiness, may reduce the ability of the natural enemy to find and attack hosts.

Therefore, conservation ensures that the ecological requirements of the natural enemy are reached out in the cropping environment. To be effective, natural enemies may need access to; alternate hosts, adult food resources, overwintering habitats, constant food supply, and appropriate microclimates [24]. In a study reported by Doutt and Nakata [25] *Anagrus epos* Girault, is the fundamental parasitoid of the grape leafhopper, *Erythroneura elegantula.* A substitute is needed in grape vineyards for overwintering. This host, another leafhopper, overwinters on blackberry foliage in riparian areas, at some distance from the vineyards. Thus, during spring season the occurrence of early colonization by the parasitoids is often observed in the vineyards near to the natural blackberry. This forms the healthier and preferable biological control. Wilson et al. [26] have reported that the French prune trees also harbor another overwintering host. Their plantation in the upwind of the vineyards will effectively conserve *A. epos*.

## **4. Current applications of biological control**

Biological control is an interesting science. This control method is constantly incorporating and introducing new knowledge and techniques. This part will deal with different ways by which efficient biological control may be adapted to meet the current pest management challenges.

#### **4.1 Modern approaches in augmentation of natural enemies**

Augmentation generally involves mass-production and periodic colonization of natural enemies. This has imparted to its commercial development. Recently, there are hundreds of commercially available biological control products for pest invertebrates, vertebrates, weeds, and plant pathogens.

The practice of augmentation not only differs for importation and conservation or in making a change in an agro ecosystem to improve its efficacy. Rather, this approach seeks to adapt natural enemies to fit into existing systems.

#### *Biological Control of Agricultural Insect Pests DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104464*

Inundative release of *Trichogramma* wasps is an excellent example of an augmentative practice is successfully adapted in agricultural systems. These are minute endoparasitoids Their eggs are released on the crops timed to the presence of pest eggs. *Trichogramma* is highly efficient biological control agent and most widely augmented species of natural enemy. Worldwide, over 32 million ha of agricultural crops and forests are treated annually with *Trichogramma* spp. in 19 countries, mostly in China and republics of the former Soviet Union [27].

Developed countries such as China, generally follow a simple, low labour cost, innovative technology for agricultural production and pest management systems. They highly use the *Trichogramma* spp. for the management *Chilo* spp., populations in sugarcane. The natural enemies are inundatively released and are protected from rain and predators inside emergence packets. Their eggs commercially reared in insectaries are wrapped in sections of leaves and slipped by hand over blades of sugarcane. *Trichogramma* is mostly produced in localized areas of China.

Implementation of biological control in western countries have to face socioeconomics issues for its implementation [28]. Current in large-scale production agricultural systems, some incentives are there on the efficiency and economy of scale. Large industries have developed around the application of agrichemicals, including application equipment manufacturing, distribution and sales, as well as application services. Therefore, biological control products have to compete strongly with pesticides, they should be as effective as pesticides and they should have the capacity to be applied quickly on a large scale with conventional application equipment. So it is expected that the biological agents must have many characteristics same as pesticides.

In Western country such as Europe, commercial marketing of three products utilizing the European native, *Trichogramma brassicae* Bezdenko, to suppress the European corn borer, *Ostrina nubilalis* Hübner, in corn fields was almost possible following two decades of intensive research [29]. Annual application of these products in approximately 7,000 ha, 150 ha, and 15,000 ha is carried out in Switzerland and Germany, Austria and France respectively. All the three products are manufactured in plastic or paper packets for safeguarding the wasps against weather extremes and predation until their application in the field.

*Trichogramma* products are mostly manually applied to crop fields. With the exception of Trichocaps, which may be disseminated either by hand or by aircraft using conventional application equipment. Their packets are walnut-shaped cardboard capsules (2 cm. diam.) and contain approximately 500 parasitized Mediterranean flour moth, *Ephestia kuehniella* Zwolfer, eggs [30]. Developing *Trichogramma* inside capsules are induced into an overwintering (diapause) state in the insectaries. These are then stored in refrigerated conditions for nine months without loss of quality. By this system, production of *Trichogramma* product during winter months may be possible. The product may then be distributed to growers when needed in the summer.

When the refrigerated *Trichogramma* is removed from cold storage, it will start its development inside the capsules and begin emergence approximately 100°C. It is required to control this 'reactivation' process for uniform emergence of *Trichogramma*, at different developmental stages, in the fields. The companies only make planning and preparation of the product for its application. The growers are only responsible for applying the product to crop fields.

#### **4.2 Landscape ecology and the conservation of natural enemies**

The land disturbance studies and its effects on insect community dynamics as well as the emergence of the discipline of landscape ecology have imparted the way to think about the conservation of natural enemies. Since last 20 years, ecologists have recognized the central role of disturbance in the structuring of ecological communities [21–32]. Among the various ecosystems, the terrestrial ecosystems is highly disturbed one and this ecosystem experiences one disturbance event every several years (e.g. fire in grasslands), however, in agricultural ecosystems multiple events occur in each growing season (plowing, planting, nutrient and pesticide applications, cultivation and harvest) and their outcomes may be anticipated from an ecological point of view [33]. Highly disturbed systems exhibit reduced species diversity and short food chains, resulting to well adaptation of the species (i.e. pests) which have only few natural enemies to reduce their populations. Therefore, the role of additional disturbance events, such as pesticide applications, is needed to be initiated that controls the initial negative symptom, may also precipitate its reoccurrence.

