**2. Previous Literature**

The concept of cheap talk was introduced into the economics literature by Crawford and Sobel (1982) and Farrell (1987) [2,3]. Since then, a sizable literature has developed related to this topic, with such examples as Farrell and Gibbons (1989), Forges (1990), Farrell (1993), Aumann and Hart (1993), Blume and Sobel (1995), and a survey in Farrell and Rabin (1996) [4–9]. The paper that perhaps is closest to the present one is Rabin (1994) [10]. It models a finite instead of an infinite opportunity for communication, but also seeks a notion of optimality rather than equilibrium in the analysis of the extended game. The specific form of cheap talk assumed by Rabin is different from the one presented below, in particular with respect to the element of choice between strategies against which to credibly best respond. The results can be framed in terms of the two central questions posed here, but are generally less conclusive in either. Both papers adhere to the full rationality paradigm of classical game theory and previous work on cheap talk, as opposed to, say, the evolution literature.

There are a number of papers that study a more limited class of games. For instance, Matsui (1991) [11] applied cheap talk to common interest games, and in this context, his notion of *cyclic stability* yields efficiency. Canning (1997) [12] studied signaling games of common interest, although the messages do not necessarily constitute cheap talk per se. He found that off-path beliefs are vital to the question of whether or not efficiency is eventually realized; randomly drawn off-path beliefs encourage experimentation and lead to efficiency. Finally, Sandroni (2000) [13] studied two person repeated coordination games without cheap talk. He introduced the concept of *blurry beliefs*, which is a less restrictive (that is, more fully rational) belief dynamic than those used in evolutionary game theory, although it is stronger than anything used here. Sandroni showed that if the belief classes of the players satisfy *reciprocity*, then cooperation will be achieved. Overall, the current paper pins down the link between communication and (efficient) equilibrium outcomes more concretely than the previous literature. In particular, it explores a specific empirically-consistent model of belief formation and shows a two way equivalence between that process and the optimality of the resulting behaviors.

A fairly large class of papers has studied repeated games and the emergence of Nash equilibria without introducing cheap talk, including Crawford and Haller (1990), Young (1993), and Kalai and Lehrer (1993) [14–16]. Finally, there have been some experimental studies of communication and equilibrium selection in various coordination games; see, for example,Cooper et al (1992), Brandts and Cooper 125 (2007), and Cachon and Camerer (1996) [17–19]. The results can be summarized (and oversimplified) as finding that two way pregame communication greatly increases the chances of observing efficient equilibrium outcomes. Pertinently, this holds even if the efficient equilibrium is not risk-dominant, in contradistinction to some previous results. Meanwhile, some experimental studies found that preplay communication can actually induce fewer choices consistent with Nash equilibria, e.g., Boulu-Reshef et al (2020) [20] in the context of public goods games. This could either be due to the limited opportunity for communication and/or the possibility of social preferences (which would change the set of NE).


**11. Conclusions**

The spatial and/or temporal separation of host plants is contingent upon the behavior and development of herbivorous insects. Reducing pest populations can be realized by recognizing and identifying their feeding preferences. The more pronounced the feeding preferences, the greater the reduction in the population. Consequently, the damage to host plants grown in mixed sowing systems will be considerably reduced. Monophagous insects are specific in this regard. The slight alteration of a host plant's canopy renders monophagous insects unable to locate an adequate food supply and to establish a suitable breeding base. A significant reduction in the population of oligophagous insects (insects whose host spectrum is in the botanical family) is expected to occur in mixtures of adequately spaced botanical taxa, for example, damage to cereal plants can be reduced by introducing the cereal leaf beetle to cereal–legume mixtures. Numerous empirical data and some theoretical considerations suggest that, in mixed crop systems, the reduction in pest populations is predominantly linked to the availability of food sources and less so to an impact or threat posed by their natural enemies.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, A.W.-P. and D.P.; formal analysis, A.W.-P. and D.P.; investigation, A.W.-P.; resources, D.P.; writing—original draft preparation, A.W.-P.; A.W.-P. and D.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.