Due to increasing reliance on mechanization and pesticides, diversity in farmlands has rapidly disappeared and the impacts on natural enemies must be studied and understood [34]. Increased habitat fragmentation, isolation and decreased landscape structural complexity destabilizes the biotic interactions which serve to regulate natural ecosystems [35, 36]. Therefore, this current systems of crop production (mechanization and use of pesticides) shape the physical structure of our agricultural landscapes [37].

The goal of an ecological approach to conservation biological control is just to modify the intensity and frequency of disturbance to a point where the natural enemies can effectively function. This requires its occurrence in field, farm and larger landscape-levels. Few modifications of tillage intensity and frequency (reduced tillage or no-tillage) in fields leave behind increased plant residue on the soil surface and have a positive influence on the predators (ground beetles and spiders) as well. Similarly, intercropping may be also modified, changing the microclimate of crop fields will make them more favorable for the parasitoids [38].

When taking at the farm level, the presence and distribution of non-crop habitats can be dangerous for natural enemy survival. *Eriborus terebrans* (Gravenhorst) is a wasp which parasitizes European corn borer larvae. They grow at moderate temperatures and require a source of sugar (nectar of flowering plants or aphid honeydew). But they are unable to met these demands in a conventionally managed corn field. Therefore, wasps seek more sheltered locations in wooded fence rows and woodlots where they find reduced temperatures, higher relative humidity and abundant sources of adult food. Besides, they also parasitize European corn borer larvae in corn field edges near their habitats at two to three times the rate of those in field interiors (up to 40%) [39]. Thus, the current research is creating natural enemy resource habitats and examining the potential of modifying corn production systems to increase natural control of European corn borers. Intercrops, strip crops, as well as modification of grass waterways, shelterbelts, buffer and riparian zones are some of the promising techniques in this regard.

Now at the landscape-level, the physical structure of agricultural production systems can have an impact on the pest and natural enemy diversity and abundance. Ryszkowski et al. [34] has reported in his study in the mosaic landscapes that natural enemies are highly dependent on refuge habitats than are pests and the greater abundance of these refuges in the mosaic landscapes resulted in their higher diversity, abundance and ability to respond to prey numbers. Further studies have also revealed enhanced parasitism of true armyworm, *Pseudaletia unipuncta* (Haworth), in structurally-complex versus simple agricultural landscapes. The parasitism in the complex sites was three times higher than in the simple sites (13.1% versus 3.4%). This differences was attributed to the abundant population of one wasp species, the braconid, *Meterous communis* (Cresson) in the complex sites.

#### *Biological Control of Agricultural Insect Pests DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104464*

Earlier, conservation was endeavored with introduction of one species at a time, concentrating to fulfill the needs of natural enemy in a particular system. Though it is a useful approach, now it seems possible that basic ecological theory could inform the design and management of landscapes to conserve and enhance the effectiveness of entire communities of natural enemies.


**7. A new fertilization technique to promote nitrogen fixation and seed yield**

### **7.1. Nitrogen fertilization in soybean cultivation**

Nitrogen fertilization usually depresses nodulation and nitrogen fixation activity. It often re‐ sults in the same or less yield than the control treatment without fertilizer. Top dressing of N fertilizer sometimes gives positive effects on seed yield, but results are not consistent. Ta‐ kahashi et al. reported the effect of basal side-dressings of various types of controlled release nitrogen fertilizer (coated urea) on shoot growth and seed yield of soybean [73]. The yield was significantly higher in all the coated urea basal side-dressing treatments compared with control, particularly in CUS120 which releases urea from 60 to 120 days after planting with a sigmoid pattern of N release.

We have developed a new fertilization technique for soybean cultivation to supplement N during seed filling stage, without the concomitant depression of N2 fixation, by deep place‐ ment (20 cm depth from soil surface) of slow release N fertilizer coated urea and lime nitro‐ gen. We analyzed the beneficial effects from both plant nutrition and soil analysis aspects.

### **7.2. Deep placement of controlled release nitrogen fertilizer coated urea**

Takahashi et al. [4,16, 74-77] developed a new fertilization technique for soybean to supple‐ ment nitrogen during the seed filling stage without concomitant depression of symbiotic N2 fixation by deep placement of coated urea, a slow release N fertilizer. They applied 100 kg N ha-1 coated urea by deep placement (20 cm depth from soil surface) using a fertilizer injector devised by Shioya [78]. They used CU-100, a 100-day type coated urea, the commercial name "LP-100" produced by Chisso-Asahi Fertilizer Co. Ltd, Tokyo (JCAM AGRI Co. Ltd., Tokyo at present). CU-100 linearly releases urea and 80 % of which is released in 100 days in water at 25o C.

A polymer coated controlled release nitrogen fertilizer (commercial name LP in Japan or MEIS‐ TER outside Japan) has been invented by Fujita and coworkers [79]. Linear types of coated urea were first marketed in 1982. This type of fertilizer has a spherical shape of about 3mm diameter with 50-60 µm coat thickness which consists of polyolefin (polyethylene), ethylene vinyl ace‐ tate and talc mineral. Different from chemically synthesized slow release N fertilizers such as IBDU (Isobutylidene diurea) and CDU (Crotonylidene diurea), the N release rate from the coat‐ ed urea is temperature dependent and not affected by other chemical, physical and biological conditions. Therefore, the release pattern of urea can be predicted as a function of temperature and time period after application. Since the release of N from the fertilizer meets the plant N de‐ mand, and the fertilizer efficiency (recovery rate of N in plants from fertilizer N) is high, the use of coated urea can reduce environmental problems by decreasing nitrate accumulation and leaching in the soil. Also the use of coated urea saves the labor of farmers by eliminating top dressing or split dressing of fertilizer to supply N during late growth stages.

and Harper evaluated the N2 fixation potential and yield of hypernodulating soybean NOD1-3, NOD2-4 and NOD3-7 compared with the parent Williams. In the absence of N fer‐ tilizer, all hypernodulation mutants had greater N2 fixation potential than did Williams in early growth stages. However, the seed yields from the hypernodulation mutants were 10 to 30% less than that for Williams. Suganuma et al. also compared the growth and N2 fixation activity of NOD1-3 and Williams in a sandy dune field. Figure 35 shows the daily rate of N2 fixation and N absorption by Williams and the hypernodulation mutant NOD1-3. The % Ndfa was higher in NOD1-3 (65 %) than Williams (58 %), however, the rates of N2 fixation and N absorption were lower in NOD1-3 than in Williams. The hypernodulation mutant lines have not been used for cultivar improvement, but recently "Sakukei no. 4" bred from En6500 (hypernodulating line from "Enrei") and "Tamahomare" in Japan may be useful in

A Comprehensive Survey of International Soybean Research - Genetics, Physiology, Agronomy and Nitrogen

**7. A new fertilization technique to promote nitrogen fixation and seed**

Nitrogen fertilization usually depresses nodulation and nitrogen fixation activity. It often re‐ sults in the same or less yield than the control treatment without fertilizer. Top dressing of N fertilizer sometimes gives positive effects on seed yield, but results are not consistent. Ta‐ kahashi et al. reported the effect of basal side-dressings of various types of controlled release nitrogen fertilizer (coated urea) on shoot growth and seed yield of soybean [73]. The yield was significantly higher in all the coated urea basal side-dressing treatments compared with control, particularly in CUS120 which releases urea from 60 to 120 days after planting with a

We have developed a new fertilization technique for soybean cultivation to supplement N during seed filling stage, without the concomitant depression of N2 fixation, by deep place‐ ment (20 cm depth from soil surface) of slow release N fertilizer coated urea and lime nitro‐ gen. We analyzed the beneficial effects from both plant nutrition and soil analysis aspects.

Takahashi et al. [4,16, 74-77] developed a new fertilization technique for soybean to supple‐ ment nitrogen during the seed filling stage without concomitant depression of symbiotic N2 fixation by deep placement of coated urea, a slow release N fertilizer. They applied 100 kg N ha-1 coated urea by deep placement (20 cm depth from soil surface) using a fertilizer injector devised by Shioya [78]. They used CU-100, a 100-day type coated urea, the commercial name "LP-100" produced by Chisso-Asahi Fertilizer Co. Ltd, Tokyo (JCAM AGRI Co. Ltd., Tokyo at present). CU-100 linearly releases urea and 80 % of which is released in 100 days in

**7.2. Deep placement of controlled release nitrogen fertilizer coated urea**

agricultural production by increasing the planting density.

**7.1. Nitrogen fertilization in soybean cultivation**

sigmoid pattern of N release.

water at 25o

C.

**yield**

Relationships

144

Fertilizer experiments were carried out from 1989 to 1991 in the fields, which had been convert‐ ed from a paddy rice field the previous year in Nagakura. [21]. As shown in Figure 36 the seed yield was significantly higher in the plants with the deep placement of CU-100 than the control in each year. The seed yield was from 10 (1991) to 23 % (1990) higher in deep placement than the control treatments. The promotion of leaf growth and retardation of leaf senescence were ob‐ served at the maturing stage by deep placement of CU. In 1990, the seed yield was very high, about 6 t ha-1 in deep placement, due to favorable climatic conditions. The absorption efficiency of fertilizer N determined by 15N labeled fertilizers was calculated from recovery of 15N in the shoots at the R7 stage. In 1990, the absorption efficiency at R7 from the deep placement of CU-100 was 62 %, which was much higher than the top dressing of CU-70 (33 %) and basal ap‐ plication of ammonium sulfate (9 %). It was observed that the CU-100 deep placement in‐ creased root growth and water and nutrient absorption activity revealed by the uptake of rubidium tracer in the field [75]. Owing to the promotion of subsoil root growth and N absorp‐ tion activity with supplementing N fertilizer without depression of N2 fixation, plant growth was promoted from the early vegetative stage until late maturing. Leaf area index (LAI) and chlorophyll content were always higher in CU-100 deep placement compared with the control, and the leaf senescence was retarded at R7 stage [21].