**5. Conclusion**

366 Remote Sensing – Applications

Fig. 5. The variation range of NDSI in cloudy and snowy area on images of 4th March

Fig. 6. Relative frequency percentage of snow pixels in each altitude class; right: the obtained images of snow map algorithm; left: the obtained images of snow map algorithm

accompanying the Liberal clod mask

Reviewing data resulted from ground-based snow measurements in addition to results from snow map algorithm and Liberal cloud mask, it can be concluded that snow map algorithm cannot detect some types of cloud and classify them as snow (Zhou et al., 2005; Riggs and Hall, 2002; Ault et al., 2006; Hall and Riggs, 2007), reducing the accuracy of maps produced for snow detection. Clouds which are not detected by snow map algorithm are those include ice particles in high elevations (Taghvakish, 2005). Using Liberal cloud masking can largely solve this problem and prevent some types of clouds to be categorized as snow. The accuracy of maps is increased approximately 10% in comparison with other methods. In images including only low elevation clouds, cloud masking cannot make better results; therefore it can be concluded that these kinds of clouds can be detected by snow map algorithm alone. Also, results from applying NDSI shows that some types of clouds are categorized in the same class as snow, so NDSI cannot distinguish between snow and cloud. However, those clouds in low elevation can be detected from snow.

Altitudinal parameter is another tool in order to evaluate the accuracy of snow map algorithm and Liberal cloud masking. An ascending trend in frequency of snow pixels is evident whenever cloud masking is used in addition to the snow map algorithm.

In summary, it can be said that although low height clouds are separable by snow map algorithm, some types of clouds cannot be detected by snow map algorithm alone and thus, application of cloud masking is inevitable. These are clouds which are in high elevation and include ice particles (Taghvakish, 2005). Finally, in some cases even cloud masking cannot distinguish between snow and ice particles (Ault et al., 2006, Riggs and Hall, 2002 , Taghvakish, 2005).


**One-Dimensional Titanium Dioxide and Its Application for Photovoltaic Devices for Photovoltaic Devices**

**One-Dimensional Titanium Dioxide and Its Application**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72976

Norani Muti Mohammed, Robabeh Bashiri, Suriati Sufian, Chong Fai Kait and Saeed Majidai Suriati Sufian, Chong Fai Kait and Saeed Majidai Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Norani Muti Mohammed, Robabeh Bashiri,

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72976

#### **Abstract**

[56] Lies S. Visible light photocatalysis of radical cation Diels–Alder cycloadditions: Preparation of Tris (2,2′-bipyrazyl) ruthenium(II) Bis (tetrakis(3,5-bis (trifluoromethyl)phe-

[57] Oekermann T, Zhang D, Yoshida T, Minoura H. Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2004;

[58] Wilke T, Schneider M, Kleinermanns K. Open Journal of Physical Chemistry. 2013;**3**(2):

nyl)borate). Organic Syntheses. 2016;**93**:178-199

97-102. DOI: 10.4236/ojpc.2013.32012

366 Titanium Dioxide - Material for a Sustainable Environment

**108**:2227-2235

One-dimensional (1D) TiO2 nanostructures (e.g., nanotubes, nanobelts, nanowires, and nanorods) have been considered to be very attractive candidates for various applications including photocatalytic degradation of pollutants, photocatalytic CO2 reduction into energy fuels, water splitting, solar cells, supercapacitors, and lithium-ion batteries. More importantly, the dimensionality associated with zero-dimensional TiO2 nanostructures gives unique physical properties, including a high aspect ratio structure, chemical stability, excellent electronic or ionic charge transfer, and a specific interface effect. This chapter elaborates on crystal structure and properties, preparation techniques, strategies for improving photocatalytic activity of 1D-TiO2 nanostructure and its applications. Amongst all preparation techniques, the influence of experimental parameters on morphologies of 1D-TiO2 nanostructure using hydro/solvothermal method is extensively explained. Furthermore, some critical engineering strategies to enhance the properties of 1D-TiO2 nanostructures like increasing the surface area, extending the light absorption, and efficient separation of electrons/holes that advantage their potential applications are described. Moreover, a brief summary of their environmental and energy applications is provided.

**Keywords:** TiO2 , photocatalyst, one dimensional, hydrothermal, nanorod, nanobelts