Takahashi et al. analyzed the concentration of urea, ammonium and nitrate in the upper 0-10cm and lower 15-25cm layers of the soil in control and deep placement of CU-100 treatments. In the upper layer, the concentration of urea and nitrate was very low (less than 10 mg N kg–1 soil) both in control and deep placement of CU-100 treatments. However, the accumulation of ammoni‐ um (up to 150 mg N kg-1) and nitrate (up to 50 mg N kg-1) was observed in the lower layer of deep placement of CU100 in August. Although the urea released from the coated urea was rapidly hydrolyzed to ammonia, NH4 + -N could not be easily nitrified in the deep soil layers of the con‐ verted rice field owing to the low activity of nitrification and restricted O2 supply. As a result, the nodulation and N2 fixation near the surface layer were not depressed, and instead were pro‐ moted through the improvement of plant growth and photosynthetic activity. The mechanism of promotion of deep placement of coated urea for soybean growth and seed yield is summar‐ ized in Figure 37.

**Figure 36.** Comparison of the seed yield of control and deep placement of coated urea in rotated paddy fields in Na‐ gakura in 1989, 1990 and 1991. [4]

**Figure 37.** A model of the promotive effect of deep placement of coated urea on nitrogen fixation and seed yield of soybean.

**Figure 38.** Soybean plants at R7 cultivated in a newly reclaimed field with a 30 cm depth of mountain soil. Plants were planted with inoculated or non-inoculated paper pot. –N: without N deep placement, Urea: deep placement of urea at 20cm depth. Lime N: deep placement of lime nitrogen. [51]

#### **7.3. Deep placement of lime nitrogen**

**Figure 36.** Comparison of the seed yield of control and deep placement of coated urea in rotated paddy fields in Na‐

A Comprehensive Survey of International Soybean Research - Genetics, Physiology, Agronomy and Nitrogen

**Figure 37.** A model of the promotive effect of deep placement of coated urea on nitrogen fixation and seed yield of

gakura in 1989, 1990 and 1991. [4]

Relationships

146

soybean.

Recently, Tewari et al. [51,52,80,81] investigated the effects of deep placement of lime nitro‐ gen (calcium cyanamide, CaCN2) in comparison with coated urea. The fertilizer experiments were combined with a new inoculation method of bradyrhizobia using a paper pot trans‐ plantation. All the experiments were carried out in 2001 at three different sites in Niigata

Prefecture. The tests were initiated in a field reclaimed with the application of mountain soil about 30 cm depth without indigenous bradyrhizobia (Figure 38) [51], a rotated paddy field in Nagakura in Niigata Agricultural Research Institute (Figure 39) [52], and a sandy dune field of Niigata University in Ikarashi [80].

**Figure 39.** Soybean plants cultivated in a rotated paddy field in Nagakura. Plants were planted with inoculated paper pots. Control: without N deep placement, Urea: deep placement of urea at 20cm. Coated Urea: deep placement of coated urea. Lime Nitrogen: deep placement of lime nitrogen. [52]

Lime nitrogen is composed of about 60% calcium cyanamide (CaCN2) with calcium oxide and carbon, and the N content is about 20-23%. After application to the soil, the calcium cy‐ anamide is converted to urea, which is again degraded into NH3 and CO2. Dicyandiamide contained in lime nitrogen or formed during the degradation of calcium cyanamide is a po‐ tent nitrification inhibitor, which retards the oxidation of NH4 + to NO3 - . Therefore the ammo‐ nium produced by CaCN2 decomposition persists for a longer period of time and the nitrate concentration remains low in the soil. It is expected that the inhibition of nodulation and of the N2 fixation activity may be alleviated by low a level of nitrate accumulation. Also this fertilizer exerts some hormonal effects on plants and is used for controlling soil diseases caused by bacteria and fungi.

In each of these fertilizer treatments, IPP (Inoculated paper pot), DT (Direct transplantation of inoculated seedlings without paper pot) and NIPP (Non-inoculated paper pot) seedlings were transplanted in separate plots. Paper pots (height 13.5 cm, diameter 3 cm) were made of a biodegradable paper designed to break down in the field. The pots were open at the bottom to allow root expansion below the pot. A paper pot was filled with vermiculite and a seed was planted in each pot, and followed by inoculation of one ml suspension of *Bradyrhi‐ zobium japonicum* USDA110 of about 108 cells ml-1. Since the bradyrhizobium population in‐ creases about 100 times in vermiculite for a few weeks [55], efficient infection of inoculated bradyrhizobia can also be expected by paper pot inoculation with vermiculite.

Prefecture. The tests were initiated in a field reclaimed with the application of mountain soil about 30 cm depth without indigenous bradyrhizobia (Figure 38) [51], a rotated paddy field in Nagakura in Niigata Agricultural Research Institute (Figure 39) [52], and a sandy dune

A Comprehensive Survey of International Soybean Research - Genetics, Physiology, Agronomy and Nitrogen

**Figure 39.** Soybean plants cultivated in a rotated paddy field in Nagakura. Plants were planted with inoculated paper pots. Control: without N deep placement, Urea: deep placement of urea at 20cm. Coated Urea: deep placement of

Lime nitrogen is composed of about 60% calcium cyanamide (CaCN2) with calcium oxide and carbon, and the N content is about 20-23%. After application to the soil, the calcium cy‐ anamide is converted to urea, which is again degraded into NH3 and CO2. Dicyandiamide contained in lime nitrogen or formed during the degradation of calcium cyanamide is a po‐

nium produced by CaCN2 decomposition persists for a longer period of time and the nitrate concentration remains low in the soil. It is expected that the inhibition of nodulation and of the N2 fixation activity may be alleviated by low a level of nitrate accumulation. Also this fertilizer exerts some hormonal effects on plants and is used for controlling soil diseases

In each of these fertilizer treatments, IPP (Inoculated paper pot), DT (Direct transplantation of inoculated seedlings without paper pot) and NIPP (Non-inoculated paper pot) seedlings were transplanted in separate plots. Paper pots (height 13.5 cm, diameter 3 cm) were made of a biodegradable paper designed to break down in the field. The pots were open at the bottom to allow root expansion below the pot. A paper pot was filled with vermiculite and a seed was planted in each pot, and followed by inoculation of one ml suspension of *Bradyrhi‐*

+ to NO3 -

cells ml-1. Since the bradyrhizobium population in‐

. Therefore the ammo‐

field of Niigata University in Ikarashi [80].

Relationships

148

coated urea. Lime Nitrogen: deep placement of lime nitrogen. [52]

caused by bacteria and fungi.

*zobium japonicum* USDA110 of about 108

tent nitrification inhibitor, which retards the oxidation of NH4

In regard to the inoculation method, IPP (inoculated paper pot) tended to show the highest seed yield than DT and NIPP treatments. Especially in the newly reclaimed field having mountain soil with no indigenous rhizobia at the 30 cm depth, the inoculation by IPP or DT promoted seed yield to a level more than twice as much as the control treatment. Among the inoculation methods, the IPP and DT seedlings showed a higher seed yield than the NIPP seedlings.

Significantly higher seed yields in the rotated paddy field were obtained with the deep placement of CaCN2 IPP (6.12 t ha-2) and CU-100 IPP (6.04 t ha-2), compared with the Urea IPP (4.67 t ha-2) and Control IPP (3.31 t ha-2) treatments (Figure 39) [51]. A similar effect was observed in a reclaimed field and sandy dune field, where deep placement of lime nitrogen gave the same or better seed yields compared with coated urea. Recently, Sakashita et al. re‐ ported the promotive effect of deep placement of lime nitrogen in 8 sites of farmers' field in 2008, 2009 and 2010. Seed yields increased about 30% on average by deep placement of lime nitrogen.

The mechanism of yield promotion by deep placement of lime nitrogen for soybean growth and seed yield is summarized in Figure 40.

**Figure 40.** A model for the promotive yield effect of deep placement of lime nitrogen on nitrogen fixation and seed yield of soybean.

**a.** Deep placement of lime nitrogen is hydrolyzed to urea, then to ammonium and carbon dioxide. The ammonium does not easily leach out from the fertilization sites at 20 cm depth. Dicyandiamide contained in lime nitrogen or formed in the soil from cyanamide

> depresses nitrification to prevent ammonium oxidation to nitrate. As a result, nitrate leaching and denitrification is reduced and the ammonium can be sustained in the sub‐ soil for a long time.


*3.6. The Major Pollutants/Primary Pollutants*

During the study period, PM10 was a major pollutant, accounting for more than 32.9% of the days, followed by O3 (25.9%), PM2.5 (16.4%), NO2 (3.52%), CO (1.43%), and SO2 (1.01%) in NWC (Figure 8). In 2018, the number of days with PM10, PM2.5, SO2, and CO as major pollutants decreased by 35%, 38%, 52%, and 90%, respectively, and increased by 46% and 11% for O3 and NO2, respectively. PM10 was a major pollutant in autumn (41.3%), spring (39.1%), and a second major pollutant in winter (34.3%), while PM2.5 was a major pollutant in winter (42.1%), and O3 was a major pollutant (59.7%) in summer. The number of days with O3 as a major pollutant was higher in the hotter months March–September), and, for PM2.5, it was higher in the colder months (November–February). During the study period, the number of days with PM10 as a major pollutant decreased by 47.2%, 76.3%, and 19.7% in spring, summer, and autumn, respectively, and increased by 4.58% in winter 2018 as compared with 2015. Similarly, the number of days with PM2.5 as a major pollutant decreased by 62.3%, 90.8%, 42.9%, and 24.6% in spring, summer, autumn, and winter, respectively. The number of days with SO2 as a major pollutant decreased in all the seasons except summer, NO2 decreased in summer and winter, CO decreased in spring, summer, autumn, and winter, while O3 increased in all the seasons, e.g., in spring, summer, autumn, and winter 2018 as compared with 2015.

**Figure 6.** Annual (**a**–**d**) and seasonal (spring (**e**–**h**), summer (**i**–**l**), autumn (**m**–**p**), and winter (**q**–**t**)) spatial distribution of AQI between 2015 and 2018 in 53 cities of northwest China (NWC). Color represents the different classes of air quality index, e.g., green (0–50, good), yellow (51–100, moderate), orange (101–150, unhealthy for the sensitive group), red (151–200, unhealthy for all), purple (201–300, very unhealthy), and maroon (300+, hazardous).

**Figure 7.** The annual (1st row) and seasonal (spring (2nd row), summer (3rd row), autumn (4th row), and winter (5th row)) distribution of AQ class, e.g., Class I (0–50, good, green), Class II (51–100, moderate, yellow), Class III (101–150, unhealthy for a sensitive group, orange), Class IV (151–200, unhealthy for all, red), Class V (001-300, very unhealthy, purple), and Class VI (300+, hazardous, maroon) in northwest China (NWC) between 2015 and 2018.

**Figure 8.** The annual (**a**) and seasonal (spring (**b**), summer (**c**), autumn (**d**), winter (**e**)) percentage of days with different primary pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NO2, CO, and O3) in five provinces (Shaanxi (SN), Xinjiang (XJ), Gansu (GS), Ningxia (NX), and Qinghai (QH)) of northwest China (NWC) between 2015 and 2018. Descriptions are as follows: light blue bar (Shaanxi), orange bar (Xinjiang), grey bar (Gansu), yellow bar (Ningxia), blue bar (Qinghai), and parrot bar (NWC). The abbreviations are as follows: PM2.5 (fine particulate matter), PM10 (coarse particulate matter), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), NO2 (nitrogen dioxide), CO (carbon monoxide), and O3 (ozone).


2. Normal development and structure of the eye

### 2.1 Normal development of the eye

The glycosylated area of α-DG existed outside the cell membrane works as a receptor for extracellular matrix proteins like laminin [6–8]. Thus, the glycosylation of α-DG is indispensable for formation of the basement membrane. To accomplish a fully glycosylated α-DG, several proteins, such as protein-O-mannosyltransferase 1/2 (POMT1/2) [9–11], O-linked mannose 1,2-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (POMGnT1) [12], fukutin [13], fukutin-related protein (FKRP) [14], and LARGE [15], are required. The recent study proves that fukutin transfers ribitol 5-phosphate to sugar chains of α-DG, which is necessary to make a functional α-DG [13]. Muscular dystrophies showing reduced glycosylation of α-DG due to malfunction of above proteins that add sugars on the glycosylation domain of α-DG are categorized to α-dystroglycanopathy, which include severe diseases like WWS, MEB, and FCMD to rather milder diseases like congenital muscular dystrophy 1C (MDC1C) [16], MDC1D [17], limb-girdle muscular dystrophy 2I (LGMD 2I) [16] LGMD2K, and LGMD2M [18]. In severe ones, CNS and eye anomalies are obvious. The CNS anomaly is represented by cortical dysplasia, generally called cobblestone lissencephaly [6, 7]. In FCMD, the cerebrum and cerebellum generally show an appearance of polymicrogyri [19–21]. In the surface of CNS, astrocytic endfeet form the glia limitans covered with the basement membrane, and both fukutin and α-DG are expressed in astrocytes [7, 22]. In the fetal FCMD brain, irregular disruptions of the glia limitans are observed. Neuronal tissues overmigrate from defects of glia limitans (Figure 1), which is considered to be the main cause of cobblestone lissencephaly [7, 8]. Hypoglycosylation of α-DG by malfunction of fukutin makes

Cerebral lesions of a FCMD fetus. The cerebral hemisphere almost retains fundamental structure (A). The glia limitans of the cerebral surface is irregularly disrupted, and neuronal tissues overmigrate through the disruptions (B, C; arrows). (B) Periodic acid-methenamine-silver (PAM) staining. (C) Photoshop-aided double immunostaining [25] of nestin (green) and synaptophysin (brown). BG: basal ganglia, GM: germinal

Figure 1.

62

matrix,T: thalamus.

Muscular Dystrophies

Many genes are involved in the formation of ocular structure [26]. Morphologically, the initial eye structure becomes observable after 3 weeks of the gestation, as a pair of optic sulci at the rostral neural plate. By 4 weeks, the optic sulcus grows to form the optic vesicle, the proximal part of which develops to be the optic stalk, the future optic nerve, and the rest of which to be the optic cap. The distal part of the optic vesicle is closely adjacent to the surface ectoderm that develops to the lens after forming the lens vesicle by invagination. The lens vesicle is separated from the surface ectoderm at 6 and half weeks. The corneal epithelium begins to be formed from the surface ectoderm by 7 weeks. The choroid and the sclera develop from the periocular mesenchyme by 15 weeks.

The retina is differentiated from the optic cap. The inner layer of the optic cap becomes the neural retina, and the outer layer becomes the retinal pigmented epithelium. After retinal neurons are born, they move to their proper place, mimicking the development of CNS. However, the retina has its own mode for lamination [27]. In the retina, retinal ganglion cells and cone photoreceptors differentiate earlier, and then rod photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and Müller cells [26–28].

#### 2.2 Normal structure of the eye

The eyeball can be divided into the anterior and posterior segments. The anterior segment includes the cornea, anterior and posterior chambers, iris, and lens. The posterior segment contains the vitreous, retina, choroid, sclera, and optic nerve (Figure 2).

Histologically, the normal retina consists of the inner and outer segments of photoreceptors, outer nuclear layer, outer plexiform layer, inner nuclear layer, inner plexiform layer, ganglion cell layer, and nerve fiber layer (Figure 2). Outer segments of the photoreceptor are loosely connected to retinal pigmented epithelia. Microvilli of the pigmented epithelium surround the outer segments of photoreceptors [29]. The outer nuclear layer contains nuclei of the photoreceptors, the rod and cone. Rods are extremely sensitive to light, while cones are involved in the color vision. In the outer plexiform layer, photoreceptors form synapses between bipolar cells: roughly, rods to rod bipolar cells and cones to cone bipolar cells. Rod bipolar cells depolarize (ON) to the increase of light intensity. On the other hand, cone bipolar cells either ON or hyperpolarize (OFF) [28]. The inner nuclear layer is mainly formed by bipolar cells. Cell bodies of amacrine cells, horizontal cells, and Müller cells are also contained. In the inner plexiform layer, synapses are formed between retinal ganglion cells and bipolar cells or amacrine cells. Synapses with ONbipolar cells are seen in the inner lamina of the inner plexiform layer and those with OFF-bipolar cells in the outer lamina [28]. In the ganglion cell layer, single to several layers of retinal ganglion cells are observed. The nerve fiber layer consisted

atrophy of the optic nerve, and retinal detachment are also known. Severe cases may show microphthalmia [31]. Electroretinogram (ERG) of FCMD patients may be normal, but abnormal findings may be seen in both dark-adapted and lightadapted ERGs [32]. Patients of WWS and MEB, severe forms of α-dystroglycanopathy, also exhibit abnormalities in anterior and posterior components. In

microphthalmia, retinal detachment, retinal dysplasia, and optic atrophy [4]. Glaucoma and buphthalmos also may be observed. Clinical ocular findings of MEB reported are myopia, nystagmus, optic atrophy, and retinal degeneration [33]. ERG is abnormal as well. Like the CNS, ocular anomalies of FCMD are less severe than

Although histological examinations of the eye of fetal FCMD cases are not so many, findings similar to those of the cerebrum can be found [31]. The inner limiting membrane is irregularly disrupted and ganglion cells exist beyond the inner limiting membrane, while there are areas exhibiting no apparent light microscopical abnormalities (Figure 3). Like child cases, some fetal cases may show local folding

In child FCMD cases, detachment, local folding, and fusion of the retina are observed (Figure 4). The inner limiting membrane is discontinuous. A persistent

Retinal findings in FCMD fetus. The internal limiting membrane, clearly depicted by PAM staining, is discontinuous in some part (A, B; arrows), while there are areas showing normal retinal appearance with continuous internal

limiting membrane (C, D). Ectopic ganglion cells are observed beyond the inner limiting membrane.

WWS, varieties of lesions are described, such as cataract, microcornea,

Ocular Pathology of Fukuyama Congenital Muscular Dystrophy

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82775

those of WWS and MEB [30, 31].

3.2 Histological findings

and fusion of the retina [31].

Figure 3.

65

Figure 2. (A) Schema of normal eye structure and (B) structure of normal retina.

of nerve fibers of retinal ganglion cells is situated beneath the inner limiting membrane that is formed at the inner surface of the retina by Müller cells. The external limiting membrane is formed by zonula adherens between Müller cells and inner segments of photoreceptor [29]. The basement membrane is abutted above the inner limiting membrane and beneath the basal surface of pigmented epithelium, attaching to the Bruch's membrane [29]. The basement membrane is also formed around capillaries.


**5. Conclusion**

esters between HDL and LDL (or VLDL), the way of CETP interacts with lipoproteins is extremely essential. CETP shows a high binding affinity for nascent HDL and other lipoproteins to cover the lipoproteins surfaces owing to its proper curvature radius. They proposed a lipid transport mechanism, shuttle model. In this mechanism, the CETP in turn covers the surface of LDL (or VLDL) and HDL to swap LDL-cholesterol esters (or VLDL-cholesterol esters) with HDL-triglycerides. These steps are constantly recycled until the completion of the transport process, in which cholesterol esters move from LDL (or VLDL) to HDL [20]. This model based on the hydrophobic cavity of CETP and its feasibility of binding to lipoproteins, explains the mechanism of CETP-mediate lipid transfer reasonably, but there are not complex of CETP binding to lipoproteins in the cryo-EM micrographs intuitively to verify the

**Figure 5.** The crystal structure of CETP (PDB: 2OBD) and three-dimensional density maps of CETP binging lipoproteins. (a) Atom figure of CETP. (b) Secondary structure of CETP. (c) Ternary complexes of HDL-CETP-LDL in cryo-EM micrographs. (d)~(f) the CETP insert into HDL, VLDL, LDL respectively in cryo-EM micrographs. (g) (color online) the

Zhang et al. [89] studied human recombinant CETP with cryo-EM by using an optimized negative-staining (OpNS) EM protocol [49, 90]. Applied the single-particle techniques, they obtained the 3D structure of CETP and the complexes of CETP binging to lipoproteins. In the 3D-map of complexes, they discovered the HDL-CETP binding structure which appears to be formed by N-terminal of CETP insert into HDL and the HDL-LDL (or HDL-VLDL) is formed by C-terminal of CETP insert into HDL (or LDL) (**Figure 5**c~f). This conclusion was later confirmed by Geraldine et al. by using large-scale atomistic molecular dynamics [91]. The measurement of the protrusion from the lipoproteins surface shows that ~48 Å of the tapered N-terminal end of CETP penetrates the HDL surface and ~25 Å of the C-terminal end of CETP penetrates the LDL surface (~20 Å of the C-terminal end of CETP penetrates the VLDL surface) reaching the lipid–rich, lipoproteins core. Furthermore, Zhang et al. proposed the tunnel model of lipid transfer mediated by CETP [89, 92, 93]. In this model, both CETP terminals finish penetrating surface sites on lipoproteins, N-terminal to HDL and C-terminal to LDL (or VLDL). Then neutral lipids, including cholesterol esters and triglycerides, transfer

However, there are some discrepancies with the tunnel model mentioned above. Matthias et al. used the experiments which involve three monoclonal antibodies to demonstrate that the antibodies binding on both ends of CETP do not inhibit CETP's function of transshipment cholesterol esters, but the antibodies on the middle does [94]. In their research they supposed that the formation of the ternary tunnel complexes is not a mechanistic prerequisite by CETP

through the hydrophobic tunnel at the core of the CETP (**Figure 5**).

authenticity of the model.

tunnel model of CETP-mediated lipid transfer [89].

10 Cholesterol - Good, Bad and the Heart

In this chapter, we briefly summarized the functional mechanism and structural basis of lipoproteins (e.g., HDL, LDL and CETP) in cholesterol transport, as well as their structural dynamics during the transport process. Furthermore, the latest developments in the plasma lipoprotein (HDL and LDL) elevations were summarized, especially the conformational changes of lipoprotein particles. Due to the incapability of the current assays and highly heterogeneous of lipoprotein particles, the function of lipoprotein in cholesterol transport remains elusive with regard to many important questions, such as how the lipoprotein particle assembles and how the assembly modulates the neutral lipids dynamic exchanges at the molecular level. Cryo-EM coupled with MD simulations have revealed several important mechanisms of CETP-mediated lipid exchange and metabolism with all-atom detail [89, 95]. Further researches could pay more attention to simultaneously monitor the dynamic structural change of lipoproteins and the dynamic mechanism of lipid transfer, especially the internal motivation of physical mechanism during the process of lipid transport.


**Abstract**

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) received tremendous attention due to their fascinated applications. Extensive research reports are available on the physical, chemical, and biological synthesis of colloidal Ag NPs. Research on biological systems mediated silver nanoparticle synthesis is essential to explore more applications. Microbial synthesis has been recognized as an eco-friendly and influential source among biological sources. Therefore, the bacteria are often considered an exciting reducer for silver and gold nanoparticles fabrication. Further, the synthesized nanoparticles incorporated different biological agents from what we need as bio reducing agents. The cell membrane of microorganisms plays a crucial role in the endogenous synthesis of nanoparticles. The cell membrane interacts electronically with the charged metal ions because it is charged. Enzymes inside the cell membrane biodegrade metal ions into nanoparticles, which eventually propagate through the cell membrane in small volumes. The fabricated silver nanoparticles were characterized by different spectroscopy techniques, to reveal the structural and functional properties. The synthesized nanoparticle reacts against many pathogens and insects and is used in medical fields. One of the pesticide industry's significant applications is mosquito larvicidal application. This chapter dealt with the microbial-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles, characterization, and mosquito larvicidal applications.

**Keywords:** bacteria, silver nanoparticle synthesis, mosquito larvicidal activity, intracellular and extracellular synthesis


5.1.1. Passages That Describe the Queen Mother's Living Environment

Ban Biao's "Rhapsody on Viewing the Sea" describe the living environment of the Queen Mother as follows:

The immortals Chisongzi 赤 松 子 and Wang Ziqiao 王 子 喬 sat in the east wing while the Queen Mother sat in the west wing. They asked Han Zhong 韓 眾 and Qi Bo 岐 伯 to tell and collate the books read by deities. They hoped to be able to make friends with them and be enlightened therein, so as to travel far away from the mortal plane and roam afar. (Fei et al. 1993, p. 252)

[I] met the Queen Mother at Yintai 銀 臺 (the moon) and ate the celestial food *yuzhi* 玉 芝 (jade mushroom). She smiled and was delighted, complaining that I was a bit too late. Having brought the fairy maiden (attending the immortals) from Taihua Mountain along with her, she also summoned the Luoshui goddess Mi fei 宓 妃 (Concubine Mi). They were both so beautiful and captivating, with their charming eyes and fine and delicate eyebrows. (Fei et al. 1993, p. 396)